University of the

Llanos.
Faculty of human sciences
and education
José Enrique Romero Cufiño 148104136
Book by authors with contributions to Physical
Education.
• Aristotle.
• Amororos F.
• Aristippus.
• Basedow JB
• Cajigal JM
• Comenio JA
• Descartes.
• Deim, k.
• Erasmus of Rotterdam.
• Frobel F.
• Galen c.
• Homer.
• Gurino of Verona.
• Herbart JF
• Herbert G.
• Herder J.G.
• Hippocrates.
• Jhan FL
• Jovellanos GM
• Juvena DJ
• Kant I.
• Lessin G.
• Ling PH
• Locke J.
• Luther M.
• Mercurualis G.
• Montaigne M.
• Muths G.
• Nachengall F.
• Niemeyer A.H.
• Pestalozzi JH
• Petrarca F.
• Plato.
• Plutarch.
• Pindar.
• Quintillano MF
• Rabelais F.
• Rousseau.
• Vergelio.
• Felt Vittorino.
• Vives JL
• Le Boulch J.
 • Aristotle.
Aristotle (ancient Greek: Stagira, 384 BC. C.-Calcis, 322 BC. C.) was a philosopher,
polymite and scientist born in the city of Stagira, north of Ancient Greece. He is
considered, along with Plato, the father of Western philosophy. His ideas have exerted
an enormous influence on the intellectual history of the West for more than two
millennia.

Aristotle wrote nearly 200

treatises (of which only 31
have survived) on a huge
variety of topics, including:
logic, metaphysics, philosophy
of science, ethics, political
philosophy, aesthetics,
rhetoric, physics, astronomy,
and biology. Aristotle
It transformed many, if not all,
of the areas of knowledge it
addressed. He is recognized as
the founding father of logic
and biology, because although
there are previous reflections
and writings on both subjects,
it is in the work of Aristotle
where the first systematic research on the matter is found.

Among many other contributions, Aristotle formulated the theory of spontaneous

generation, the principle of non-contradiction, the notions of category, substance, act,
power and first unmoved mover. Some of his ideas, which were novel for the
philosophy of his time, are today part of the common sense of many people.

Aristotle was a disciple of Plato and other thinkers, such as Eudoxus of Cnidus,
during the twenty years he spent at the Academy of Athens.7 He was the teacher of
Alexander the Great in the Kingdom of Macedonia for almost 5 years. In the last stage
of his life he founded the Lyceum in Athens, where he taught until a year before his
death.
In the time of King Archelaus I of Macedonia, as his father was physician to King
Amyntas III of Macedonia, they both resided in Pella, and Aristotle could not stay
long in that place since his parents died when he was still very young, and It probably
moved to Atarneus. In 367 BC C., when Aristotle was 17 years old, his father died,
and his tutor Proxenus of Atarneus took care of him, sending him to Athens, then an
important intellectual center of the Greek world, to study at Plato's Academy. He
stayed there for twenty years.

• Contributions:

Aristotle said that gymnastics should investigate which exercises are most useful to
the body and which is best for them. Humanists demonstrate the relevance they give
to health when they recognize the importance of movement as one of the best
elements to satisfy the intrinsic needs of human beings.

However, if we approach Aristotle's thought, the orientation in this regard varies

significantly: Aristotle places gymnastics next to medicine, since both, according to
him, pursue the same goal (health). He has also found recognized educational value,
but as long as it is not about the gymnastics of athletes, which he considers
disproportionate. Aristotle considers that courage is only acquired by attenuating the
brutality of gymnastics with the counterbalance of other arts such as grammar, music
or drawing. In "The Politics" he stops at specific and methodological aspects of
gymnastics due to age and other individual differences. It will be noted, however, that
Aristotle relegates gymnastics to a technique for purposes he considers secondary,
health or the defense of the city, but it does not contribute to the great task of man:
"the truly human task is the task of the rational, liberated part of the body" (Vázquez,
1989, p. 60). This consideration of the body by Aristotle does not correspond to a
philosophy that refuses to separate the soul from the body.

Aristotle said: "The main purpose of gymnastics is the education of all youth and not
simply that minority of people favored by nature."
 • Francisco Amorós.

Francisco Amorós y Ondeano (Valencia 1770 - Paris 1848), Spanish pedagogue and
soldier, is known internationally for being one of the founders of modern Physical
Education.

Francisco Amorós y Ondeano is responsible,

for example, for the first decisive and
systematic steps to introduce physical
education in the primary school program.
Amorosian gymnastics has been practiced until
a few decades ago in school, high school, and
in the army. It is that method in which
apparatus, trapeze, fixed bar, parallel bars,
rings, trampoline, etc. are used. It could be said
that Amorós gymnastics is part of the German
influence in France and concludes with the
beginnings of Swedish and English influence.
It is imported to France by a "Frenchified"
Spaniard.

Francisco Amorós served as an officer in the Universal War Office during the reign of
Charles IV. He was director of the Royal Pestalozziano Military Institute in Madrid.
As a reward for his services, he was promoted by the king to colonel of infantry, and
was also appointed minister of the Council of the Indies.

After the French invasion, Amorós was appointed military and political governor of
Santander by King José I (November 20, 1808); He was also appointed mayor of the
province of Cantabria, military and political commander of its coast, and state
councilor (November 25). As governor of Cantabria, he devised the publication of La
Gazeta de Santander to publicize the new regime. In 1809 he created the Cantabrian
National Guard, in charge of patrolling the municipalities and fighting against the
guerrillas, in response to the decrees of Napoleon (December 15, 1808) and Joseph I
(December 29).

On February 9, 1809, he was appointed royal commissioner in the Basque Provinces,

and was summoned to the Court in March 1809 in his capacity as state councilor.
Francisco Amorós is known worldwide for being the architect of a peculiar method of
education that in his time enjoyed international projection. To him are due, for
example, the first determined and systematic attempts to introduce physical education
into the curriculum of primary schools, and, mainly, the consolidation of gymnastic
and moral education in the training systems of the Spanish and French armies. . For
this reason Amorós is considered the creator of the modern French method of physical
education. However, little is known - in many cases it is undervalued - the
contribution and significance of the Amorosian method in the slow and gradual
process of consolidation of the gymnastic discipline in nineteenth-century Spanish
culture.

Amorós and the gymnastic institutions he directed in Paris (the only official ones of
the Government during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X) enjoyed fame and
prestige throughout Europe. In 1830 he wrote his most outstanding pedagogical work,
which was the subject of important praise and awards: Manuel d'éducation physique,
gymnastique et morale, intended for both military and civilians of all ages. His
incessant work in the field of physical education did not go unnoticed by the Spanish
Government, which decided to send an Army commission to Paris to learn the
Amorosian method - as his contemporaries called it - and later introduce it in Spain by
encouraging the opening of gymnasiums in the main military schools. Many
foreigners visited Paris in order to meet and learn from the educator who enjoyed such
prestige in European intellectual circles.
 • Aristippus.
Contributi
ons:
Aristippus was born in the city of Cyrene, a Greek colony located in North Africa. He
moved to Athens and became one of Socrates' young followers when Socrates
questioned the citizens of Athens and exposed their ignorance. He was probably the
most scandalous of Socrates' followers for his advocacy of a life full of sensual
pleasure and for his willingness to accept money for his instruction, as the sophists
did.

Aside from these facts, it has been difficult to find more information regarding
Aristippus because the main source of information about him is The Lives of the
Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius, who wrote more than 500 years after Aristippus's
death.

Aristippus lived at the court of the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse (432-367 BC). C)
or, perhaps, of his son Dionysius the Younger (397-343 BC. C), where he received a
high salary for his writing and teaching. His position at court was essentially that of
"sage" or "counselor" but, according to ancient reports, he appears to have spent much
of his time simply amusing himself at the expense of Dionysus. He apparently lived a
life of luxury at court where, among his students, he taught his daughter Arete about
philosophical hedonism.
Many sources indicate that he died in his hometown, Cyrene, in the year 350 AD,
some other currents place his death in the year 360 AD. c.
 •
Contributi
ons:
When we refer to the thought of Aristippus, we must then refer to the essence of his
philosophy, which has been pointed out by some scholars as the maximum exaltation
with respect to Socratic virtue and pleasure. He thought and considered that all the
pleasure of the body was the only state that should be pursued and achieved. The
philosophy of the Cyrenaics also considered knowledge as a sensation, and for this
reason Aristippus believed that all knowledge led man to have a pleasurable sensation,
since pleasure was considered the greatest good. For him, any type of pain was
considered an enemy, because this pain made man distance himself from pleasure. It
is because of this type of thought and philosophical position that Aristippus of Cyrene
has been considered throughout history as the predecessor of Hedonism.

We can say that Aristippus's main contribution to the world was the founding of the
Cyrenaic school, a school that focused on identifying good and pleasure.

Aristippus founded Hedonism more than 2,400 years ago in Greece who took as a
basis the Socratic statement that happiness is an end of moral action. He thought that
pleasure or hedoné was the highest good and that reaching this point was the main
objective in life. Pleasure was an end and not a means to something else, and
happiness consists of satisfying all pleasures immediately.

In hedonism, bodily pleasures were considered preferable to spiritual pleasures

because they were more intense. This branch of philosophy did not have a long
journey and was later divided into other currents.
 • Johann Bernhard Basedow

Johann Bernhard Basedow (Bassedau), German rationalist and innovator in educational

methods, was born in Hamburg on September 11, 1723 and died in Magdeburg on July
25, 1790.
After a careless childhood he studied theology in Leipzig (1744-46), but continued his
studies in a very irregular manner and hampered by poverty; was tutor to a noble
Holstein family 1749-53; He was a professor at the academy of Sorö, Denmark, in
1753, and at the institute of Altona in
1761; he was forced to withdraw from
both positions because of his
unorthodox ideas expressed freely and
offensively in various publications
(Praktische
Philosophie für alle Stände,
Copenhagen, 1758; Philalethie: neue
Aussichten in die Wahrheiten und
Religion der Vernunft, 2 volumes,
Altona, 1763-64; Theoretisches
System der gesunden Vernunft, 1765;
Grundriss der Religion welche durch
Nachdenken und Bibelforschen
erkannt wird, 1764).

After 1767 he abandoned theology for

education. Influenced by Rousseau's
Émile, he sought to design a system in accordance with nature and dispense with the
exercise of authority by the teacher and the need for work by the student. His ideas are
set out in Vorstellung an Menschenfreunde und vermögende Männer über Schulen,
Studien, und ihren Einfluss in die öffentliche Wohlfahrt, mit einem Plane eines
Elementarbuches der menschlichen Erkenntniss (Hamburg, 1768) and in
Elementarwerk (4 volumes, 1774). He had considerable success in gaining sympathy
and support, and in 1774 he was able to open an institution for the realization of his
ideas, the "Philanthropin" in Dessau (described in Das in Dessau errichtete
Philanthropinum, Leipzig, 1774).

CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Basedow was an educator who began his career in Denmark. At this time, physical
education was part of a physical and mental training program. This pedagogue returned
to Germany where he institutionalized a variety of reforms in physical education. In
1774 he founded a model school, where physical education had a vital function in the
student's comprehensive education curriculum. This program included the
incorporation of a wide range of sporting activities, such as dancing, fencing, horse
riding, running, jumping, wrestling, swimming, skating and walking.

This innovative European school represents the first to admit children from all social
classes. In addition, she was the pioneer in the integration of physical education into
the general school curriculum. These important radical curricular changes that
Basedow made served as a basis for other educational settings in Germany and other
parts of the world to incorporate physical education into their regular educational
program.
 • Juan Manuel Cajigal
Juan Manuel Cajigal y Odoardo (Barcelona, August 10, 1803 - Yaguar Aparo,
February 10, 1856), sometimes written Cajigal, was a Venezuelan engineer, military
man, mathematician and journalist. He is considered the founder of mathematical and
engineering studies in Venezuela and founded the first astronomical observatory in the
country.
He was the son of the marriage of the Spanish
brigadier Gaspar de Cajigal y Pontón and the
Cumanese Matilde Odoardo Bucet de Gran Pre.
In 1808 he moved to Cumaná, and in 1814 to
Spain, after the death of his father on July 5,
1810, who held an important political position in
the Venezuelan city of Barcelona. Between 1816
and 1828 Juan Manuel Cajigal received education
in Spain and France. After studying as a cadet in
the Corps of Mounted Hussars and at the
University of Alcalá de Henares, his passion for
science took him to Paris in 1823 to enroll in the
chairs run by some of the world's leading
mathematicians and physicists of his time. , such
as Augustine Louis Cauchy, Sylvestre François
Lacroix, Adrien-Marie Legendre, Simeon Denis
Poisson and Pierre
Simon Laplace. In 1828 he spoke with the Colombian soldier, engineer and diplomat
Lino de Pombo, whom he asked for his help to return to America, leaving behind the
offer to direct a chair of Mathematics at the Complutense University of Madrid.

Juan Manuel Cajigal, in addition to his scientific and teaching occupations, held
various public and political positions such as Printing Judge, Director of Public
Instruction, Deputy for Caracas and Senator for the Province of Barcelona in the
National Congress, at which time he was responsible for formulating the Organic Law.
of the Provinces. As a parliamentarian he was part of the evaluation commission of the
controversial Pombo-Michelena Treaty that in 1833 attempted to delimit the border
between Colombia and Venezuela, whose government rejected it. He also participated
in the debates about the adoption of the decimal metric system and the immigration of
Canarian workers.
In 1838 he founded the Correo de Caracas newspaper together with José Hermenegildo
García and Fermín Toro, a newspaper that ceased publication in 1841, in which he
published various articles on, among other topics, the layout of the road to the valleys
of Aragua, the Caracas-La Guaira highway and the advantages that the construction of
a railway between these towns would have.

After Humboldt, he ascended the Chair of Ávila twice. He became interested in the
chorographic works of Agustino Codazzi. He brought and set up a lithographic press.
He was the first to test Daguerre's scientific procedures in Venezuela.

So much work ended up affecting Cajigal's mental health, who would culminate his
public activities in Europe where he was secretary of the Venezuelan legation in
London and Paris between 1841 and 1843, the year in which he returned to the country
without recovering from the neurosis and the pain caused by the infatuation with the
French courtesan Marie Duplessis. Juan Manuel Cajigal took refuge in the Sucre town
of Yaguar Aparo where he died in 1856. His remains were buried in Río Caribe and
later transferred to the church of San Juan de Dios in La Guaira.

• Contributions:

He was the great promoter of physical education and sports in our country. He
managed to take physical education out of the state of underdevelopment in which it
was and placed it on the threshold of modernity. He gave physical education and sports
a scientific and humanistic character that they did not have until then. He intellectually
enhanced this professional field. He implemented the need to train physical education
teachers with university training, through the National Institute of Physical Education
(INEF). He organized, with singular success, several high-level international meetings
in the field of physical education and sports, which were of great benefit and interest
for students, teachers and other professionals in this field, who had the opportunity to
meet the figures most outstanding and the most innovative theories on the international
scene.

He placed the INEF of Madrid in the world elite, establishing itself during its heyday
as one of the great models in the world of physical education and sports. His thoughts
and work around sport and physical education have not created a school, and currently
other more corporatist and closed messages dominate to the detriment of Cajigal's
open, multidisciplinary and much more universal message.
 • Juan Amos Comenio

John Amos Comenio (pronunciation), in Latin Comenius, currently deriving the

surname Commentz (Uherský Brod, Moravia, March 28, 1592 - Amsterdam,
November 15, 1670) was a theologian, philosopher and pedagogue born in the current
Czech Republic. . He was a cosmopolitan and universal man, convinced of the
important role of education in the development of man. The work that made him
famous throughout Europe and that is considered the most important is the Didactica
Magna, and its first edition appeared in the year 1630. He gave importance to the study
of languages and created a work called Open Door to Languages.

He was known as the Father of Didactics. In his work The New Realities, Peter
Drucker highlights Comenius' position as the inventor of the textbook, in an attempt
(successful, by the way) to encourage the autonomy of the educational process to
prevent the Catholic government from completely eliminating Protestantism in the
Republic. Czech. "If people read the Bible at home, they will not be confused" was
Comenius' thought.

The great contributions made to Pedagogy, his

travels to different countries in Europe (in many
of them, invited by kings and governors), and the
high preparation and perseverance in his work of
educating, earned him the title of "Teacher of
Nations." .

Comenius was a professor and rector in the cities

of Přerov and Fulnek, in Moravia, until the
beginning of the Thirty Years' War, when the
army of the Holy Empire sent the inhabitants of
Moravia into exile. He settled in Leszno (Poland)
and as bishop of the Moravians he helped
maintain the unity of his group. In 1638 he was
invited to Sweden to participate in educational reforms. The English government
extended a similar invitation to him, but in 1641, shortly before the English Civil War
broke out, he left the island, returning to Sweden, where he worked until 1648. Then he
went to Poland, Hungary and Holland.
 •
Contributi
ons:

In relation to Physical Culture, he pointed out the importance of Physical Education

in the education process. He emphasized outdoor games and the practice of physical
exercises in educational centers as a way to contribute to the complete development
of students. It is convenient to note in this sense that Comenius laid the scientific
foundations of Modern Physical Education. According to Rosental (1964, 71),
Comenius systematized “for the first time in the history of pedagogy, didactics as a
special science. Its didactic principles (living teaching, graduation, imitation,
exercise) required the conscious apprehension of the laws of nature and a rationally
projected consolidation of knowledge.

According to Martínez de Osada and Cruz Blanco (2008, 39), “he paid special
attention to Physical Education, advocating its participation in the process of
comprehensive education, especially with outdoor games. “He conceived the goal of
education as complete development and recommended physical exercises in
schools.” For Comenius, outdoor games were of great importance. Regarding this
aspect, he expounded the principle of conformity with nature, supporting learning
through the natural method. According to Martínez de Osada (2006, 172 – 173), “he
did not disdain physical education and showed concern for it. “He recommended
physical exercises in school courses within comprehensive education.”
 • Rene Descartes.
(La Haye, France, 1596 - Stockholm, Sweden, 1650) French philosopher and
mathematician. After the splendor of ancient Greek philosophy and the apogee and
crisis of scholasticism in medieval Europe, the new winds of the Renaissance and the
scientific revolution that accompanied it would give rise, in the 17th century, to the
birth of modern philosophy.
René Descartes was educated at the Jesuit college of La Flèche (1604-1612), at
that time one of the most prestigious in Europe,
where he enjoyed a certain favored treatment due to
his delicate health. The studies he carried out at that
center had a decisive importance in his intellectual
formation; Knowing the turbulent youth of
Descartes, without a doubt the foundation of his
culture must have been laid in La Flèche. The
traces of such education are objectively and clearly
manifested in the entire philosophical ideology of
the wise man.

The study program of that school (according to various testimonies, including that of
Descartes himself) was very varied: it essentially revolved around the traditional
teaching of the liberal arts, to which notions of theology and practical exercises were
added. useful for the lives of future gentlemen. Even though the program itself had to
be rather light and oriented in an essentially practical sense (it was not intended to
train scholars, but rather men prepared for the high political missions to which their
rank allowed them to aspire), the most active or curious students could complete
them. on your own through personal readings.

According to Descartes himself in the Discourse on the Method, during the harsh
winter of that year he found himself blocked in a town on the Upper Danube,
possibly near Ulm; There he remained locked up next to a stove and far from any
social relationship, with no company other than his thoughts. In such a place, and
after a strong crisis of skepticism, the foundations on which he would build his
philosophical system were revealed to him: the mathematical method and the
principle of cogito, ergo sum. Victim of feverish excitement, during the night of
November 10, 1619, he had three dreams, during which he intuited his method and
learned of his deep vocation to dedicate his life to science.
 •
Contributi
ons:

Nowadays, Physical Education is an area whose valuation has been accentuated by

educational policy, which is why even a SIMCE has been announced in said
subsector. The programs developed by the Ministry of Education emphasize aspects
such as expanding knowledge and understanding about the importance of taking care
of one's own body, increasing students' roots in active and healthy lifestyle habits,
and other aspects of similar relevance. The growing appreciation referred to is
understandable due to the impact that this sector of the curriculum has on people's
quality of life. In fact, incorporating healthy lifestyle habits is related to the
necessary physical activity to maintain the health of our body and, it is a fact that it is
not just any physical activity, but rather one that is guided by a suitable professional.
However, this is not the only value that the educational area we are referring to has;
the education of the body is essential to achieve what has traditionally been called
“comprehensive education.” It is from this perspective that we will refer in the
following lines.
 • Carl Deim.
Born into an upper-middle class family, Carl Diem was a medium and long-distance
runner in his youth, forming a club called “Macromannia” in 1899. Already in his
university years, he began to write his first sports articles for newspapers and at the
age of 20 he was hired by the German Sports Authority for Athletics (DSBfA) and a
year later he was elected a member of its board of directors.

Diem was convinced of the benefits that international

sport could have on the alliance between actions. This
is one of the reasons why he was a disciple of Pierre de
Coubertin, founder of the IOC and the father of the
modern international Olympiad, whom he considered
the “first figure of contemporary sport.”

In 1906, he began his Olympic career, as a delegate of

the German team at the Olympic Games organized by
the Greeks. Later, together with Theodor Lewald
(president of the COA) he carried out the preparations
for the Berlin games that finally could not take place
due to the outbreak of World War I, in which Diem
participated and was wounded. After the war ended, in 1920, he created the Deutsche
Hochschule für Leibesübungen, a school dedicated to the study of sports science
(first sports psychology laboratory). In 1929, he traveled to the United States.
Accompanied by Lewald, in part, to learn more about American sports programs. On
this trip he met Avery Brundage, an American Olympic official who would play an
important role in the '36 Olympics.

• Contributions:
The theory developed by this author is set out in his book on the history of sports,
Weltgeschichte des Sports und der Leibeserziehung. It deals with the origins of
physical exercise, which according to Diem "has a cultural origin", specifically
showing and relating it through the religious festivals of our ancestors (both those of
the Indians, those of the Chinese, etc.), in which a series of “games” were
introduced.
 • Erasmus of Rotterdam
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, originally called Geert Geertsz, was a Dutch
thinker born in Gonda, near Rotterdam, around 1467 and died in Basel in 1536.
He was the greatest humanist of the Renaissance and without a doubt the most
elegant and acute writer of his time. Essentially a man
of letters, his doctrine gave rise to the Erasmian
movement. Open-minded to all questions and an
ingenious scholar, Erasmus is a precursor of the
modern spirit. His ideal was solely ethical: gradual and
peaceful reform of the Church and civil society, until
achieving a humanized society, where man could
develop to the maximum. Friend of Thomas More, he
dedicates his In Praise of Madness to him, which is a
satire on retrograde customs and a hymn to freedom,
ingenuity, rebellion, daring, that is, to free culture.

Orphaned at the age of 14, he entered the Augustinian

convent of Steyn, near Guda, without a vocation, and
was ordained a priest the same year that Columbus arrived in America. Pope Julius II
would later excuse him from his vows. He traveled on several occasions to Paris and
England, where he became friends with Juan Colet and the utopian Thomas More. In
Italy he met the humanist and printer Aldo Manucio, then dedicated to disseminating
the Greek and Latin classics through printing. He lived in Rome, making friends with
a large number of humanists. He earned a doctorate in Theology from the University
of Turin and taught this discipline at the University of Cambridge (England). He was
advisor to Charles V. In 1521 he settled in Basel where he printed a general edition
of his works. Great connoisseur of Luther's thought, he held a debate about his
religious ideas. He wrote against him On Free Will, and the German thinker replied
in a treatise entitled On Slave Will.
 •
Contributi
ons:
The pedagogical merit of this author lies in having broken spears against formalist
and bookish education, and in envisioning with vivid acuity a real and practical type
of education. I criticize the formalism of scholastic education, excessively influenced
by books. The important thing was not the books but nature

The new preceptor reflects the meaning of education for Rebeláis and for his time.
To do this, he decides not to harm his student by making him change his habits so
suddenly. Little by little, he got him used to living in society and being interested in
the environment that surrounded him, taking him on trips to illustrate it.

This way of teaching means that your student does not feel studying as an unpleasant
obligation and does not get bored with unilateral teaching, but rather makes them
more varied by introducing physical education in the middle of the theoretical
classes, to harden his body, forcing him to jump. , climbing, swimming, shooting
sling and arrow, fencing, horse riding and complete gymnastics. Plan your classes so
that the young person learns fundamental knowledge, such as knowledge of natural
sciences (through observation), Botany (in the flowers of the field), Astronomy (in
the stars), Food Hygiene, Mathematics, through of the game of cards and chips,
which also helped him master Arithmetic and Geometry and other things, always in a
sensitive way. This way he was able to master the numbers.
 • Galen C.
Galen was born in Pergamon—now Bergama, in Turkey—in the year 129, into a
wealthy family. His father, Elio Nicón, who was a landowner in addition to being an
architect, carefully educated him in Stoic thought,
perhaps with the purpose of making his son a
philosopher. Galen, from a very young age, was
interested in a wide variety of topics, agriculture,
architecture, astronomy, astrology, philosophy, until
the moment he concentrated on medicine.

It is said that his father inclined him towards medical

studies after dreaming one night of Aesculapius, god
of medicine, who predicted his son's destiny.

Galen was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.234
Considered one of the most complete medical researchers of ancient times, his views
dominated European medicine for more than a thousand years in fields such as
anatomy. , physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as
philosophy7 and logic.

In the Middle Ages, Galen's anatomical writings became the mainstay of the
university studies of medieval doctors, but due to the fall of the Western Roman
Empire in the 5th century they suffered evident intellectual stagnation. However, in
the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, they continued to be studied and
made progress. Some of Galen's ideas were incorrect, as he never dissected a human
body due to taboos on this practice in Greco-Roman society. In the Middle Ages this
changed and medical professors and students in Bologna began to dissect bodies;
Luzzi's Mondino (c. 1275 1326) wrote the first known book of anatomy based on
human dissections.89

He was given the name Claudius in the Middle Ages, but this appears to be a
historiographical error that was corrected in the Modern Age, when his texts gained
renewed acceptance. In the 1530s, the Belgian anatomist and physician Andrew
Vesalius began translating many of Galen's texts from Greek into Latin, and his
influential anatomy publication, De humani corporis fabrica (1543), was deeply
influenced by the Greco-Roman physician's work.
 •
Contributi
ons:
His contributions are very important in the area of physiology, morphology and he also
influenced naturopathic pharmacy.

• He demonstrated how various muscles are controlled by the spinal cord.

• He identified seven pairs of cranial nerves.
• He demonstrated that the brain is the organ in charge of controlling the voice.
• Demonstrated the functions of the kidney and bladder.
• He demonstrated that blood circulates through the arteries, and not air as they
thought.
Erasistratus and Herophilus
• He discovered structural differences between veins and arteries.
• He described the valves of the heart.
• He described various infectious diseases such as the plague of the 165s
170 and its spread.
• He gave great importance to the methods of conservation and preparation of
drugs, basis of current galenic pharmacy.
• His treatise On the Diagnosis of Dreams (De Dignotione ex Insomnis
Libellis, in Latin) describes dreams, that is, daydreams, and states that these can
be a reflection of the body's ailments.

IN ANATOMY

Cranial Nerves: Galen was a pioneer in the scientific observation of physiological

phenomena, and he performed numerous dissections, which allowed him to identify
seven pairs of cranial nerves.

Muscles and Spinal Cord: He dissected a multitude of animals, especially goats, pigs
and monkeys, to demonstrate how different muscles are controlled at different levels
by the spinal cord.

He demonstrated that the brain is the organ in charge of controlling the voice.

Vascular System: He demonstrated that blood circulates through the arteries, and not
air, putting an end to the idea in force for four hundred years that what they transported
was air. Instead he defended the erroneous belief that the central organ of the vascular
system was the liver and that blood moved from the liver to the periphery of the body.
 •
He alsoHomer.
described the valves of the heart, and indicated structural differences between
arteries and veins.
 •
Contributi
Homer was an Ancient Greek poet who was born and lived in the 8th century BC. He
ons:
is the author of two of the main works of antiquity: The epic poems The Iliad and The
Odyssey.

Many historians and archaeologists have not reached the conclusion whether Homer
really existed or is a legendary character, since there is no concrete evidence of his
existence. Their works may have been written by other ancient authors or perhaps they
are just compilations of oral traditions from the period of the Ancient Greek era.

Homer's life is a mixture of legend and reality. According to tradition, Homer was
blind and could have been born in any town in Ancient Greece: Smyrna, Colophon,
Athens, Chios, Rhodes, Argos, Ithaca or Salamis.

There is also a lot of mystery about Homer's death.

According to historical documents from the 5th century
BC, he would have died on the island of Ios. Modern
researchers claim that there is no reliable data from
ancient sources that speak about Homer. According to
modern historians, if he existed, he was probably born and
lived in the Greek colonial area of Asia Minor. This
conclusion is drawn from the linguistic characteristics of
his works and the traditions addressed that are typical of
the Ionian region.

Some modern researchers also claim that, from his works, it is possible to conclude that
Homer had a lot of contact with the nobility of the time. Debate still persists over
whether Homer was a real person or the name given to one or more oral poets who
sang traditional epic works.

The educator Homer proposed two paradigms: Odysseus, master of the word; Ajax,
man of action. Achilles was the synthesis of both, a new image of the perfect man. In
this way Homer begins, for the future of the West, the dual issue of education in
weapons and letters; action and contemplation; in the sword and the pen. In the Iliad
there are excesses, but the pedagogues were there to teach discernment and choice, the
Greeks started from Homer, to think about man and the universe, which does not occur
without violence, there is a positive violence and a negative violence: that of justice is
positive, unnecessary violence is negative. The Iliad despises Ares, god of war. Ares
was the son of Zeus and Hera, but he was despised on Olympus. This is what children
learned in Homer (García, 2012). At this point it is necessary to mention Jaeger (2001),
when he tells us that Homer's work is entirely inspired by philosophical thought related
 • Homer.
to human nature and the eternal laws of the course of the world; nothing essential
escapes from it. the human life. For Jaeger (2001), in Homer's work, heroic stories
constitute the infinite treasure of examples and models. In the speeches of epic
characters, Homer uses mythical paradigms for all imaginable situations in life in
which a man can confront another to advise him, warn him, admonish him, exhort him,
prohibit him or order him something. The educational importance of heroic songs lies
in the objective reflection of life and in showing man in his struggle with destiny and
the achievement of a high goal. We could say that the evocation of the example of the
famous heroes and sagas is a constitutive part of all the ethics and aristocratic
education that Homer promotes.
In conclusion, Homer was not an educator as such, but his poems served to educate and
shape Greek society. Later philosophers must rely on his poems that are still being
studied. Homer is one of the first to affirm that the Water is the origin of all things and
many philosophical debates of today are found in his poems.

Homer's education included sports and exercises: hunting, horseback riding, javelin
throwing, etc. In addition, certain artistic attitudes such as singing and playing the lyre.
 • Guarino of Verona

Italian philosopher and pedagogue, born in Verona in 1374 and died in Ferrara in 1460.
A pioneering figure of Humanism that would spread throughout Western Europe
during the 15th and 16th centuries, he has also gone down in History with the names of
Guarino Veronese or Guarino Veronese. He was the father of another conspicuous
humanist, the poet, professor and diplomat Battista Guarini (1435-1508).

Inclined from his early youth to classical

studies, he specialized in the knowledge of
the Letters of Antiquity and, with this
background, he went to Constantinople to
expand his knowledge under the teaching of
the Byzantine scholar Manuel Crisolaras
(1350-1415).

Their pedagogical ideals serve to illustrate,

to a large extent, the spirit of early
humanism: to train kind and honest literati,
attracted by goodness and beauty, and
capable of promoting public well-being
thanks to the knowledge they had learned
from classical sources. .
Impressed by the pedagogical and intellectual work that Guarino Guarini of Verona
was carrying out in Ferrara, the Emperor elevated his school to the rank of general
study, which was equivalent to the possession of university rights (in fact, the later
University of Ferrara traced its origins to the Veronese school). The students of the
illustrious humanist were invited to ignore the study of the liberal arts typical of
medieval education, to accept in exchange an innovative pedagogical proposal
organized in three grades: an elementary course, which included learning the correct
pronunciation and writing of Latin ; an intermediate course, in which emphasis was
placed on perfect mastery of grammar; and final course, focused on rhetoric, a
discipline that could show, better than any other, the assimilation and use, by the
student, of the contents encrypted in the two previous degrees.
Another of Guarino Veroneses' fully humanistic innovations was to complement this
purely literary training with a series of exercises and physical activities (dance,
hunting, gymnastics, swimming, etc.) aimed at improving health and physical
appearance. of the students. From his extensive knowledge of classical antiquity, the
bold pedagogue rescued the spirit expressed in the Latin maxim of mens sana in
corpore sano, and placed, among the priorities of his study program, the direct
contact of students with Nature.

• Contributions:

He taught classical literature in Florence, Venice and Verona, and opened a school in
Ferrara that was later elevated by the emperor to the rank of general study (with
university rights), and which very soon welcomed students from all over Europe,
without distinction of social classes. or economical. The ideal of his pedagogy was
that of first humanism: to train honest, kind writers, attracted by goodness and
beauty, who would use their knowledge to promote public well-being. In this school,
abandoning the study of the liberal arts typical of medieval education, education was
articulated in three grades: an elementary course for learning the correct
pronunciation and writing of Latin, a grammatical course, and a rhetoric course. This
exclusively literary education was complemented by particular attention to physical
development (hunting, swimming, dancing, gymnastics), always in direct contact
with nature. His main works are his Epistolary, the Chrisolorina and Little
Commentaries, in addition to numerous translations and editions of classical authors
that he was in charge of. His son, named Battista (Ferrara, 1435-Ferrara, 1505), was
also a conspicuous humanist, who taught Greek and rhetoric in Bologna and Ferrara
and served as ambassador for his republic.
 • Johann Friedrich Herbart

(Oldenburg, 1776 - Göttingen, 1841) German philosopher and pedagogue. He studied

the methods of Pestalozzi in Switzerland and was a professor at the universities of
Göttingen and Königsberg, where he succeeded Kant. He is the author of General
Pedagogy (1806), Psychology as a Science (1824-1825) and General Metaphysics
(1828-1829).

After studying at the Oldenburg Institute, Johann Friedrich Herbart entered the
University of Jena in 1794, where his professors were the Kantian Karl Leonard
Reynolds, Friedrich Schiller and Johann Gottlieb Fichte.

The latter influenced his ideas in a singular way at

first, but soon distanced himself from his
philosophy. His pedagogical vocation was early:
between 1797 and 1800 he was a tutor at the Von
Steiger in Berne. From the acuity of his pedagogical
observations, the bimonthly reports that Herbart
wrote for the father of his three disciples, unequal in
age and temperament, are preserved as interesting
documents.

Herbart tried to penetrate deeply into the study of

psychic phenomena, especially in the pedagogical aspect. According to Herbart, the
soul, too, naturally, is one of the "reals," simple and immutable in itself and yet active
and reactive with respect to the other reals. The forces of action and reaction make up
psychic life, which is reduced to a dynamic complex of representations, divided into
feelings, desires, volitions and knowledge, converted in turn into faculties, depending
on how they are found, in the incessant and full of struggle. vicissitudes, above or
below the threshold of consciousness.

These "mechanics and statics of the spirit" originate the phenomenon of the self or
unit of consciousness and the phenomenon of perception, that is, the formation of
masses of representations around which other images tend to crystallize (Herbartian
foundation of the pedagogical doctrine). didactics of the centers of interest). The
dream of Herbart's existence was the development of a mathematically based
psychological science, through which it would be possible to know "in mathematical
formulas the general laws of psychic phenomena."

Following the tradition of Kant, Herbart also affirms the autonomy of the "science of
values" or "Aesthetics", converted into "Ethics" when it is transformed into the science
of necessarily achievable values. Unlike Kantian morality, for Herbart ethics is based
on five imperatives or practical ideas, or model-concepts: inner freedom, perfection,
benevolence, law and equity. Herbart's philosophical system is set out above all in the
works General Practical Philosophy (1808), Introduction to Philosophy (1813) and
General Metaphysics according to the principles of the philosophical doctrine of
nature (1828-1829).

• Contributions:

A series of contributions contributed to the definition of educational psychology,

among them we have: The study of individual differences, psychometrics,
evolutionary psychology and interest in learning and literacy. He made important
finalist contributions to education such as the Cardinal Concept of Instruction." It is
not a means of learning, but rather the end of it; An education worthy of the name is
one that promotes rich and deep interests rather than specific knowledge: "Interest
must give birth to another interest; what has been learned will dissipate, but the
interest will persist throughout life."

His interest in classical education also stands out, which he wanted to be enriched
from a mathematical and scientific point of view, in obedience to his principle of the
multilateral expansion of interests. This expansion must be gradual, solid and
disciplined, such as what is possible in a secondary school free of utilitarian concerns,
in order to build at the same time the intellectual heritage and the character of the
student who, according to the principle of educational instruction, They are virtually
coincident.

Herbart formulated certain distinctions and didactic rules that have enjoyed a fortune
perhaps greater than their merit. For example, education is not only based on
instruction, but also on government and discipline.

But the aspect of Herbartian didactics that was most developed and disseminated is the
formal degrees of instruction.
 • Georges Hebert.

Georges Hébert (* Paris, April 27, 1875 - Tourgéville, August 2, 1957) was a French
naval officer and physical education instructor who promoted a new training method,
the Natural Method or Hébertism, contrary to gymnastics.

swedi As an officer in the French Navy before World War

sh I, Hébert was assigned to the village of St. Pierre in
Martinique. In 1902 there was a catastrophic
volcanic eruption and Hébert heroically coordinated
the evacuation and rescue of around seven hundred
people. This experience had a profound effect on
him, and reinforced his belief that athletic ability
must be combined with courage and altruism. He
developed this ethos in his phrase: "Etre fort pour
être utile" - "Be strong to be useful."

Hébert had traveled all over the world and was

impressed by the physical development and
movement skills of indigenous Africans and other
regions: Their bodies were splendid, flexible, exact, skillful, resilient, and yet they had
had no training. gymnastic but their lives in nature.

As a lieutenant, he became director of physical exercises in the Navy in 1910. In 1913

he was appointed technical director of the Reims College of Athletes built by the
Marquis Melchior de Polignac. Although his actions were largely ignored, he was
promoted to the Legion of Honor.

He defined sport as "any type of exercise or physical activity aimed at achieving

results and whose performance depends mainly on the idea of fighting against a
defined element, distance, danger, animal, an adversary [...] and , by extension, against
oneself.

George Hébert, after observing the customs that had a positive impact on the physical
form of primitive people and in opposition to the analytical and artificial Swedish
method, proposes an outdoor life in which physical exercises must have a natural
character, understood as something not artificial. , but utilitarian (for the integral
physical development of the individual), without distinction between men and women
and with a recreational nature. It is what is known today as the Natural Method, which
is based on the use of gestures typical of our species to acquire the complete
development of the individual, letting nature do its thing. His idea, contrary to the
Swedish analytical system, is based on the fact that the movements that provide
strength to the organism are those that are carried out in nature, in a "spontaneous"
way, such as running, throwing, jumping, etc.
g. Hébert makes a classification of physical exercises and groups them into 10
categories. From most to least important they would be:

• Simple movements: walking, running and jumping.

• Complex movements: quadruped, climbing, defense, balance and transportation.
• Recreation: dance and acrobatics.

All of this is preferably carried out in a natural environment, following a control of the
work intensity that should not exceed the maximum capacity of the individual. For it

George Hébert died in 1957, but his legacy continues to this day, both in European
gymnastics schools that promote his “Natural Method” and in the current influence he
has had on the development of Parkour.

A man with the idea that humans have much more potential than we ourselves believe,
who sought development not only on a physical level, but also spiritually and morally,
who believed that ability first of all should be used for a longer life. Useful to himself
as well as to others, George Hébert will be remembered both for his teachings in
physical education and his influence on the development of Parkour.
 • Johann Gottfried Herder

(Mohrungen, today Morag, current Poland, 1744

- Weimar, current Germany, 1803) German
philosopher and writer. Born into a humble
family, in 1762 he began studying philosophy,
theology and literature in Königsberg, where he
followed the courses taught by Immanuel Kant,
of whom he was a disciple, and became friends
with Johann Georg Hamann, a prominent critic of
the Enlightenment. Ordained a Protestant pastor
in 1764, he moved to Riga to teach at the
cathedral school. There he wrote, inspired by
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Hamann, the
Fragments on a New German Literature (1767),
where he rejected the imitation of the classics and defended a poetry nourished by
popular vigor.

In 1769 he made a trip to France, where he came into contact with Diderot,
D'Alembert and the encyclopedists, studied the works of Rousseau and published,
developing the principles set out in the Fragments, his Silvas critiques (1769). This
work is considered a direct antecedent of Sturm und Drang, a literary movement that
anticipated romanticism by demanding a national conception for art and claiming the
exaltation of individualism and feelings as a source of inspiration.

In 1770 he moved to Hamburg, where he met Lessing, and then to Darmstadt, where
he met Caroline Flachsland, whom he would marry three years later. In 1771 he
traveled to Strasbourg, where he stayed for a few months recovering from an ailment
that affected his eyes. In this city he met the young Goethe, on whom he would exert a
notable influence and, through him, on all German literature. In 1771 he moved to
Bückeburg as a town councilor; His Essay on the Origin of Language (1772) dates
from this period, where he highlights its natural and evolutionary character, and its
predominant role in any cognitive process.

Between 1778 and 1779 he wrote The Voices of the People in Songs, where he
grouped the great ancient poems of the Bible, Homer and Ossian together with
original poems by himself, Goethe and Matthias Claudius. This collection of folk
songs, which contained poems that did not strictly conform to the dogma of folk art,
indicates a classical influence on Herder, who, thanks to the intervention of Goethe, in
1776 had been appointed superintendent, court preacher and member of the Weimar
town hall, center of German classicism and city in which, except for a stay in Italy
between 1778 and 1779, he would remain until his death.

• Contributions:

Herder is considered one of the promoters of the sturm und drang movement, a
predominantly literary movement that inaugurated German romanticism and that
emerged as a rejection of the exacerbated rationalism of the Enlightenment. His
contribution to German thought helped awaken in the collective mentality a historical
consciousness of its own and the renewal of its culture.

Herder's work, like that of most intellectuals of his time, is not limited to a single
discipline. He wrote books on theology, literature, philosophy, history and philology.
It is difficult to separate when it deals with one subject or another, as they are usually
intermixed. Furthermore, in his attempt to understand the naked reality of the past
(from himself and not through the references of the present), he comes closer to a
philosophical conception of history. It seeks to unravel the principles on which all
genuine understanding of men, people and times must be based. It places history
above reason and preserves it from schemes and generalizations.

The first thing that stands out about Herder's thought is his rejection of the
Enlightenment and especially the idea of progressive development that the
Enlightenment defended. He considers that they view history with prejudices and use
it to prove their own preconceived theses, according to which the society and culture
of the 18th century would represent the apogee of humanity. These prejudices prevent
them from studying and understanding each culture for itself, according to its own
spirit and its own complex unity. It also criticizes cosmopolitanism and fights to
overthrow the absolute concept of culture as a single tradition made up of universally
valid models, since it understands that humanity is made up of a plurality of cultures,
all of them rooted in a nation or people with different spirits.
(Called the Great; Island of Cos, present-day Greece, 460 BC - Larisa, id., 370 BC)
Greek physician. According to
Hippocrate tradition, Hippocrates descended
s from a line of magicians from the
island of Cos and was directly
related to Aesculapius, the Greek
god of medicine. A
contemporary of Socrates and
Plato, he quotes him on various
occasions in his works.
Apparently, during his youth
Hippocrates visited Egypt, where
he became familiar with the
medical works that tradition
attributes to Imhotep.

Although without certain basis,

Hippocrates is considered the
author of a kind of medical
encyclopedia of Antiquity made
up of several dozen books
(between 60 and 70). In his texts,
which are generally accepted as belonging to his school, the conception of illness is
defended as the consequence of an imbalance between the so-called liquid humors of
the body, that is, blood, phlegm and yellow bile or cholera. and black bile or
melancholy, a theory that Galen would later develop and that would dominate
medicine until the Enlightenment.
To combat these conditions, the Hippocratic corpus uses cautery or scalpel, proposes
the use of medicinal plants and recommends fresh air and a healthy and balanced diet.
 •
Contributi
Among
ons:the contributions of Hippocratic medicine, the consideration of the body as a
whole, the emphasis placed on carrying out detailed observations of symptoms and
taking into consideration the clinical history of the patients stand out.

In the field of ethics of the medical profession, the famous oath that bears his name is
attributed to him, which later became a traditional deontological declaration in
medical practice, which obliges the person who pronounces it, among other things, to
"enter in homes with the sole purpose of caring for and curing the sick", "avoiding
any suspicion of having abused the trust of patients, especially women" and
"maintaining the secret of what you believe should be kept secret" .

Transform medicine into a discipline

Until the 5th century BC, medicine was not a discipline suitable for study. In fact, it
was thought that diseases had a strict relationship with superstitions, legends and
magic.
The arrival of this Hippocrates drastically changed the outlook towards medicine,
since he presented it in a more rational way.

He looked away from the legends and began to study the causes of diseases. He stated
that the diseases that man contracted depended more on the environment, habits and
diet.

In addition, he implemented techniques and methodologies for the treatment of some

diseases, including diagnoses and preventive measures that would mark the beginning
of the art of medicine, expanding to different parts of the world.

Some of these approaches and descriptions were rescued and as a whole it is currently
known as the Hippocratic Corpus. It is a compilation where you can find the most
important findings for medicine during the 4th and 5th centuries.

• J anh Ludwig Friedrich

Johann Friedrich Ludwig Christoph Jahn was born in the town of Lanz, located near
Lenzen, belonging to the state of Brandenburg, in the former Prussia, on August 11,
1778, the son of a Lutheran pastor and a university professor, who gave him He taught
him to read, his first reading being the Bible. From his father, as a wise theologian,
the boy Friedrich Ludwig learned the basic knowledge for his later professional
career, awakening in him his interest in geography, the German language and history.
Especially the latter, of which Jahn, as an adult, would go so far as to affirm that “…
it was my oldest companion in childhood games, my friend and companion
throughout life, to the point that only when I was an adult did I hear about it.” stories".
He would complete his primary studies in his hometown, as he himself tells us, and it
was at the age of 13 when he received his first gymnastics lessons at the Salzwedel
Gymnasium, and two years later he moved to the Grauen Kloster Gymnasium in
Berlin.

In April 1796 he entered the University of Halle, where, following his father's advice,
he enrolled in theology. He immediately integrated into the university environment
and joined the secret student Order of the Unitists, founded in 1774, and whose
ideology required maintaining secrecy, feeling and fraternal help among the members,
commitment, moderation, discretion. in duels or disputes, and dedication to study. But
it was impossible for Jahn to adopt this ideology and he soon left the organization.
During his stay in Halle, he read the utopian novel The Emigrant, by Wilhelm
Friedrich von Meyern, and was amazed by its explanations about national education,
military service and citizen participation in the life of the state, taking this work as a
reference in his ideological future.
After interrupting his university studies, he accepted, in the autumn of 1803, an offer
to work as a private teacher for Baron Lefort, in Neubrandenburg, and for a glass
businessman, Haas Strecker, in Torgelow. Jahn displayed remarkable affection for his
students, demonstrating his aptitude to serve as an outstanding teacher. When the
class ended, he took his students with other young people and they played all kinds of
games and physical activities outdoors. He taught them to swim, run, jump and climb
correctly. He transmitted social values and belonging to the group. In Torgewald he
was also responsible for taking care of the children of his employer's glass workers
when they asked him for help. But Jahn never lost sight of the idea of resuming his
university studies. He continued his research in relation to the Germanic language and
moved to Göttingen in 1805.

Jahn, whose goal was to make the practice of gymnastics public, made sure that his
gymnastics facility was the topic of discussion throughout the city. In the winter of
1811, some gymnasts received classes in vaulting through Jahn himself. In 1812 the
number of gymnasts had already risen to five hundred. The exercises on the fixed bar
and parallel bars were expanded and along with these, various games and athletic
practices were carried out. In the winter of 1812, the Berlin Gymnastics Association
was formed, its first director being Karl Friedrich Friesen. In March 1816, in Berlin,
his most important work from the point of view of physical activity was published:
“Die Deutsche Turnkunst Turnplätze” (German Gymnastics on the Turnplätze),
written by Friedrich Ludwig and his close collaborator Ernst Eiselen. . The
“Turnkunst” was an unusual success. The Prussian ministries ordered two hundred
copies and a government administration ordered fifty more. Officials who could have
influence on the dissemination of gymnastics.

• Contributions:

Jahn's work developed throughout Germany through an immense movement

associated with physical practice and the affirmation of national identity. Its direct
influence on the evolution of gymnastic exercises throughout Europe was of great
significance, becoming an important reference for all subsequent physical-sports
movements, such as the Modern Olympic Movement.

The work entitled German Gymnastics at the Turnplätze (Berlin, 1816), where he
develops his method of practical application of physical exercise, will make him, as
we will see in the last section of the work, the undisputed father of the sport of artistic
gymnastics, developing all the modalities of this sport: the fixed bar, the parallel bars,
the jumping horse, the rings and free exercises on the floor. Precisely here we are
going to find one of the fundamental contributions, but not the only one, of Jahn to the
Olympic Games.
 • G aspar melchor from jovellanos

Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos was born in Gijón on January 5, 174, in the ancestral
home of his elders, one of the most illustrious families in the city, in the Cimadevilla
neighborhood, next to the Valdez Palace and Chapel. His childhood and adolescence
passed in Gijón, where he studied his first letters and Latin, and in 1757, at the age of
thirteen, he went to the University of Oviedo where he studied arts and philosophy.
Then in 1759, he studied Law and Canons at the University of Ávila, and later a
bachelor's degree in Canons from the University of Alcalá de Henares in 1764.

He began his public life at the age of 23, in 1767,

when he was appointed Mayor of the crime room of
the Royal Court of Seville. Later he was promoted
to Oidor or Minister of the Royal Court. In 1778, at
the age of 34, after ten years in Seville, he was
appointed Mayor of the House and Court and had to
leave the capital of Seville to move to Madrid,
staying in the capital of Spain for another twelve
years, where he was named Academic of History. of
the Language and Fine Arts of San Fernando,
member of the Patriotic Society of Madrid,
counselor of the Military Orders, Knight of
Alcántara, Superintendent of the Treasures of the
Orders of Calatrava and Alcántara.

After these
fruitful years of fruitful work, in 1790, by royal order he was commissioned to move
to his small homeland, Asturias, and to his hometown Gijón, to study and report on
the coal wealth of our land, which represented a way to remove him from the political
center and power, being in a way his first exile, and the beginning of a time of
injustices that little by little made his life bitter.

It is here in Gijón, in his sweet exile, where he wrote two of his most distinguished
works, the Memoir on public entertainment and spectacles and the Agrarian Law, and
where he created a dream institution, of the purest enlightened thought, the Asturian
Institute of Gijón in 1794. Where he devoted himself to tasks that caused him deep
concern, such as improving the communications of the Principality, the exploitation
of coal mines, and the economic and social problems of his region and city.

At 53 years old, the University of Oviedo awarded him the degree of Doctor of Laws
and Canons in 1797, he was appointed Ambassador of Spain to Russia, a position that
distressed him just thinking that he had to leave his native Gijón, but due to various
circumstances he did not. came to practice.

• Contributions:

Jovellanos, in his role as a pedagogue, supported the need for a comprehensive

education, based on the physical, moral and intellectual training of all citizens. In his
thoughts, works and writings, he defended an equal education for both sexes, for all
social classes, public and universal, and dependent on the control of the State. This
Jovellanist conception would lead to social progress, giving rise to the prosperity of
the nation. Since he maintained that society could only progress if the citizens who
made it up progressed, for which it was necessary that they be instructed both
intellectually and physically.

For this, Jovellanos was inspired by the works and writings of Locke, Voltaire,
Rousseau, Diderot and D'Alembert among other European enlighteners. Jovellanos,
had the conception of hygienic and moralizing physical exercise, that is, of psycho-
physical and social health, which he associated with fun, recreation and leisure, and
all of this with instruction, being one of his primary ideas. comprehensive education.
For this reason, he advised the practice of games and sports such as ball, bowling,
bocce, tejuelo or the tricks table; strength, agility and dexterity exercises, such as
running and jumping, wrestling and bar throwing; as well as dance, fencing, walking
and horseback riding, among other physical activities, to achieve a good physical
education for young people. And based on this, he arranged and protected public
games and amusements, because in his own words they offered honest recreation to
those who played and those who watched, and because they made those who
exercised agile and robust. And this would make a united and industrious people,
more educated and therefore happy and prosperous.

Among its pedagogical principles were experimental instruction, comprehensive

education, that the process of both the physical and intellectual faculties of man was
indefinite, the perfection of reason through instruction, the approach to nature, and as
the ultimate goal, individual happiness and, in short, that of the state. The motto of the
Royal Asturian Institute of Gijón summarizes well its pedagogical thinking and its
educational project, “Quid verum, quid utile, for truth and usefulness.”
 • 10th juvenal juvenal

Decimus Junio Juvenal was born in Aquinas, southern Italy, in the year 60. He was
the adopted son of a rich freedman (sometimes it is stated that he was a Hispanic
freedman). He is supposed to have been a student of Quintilian and to have practiced
rhetoric until he reached middle age, both for entertainment and for legal purposes
(the Satires make frequent and accurate references to the way the Roman legal system
operated). His career as a satirist is supposed to have begun quite early in his life.
This profession allowed him to earn a decent living; It is possible that it even gave
him the money to buy a farm in Tibur (present-day Tivoli). He wrote 16 poems in
dactylic hexameter covering an encyclopedic set of topics from around the Roman
world.

His work, with a patriotic and

retrospective tone, in lapidary verse,
tells of the decadence and corruption
that prevailed in Roman society in the
1st century. The Satires are a vital
source for the study of Ancient Rome
from a vast number of perspectives,
their comic, hyperbolic form of
expression makes, at the very least,
problematic the use of the statements
found in them. Resentful of the Emperor
Domitian because he had not granted
him an administrative position in his
service, he wrote a satire that earned
him exile to the Egyptian city of Syene,
later Aswan. He was not able to return
to Rome until Domitian's death in 97.
After returning to Rome, he lived in poverty, although his circumstances eventually
improved. Very popular author already in times of the Lower Empire and during the
Middle Ages. The period of his literary activity spans approximately from the year 98
to the year 128, and during it he wrote the Satires, in which he attacks the
extravagances and vices of imperial Rome. His work is rather bitter and pessimistic.

Many of his Satires reveal his moral indignation at various social customs, such as
hypocrisy, the abuses of the rich, and the corruption of Domitian's administration.
Also known for some of its expressions: panem et circenses (Bread and circuses),
referring to the customs of the Romans in times of the Empire, Sed quis custodiat
ipsos custodes? (Who watches over the watchers?), Mens sana in corpore sana (A
healthy mind in a healthy body). After his death his work was relegated to oblivion.
His satires were revalued from the 4th century onwards and especially admired by
Christian writers.

• Contributions:

“Healthy mind in a healthy body” is a quote from Satire X written by the Italian
Decimus Junius Juvenal or in Latin Decimus lunius luvenalis in the 1st century BC

The original Latin phrase is 'Orandum est ut sit mens sāna in corpore sānō' which
translates as 'let us pray for a healthy mind in a healthy body' and is framed within the
context of Greek philosophy on the cultivation of the mind, the body and soul to
achieve balance.
It is presumed that the phrase “healthy mind in a healthy body” is also the author of
Plato (427 - 347 BC) but it is not possible to verify it because he left no record of this
phrase.

“Healthy mind in a healthy body” was born as a prayer or prayer for the gods to help
us cultivate a healthy mind and a healthy body to keep our soul healthy.

In the 19th century, “healthy mind in healthy body” no longer refers to the balance of
mind and body but specifically to the cultivation of the body that would result in a
healthier mind.

This trend was catapulted due to the need to promote modern gymnastics techniques,
introducing physical education as a pedagogical discipline and the creation of the
Olympic Games by the Frenchman Pierre Coubertin.

Nowadays, the cultivation of harmony of the body and mind has been replaced by
oriental practices such as yoga or the use of mantras of Hindu or Buddhist origin that
help to achieve a meditative state of relaxation and balance of both the mind and
body. of the body.
• Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, capital of East Prussia, which in the
20th century became Kaliningrad (Russia);
He spent his entire life in that city. His
father, Johann Georg Kant, and his mother,
Anna Regina Porter, raised him in Pietism,
one of the most rigorous forms of
Protestantism, which emphasized religious
devotion, personal humility, and the literal
interpretation of religion. Bible. He studied
at the Collegium Fridericianum and, from
1740, at the University of Königsberg,
where he studied with Professor Martin
Knutzen, a rationalist who introduced him
to the philosophy of Leibniz and
Wolff, in British philosophy in general and,
particularly, in Newtonian physics. From
1746 Kant became a private teacher in the
small towns around Königsberg, but
continued to research. In 1749 he published his first philosophical work, Meditations
on the True Estimation of Living Forces (Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der
lebendigen Kräfte), and from then until his death, on February 12, 1804, he published
“consecutively numerous and important works.” in which he founded the concept of
Critical Philosophy, with which both his theory of knowledge, his moral theory, as
well as his aesthetics, pedagogy and theory of history are known. This concept
completely characterizes his original system of thought, which is called
Transcendental Idealism, and which takes place as a generic philosophical system in
that numerous philosophers joined it.
 • BY post

In this way, in its beginning, the education of the body and the spirit has to be
physical education, that is, mechanical, both in discipline (care) and in instruction
(reasons), its characteristic being that in it the individual He is not led to understand
the principles that underpin education, but is simply taught what is good and what is
bad, what is beneficial and what is harmful. But, just as in care the understanding of
reasons must be intertwined, in instruction the cultural context must be incorporated,
through which the complexity of the social is opened to the individual, and in this the
moral laws must be introduced. Thus, it is necessary that reasoned teaching overlap
with care; with this the following of laws and, with this, the search for principles, but
always keeping in mind that, except in strictly moral teaching, one cannot go beyond
pointing out the norms and laws to following in action. Therefore, the three types of
education can never be separated, only that in physical education the freedom of the
individual is subjected to laws without reasoning, while in the case of cultural
training laws are given to freedom in a reasoned manner, and In the case of moral
training, it is the individual who has to establish the principles, or criteria, to follow.
From this, it follows that according to Kant the education of the body and spirit is
physical if it only refers to nature, physical-cultural if it refers to the relationship
between the nature of the individual and society, and moral if it refers to freedom. ,
the latter being very necessary, therefore, according to the education received:

A man can be physically very cultivated, he can have a very formed spirit, but he
can be morally very poorly educated and be a bad person.
1
creature.

That Kant does not accept, like Rousseau, a primordial state in which nature and
goodness are equivalent, leads him to maintain not only that the germs found in it
must be developed, but also that the human being is not by nature a moral being, and
that it will really only be so when I manage to know what the concepts of duty and
law consist of. If Kant's rationalist position is shown in the need to accept previous
physical conditions (bodily and spiritual), his empiricism is manifested in the
demand that at each stage of training the individual be allowed and achieved to relate
knowledge and power, Because the transcendental value of education implies not
only the realization of an effort, but also that the human being knows the value of his
effort, and has satisfaction from its realization, which the child has to slowly
understand.
 • Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.

German writer and playwright. Son of a Protestant pastor, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
studied theology in Leipzig, which he soon abandoned to dedicate himself fully to
literature; From those youthful years dates his intense friendship with the poet Ewald
Christian von Kleist.

His theatrical production would move away from

French tragedy to integrate the influence of
Shakespeare and the Greek classics, especially
starting with Miss Sara Sampson (1755), the first
bourgeois realist drama. His ideas on aesthetics were
reflected in his Laocoön (1766), focused on the links
between poetry and painting, and in his works of
theater criticism, collected in Hamburger
Dramaturgy (1767 1769).

Maximum representative of the values of German

classicism, his drama Nathan the Wise (1779) is an
apology for tolerance, while in The Education of Humankind (1780) he affirms his
faith in the indefinite moral perfection of humanity. Lessing knew how to introduce
Enlightenment rationalism in Germany, giving it a native meaning that avoided
imitation of French models.

• Contributions:

And in the same way that education does not give man anything that he could not
reach by himself with his reason, so it is also with revelation. In this way the
principle of natural religion or deism is formulated again, but with a totally new twist
that allows for a positive understanding of historical religions. These are successive
phases of the divine education of the human race (that is, of revelation), adapted step
by step to the state of maturity to which humanity itself is reaching. Therefore, these
are not errors, much less impostures, but imperfect and progressively perfectable
forms up to the supreme goal, constituted by rational religion. In this education of the
human race, the "pedagogue" Christ and Christianity occupies a central position.
 •• Pehr Henrink Ling
Contributi
onswas
Ling : born on November 15, 1776 in Smalan, Sweden. His father was a priest,
member
of the clergy in charge of the county where they lived. Ling was a good student who
spent his days studying with a very strict tutor before attending school in the
Vaxjo village.
After he left school, he continued his studies while
traveling the country. There were times when
poverty was with him, and he eventually returned to
Smalan, where he passed his theology exams in
1797. For the next three years, he served as a tutor
for several families.

In 1800, he left Sweden to travel the world. It was

another type of education for the student, and he
had the opportunity to have many experiences that
helped sculpt his life. He learned several languages
and even participated in a naval battle as a volunteer on a Danish ship. When chronic
pain and financial situation were bad, forcing him to return to Sweden, he continued
his education studying the art of fencing.

Ling had a passion for his new skill. But he had realized that although fencing was a
very valuable exercise, it alone could not heal his body. Despite his youth, he had
many physical problems such as rheumatism and lung ailments and had developed
gout in his arm. He began to perform a series of passive movements that involved
pressing, sliding and kneading the body. Eventually, he noticed that they had a
positive effect on his health.

Ling saw potential in these movements, which he called medical gymnastics, and
wanted to educate people about their “systematized gentle exercises.” He felt that, by
performing these movements, the body and mind felt united, as a whole.

He not only believed that anatomy and physiology were “the necessary bases for his
gymnastics” but also that the effects of the movements produced on the body “the
psychological condition of a man” must be studied in great detail. He instituted just
that, and founded the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in 1813.
The writer, doctor and educator Pehr Henrink Ling began writing epic poems. His
literary work was little or nothing related to the world of physical activity. However,
reading Rousseau and following in the footsteps of a pedagogical movement called
“philantropism,” Ling discovered a particular interest in corporal education. Paralysis
in his arm also led him to explore fencing as a rehabilitation therapy and after three
years, thanks to this, he fully recovered his ability to move, a fact that reaffirmed
everything he recovered from the effects of exercise.

After a trip to China, Ling returned to Sweden, importing with him various massage
techniques that would later lead him to develop a Swedish massage technique, whose
purpose is to eliminate tension, firm muscles and joints in addition to restoring the
body's natural balance, a a topic that would later be reflected in Ling's methodology.
Years later, he worked as a fencing teacher in the south of Sweden and at this
particular time he tried to promote his exercise methods, which he classified into
three blocks: the Introduction (order exercises), the Fundamental Exercises A (legs,
arms and trunk) and Fundamental Exercises B (jumps, climbs and skills). In this
process, he worked to convince the authorities to adopt gymnastics as a compulsory
subject in youth education. In addition to this, he created a complete system of static
and therapeutic exercises limited to certain places on the body. This was what later
became the Swedish method.
 •• John Locke
Contributi
ons :thinker, one of the greatest representatives of English empiricism, who stood
British
out especially for his studies of political philosophy. This versatile man studied at the
University of Oxford, where he received his doctorate in 1658. Although his
specialty was medicine and he maintained relationships with renowned scientists of
the time (such as Isaac Newton), John Locke was also a diplomat, theologian,
economist, professor of ancient Greek and rhetoric, and achieved renown for his
philosophical writings, in which laid the foundations of liberal political thought.

Locke approached such ideas as a doctor and

secretary to the Earl of Shaftesbury, leader of
the Whig party, an opponent of monarchical
absolutism in the England of Charles II and
James II. Converted to the defense of
parliamentary power, Locke himself was
persecuted and had to take refuge in Holland,
from where he returned after the triumph of the
English "Glorious Revolution" of 1688.

Locke was one of the great ideologues of the

English Protestant elites who, grouped around
the Whigs, came to control the State by virtue
of that revolution; and in
has exerted a decisive influence on the
Consequently, his thinking political constitution of the United Kingdom to
the present day. He defended religious tolerance towards all Protestant sects and even
non-Christian religions; but the interested and partial nature of his liberalism was
evident when he excluded both atheists and Catholics from the right to tolerance (the
confrontation of the latter with Protestants being the key to the religious conflicts that
had been bleeding the British Isles). and all of Europe).
John Locke3 (1632-1704) in regards to education, a text that is based on pedagogy,
understood as the knowledge or discipline where human education and training are
reflected on.

In the text "Thoughts on Education", Locke specifies the conception of education as

'Physical', 'Moral' and 'Intellectual' Education, and it is an education that aims to
create the habit to acquire virtue, which requires the use of reason.

For Locke, the natural desire is to achieve pleasure and avoid pain; and the role of
reason in practical matters is to discover the means to these ends, since the pursuit of
pleasure must be controlled by the intellect. For the author, the responsibility of
parents and educators is to teach children the rules and controls of reason.
With Locke, righteousness of mind lies primarily in being able to resist deprivation,
"And the great principle or foundation of all virtue and merit lies in this, in a man
being able to refuse the satisfaction of his own desires, of "Go against your own
inclinations and follow only what your reason dictates as best, even if your appetite
inclines you in another direction" (Locke, 1986, § 33. P. 66). Strict discipline is
necessary in education and the educator must reward what is in accordance with
reason and punish custom that is based on simple desire, passion or greed. This
writing covers two moments. In the first, some contextual and theoretical assumptions
of the author are presented in relation to the concept of idea and the place of
experience, a fundamental aspect for human understanding and knowledge. In the
second, the conception of education in John Locke is presented, in a descriptive
manner, as 'Physical', 'Moral' and 'Intellectual' Education. Here two central notions
become important in the author's pedagogical thinking: habituation and autonomy.

Physical Education, in the thought of John Locke. It can be organized in great

provisions: in the care of the body to preserve health, in helping to keep the spirit
straight and in the recreation of the spirit. Locke highlights Physical Education as the
basis for an adequate moral and intellectual education; However, as with moral and
intellectual education, Locke's concern is to prepare the child for the age of reason,
taking care first of the body and health to keep the body strong and vigorous, and then
taking care of the formation of the spirit.
 •• Martin Luther.
Contributi
ons : theologian. The sharp criticism that Martin Luther directed at the moral
German
dissipation of the Roman Church, focused at first on the bull trade, earned him a
quick excommunication in 1520, but also made him the visible head of the
Reformation, religious movement that rejected the authority of the Papacy and
aspired to
a return to primitive spirituality.
Throughout the 16th century, through the action
of Luther and other reformers, and with the
support of princes and monarchs eager to
increase their power and independence, the
Reformation would lead to the establishment of
various Protestant Churches in northern Europe
and the so-called "wars of religion" between
Catholics and Protestants. With this last of the
great schisms of Christianity, the Protestant
schism, the hegemony of the Catholic Church in
the old continent ended and the religious map
that in general terms has lasted to this day was
configured: National Churches detached from Rome in the countries of the north and
survival of the Catholic Church in southern countries.

Against the will of his parents, Martin Luther became an Augustinian monk in 1505
and began studying theology at the University of Wittenberg, where he received his
doctorate in 1512. As a professor, he began to criticize the situation in which the
Catholic Church found itself: Luther protested the frivolity in which a large part of
the clergy lived (especially the high hierarchies, as he had seen during a visit to
Rome in 1510) and censured also that ecclesiastical bulls (documents that
theoretically granted indulgences to believers for sins committed) were the object of
purely commercial traffic.

Luther's criticisms reflected a fairly widespread climate of discontent over the

degradation of the Church, expressed since the Late Middle Ages by other reformers
who can be considered predecessors of Lutheranism, such as the Englishman John
Wyclif (14th century) or the Bohemian Jan Hus ( XV century). Luther's protests grew
in intensity until, following a campaign to sell ecclesiastical bulls to repair St. Peter's
Basilica, he decided to make his protest public by writing his famous ninety-five
theses, which he nailed to the door of the church. of All Saints of Wittenberg (1517)
and which would soon be printed under the title Questioning the Power and Efficacy
of Indulgences.
 •
Contributi
Luther's
ons reform movement did not emerge from nowhere. It came preceded by the
work of humanist thinkers, led by Erasmus, who, while rescuing the knowledge of
the ancients through the recovery of classical texts with new translations and a
critical study of the sources, displayed a new attitude. where the essential thing was
the exaltation of individual freedom. The difference with these thinkers was that they
continued to recognize that the revelation of truth was something that was linked to
the authority and magisterium of the Church, while Luther proclaimed a new
principle, that of free examination of the biblical text, which implied It was necessary
that the believer was in a position to read and interpret the scriptures on his own, that
is, appealing to his conscience and without ecclesiastical mediation being necessary.

This principle of free examination was linked, however, in Luther's mind, to his most
fundamental theological principle: that of the salvation of the just by faith. If the only
salvation lies in faith, since this is the only one that justifies us, it is necessary that
everything depends on divine grace, and not on human works. External sacrifices,
pilgrimages, masses, indulgences or religious icons are of no use; It only requires a
sincere faith that each man, sinner by nature, must cultivate through reading the
divine word. We must distrust, then, everything that does not come from divine
grace, from the sincere faith of the believer and from God's own word. We must be
wary, therefore, of the “good works” of popular piety, of pagan knowledge that
forgets the teaching of the Scriptures and even of reason itself, which over time
Luther came to proclaim as “the bride of the devil” and “universal harlot.”
 • H yeronimus Mercurialis.

Hyeronimus Mercurialis or Girolamo Mercuriale,

Jérôme Mercurialis, Gerónimo Mercuriale (Forlì,
September 30, 1530- ibid. November 13, 1606) was
an Italian doctor, naturalist, philosopher, and
pedagogue, who together with Vergerio (1349
1420) and Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446),
culminates the pedagogical renewal movement that
occurred in the Renaissance. His most important
contribution consisted of the recovery of the ideas
that Galen had in relation to the care of the human
body, which, together with his own contributions,
restored the value that had been lost during the
Middle Ages, to physical activity as a means to
maintain health.

In 1573, he was summoned to Vienna to treat Emperor Maximilian II. The emperor,
satisfied with the treatment he received (although he would die three years later),
named him imperial count palatine.

• Contributions:

The literary and scientific expression of bodily exercise as a source of health was
firmly represented with the contribution of the treatise Artis gymnasticae apud
antiquos celeberrimae nostris temporis ignoratae (Venice, 1569) by Jerome
Mercurialis (1530-1606), an Italian doctor from Forlì, who was university professor in
Padua, Bohemia, Pisa and Rome. This treaty gave physical exercise its own identity in
the doctrinal field of medicine (Arcangeli & Nutton, 2008). This came from the
special recovery of classical gymnastics and restitution of Galenic doctrines (Ulmann,
1977). As Diem (1966, 375) quotes, with this work “the intellectual world was able to
deal with gymnastics again.”

Better known by the title of the second edition, De Arte Gymnastica (1573) [BH
MED 1180] is the first illustrated book on gymnastics. This work, which is
considered the beginning of sports medicine, dealt mainly with hygienic and medical
gymnastics, although it linked it with athletic gymnastics and military gymnastics,
because, as Mercurialis cites, the same methods were used in the three types of
gymnastics. exercises. For Vilanou (2009, 47) this work is “a true exaltation of the
classical gymnastic world and its games, which reinforces the prestige of Galenic
medicine with regard to the practice and advantages of physical exercise.” It is
therefore, from Mercurialis that physical education began its journey towards the
establishment of a doctrinal body.
 • M ichel de montaigne
(Michel Eyquem, lord of Montaigne; Périgueux, France, 1533 - Bordeaux, id., 1592)
French writer from whose fundamental work, the Essays (1580 and 1588), the modern
genre of the essay, understood as a dissertation, took its name and form. subjective
and critical about a certain topic. Born into a family of Bordeaux merchants who
accessed the nobility by purchasing the land of Montaigne in 1477, he was educated in
Latin, following his father's pedagogical method. Later he entered a school in
Guyenne (today Aquitaine), where he studied Latin and Greek poetry, and in 1549 he
began to study law at the University of Toulouse.

From 1554 he was a councilor in La Cour des

Aides de Périgueux, replacing his father, and
when it was dissolved, he became part of the
Parliament of Bordeaux. There he met the poet
and humanist Étienne de La Boétie, with whom
he became friends. Little interested in his
parliamentary functions, he frequented court life
for a time. In 1565 he married Françoise de La
Chassagne, and three years later his father died,
inheriting the property and the title of lord of
Montaigne, allowing him to sell his position in
1570.

Finally, on February 28, 1571, he was able to

fulfill his desire to retire to his properties to
dedicate himself to study and meditation, and after a year he began writing the Essays,
combining it with reading Plutarch and Seneca. However, his retirement was short-
lived, as he had to take on new social and political commitments due to the religious
wars that devastated his country and in which he had to provide his help as a diplomat
(a fact that is reflected in the book first of the Essays, dedicated basically to military
and political questions). The first edition of the Essays, in ten volumes, appeared in
1580.
•
Contributi
ons :He maintained the need to teach children the art of living
He insisted on practicing physical exercise for comprehensive training and
that he will not only focus on acquiring knowledge.
Montaigne's pedagogy is based on the development of attitudes.
Education must be a “severe gentleness” that is, not giving a punishment so
that children fear but rather we must tire them out and educate them in the
cold.
For Michel, it is necessary to give ideas, attitudes and skills to the child that
will serve them for life since we are not building a soul or a body but a man.
Use rural pedagogy because through this strategy children learn more.
For him, learning by heart is not real knowledge because true learning
requires the child to make his own judgment.
 • J ohann Christoph Friedrich Gutsmuths
Johann Christoph Friedrich Gutsmuths, also called Guts Muths or Gutsmuths
(August 9, 1759 – May 21, 1839), was a teacher and educator in Germany, and is
especially known for his role in the development of physical education. He is
considered the "grandfather of gymnastics", the "father" being Friedrich Ludwig
Jahn. GutsMuths introduced systematic physical exercise into the school curriculum
and developed the basic principles of artistic gymnastics.

Guts is known as someone who developed the

rules for physical education practices by
introducing a system of exercises in school grades
with the basic principles of artistic gymnastics. In
1793, Muths published Gymnastik für die Jugend,
the first written systematized gymnastics book.
Seven years later, his book was translated into
English and published in England, where it became
a reference in the center, under the title
Gymnastics for Young People: or A Practical
Guide to Healthy and Fun-to-Use Exercises.
of the schools.

He was born in Quedlinburg. He attended the University of Halle from 1778 to 1782,
where he studied pedagogy. Sometime after 1785, while a private tutor in
Schnepfenthal (where he remained all his life), he was appointed teacher and it was
there that he taught gymnastics supervised by Salzmann. In 1793, GutsMuths
published Gymnastik für die Jugend, the first systematic textbook on gymnastics.

His literary production in moral and physical education continued more than twenty-
five years after the production of his seminal work Gymnastik.
 •
Contributi
Theons
19th: century was a conflictive century in terms of the world of knowledge, since
all modern theories of knowledge appeared.

The origins of gymnastic systems were located in European countries, from where
they spread to most of the world. The first efforts to consolidate physical education
through gymnastics took place in Germany. Guts Muths (1759-1839), teacher of
geography, history, French and gymnastics, would be responsible for opening new
horizons for physical education and exerting a notable pedagogical influence
worldwide. Muths laid the foundations of the gymnastic system of his time by
publishing, in 1793, a book entitled Gymnastics for Young People, another on
gymnastic and sports games, as well as a swimming manual, a guide for teachers and
students, a catechism of gymnastic exercises and countless more brochures.
Muths' work, limited to the school environment, was taken up by Federico Luis Jahn,
also German, who socialized the practice of gymnastics with a patriotic approach, in
addition to contributing to its development through a series of pedagogical
contributions. He was credited with introducing gymnastic excursions or turnfahrt
with the aim of exercising schoolchildren in walking. Another innovation carried out
by this character consisted of the creation of the turnplatz, which was nothing more
than a space intended for the practice of exercises with equipment, that is, the modern
gym. The turnplatz initially consisted of a rectangular area of land, fenced on all four
sides, where apparatus exercises were performed, with Jahn being the inventor of the
wooden donkey for jumping and the parallel bars.

In addition to the previous contributions, he dedicated himself to the compilation and

organization of gymnastic exercises and achieved, with the support of his
collaborators, the publication in 1816 of the book Deutschesche turnkunst (German
Gymnastics), considered the most complete and systematized work of that time. time.
With the appearance of German Gymnastics, the practice of exercises on the turnplatz
would take on a more pedagogical and methodical character as it was based on tables
or lesson schemes. Due to the popularization of Jahn's ideas, the Prussian government
issued, in 1842, a decree that made the practice of gymnastic exercises mandatory in
children's schools.
 • To August Hermann Niemeyer
August Hermann Niemeyer, professor, university
chancellor and director of the Francke institutions
in Halle, was born in Halle on September 1, 1754
and died there on July 7, 1828.

He was educated at the Pædagogium in his

hometown and after graduating taught at the
German and Latin schools of Francke's foundation.
In 1777 he began teaching at the university on
Homer, the Greek tragics, and Horace. In 1779 he
was appointed extraordinary professor of theology
and inspector of the theological seminary, in 1784
ordinary professor and inspector of the Pædagogium, in 1785 he was assistant
director of the Francke institutions and in 1799 director. In 1792 he was appointed
councilor of the consistory and in 1793 prorector of the university. In 1806 Napoleon
abolished the university of Halle and Niemeyer was sent to Paris as a hostage. After a
six-month exile he was allowed to return, but in the meantime Halle had been
separated from Prussia and associated with the kingdom of Westphalia. King Jerome
restored the university and appointed Niemeyer chancellor and perpetual rector
(1808). Because of Niemeyer's association with the Prussian cause the university was
again abolished in 1813. When the institution was reorganized under Prussian
government in 1815, Niemeyer left his position as rector, but retained
superintendence of external administration as chancellor. It is due to his talent and
ability that the institution founded by Francke continued and prospered. In pedagogy
he established the principle of humanity and his theological position was that of an
honest rationalism of the old type. The main emphasis of his activity was on practical
theology. Of his works we can mention Charakteristik der Bibel (5 volumes, Halle,
1775-82), an attempt to describe biblical characters more clearly. The first volume
contained the characters of the New Testament, the others those of the Old. The
Bible served mainly as material for the knowledge of humanity and he applied purely
scientific tests to his characters.
 •
Contributi
Thus,
onsNiemeyer,
: to build a pedagogy that allows maximum intellectual and moral
progress without endangering the social order, will focus his efforts on the
bourgeoisie.

The position he adopts in the face of the great pedagogical movements faced at the
end of the 18th century is symptomatic. He opposes the direct rivals of the Halle
institutions, the Dessau philanthropists (encouraged by Basedow), from whom he
cannot accept the pragmatism or the revolutionary germ that spread through the
upper classes of society; and Pestalozzi, the generous and brilliant bohemian of
pedagogy whom he disdains and
He fears at the same time for his effort to implement the ideals of the Enlightenment
in the popular mass.

On the contrary, he approves of pietists and neohumanists. In the former he finds the
realism and deep religiosity that the people and the petite bourgeoisie need to enter
the 19th century without convulsions or thoughtless demands. In the latter he finds
the elements of disinterested aristocratic culture, a perfect antidote to the conceptions
of philanthropists and a bridge to wisdom and eternal beauties.

In summary, in the political, religious, moral, social and pedagogical spheres,

Niemeyer's eclecticism is oriented towards tradition as it preserves it from
revolution, while allowing a free and progressive development of the bourgeoisie.

To define the main lines of Niemeyer's pedagogy, it is important to study how he

justifies the very existence of education and defines its three supreme principles. We
will see below how he conceived psychology as a systematic study of the child's
potential, and the methods he proposed to develop them.

Niemeyer, by constructing his vast treatise on education according to a rigorous

method, tries first of all to demonstrate that education is not a violation of the natural
rights of the child. His main argument is of a genetic nature13: the child who comes
into the world is only virtually a man; It carries within itself the germ of everything it
can become, but the fruit will not come from this germ if the circumstances are not
favorable. Niemeyer further writes: “If he does not receive the influence of other
reasonable beings, the part of man that distinguishes him from the animal never
reaches the degree of perfection that he could have achieved thanks to the original
perfectibility of his potentialities.”
 • J ohann heinrich pestalozzi
(Also called Juan Enrique Pestalozzi; Zurich, 1746 - Brugg, Switzerland, 1827)
Swiss pedagogue. Reformer of traditional pedagogy, he directed his work towards
popular education.

In 1775 he opened a school for poor children in

Neuhof, inspired by the model of Emile, the famous
educational treatise that Jean-Jacques Rousseau had
published in the previous decade. The project failed,
as did another similar one carried out in Stans. In
1797 he published My investigation into the course
of nature in the development of the human race, his
most influential work. He resumed his pedagogical
practices in a castle provided by the government, in
Bern, an experience that he reflected in his work
How Gertrude Teaches Her Children (1801).

Pestalozzi aspired to promote the reform of society

from an education that sought a comprehensive
formation of the individual, more than the mere
imposition of certain contents, and that granted a wide margin to the initiative and
observation capacity of the child himself. His doctrine soon spread, and came to be
greatly admired by philosophers such as Fichte and pedagogues such as Johann
Friedrich Herbart, as well as by the majority of young pedagogues of the time.
 •
Contributi
With Pestalozzi,
ons : pedagogy begins to see children in a different way, placing them in a
true relationship with nature and culture. Although its teaching is based on elementary
education, its influences do not escape Preschool Education. We have the following
contributions:

1. He gave importance to the development of the child

2. He put into practice the organization of experiences and activities through the
game.
3. Valued the child's spontaneous activities.
4. He placed emphasis on the exercise of manual activities.
5. He considered exercise in drawing as a means to perfect
progressively the hand, which would serve as a basis for writing.
6. He practiced language through simple conversation, and then
learn to read.
7. He highlighted the usefulness of body exercises combined with songs.
8. He pointed out as vital the development of the child in his first moments
with the family, especially with the mother.
9. He gave importance to affection from the moment of birth
of the child.
10. He highlighted the social development of the child, first, in the family and later
in school.
11. He considered it important to create institutions to care for those children who
lacked economic resources.

Given a series of difficulties and disqualifications from the French, he was unable to
introduce his method in France, so he decided to leave it for later. However, the
expected books appeared: the “Mothers' Manual” and the “ABC of intuition, or
intuitive teaching of measurement relations”, and the “Intuitive teaching of numerical
relations”. In short, supporters and opponents of the method clashed passionately,
Pestalozzi was famous, adulated by some and hated by others, which greatly worried
those in power. There was great uncertainty surrounding him and his establishment. A
prudent policy would recommend not opposing the continuation of the establishment
with some modifications.
 • PETRARCH F RANCESCO.

Francesco Petrarch was a humanist thinker and poet, one of

the most important modern lyric poets representative of the
14th century. Petrarch was born on July 20, 1304 and died in
1374 at the age of 70 in Arqua, Italy.
His childhood was spent in Avignon, a small French city and
commune in the present-day Vaucluse region. His parents
were Eletta Canigiani and Petrarco. His father was the one
who sent Francesco and his brother to study in the city of
Montpellier, after which Francesco went to study law in
Bologna, a career from which he never managed to graduate.
When his father died in 1326, he took the minor ecclesiastical vows which would
accompany him throughout his life along with his humanist vocation which arose
thanks to the influence of Giovanni Boccaccio. Their lives were spent in the service of
the church, both dedicated themselves to the rediscovery of the culture of classical
antiquity and to the defense of the union of pagan and Christian creations.
In the love sphere, he found much of his inspiration in Laure de Noves, a woman with
whom he was always in love, but also never reciprocated. Laura's existence was never
proven, so it is believed that she was created as a point of inspiration and as a literary
game; she could also have been a married woman.
On Good Friday in 1327 he saw Laura for the first time, his name was immortalized
through his lyric poems.
Francesco was related to several women, whose identities are unknown, but he was the
father of two children named Giovanni and Francesca.
On April 8, 1341 he was crowned by Senator Orso dell'Anguillara (poetic coronation),
for his partial writing of the poem Africa.
In 1362 he visited Venice and was given a house in exchange for donating all his books
when he died.
Throughout his life he dedicated himself to composing the Songbook from 1335 until
the day of his death. The latest writing was the Rerum vulgarium fragmenta composed
of: 317 sonnets, 29 songs, 9 sestinas, 7 ballads and 4 madrigals.
The Songbook is divided into the life and death of Laura.
 • MORE WORKS:
-Songbook: It contains a greater number of his immortal sonnets dedicated to Laura.
It is written in Tuscany.
- Africa Epic song written in Latin. It is breathed in the first Excision. Second Punic
War.
- Secretum: Autobiographical in nature where Petrarch dialogues with Saint
Augustine.
- The triumphs: Where despite his confessed antipathy for Dante, he models them
with the same meter, the third and the same glorified ending.

• CONTRIBUTIONS
He established the new keys and techniques of the literary work. His concept idealized
love, his image of the beloved woman, and the harmonious sense of beauty in the poem
set the guidelines for poetry during the 16th century.
Petrarch contributed to the service of the Church and the powerful Colon family.
Thanks to the Church He met Laura de Noves, his eternal love and the inspiration of
many, if not all of his poems, on April 6, 1327, in the church of Santa Clara in
Avignon.
Petrarch has been named the father of Humanism, since he dedicated his entire life to
the study of the classics, trying to imitate Cicero by discovering his letters, until then
unknown.
Importance of Songbooks; Triumphs was one of his most important poetic works
written between 1346 and 1374 that was abruptly interrupted by the death of
Francesco. There are some flaws in it since it could not be corrected and ordered by the
poet himself.
Petrarch proposes Gothic sportsmanship, the naturalism of the classics, but even
admiring its technical perfection, he strives to reinterpret it in his own time, exalting
the value of art and the merit of the artist, for his creative power that is manifested in
his free activity. intellectual. In this sense, art exceeds its material value and focuses on
the importance of the artist and the interest of his training and his intellectual work.
 •
(Athens, 427 -PLATO.
347 BC. C.) Greek philosopher. Together with his teacher Socrates and
his disciple Aristotle, Plato is the central figure of the three great thinkers on which the
entire European philosophical tradition is based. It was the British Alfred North
Whitehead who underlined its importance by stating that Western thought is nothing
more than a series of footnote comments on Plato's dialogues.

Born into an aristocratic family, Plato abandoned his initial political vocation and his
literary interests for philosophy, attracted by
Socrates: he was his disciple from the age of
twenty and openly confronted the sophists
(Protagoras, Gorgias) . After the death sentence of
Socrates (399 BC. C.), fled Athens and completely
separated from public life; However, political
issues always occupied a central place in his
thinking, and he came to conceive an ideal model
of the State.
He traveled through the East and southern Italy,
where he came into contact with the disciples of
Pythagoras; After a negative experience in
Syracuse as an advisor at the court of King
Dionysius I the Elder, he spent some time imprisoned by pirates, until he was rescued
and able to return to Athens. There he founded a school of philosophy in the year 387,
located on the outskirts of the city, next to the garden dedicated to the hero Academus,
from which the name Academy comes. Plato's Academy, a kind of sect of wise men
organized with its regulations, had a student residence, library, classrooms and
specialized seminars, and was the precedent and model of modern university
institutions.
In it, all types of matters were studied and researched, given that philosophy
encompassed the entirety of knowledge, until gradually specialized disciplines
appeared (in the Academy itself) that would give rise to differentiated branches of
knowledge, such as logic, ethics or physics. It lasted for more than nine hundred years
(until Justinian ordered it closed in 529 AD. C.), and figures of such fundamental
importance as his disciple Aristotle were educated there.
 • Contributions
theory of ideas

Plato denied the absolute reality of the world we inhabit; Therefore, most of his
contributions are based on the theory of ideas. Plato established that each word
denomination of something did not refer specifically to that thing, but to its ideal
version.

It was man's duty, through knowledge, to approach the ideal state of things and the
environment.

For a better understanding of this assumption, Plato develops the Myth of the Cave, in
which men find themselves chained inside a cave, seeing in front of them the shadows
that represent things. Since they are the only thing they know, they take them as real.

cave myth
This is perhaps the allegory that best explains the concept of duality that Plato
expounded. According to the myth of the cave, there is an area linked to ideas that is
unintelligible, and there is another area clearly associated with the sensible world, with
what beings experience.

Life inside the cave corresponds to the sensible world, while life outside the cave is
related to the world of ideas.

For Plato, living inside the cave implies living in darkness and absolute submission to
worldly pleasures. Going outside the cave is a representation of leaving behind the
search for pleasures and going in search of knowledge. The closer we get to
knowledge, the further out we are from the cave and the closer we are to the truth.
 • PLUTARCH.
Plutarch was born into a wealthy family in the city
of Chaeronea in the region of Boeotia between 45
and 50 AD. The exact year is not known, everything
that is known about his biography is because he
himself has mentioned it in some of his works, such
as the name of his great-grandfather Nicarco when he
recounts the consequences of the battle of Actium, of
his grandfather. Lamprias who appears in the Talks
of Sobremesa or of his own father Autobulo and his
taste for hunting.

Plutarch had two brothers Lamprias, who was a priest, and Timon. In his youth he
made different trips for cultural reasons where he would visit places as remote as
Alexandria and Asia Minor as diplomats. It is believed that he maintained contact with
the philosophical movements of the time, especially with a new movement called
Second Sophistry whose center was in Esmerina, a city that Plutarch surely visited on
these trips.

Another trip that marked and influenced Plutarch was his visit to Rome. The Empire
surprised and fascinated him, so much so that his knowledge allowed him to serve as
an interlocutor between the Greeks and Rome. Little by little he managed to gain a
name and prestige that led him to positions as important as Priest of the Oracle of
Delphi.

Plutarch, thanks to his friend Lucius Maestrio Floro, obtained Roman citizenship.
Lucius was a Roman consul from whom Plutarch would take his Roman name,
becoming Lucius Master Plutarch. According to historians such as Jorge Sincelo,
Emperor Hadrian himself appointed him procurator of the province of Achaia,
although this fact has never been verified. Despite everything, Plutarch always
preferred to reside in his hometown in Chaeronea, where his entire family had lived
centuries ago and where he died around the year 120 AD.

• Plutarch's goal was:

- Form free men -And in the same way, that they seek perfection

Regarding the above, he wants to make us understand that we must have good
teaching, which must be an art such that it is capable of activating the child's entire
being, and not only his cognitive structures. Teaching must transmit comprehensive
knowledge and, at the same time, global knowledge. In this way he tells us that a good
education and appropriate instruction are two things that lead and cooperate to virtue
and happiness.
 • Pindar
(Cynoscephali, .
present-day Greece, 518 BC - Argos,
id., 438 BC) Greek lyric poet. Of his extensive
production, 45 triumphal odes or epinicians have
been preserved, divided into four books ( Olympic ,
Pythian , Nemean and Isthmic ). that
They constitute one of the best examples of Greek
choral lyric.

Already in his time he was one of the most famous

Greek poets, as demonstrated by the interest that his
figure aroused in late antiquity: he was the subject of
six of the Lives that Plutarch wrote, in which credible data is mixed with significant
legends, like the one who says that, as a child, the bees bathed his lips in honey while
he dreamed.

It seems certain that Pindar belonged to a family of the Theban aristocracy and that he
was educated in Athens, where he was musically trained, at a time when choral and
dithyrambic lyricism was emerging. His literary models were above all Homer and
Hesiod, although his poetry was also influenced by local poets, such as the poetesses
Myrtis and Corinna.

Faithful to his aristocratic origins, he remained on the side of Thebes during the
Persian Wars, and his close relationship with Aegina, a conservative Theban leader to
whom he dedicated eleven odes, kept him on the sidelines of the incipient formation of
democracy in Athens. Pindar definitively established himself as a Panhellenic poet
after a stay in Sicily during the sovereignty of Hiero of Syracuse and Theron of
Agrigento, at a time of great prosperity that inspired the poet his most sublime odes,
dedicated to singing the victories of the Panhellenic games.
His serious and solemn style, with long sentences that violate the syntax and in which
nouns predominate, with a grandiloquent lexicon inherited from the epic tradition, was
admired by his contemporaries, which is why from then on he became a mandatory
model of the choral lyricism, while favoring the transition to drama. In modern times,
his work aroused the interest of romantic authors, seduced by the sublimity of his
verses and the unusualness of his images.

Contributions:
It is the most important source of information on the classic Olympic Games and in
fact is considered by Piernavieja (1959) as an inexhaustible source for sports history .
Through authors such as Piernavieja or Popplow we have learned that illustrious
classical thinkers such as Plato or Aristotle dedicated part of their work to chronicling
the Olympic Games and athletic events in general as part of the education of the time.
The transmission of the
Culture from generation to generation has on many occasions parceled out and
constricted the history of classical thought. If we cite Aristotle or Plato, we quickly
think of Philosophy, Ethics or Education. But we do not associate these thinkers with
sport, since it is unknown in popular culture that they were great narrators and
chroniclers of the classic Olympic Games. In this article we wanted to analyze the
work Triumphal Hymns (1968) by Pindar, considered one of the great lyric poets of
classical Greece, and specifically the Olympic odes.

The Olympics: the list of winners

From his odes dedicated to the Olympic Games called Olympics , I will show in a
table the list of winners, the Olympiad number of each victory and some relevant data
from each of these stories dedicated to the winners. These are the data that can be
obtained from this analysis, remembering that his odes are lyrical and subjectively and
emotionally extol the glory of the victors. These odes were paid commissions and were
therefore praised supernaturally at times.

In the time of Pindar the award-winning tests were:

• The foot race (short race of one stadium). Oldleg (1959)

describes this test. It was in a straight line from one end of the stadium to the
other, measuring 192.27 meters in the case of Olimpia.
• The long race, the double stadium.
• The fight, similar to today's wrestling.
• Boxing (similar to boxing).
• The pankration (mix of wrestling and boxing).
• The armed race (race with armor and sword).
• The chariot race.
• The saddled horse race.

Among other…
 • Quintillano MF
Bornin Calagurris Nassica Julia,
current Calahorra in the autonomous community of La
Rioja in Spain, in the Hispano-Roman province of
Tarraconense. He did his first studies in Rome, where his
father worked as a rector or lawyer; There he acquired a
very complete general culture following the lessons of
Remio Palemón and Servilio Nonanio in literature and of
Domicio Afro in eloquence. He returned to Hispania in
the year 61 when Nero names
to Galba governor of Tarraconense. For seven years, he
was a professor of eloquence and Galba appointed him a
lawyer in the superior court of Tarraconense.
After the assassination of Nero, when the Hispanic
legions proclaim his friend Galba emperor, he decides to
take him with him to Rome in 68, and develops a brilliant and renowned career as a
lawyer and professor of rhetoric under the empires of Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. .
Vespasian entrusted him with the first official and public chair of rhetoric, remunerated
with one hundred thousand sesterces, which he ran for twenty years. And he was also
entrusted with the education of Domitian's nephews, sons of his sister Domitilla,
Vespasian and Domitian. Pliny the Younger, the future emperor Hadrian, perhaps
Juvenal and possibly Tacitus were trained in his school of rhetoric.
His fame comes, however, from being the best professor of rhetoric in the ancient
world along with Isocrates. He was a friend of the scientist Pliny the Elder. His
prestige was such that he even received the investiture of consul from Domitian, a
distinction never dreamed of by a simple rhetor . 1 After spending those twenty years as
a lawyer and professor, he retired in the year 89 to dedicate himself to writing
surrounded by honors (the ornamenta, the consularia and the laticlavia - a toga with a
purple band on its edge that only Roman nobles could wear. -). The end of his life is
marked with a series of family dramas: the same year of his retirement, 89, he lost his
wife, who was 19 years old; in 90, to his first-born son, who was five; in 95, to the
second, with ten. He bitterly laments all this in the proem of book VI of his Institute of
Oratory.
• Contributions:
He was one of the best-known Roman teachers. He became the first teacher paid by the
public treasury. A student of teaching methods, he was the author of "On the training
of the speaker", in which he collects his experiences after 20 years as a teacher, where
he gives the guidelines for being a good teacher, and denounces the practices that
should be eradicated.
Quintilian, who taught two thousand years ago, shows us that although there were few
teaching professionals, some, like him, cared about how to teach, how their students
learned, and that they even respected and loved their students. He defends the need for
impeccable morality and seriousness of the teacher, especially taking into account the
age of his students. Instead of applying harsh discipline, Quintiliano recommended
praising the students' intentions, correcting them without using expletives against them,
because attacking them only generated reluctance in them. But, on the other hand, he
did not consider the other extreme appropriate either, that is, he did not agree with the
extreme benevolence of some teachers, since for him, this could generate complacency.
He considered that monotony should not be reached when teaching, and that, to
combat it, students should be given time to rest and activities varied. He proposed a
timing of the school day incorporating different subjects, in addition to grammar,
without exhausting the students, such as music, astronomy or philosophy, or geometry,
for example, which he considered very useful for sharpening ingenuity and favor the
speed of recruitment of adolescents. His position was defended by arguing that the
smaller one is, the greater the learning capacity and that, if certain disciplines, such as
languages, are not learned during school years, it is difficult to achieve them in
adulthood.
It proposes the use of games as a teaching resource: Teaching through games in
which the student should be congratulated for having learned something new, and
competitiveness should be encouraged, as a good ally against reluctance and as a
reward. In addition to using tongue twisters, to achieve a looser and more articulate
diction. And he considered that the boys should sit in order, according to their aptitudes
and personalities, adapting the learning method to their characteristics and abilities.
To learn to write, Quintiliano advises that children practice calligraphy by reviewing
the grooves made in the wax tablets and that special care be taken to achieve clean and
fast writing; and try to avoid that during the first writing exercises the child uses vulgar
words, as is customary, and that he learns to read as if he were singing.
The use of physical punishment as a means of discipline or as a promoter of study,
widely used in these times, was rejected by Quintilian. But, this means of discipline did
not have strong social opposition against it; and some rejected it because it was used
with slaves and, therefore, they considered that it should not be used with free children.
Finally, for Quintiliano, someone capable of hitting a child or an adolescent, whether
a teacher or a pedagogue, deserves no other adjective than that of criminal; and instead
of resorting to that violence, the children should be advised, talked to them so that they
would learn to act correctly and without evil; frequently check the work done and,
above all, before punishing them, find out why they did not perform this or that task.
He seeks to improve an educational system with serious deficiencies.
 • François Rabelais
(La Devinière, France, c. 1494 - Paris, 1553) French writer and humanist. Data on the
first part of his life is scarce. He is usually considered to have been born on the estate
of his father, a lawyer in Chinon, but the exact date of his birth is uncertain. It is
deduced from his work that he could have dedicated himself to the study of law, in the
same way that he perhaps entered the convent of La Baumette, near Angers, in 1510.
A letter sent to the humanist Guillaume Budé, in 1521, which contains some verses in
Greek, shows that he was already a
Franciscan friar. Through an apology for
the female sex by the jurist Amaury
Bouchard, it is known that Rabelais had
already undertaken, at that time, the
translation of the History of Herodotus.

In 1524, upset by the reproaches of his

order's superiors about his readings, he
joined the Benedictine order and was
appointed secretary to Bishop Geoffroy
d'Estissac. He then interacted with the
circle of the poet Jean Bouchet, to whom
he sent a versified letter, his first known
writing in French. Starting in 1530, he attended the Montpellier medical school as a
student, and despite not having a medical degree, he was already recognized for his
great merits.

He then went through a period of economic difficulties that led him to move to the city
of Lyon, where he also practiced as a doctor, although he was not yet qualified. In
1532 he published, in addition to a translation of the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, the
first book of his satire Pantagruel , whose success was spectacular, although the
Sorbonne condemned it in 1533 for obscene and heretical. In winter of the same year
he accompanied the bishop and diplomat Jean du Bellay to Rome, as a doctor. He then
became interested in botany and topography and published a topography of Rome,
signed by Marliani.
 •
Contributi
He was one of the precursors of humanism. His work was literary and not pedagogical.
ons:
His thinking influenced the thinking of Montaigne, Locke and Rosseau.

The pedagogical merit lies in having broken spears against formalist and bookish
education, and in envisioning with vivid acuity a real and practical type of education.

Rabelais's most important work: Gargantua and Pantargruel is a pedagogical novel full
of ironies in which he expresses his ideas of education.

It tells of the education that the character Gargantua received, the result of his father's
concern. Gargantua works for twenty years, learning many books, which he can even
recite by heart; but it doesn't advance anything.

The father chose a new preceptor, a more agile and realistic person, (which is Rabelais
incarnated in this character). Start applying your own teaching method by half
of the game.

This way of teaching means that your student does not feel studying as an unpleasant
obligation and does not get bored with unilateral teaching, but rather makes them more
varied by introducing physical education in the middle of the theoretical classes, to
harden his body, forcing him to jump. , climbing, swimming, shooting sling and arrow,
fencing, horse riding and complete gymnastics.

This is a reflection of the humanist thought that Rabelais had: he wanted a realistic
education, learned in life and useful for it, but at the same time it is exaggerated
because it exceeds the limits of human knowledge and mentions the need to know
everything, very characteristic of the Renaissance era, because the people of this era
had an overflowing restlessness and curiosity unlimited.

Rabelais offers the educational ideal of the time which was:

• rejection to the knowledge formal and dogmatic,
• Rejection of authority to stimulate personal judgment and concern for knowledge
of reality in all possible expressions.

According to him, the key to education was: “Do what you want” and his fundamental
principle was that Science without conscience was nothing more than the ruin of the
soul.
 • Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(Geneva, Switzerland, 1712 - Ermenonville, France, 1778) Swiss philosopher. Along
with Voltaire and Montesquieu, he is ranked among the great thinkers of the
Enlightenment in France. However, although he shared with the Enlightenment the
purpose of overcoming the obscurantism of the preceding centuries, the work of Jean-
Jacques or Jean-Jacques Rousseau presents divergent points, such as his concept of
progress, and in general more advanced: his political and social ideas. They preluded
the French Revolution, his literary sensitivity anticipated romanticism and, due to the
new and fruitful concepts he introduced in the field of education, he is considered the
father of modern pedagogy.

Orphaned by his mother from an early age, Jean-Jacques Rousseau was raised by his
maternal aunt and by his father, a modest watchmaker. Having barely received any
education, he worked as an apprentice with a notary and an engraver, who subjected
him to such brutal treatment that he ended up leaving Geneva in 1728.

He was then taken under the protection of the

Baroness de Warens, who convinced him to convert
to Catholicism (his family was Calvinist). Already
the lover of the Baroness, Jean-Jacques Rousseau
settled in her residence in Chambéry and began an
intense period of self-taught study.

In 1742 Rousseau put an end to a stage that he later

recalled as the only happy one of his life and left for
Paris, where he presented to the Academy of
Sciences a new system of musical notation devised
by him, with which he hoped to achieve a fame that However, it took a while to arrive.
He spent a year (1743-1744) as secretary of the French ambassador in Venice, but a
confrontation with him determined his return to Paris, where he began a relationship
with an uneducated servant, Thérèse Levasseur, with whom he ended up marrying
civilly in 1768 after having had with her five children.
Rousseau then became friends with the Enlightenment, and was invited to contribute
music articles to the Encyclopedia of D'Alembert and Diderot; The latter prompted him
to appear in 1750 at the competition held by the Academy of Dijon, which awarded
first prize to his Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts , which marked the beginning
of his fame.
 •
AlthoughContributi
Rousseau has a great influence on the Enlightenment thought of the time,
ons:not support the rationalism towards which the society of the time was
the author does
heading and considers that the emerging civilization attacks the goodness of human
beings to the point of corrupting them. Therefore, his ideas develop towards a natural
context where man must return to rid himself of social evil. In this sense, C. Cornejo
(1999b) and S. Vilodre (1997, 2003) among other authors highlight an important fact
in Rousseau's philosophical and moral conception that will guide all his work, and that
is that in the face of the Enlightenment values of rationalism, constant reflection,
mastery, complexity and objectivity , proposes subjective values of naturalism, such as
intuitive spontaneity, freedom, simplicity and subjectivity. In this context, the
Russonian ideal is based on:

a. Society perverts man, transforming his natural goodness into evil.

b. Instincts and emotions will be the psychological driving force in the
individual's life.
c. Human development runs through a series of stages that run from childhood,
through adolescence, the first youth until reaching the adult man in society
where each stage has a series of its own characteristics that must be enhanced.

On the other hand, the author defends a type of non-imposing child education, that
is, creative in a certain way based on the subject's own experience and curiosity,
considered not as a small man, but as an individual with characteristics typical of a
certain age.

Physical Activity and Physical Exercise as educational facts

Talking about physical activity and physical exercise as educational facts is talking
about Physical Education as a discipline within an educational system. The notion of
Physical Education as we conceive it today was already developed by Rousseau as
pointed out by C. Cornejo (1999a) when stating that body exercises, games and sports
constituted a basic pillar within his educational theory, being fundamental elements in
this conception with which he intended to develop all human potentialities. That is to
say, through Physical Education what is intended is a comprehensive development of
the person that also attends to moral formation. In this sense, Grimsley (1993: 71)
highlights the importance of moral training in the education of the child, separating
him from the values imposed from outside the individual and guiding him in principles
that have their origin in his own nature.
 • Virgil
(Publio Virgil Marón, in Latin Publius Vergilius Maro; Andes, today Pietole, current
Italy, 70 BC - Brindisi, id., 19 BC) Latin poet. Although the son of modest parents,
Virgil studied rhetoric and Greek language and philosophy in Cremona, Milan, Rome,
and Naples.
Although he did not intervene directly in
political life, from very early on Virgil
enjoyed the support of patrons and friends,
such as Gaius Maecenas, the poet Horace
and even Octavius. (he future
emperor Augustus) , partly brought about
by the success of his first major work, the
Bucolicas , in which he develops many
themes from the pastoral tradition, taken
above all from the Idylls of Theocritus,
although he introduced numerous allusions
to characters and situations of his time. .
Incited by his protectors, he wrote the
Georgics , in support of the imperial
policy of relaunching the
Virgil recreates the beauty of life
peasantry and its different aspects:
farming, livestock and beekeeping.
agriculture in Italy; in the Georgics , The public aspect of Virgil's poetry
reached its peak when he faced the task of
writing an ambitious patriotic poem in the image of Homer's great epics: the Aeneid ,
which had to sing the virtues of the Roman people and cement a mythology of its own
for the nation. . For this he chose the well-known legendary figure of the Trojan hero
Aeneas. For another twelve years he worked on the composition of this masterpiece, an
epic poem composed of twelve songs that takes the name of its protagonist.
Contributions:

Virgil's works revolutionized Latin poetry almost from the moment of their
publication. The Bucolics , Georgics , and, above all, the Aeneid became standard texts
in school curricula with which all educated Romans were familiar. Poets following
Virgil often refer intertextually to his works to generate meaning in their own poetry.
The poet Ovid parodies the opening lines of the Aeneid in Amores , and his summary
of the story of Aeneas in book 14 of the Metamorphoses , the so-called "mini-Aeneid",
has been seen as a particularly important example of the post-Virgilian response to the
epic genre. Lucan's epic, the Bellum Civile, has been considered an anti-Virgilian epic,
dispensing with divine mechanism, dealing with historical events, and diverging
drastically from Virgil's epic practice. The poet Flavius Statius in his 12-book epic
Thebaida relates closely to the poetry of Virgil; In his epilogue he advises his poem not
to "compete with the divine Aeneid , but to follow far away and always venerate her
steps." In Silio Italico,
 Vittorino de feltre .
Born in Feltre, near Venice, Italy in 1378, from a humble
family. He appears among the best-known Italian
educators of the 15th century. Due to his small stature,
some called him Victorino and associated the nickname
with that of his hometown, Feltre, which is why in
history he is better known by the patronymic of Victorino
de Feltre.
He studied at the University of Padua and in Venice, and
at the same time, he worked as a Magister puerorum. In 1422 he obtained
professorships in Philosophy and Rhetoric at the University of Padua. Later, he worked
as a professor of mathematics and classical languages (Latin and Greek).
His mentors Pier Paolo Vergerio, author of the first treatise on the pedagogy of
humanism, and Guarino Guarini of Verona, with whom he perfected Greek in Venice,
influenced his conceptions of education. He also had Juan de Ravena and Gasparino
Barzizza as teachers in the literary disciplines, and Jacobo de Forli in the physical and
astronomical sciences.
• Contributions:
It had the double prestige of antiquity and its precise conceptions. He was a professor
at the University of Papua when, in 1425, he was called by Prince Juan Francisco
Gonzaga of Mantua to educate the children of the nobility.
De Feltre had the school furnished that he installed in a Villa in Mantua and called it
La Casa Giocosa (The House of Joy) where paintings were seen in which children
appeared in a playful attitude. This school began true secular education in Italy, since it
used methods completely opposite to those that characterized monastic education
during the Middle Ages, both in its purposes and in the way of treating children.
To achieve this, Victoriano was inspired by the teachings of Greek education and also
by the pedagogical principles of his contemporary Pedro Pablo Vergeiro expressed in
the Councils on Education where he mentioned the importance of physical exercises.
Physical exercises and hygienic practices characterized the program of the Mantua
school, which, being an exclusive center for very rich noble children, had a large body
of teachers. The director's group of assistants included teachers specialized in dancing,
horse riding, fencing and swimming, to whose exercises he added wrestling, racing,
jumping, archery, ball games, hunting and fishing .
La Giocosa had large grounds for the practice of such varied activities and student
participation was mandatory. Feltre himself joined the boys at exercise time, which
took up a considerable part of the schedule, and led occasional excursions to places
near and far including the Alps.
The “Casa Giocosa” is considered Vittorino's great pedagogical work by defending the
idea that school does not have to be an uninteresting, unpleasant place, a heavy burden
or something obligatory, but rather a comfortable, happy and useful place. for life. The
very name of the institution created by him already suggests an entire pedagogical
program and a sample of the style with which Vittorino wanted to set his teaching.
For this pedagogue, the path of education was impossible without Physical Education.
Referring to the classical world, especially Greek culture, he saw the foundation of
physical activity in the Greeks in the idea that perfection was not possible without the
beauty of the body.
According to Vittorino's criteria, physical education was as important as any other
discipline in the educational process of students, because it could contribute to the
learning of other areas of human knowledge. It was also important as a way to
discipline the human body, prepare for the defense of the homeland, rest and physical
recreation.
Some authors consider Vittorino to be the first to establish a physical education
program.
 • Vives JL
Juan Luis Vives. Spanish humanist, pedagogue,
philosopher, sociologist and psychologist. Creator of
modern psychology and one of the figures of Christian
humanism. His thought is one of the greatest
exponents of Renaissance humanism. He is also
considered a precursor of 17th century anthropology
and modern psychology.
He was born in Valencia in 1492, his ideas made him
one of the greatest exponents of Renaissance
humanism. Born into a family of converted Jews,
Vives tried to rescue the thought of Aristotle; He
supported an ethic inspired by Plato; but above all
things he was a promoter of actions in favor of international peace, the unity of
Europeans and care for the poor.
He studied at the University of Valencia and Paris, although this has a reason: the year
of his birth coincided with the conquest of the kingdom of Granada, the last of a
Muslim kingdom on the peninsula, by the Catholic Monarchs. This situation marked
the beginning of a difficult period for all non-Christian families. For this reason, and to
protect family members, the Vives decided to convert to Christianity, although they
continued practicing Judaism in a synagogue they had in their home. Some time later,
in 1482, the Inquisition discovered the Vives family in the synagogue, which is why a
trial was initiated against them.
During the time that the process lasted, he began studying at the University of Valencia
at the age of 15. More specifically from approximately 1507 to 1509 . However, as the
process continued and the situation became difficult for the Vives family, his father
decided to send him to study abroad. That is when, in the autumn of 1509, he left for
Paris to perfect and expand his knowledge at the Sorbonne University.
In 1512 he finished his studies, reaching the degree of doctor and traveled to Belgium.
There, specifically in Bruges, he meets the woman who would later become his wife,
Margarita Valldaura.Belgium was the place where Juan Luis Vives learned that his
father had been condemned and burned in 1526, and that his mother Blanca March,
who died in 1508, had been dug up to burn her remains in 1529. Depressed, he traveled
to England.
He is known as the first systematic pedagogue of modern times. He applied psychology
in education, opposed scholastic methods, recommending the use of the inductive and
experimental method. Precursor of the mother tongue along with the classics, and
 •
defender of Contributi
women's culture. Wisdom as an indispensable value in human life, denotes
the maximum ons:of his thought. Along with wisdom, kindness had to accompany the
training of students. Adding one more value, prudence as “the art of teaching based on
the listeners' ability to understand.”

In his works De disciplinis y exercitatis linguae latinae he maintained that the purpose
of education was the well-being of man, he supported the thesis of education based on
the practical needs of the individual, that is, that any knowledge acquired must have a
practical purpose. He emphasized the way to use the mind and body for the personal
development of the individual, hence one of his maxims “Try to be healthy inside and
out.”

Also, he pointed out the skills that the student should possess, as well as the
preparation of the educator, who according to Vives, every teacher must be a good
person and a lover of literature. Teachers must not only know a lot to be able to teach
well, but also have the ability to provide housing for bees to produce honey.

Three of his most important works – De disciplinis, De ratione dicedi and De anima et
vita – were published in Bruges, where he lived the last decade of his life in the
company of his wife Margarita.

Plays

• Treatise on the Soul and Life

• Puerile pedagogy (1523).
• Instruction to Christian women (1523).
• Introduction to wisdom (1524).
• Escort of the soul (1524).
• Treatise on teaching (1531).
• dialogues (1538).
 • Le Boulch J.
The Frenchman Jean Le Boulch (1924-2001) was trained as a Physical Education
teacher at the Regional Center for Physical Education in Dinard in 1947; as an athlete
and due to his interest in delving into human movement, he studied medicine and
specialized in kinesiology, he was also a student. graduate in psychology.

• Contributions:

Doctor and Physical Education teacher. French.

Under the influence of Marleau Ponty and F.
Buktendik proposes a “Functional Physical
Education” that opposes the world of sports training
that considers the body as a performance machine.
He criticizes the invasion of Physical Education by
sports activity, forgetting the psychomotor factors. It
aims to link Physical Education to the social and
psychological, seeking to take it beyond a merely
biological field. Taking advantage of the
contributions made by neurological, sociological
and psychological sciences, it proposes a new
method of motor learning. Unlike sport that works
on body stereotypes, it proposes a conscious
perceptual education that is supported both by
exteroceptive and proprioceptive information.

Le Boulch says: “Movement is thought made act.” Two notions are fundamental in
his theory: Body schema and the action system he also designs what he calls
“psychokinetics.” Le Boulch's great contribution through the psychokinetic method is
to place Physical Education fully in the educational context, overcoming the
marginality to which it was previously subjected, due to its dualistic conception. In
addition, it justified the use of Physical Education as an auxiliary for other school
learning. He created a “basic physical theory” that seeks the development of the basic
factors of human movement, whether it is sports or not, in order for man to have
greater movement of his “bodily self.”