Structural elements of

the vehicle
let's get to know
ó' ■« 3923
Hey
1. Vehicles
2. Materials used in the
manufacture of bodies
3. Construction characteristics of
the bodies

PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
Types of welding performed on
vehicle chassis

TECHNICAL WORLD
Use of aluminum in the manufacture of bodies

and at the end of this

unit.
■ You will master the structural concept of the
bodywork of different vehicles.
■ You will learn about the different materials used in the
manufacture of vehicle structures, their properties
and characteristics.
■ You will know the construction characteristics of the
different types of structures.
■ You will master the methods of manufacturing and
assembling bodywork.
 7

INITIAL CASE STUDY

starting situation
A student of the middle bodywork cycle aims to assess the evolution that
vehicles have undergone in terms of their factory. tion and materials. To
do this, choose a modern vehicle, the one you can see in the
photograph, and look for the information provided by the manufacturer.
Reading technical information, you realize that new ones have been
introduced to the vehicle market in recent years.
materials and alloys, with the main objective of reducing weight and
improving vehicle performance by increasing its safety. The student
intends to select, according to the manufacturer's manual te or through
other means, such as the Internet, the novel construction characteristics
of the body, in addition to checking which vehicle body components use
novel materials or shapes.

to Audi A8.

case study
Before you start reading this unit of work, you can answer the first two questions. Then, analyze each point of the topic
with the aim of answering the rest of the questions in this practical case.

1. Describes the type of bodywork that the vehicle has. 3. Describes manufacturing methods.
2. Indicates the materials used. 4. Name different materials and the components of the
vehicles where they are used.
8 unit 1

1. The vehicles
Throughout this unit, the types of automobiles on the market will be described, as well as the
characteristics of the bodies of each of them. The materials used, their characteristics and their
behavior under different stresses will be analyzed. This knowledge will later help to define
how the body of a vehicle deforms when it has been subjected to a collision.

1.1. motor vehicles

The following classification is established, according to its use and its constructive nature.
tructive:
• Utility: it is a small vehicle, up to 3.5 m, with small engines yes Its use is preferably urban
and for small trips on roads. It is manufactured in three and five doors.
• Sedan: It is characterized because the trunk is separated from the passenger compartment.
It is manufactured with four doors and a trunk.
• Large sedan: it is a large vehicle that reaches up to five meters. It is a high-end car with a
large and powerful engine of more than 140 HP.
• Family: it is a sedan or large sedan in which the habitation has been extended. ass to the
trunk, closed with a tailgate. It therefore reaches a large cargo volume and has great access
to put large objects into the vehicle.
a Figure 1.2. Great saloon. • Minivan: recently appeared on the market and preferred intended intended for family use,
it has five doors and has great capacity in the cabin. It is a higher vehicle than the previous
ones, and also higher with respect to the ground. There are models within minivans adapted
to the countryside.
• Convertible: it is the option that vehicles have, whether sports, berli na, off-road vehicles,
etc., to replace the roof with a hood; This can be rigid (unscrewing it from the body when
you want to remove it) or flexible fabric (manual or simple automatic operation).
• Sports or coupe: it is a two-seater vehicle, generally. It has a large engine and a small
aerodynamic coefficient that allows it to achieve high speeds.
• Roadster: it is a convertible vehicle model with two seats.
aFigure 1.3.
Coupe. • Off-road vehicle: it is a vehicle used for both road and field use. Due to its great height,
traction systems, bodywork and more robust mechanics, it adapts perfectly to bad roads or the
countryside. In the present There are models in which their use is preferably for road use and
also field models in which the same aesthetics are maintained.
• Pick up: it is an all-terrain vehicle which has a cargo area of behind the passenger
compartment. This area can be covered or uncovered, and its length ranges between 4.5
and 6 m. Recently introduced in the European market, they are widely used in the
American market.

a
Figure 1.4. Pick up.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 9

1.2. Vehicles for the transport of people or goods

They can be classified into light vehicles and heavy vehicles:
• Light vehicles: vans are used to transport goods and minibuses are used to transport people. They can be adapted to other
uses. ities, such as ambulance services, firefighters, etc.
• Heavy vehicles: These are trucks, used for the transportation of merchandise. companies, and buses, for the transportation
of people. Trucks are classified according to measurements and type of frame and according to the load to transport,
whether liquid, solid, etc. It is available in various forms depending on whether the tractor head is separated from the frame
or in the same piece. Buses can consist of one or two floors and can be built with a tubular frame or independent chassis.

a Figure 1.5. Van. a Figure 1.6. Truck.

1.3. Motorcycles
Motorcycles can be classified according to their use and construction:
• Sports: they are divided according to their characteristics and sporting function into
superbikes, superesports, sport-tourism, supermotard and A1. The latter can be
driven with the A1 license.
• Tourism: a distinction is made between grand tourism, with large engines between
1,100 and 1,800 cc, and medium ones, with engines between 600 and 750 cc.
• Naked: they may have more sporty or more touring characteristics, depending on the
model. With medium and large engines between 600 and 1,000 cc
• Custom: there are different models such as tourer, megacustom, medium, light and a
Figure 1.7. Sporty.
A1.
• Scooter: both in the city and on roads, on highways and ring roads in large cities, using
engines between 50 and 600 cc
• Trail: designed to be used for both road and field.
• Cross: they are country motorcycles, available in small and medium displacements (50
to 250 cc).
• Enduro: these are motorcycles used for use in the countryside; They are available in
displacements larger than those of cross and in different driver positions.
a Figure 1.8. Cross.
10 unit 1

1.4. Quads or ATV

know more Four-wheeled vehicles, used mainly for traveling through the countryside.
In vehicle repair shops it is common to
use uni facts that are not scientifically
correct, however it is necessary rio
clarify its meaning:
This publication indicates value res of
force in kilograms or tons. The correct
thing would be for the units to be
kilograms-force or tons-force. they
equate it nce with the International
System is: 1 kilogram-force = 9.8 N.
Sometimes pre values are indicated
sion in tons instead of tone ladas-force
/ft 2 .

a Figure 1.9. Quads.

The ATV vehicle is somewhat larger than a Quad. There are 760 cc models for a declared weight of 429 kg. Due to its
characteristics, it behaves like a small sports car, allowing for very fast paces.

aFigure 1.10. Quadricycle; electric
vehicle, Renault.
classification of light and heavy.
1.5Quadricycles
Popularly known as minicars, they are small vehicles intended mainly for short trips. They can be classified as
light and heavy.
The light ones have a weight of less than 350 kg, with two seats and a 50 cc engine that develops a maximum
speed of 45 km/h; The heavy ones have a weight of up to 550 kg if used to transport goods, four seats and an
engine that does not exceed 15 kW.
Within quadricycles , electric vehicles with autonomous driving have been developed. mine of up to 100 km,
designed mainly to be able to circulate through the city and peripheral routes. Its different models fall within the

1.6 . Intended for sports competitions

Competition vehicles usually use tubular chassis given their re reduced weight. They have aggressive designs
and racing aesthetics and are equipped with powerful engines that allow them to obtain high speeds. Given the
technological evolution Logically, electric sports vehicles are being introduced to the market.
Competition vehicles must have safety structures. This type of structures can be manufactured by anyone who
has specific technical training to do so.

a Figure 1.11. Sports vehicles.

 Structural elements of the vehicle 11

2. Materials used in the manufacture of

bodies
For the design and manufacture of products, it is necessary to select the material that
best adapts to its use requirements and from the point of view for the road. bility of the
project, which is more economical. Next we will learn about the types of materials that
can be used.

2.1. Materials: types and properties

know more
• They are found in nature.
Classification of
• They build the basic materials to make the
materials:
others.
Natural materials • Recycling is a good solution to preserve the
natural environment and save natural METALLIC
resources and reduce costs.
• They are wood, wool, gold, etc. Iron non-ferrous
CLASSIFICATION
Steel Aluminum
LM-I I--A-IVIM
• They are obtained from natural ones without latest steel Magnesium
artificial materials undergoing prior transformation. generation Copper
• They are concrete, steel, etc. a Table 1.1. Metal materials.

• They are obtained from artificial materials NOT METALLIC

Synthetic materials officers.
• They are plastic.
Plastics
• Touch, smell, shape, shine, texture and Thermoes
Sensory properties
color. Thermoplastics tables
Reinforced
• Reaction of the material when light falls on it; Polypropylene polyester Glass
opaque, transparent tes, translucent. (PP) Polyurethan
Optical properties Polyvinyl
• Semiconductors, LDR, single boards res, es (PUR)
etc. (PVC)
Epoxy (EP)
Polycarbonate
(PC)
a
Table 1.2. Non-metallic materials.
• Behavior of the material against heat.
• Metals are generally good we are
Thermal properties conductors of heat.
• Its mechanical characteristics are modified
unique with temperature.

PROPERTIES

• Capacity of a ferrous metal to be attracted by

Magnetic properties
a magnet and to become magnetized.

• Oxidation and corrosion resistance Zion.

Chemical properties • Steel and its alloys rust easily in contact with
humidity. med.

Mechanical properties • Elasticity, plasticity, ductility, ma readability.

a
Table 1.3. Classification and properties of materials.
12 unit 1

2.2. Material science

The evolution of materials used in the manufacture of car bodies mobile phones is
impressive, hence the importance of knowing their properties, so both physical and
mechanical, and their characteristics. This way you can understand how a material and
the structure that makes it up evolve under certain conditions, and make conjectures
about its resistance or hardness in some stresses.
These efforts are what the bodybuilder works with to analyze the deformations produced
in the vehicle after a collision to carry out the subsequent shaping and repair of its
structure.
Knowledge of the different materials used in the manufacture of bodies is essential to
form structures and study their behavior. treatment.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

It is the property that materials have to bend or elongate when they are subjected to a
Elasticity tensile stress and by which they recover their original shape once the stress is
removed.

Plasticity It is the property that allows materials to be molded when they are hit with another
material of greater hardness.

Resilience It is the resistance to shock.

The ability of bodies to resist shock, that is, it is the energy gy required to produce
breakage.
Tenacity
A material is more tenacious the greater its resilience and the greater its elongation. I
lie.

Malleability It is the ability of a material to deform that allows it to be laminated without fractures.

Ductility It is the property that allows the material to stretch before breaking.

It is the opposite property of ductility. A brittle material breaks because it has a very
Fragility
small, almost negligible, deformation capacity.

Strain It is the force applied per unit surface area of a material.

It is the resistance that one material offers to being scratched by another.

It is said that one body is harder than another when the first is capable of scratching the
Hardness
second. The harder a material is, the more fragile it is, and the softer it is, the more
malleable and ductile it is.

Weldability It is the property that materials have of being thermally worked.

a Table 1.4. Mechanical properties of materials.

Possibly the most important properties of materials in the repair processes of vehicle
structures are elasticity and plasticity. A plastic material, unlike an elastic one, can
change shape and retain it permanently.
When a vehicle has suffered an accident, its structure is subjected to tensile,
compression, torsion, shear and bending efforts, which causes a change in its shape. The
body repairman's job is to investigate these efforts to make the correct repair.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 13

In these body repair processes, changes in direction and state are caused in the materials.
When these efforts are applied, it should be continue not to exceed the elastic limit of
the material, since, if this were the case, it would break.
Knowledge of the stresses caused in a material and the elastic limits are very important
in structural repair processes.

Tensile stress
It is the stress to which a material is subjected when two forces are applied to it in the
same direction and in opposite directions that cause its elongation. The more resistant a
material is to traction, the lower its elongation. know more
Stress-strain diagram:

d 2 is greater than d 1 due to the tensile stress caused by the forces Figure
a

1.12. Tensile stress.

The effect on the pieces subjected to this tensile stress is an elongation, which a Figure 1.13. Curve of a ductile and
differentiates this area by appearing brighter than the non-elongated areas. low resistance material.

Below is a diagram that reflects the behavior of a material subjected to a tensile stress.
With this diagram, the modulus of elasticity is established, which serves to mark the
mechanical properties of metallic materials and establish a comparison between them.
In the diagram, known as stress and strain diagram, the elongation is represented on
the abscissa axis ( X ) and the traction forces on the order axis. das ( Y ). This diagram
corresponds to a tensile test in which a specimen of the material to be tested is subjected
to a tensile stress that produces an elongation of progressive value until it completely
breaks its shape: a
Figure 1.14. Curve of a very
resistant, but fragile material.

AB. Proportionality period. The elongation CD. Period in which a force is caused and a
produced is proportional to the applied efforts. deformation occurs, which considerably
This proportionality is known as the elastic reduces the section of the material.
limit of the material.

BC. Plastic deformation. A rapid increase in D. Maximum breaking stress.

elongation occurs without an increase in
strength. E. Material breakage.
a Figure 1.15. Stress and deformation diagram.
14 unit 1

know more The diagram seen above can be easily verified in the following example :
Density You take a wire with your hands; It bends at a high cadence, causing stretching, and it is
It is the amount of mass of a mate rial found that over a period of time it deforms, so a force proportional to the elongation
in one liter volume
(AB) must be applied; to you nuation a greater elongation occurs, without increasing the
Mass kg
d =------;-------------
force (BC). And finally, when we exceed the maximum breaking stress (D), the wire
dm volume 3 lengthens very easily until it breaks (E).

In the practice of the plater, these conclusions about how a mate behaves rial when
subjected to tensile stresses are very important, since, for example, when performing
tensile shots, these concepts are used.

In daily practice, the sheet metal worker identifies these same criteria tested through his
professional experience and never exceeding the limits studied so as not to break the
material with which he is working.
The following table establishes a classification of the most common materials used in the
automotive industry, where we can compare their tensile strength:

Materials
Elasticity ( E = kg/mm 2 ) Density (kgf/dm 3 )

Carbon Steel 21 000 7,85

ALE Steels 25 000 7,85

Aluminum 7 000 2,7

Duralumin: Al-Cu-Mg 7 200 2,8

Copper 12 500 8,9

Zinc 11 000 4,1

Nickel 21 000 8,9

aTable 1.5.
The table establishes the resistance to deformation of a metal according to its mode.
elasticity dule and its density by presenting a comparison between body sheets made of
steel and sheets made of aluminum. It can be seen that, to achieve the same tensile
strength, the thickness of the aluminum sheets must be increased, but even so, the weight
of these pieces would be lower, because the relationship with the density of the steel is
much higher. minor. Therefore, it can be said that the use of aluminum elements in the
vehicle body leads to a reduction in weight.

Torque
Torque is the stress produced in a material when it is twisted or turned on itself. To apply
this effort, the ends of the material are taken and two pairs of rotations are exerted in
opposite directions. The effect caused is the twisting of the piece.

Compressive stress
The compressive stress is that produced when a piece is subjected to two forces with the
same direction but opposite directions. The consequence of a com effect Pressure is the
bulging in the compressed area, so the initial length of the piece is reduced.

a
Figure 1.16. Torque.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 15

bending stress
The bending stress in a material supported on two points separated at a certain distance
from each other is that produced by a force applied to the center of the material.
Testing a material in bending results in one of the zones being in compression and the
other in tension, which produces elongation.
In the area that bends after being subjected to a bending stress, elongation and
compression are generated, which causes shine of the material and small wrinkles in
the respective areas.
a
Figure 1.17. Compression stress.
Shear stress
This stress is the stress caused in a material when two forces are applied vertically in the
same direction displaced a small distance from each other. A cutting or shearing effect is
then produced in the material.

Practical concepts about efforts

The stresses to which materials are subjected cause different effects and consequences.
The analysis of these is very important so that the bodybuilder can diagnose which areas
or parts of the body of the damaged vehicle have experienced deformations due to the
stresses they have suffered.
• Ductile materials subjected to tensile stress have high elongation ment and
deformation occurs plastically. On the other hand, hard materials in which tensile
stress is applied produce little elongation and little deformation.
• Applying a heat source to a material decreases its tensile strength, which increases its
toughness.
• A material that is subjected to stress quickly produces a change in structure due to the
rate of deformation. For example, if a sheet of ductile material is deformed or bent
very quickly, this material cannot be fully deformed, so it cannot elongate and then
acquires hardness.
• Materials subjected to stress as a result of repair processes in areas of structures with a
Figure 1.18. Bending effort.
different characteristics (in welded areas, in cam abrupt changes of sections, etc.),
produce an irregular distribution of internal stresses, so there is the possibility of
hardening this material.
The structure of an accident vehicle is subjected to the forces previously studied or a
composition of these; In this case, the effects or consequences produced will be added
and, therefore, related.
Below, the different materials used in the manufacture of vehicle structures are studied,
establishing the most significant differences in terms of their manufacturing,
composition and repair.

2.3. Steels
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with a carbon content between 0.04 and 2.25%.
a
Figure 1.19. Shear stress.
16 unit 1

Steel classification
Types of steel are established based on their composition or according to their
application; There is mild steel or carbon steel, characterized by being very malleable
and because its carbon percentage is less than 0.2%. Above this percentage, the steel
becomes harder, but less malleable; There are also steels alloyed with different
materials such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, etc., which provide certain
properties, which is why it acquires great resistance to compression and torsion. For
example, magnesium alloys provide great wear resistance; Stainless steel contains
chromium and nickel, which increases corrosion resistance.
The steels used to make tools contain tungsten and vanadium, which provide greater
hardness and strength.
We also find low-alloy steels or ultra-resistant steels, which have fewer components in
• Steel
the alloy, but are subjected to certain special treatments to High increase hardness; High
strength steel
elastic limit steel (ALE) is widely used in the manufacture• Very of bodywork.
high resistanceIfsteel
ALE steels
are used instead of conventional steel, the thickness of the sheets • Maximum resistanceby
is reduced around
steel (hot
25%, at the same resistance. For repair, these steels must be replaced, since they cannot
treated)

beFigure 1.20. Types

subjected of steel
to heat used in automobiles
treatments, (Audi).
and straightening them is not recommended either,
a

because this represents a loss of the material's resistance. They are mainly used in the
manufacture of parts located in rigid areas of the vehicle and that have to be withstand
know more great efforts, such as door reinforcements, hinges, supports, etc. The hardness of steel
can also be increased with heat treatments ( tem ple or tempering ) and
Classification of steels
according to UNE-EN
thermochemical treatments ( cementation, nitriding, etc.). These treatments carried
10020:2001 standards: out on the steel increase the resistance of the material and the resistance to corrosion,
• Non-alloy steels or carbon steels: carrying out treatments such as galva. nized or electrozinc-plated, which form a surface
– Low carbon steels (%C < 0.25) made of zinc on its sheet, which prevents rust. The sheets located on the exterior of the
– Medium carbon steels (0.25 < %C vehicle must be treated, since this means a better quality in the surface finish, better
< 0.55)
– High carbon steels
formability and better grip for subsequent painting.
(2 > %C > 0.55) A treated sheet is less thick than if it were not treated, which reduces the weight of the
• Alloy steels: as alloying elements vehicle.
that are added, there are
manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr),
nickel (Ni), vanadium (V) or titanium
(Ti)
– Low alloy steels (ele alloying
elements < 5%)
– High alloy steels (ele alloying
elements > 5%)
• Stainless steels: contain a minimum
of 10.5% chromium and a maximum
of 1.2% carbon.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 17

Car bodies have evolved throughout their history to the point that they have been know more
equipped with special steels so that they can ensure the integrity of the occupants as
Multi-thickness formats:
much as possible. The body parts use multi-thickness
Added to this evolution are high elastic limit steels (ALE), which are mild steels to formats; They improve performance,
which different elements have been added to their alloy: reduce weight and manufacturing
• A percentage of carbon that provides hardness to iron. costs.

• Magnesium, silicon or phosphorus to strengthen the resistance of the steel. With these formats we would have the
following advantages:
• Titanium, vanadium, rhodium or chromium can also be added, which confer specific
• Rigidity.
hardness properties.
• Energy absorption.
In this case they are called microalloyed steels, since their effects are manifested even
• Resistance or exceptional effort
when they are added in small quantities. We also find low-alloy steels or ultra-resistant
finals.
steels, which have fewer components in the alloy, but are subjected to certain special
• Fatigue resistance.
treatments to increase hardness. These characteristics give these steels a good aptitude • Reduce weight.
for the distribution of deformations and their elastic limit, which is why they have
excellent resistance/stamping. They are used in body parts that support high stresses and
are strategically placed to increase the protection of the occupants. pants. If ALE steels
are used instead of conventional steel in pieces of equal strength, the thickness of the
sheets is reduced by around 25%.
In repair processes, these steels cannot be heated nor pray since this would mean a know more
loss of the resistance of the material. They are repaired cold or replaced. Aluminum is one of the materials They
are used for the manufacture of bodies
Manufacturing methods of laminated sheets and frames in vehicles. It is also used in
In addition to the subsequent treatments to give more resistance to the sheet, as seen the manufacture of traction systems.
above, the different manufacturing methods are established until the desired elements tion and measuring equipment for
automobile repair.
are achieved, whether external elements or profiles to con form the body.
In vehicle manufacturing, steel is applied in the form of rolled sheets of 0.5 to 6 mm. know more
The main manufacturing techniques for laminated sheets are: Magnesium
• By embossing. A laminated sheet is manufactured and then transformed into a piece Currently, with the need to reduce fuel
by subjecting it to the action of a deep-drawing punch on a deep-drawing die with a consumption tible, magnesium is being
widely used given its extreme weight
suitable shape.
mind reduced. It is found in certain
• By stamping. Parts are manufactured by pressing a mold on a sheet metal. When the vehicles in the body elements.
pressure of the mold ceases, the piece acquires a certain shape depending on the die In the same way as with aluminum
used. It is the method used to shape the body parts. minium, magnesium is also added as
• By extrusion. Hot molded parts are manufactured that are subjected to a certain well as other materials to improve their
pressure. It is the method used to manufacture profiles and tubes. The sheets are physical resistance and corrosion
resistance properties.
heated below the melting temperature. Extrusion alone It is usually made with ductile
materials and then subjected to treatments to increase their hardness if necessary.
initial case study
The parts assembled for the
2.4. Aluminum
construction of the body are
Aluminum is used in automotive mainly because it is approx. 55% lighter than steel, distinguished by their manufacturing
although more expensive. It is more malleable, which is an advantage over steel method. ration: injection or casting,
extru sion and stamping.
bodies, since it absorbs more stress in its deformation when an accident occurs, making
it safer for the vehicle's occupants.
initial case study
The bodywork on this model is
practically built with aluminum. minium
and some steel.
18 unit 1

It also has good mechanical properties and low specific weight, which allows it to have
a high strength-to-weight ratio. Its specific weight is three times less than that of steel. It
is recycled very well, which extends its useful life.
In the automotive industry, aluminum alloys with copper or magnesium are used, which
also It improves its hardness and resistance and makes it easier to manufacture
compared to pure aluminum.
a
Figure 1.21. Aluminum body nio
They are manufactured in plates by rolling or forging at temperatures between 100 and
(Audi ASF).
150 °C; They are subsequently subjected to a heat treatment to increase tar their
mechanical properties. The joints between profiles or nodes are manufactured from
injected casting.
Exterior elements such as fins, skirt, roof, bumper supports, etc. are used in vehicle
bodies; structural elements of the car metalwork such as reinforcements, stringers,
initial case study 1 supports, stirrups, etc.
Some examples of materials and their
use in bodywork are: 2.5. Plastics
• Magnesium VW Lupo tailgate.
• Exterior sheets of the body of the Plastics are used to manufacture the bodies of primary vehicles. mainly in exterior parts
Audi A8 made of high-strength or elements such as fins, bumpers, doors, etc. Although they are not usually used in the
aluminum sheets.
manufacture of chassis or structural parts, however, there are prototypes that use
plastics, mainly carbon fiber and Kevlar, as materials for the manufacture of vehicle
structures.
In automobiles they are used in combination with steel structures.

COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT BODY PARTS

Parts Mild steel treated steel AlE Aluminum Plastics

Exterior elements Yeah Yeah No Yeah Yeah

currently disused No Yeah No No

Rigid structural elements

Structural elements of the

Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah yes (prototypes)
vehicle

Bumper No No No No Yeah
a
Table 1.6.

ACTIVITIES

1.In the workshop, carry out some practical applications of the different efforts studied in the unit on a base. mild steel rod (for
example, 8 mm square section). Help yourself, if necessary, with heat input. Also check the result of the final shapes of the
material after having carried out the test and complete a table like the following.

Efforts Parts Observations

Tensile stress • •• •••

Torque • •• •••

bending stress • •• •••

Compressive stress • •• •••

shear stress • •• •••

2. With an existing vehicle in the workshop and following the manufacturer's manual, establish a list of materials that correspond
 Structural elements of the vehicle 19

to different parts of the body.

20 unit 1

3. Construction characteristics of the

bodies
Until 1927, automobile bodies and frames were manufactured separately and then bolted
together, resulting in what is known as an independent chassis body. After World War I,
Edward Budd invented a press capable of exerting great pressure on steel sheets. It was
capable of manufacturing fins, hoods, floors, etc., building an entire steel body in one piece.
The steel pieces were welded and achieved a light, strong and resistant structure and avoided
loud noises. of automobiles of the time. This was the principle of the so-called self-
supporting body.
In this section, the different construction solutions used by manufacturers in the construction
of different types of commercial vehicles will be defined. cialized today.

3.1. Body with self-supporting chassis

The self-supporting chassis consists of a structure built by assembling sheets along the entire
body. The assembly of the sheets is carried out diamond welding. The welding provides the
body with great rigidity, makes it light and capable of absorbing the efforts due to driving
(acceleration, deceleration, curves, aerodynamic variables, etc.), the vehicle's own weight
(equipped je, passengers, etc.) or capable of absorbing deformation energy in the event of an
accident. The exterior elements are mounted on this self-supporting structure, such as doors,
front and rear wings, hoods, etc., until the vehicle body and mechanical elements are
completed.
The sheets are built with different shapes, pillars with re-shaped profiles gular,
reinforcements, tubular shape, etc., depending on the function they play within the
construction of the chassis.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 21

Direction of the forces absorbed

by the self-supporting body

Engineers design the union of these sheets to achieve rigidity or com desired behavior in
each of the zones depending on whether the zone has to work absorbing traction,
bending, torsion, compression, etc. forces. a
Figure 1.22. Different shapes of
profiles.

initial case study

The body of this vehicle is self-
supporting; ASF (Audi Space Frame).

c
Figure 1.23. Self-supporting structure
with distribution of efforts.
22 unit 1

Inside the body there are areas designed to behave in a flat way. nified: they are rigid
zones and fusion zones or programmed deformation zones. In the rigid areas, sheets of
different sizes and thicknesses are assembled superimposedly to achieve the desired
rigidity with the lowest possible thickness. In a vehicle he found us stretch these points
at the joints of the pillars with the upper and lower pillar, at the joints of the pillars with
the wheel arches and rear wings, reinforcements, etc.

a
Figure 1.24. Rigid areas of the body. a
Figure 1.25. Rigid and programmed deformation zones.

Fusible or programmed deformation zones, as their name indicates, are body parts that are
built to absorb forces and withstand loads, but when the vehicle suffers a blow, they also
absorb deformation forces and bend and deform in the direction established by the inges
nieros as safer for the occupants. These displacements are achieved by weakening certain
parts of the sheets through holes or small wrinkles. In self-supporting bodies, small steel
frames are used that are bolted to the chassis and called subframes. Their main function is to
know more support the weight of the engine and the suspension elements.
In modern automobiles, self-supporting In some vehicle models, the engine and subframe are joined to the chassis by inserting cast
bodies are used using different shapes aluminum parts. When the vehicle suffers an accident, these parts break, which prevents
and types of material. which enhance damage to the engine and subframe. sis, absorbing part of the energy produced in the
the rigid and deformation zones, in
accident.
addition to lightening the bodywork
with better behavior. road treatment.
Monohull
It is a self-supporting body taken to its extreme; In it, most of the body parts are structural,

a
Figure 1.26. Programmed deformation zones. a
Figure 1.27. Subframes in vehicles.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 23

that is, they absorb stress. Prince It is mainly used in the construction of sports vehicles,
although it is currently out of use.

3.2. Body with independent chassis or frame

It is made up of a chassis or platform independent of the rest of the body that is fixed to the
chassis by means of screws or welding. Both the mechanical components and those of the
body are fixed separately to the frame or chassis, so it may come to the point of separating
the body and allowing the vehicle to circulate.
The advantages of using this type of body are mainly for vehicles intended for the transport
of goods or people and for vehicles. vehicles used to travel on dirt roads or roads in poor
condition.
The structure is composed of longitudinal beams or stringers and beams behind versales or
sleepers joined by means of rivets, screws or welding. It has a series of reinforcements
throughout the length and width where the supports for both the mechanical components and
the body itself are located.
The rigidity of this construction varies depending on the purpose for which it is
manufactured: an off-road vehicle is not the same as a truck intended for transporting goods.
In the case of off-road vehicles, as they are designed to be used on the road, their frame is
manufactured to be able to be used with greater comfort and to be able to absorb the efforts
of driving and the load, so as to provide the most comfortable driving experience. possible.
In the case of truck frames, since they must support high loads, rectangular profiles are
built, since trucks do not reach high speeds and their main purpose is to withstand the efforts
due to the load of the transported goods.

a
Figure 1.28. Independent chassis of an H-shaped off-road vehicle. a
Figure 1.29. Independent chassis.
24 unit 1

3.3. Special bodies

These bodies are used for the construction of automobiles for sports competitions. They are
manufactured with a complete tubular frame, with square or round steel tubes whose main
advantage is weight reduction. In this type of vehicle, the body that is bolted to the chassis is
made of fiberglass or carbon.
Buses are also manufactured with tubular structures, made up of square or round steel tubes.
The mechanical organs and bodywork are screwed into these structures.
Recently introduced into the market are quadricycles, structured in different ways and built
using a platform to which the chassis is bolted, or formed following a rigid tubular structure
using profiles of different sections.

a Figure 1.30. Special bodies. a Figure 1.31. Quadricycle structure.

3.4. Construction characteristics of the motorcycles

As in automobile vehicles, motorcycle chassis serve to support carry the mechanical
elements of these and to absorb the efforts due to driving. In the construction of motorcycle
chassis, rigidity and, in turn, lightness are sought. The chassis of a motorcycle is made up of:
• Swingarm axle. It is the anchoring point of the swingarm on which the rear wheel shock
absorbers are supported.
• Steering axis. It is the attachment point of the front wheel suspension.
• Chassis. Join the swingarm axle with the steering axle according to shapes, sizes and
materials. Although it is not properly considered part of the chassis, it is made up of the
steering fork, where the telescopic shock absorber of the front wheel is located, the
Axis of
swingarm, where the love is supported. rear wheel shock absorbers, which can be single
or double, and the support for the motorcycle seat , which can be welded or bolted to
the chassis.
Different construction solutions are available using treated steel and aluminum as materials.
The steel is used in tubular form of different diameters. meter and thicknesses, but it is also
used in square and rectangular shapes, these and the sections of the upper part being larger
than those of the lower part.

a
Figure 1.32. Definition of the chassis
of a motorcycle.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 25

When aluminum is used, it is solid in the areas of greatest stress, which are the swingarm
axle and the steering axle.
The main stresses to which a motorcycle chassis is subjected are bending and torsion. A
chassis is subjected to a bending stress in the mo braking and acceleration of the
motorcycle; When cornering, the chassis supports torsional forces, as if we were trying to
twist it by applying a couple of forces around its longitudinal axis.
Measuring these efforts is very complicated: when driving, the loads are transmitted through
the tire and continue through the tires, the suspension, the fork or swingarm, the chassis and,
in some models, the engine itself.

a Figure 1.33. Motorcycle chassis. a Figure 1.34. Simple closed cradle chassis.

Simple steel tube cradle chassis

This type of chassis is built using a steel tube that joins the steering axle with the swingarm,
and is the most used structure model for motorcycles. tocicletas. It can be presented with a
closed cradle, which houses the motor inside, or with an open cradle, which is attached to
the motor, and this is a load-bearing element.
When the engine is also designed as a supporting element of the chassis, this is known as a
modular chassis. This type of construction has been used since the 80s with the BMW K
model. It consists of the use of the engine as an ele load-bearing element, that is, it absorbs
forces and supports loads. In this case, the engine must be reinforced at the connection points
with the chassis.

a Figure 1.35. Simple cradle chassis.

26 unit 1

Double cradle chassis in steel tube

Its construction characteristics are similar to those of the monocot chassis, with the
difference that they have two front tubes that start from the steering axle. tion and
surround the engine up to the swingarm shaft. They are more rigid than monocot chassis
and are used on larger displacement motorcycles to absorb the stresses produced. Certain
types of chassis are bolted together in several pieces to allow for easier engine removal.

a
Figure 1.36. Double cradle chassis in
steel tube.

a
Figure 1.37. Double cradle chassis in Suzuki Inasuma

Aluminum monocoque chassis

For example, the Kawasaki ZZR-1400 has been built with this system, which gives the
motorcycle great lightness and maneuverability.

Double beam aluminum chassis

This type of chassis is made up of two rectangular aluminum beams that, starting from
the steering axis, surround the engine and join it to the swingarm support. This type of
chassis is carried, for example, by the Honda CBR 1100 XX and the Suzuki GSX-R
1300; The BMW K 1200 S has this double aluminum beam system with supporting
engine.

aFigure 1.38. Double beam

chassis.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 27

Steel multi-tubular chassis

It is another variant of motorcycle chassis; Carrier motors are normally used, that is, they
are bolted to the chassis and form part of the structure, absorbing stress. This chassis
construction system is used, among others, by Ducati in its different models.
These types of chassis are the most used in current motorcycles, although there are more
variants depending on the model. For example, the recent apa model Rition Voxan Street
Scrambler has a multi-tubular chassis bolted on two cast iron plates located on the steering
axle and the swingarm axle; These two areas are the ones that support the greatest stress.

scooter chassis a
Figure 1.39. Double beam chassis on
a Suzuki.
They are manufactured of the tubular type with steel tubes or by joining stamped sheet
metal parts, such as those used by Vespa models. Normally, these types of structures are
open to allow the comfort of the occupants.
Currently, scooters are also manufactured with a steel or aluminum supporting motor
structure and a multi-tubular structure.

Types of swingarm
The most representative swingarms used in motorcycles are the single-arm swingarm,
composed of an aluminum or steel arm mounted on the swingarm axis, not widely used, but
in Ducati and BMW models, among others, the swingarm with two symmetrical arms or a
Figure 1.40. Steel multi-tubular
asymmetrical, made of steel or aluminum, and swingarms and tubular steel and aluminum chassis.
are also used.
On motorcycle chassis with a supporting engine, the swingarm is screwed, according to
mo of them, on the engine, so it is part of the chassis and absorbs stress. This arrangement
is also used on scooters.
As can be seen, there are great varieties of construction arrangements according to
manufacture. songs and chassis models, although the most representative are those
exhibited here.

a Figure 1.41. Scooter chassis .

a
Figure 1.42. Swingarm with two
a Figure 1.43. Single-sided aluminum swingarm. asymmetrical arms.
28 unit 1

FINAL ACTIVITIES
■ 1. What characteristics differentiate a utility vehicle from an off-road vehicle?

■ 2. What are the most important properties of metallic materials?

■ 3. What differences do you find between the elasticity properties and the plasticity of steel?

■ 4. Explain what the tensile stress test on steel is used for and what it is used for.

■ 5. Name some metallic materials that are alloyed with steel. Explain what properties it gives them.

■ 6. Explain the most important characteristics of steel, aluminum and magnesium.

■ 7. In your notebook, name the body parts of different vehicles built with steel, ALE steel, aluminum and magnesium.

VEHICLE MODEL
Part Steel Aluminum Plastic Others

••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••
••• ••• • •• • •• • ••

■ 8. Search manuals or the Internet for the chassis model of a vehicle that uses several types of materials for its construction.

■ 9. Comment on the characteristics of the self-supporting body.

■ 10. Identify the following types of chassis and explain the construction advantages of each of them.

a Figure 1.44. a Figure 1.45. a Figure 1.46.


EVALUATE YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. What is tension?
a) The property of bending materials or lengthen when we
subject them to stress traction zone.
b) The property that materials have of being processed
thermally lowered.
c) The resistance that one material offers to being
scratched by another.
d) The relationship between force and surface.
2. In what period of the stress and strain diagram is the
elongation produced proportional to the applied
stresses?
a) Period in which plastic deformation occurs.
b) Breaking stress.
c) elastic period.
d) Period in which a considerable decrease in material is
caused.
3. When can we say that we are subject do a material
have a tensile stress?
a) When we cause its lengthening.
b) When we twist it or turn it on itself.
c) When subjected to two forces in the same di direction
and opposite directions, which causes its elongation.
d) When we apply a force perpendicular to its length to a
piece tied at one end.
4. The surface of a steel that has suffered a wing gation
appears:
a) Bright.
b) Darkened.
c) Wrinkled.
d) Cracked.
Structural elements of the vehicle 29
Solve in your notebook or notepad
5. Steel with high elastic limit is used in:
a) Fusible or programmed deformation zones.
b) The sheets with which the underside of the vehicle is built.
c) The manufacture of sheets located in rigid areas of the vehicle
and have to withstand great give efforts.
d) Sheets located on the outside of the vehicle.
6. Which of the following constitutes one of the advantages of
aluminum over steel?
a) Improves traction efforts and is less heavy.
b) It is more expensive and has higher density.
c) It is more rigid and more expensive.
d) It is lighter and better absorbs the stresses of training.
7. What behavior do the zones of scheduled vehicle collision
training?
a) They support the weight of the engine and suspension
elements.
b) They bend and deform in the established direction, the safest
for the vehicle occupants.
c) As they are areas of greater rigidity, they protect the vehicle's
occupants.
d) As they are exterior parts of the vehicle, they protect, among
other things, from inclement weather. cas.
8. What is meant by modular chassis on a motorcycle?
a) The use of the engine as a load-bearing element, that is, one
that absorbs forces and supports loads.
b) The chassis built using a steel tube that joins the steering axle
with the swingarm.
c) The chassis formed by two straight section
beams aluminum gable.
d) The tubular type manufactured with steel tubes or by joining
stamped sheet metal parts.
(e 8 !(q z '(P 9 ( S ((et ! 8 (z '(P 7 seuopnios
30 unit 1

PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
TOOLS
• MIG and MAG welding equipment
• Multifunction Resistance Spot Welding
Types of welding performed on
Equipment vehicle chassis
• Metal ruler and scriber
• Cutting scissors, shears or saw
• hammer and anvil GOALS
• Medium file Carry out welding work used in structural repair processes for both steel and aluminum
• Lap and punch machine bodies.
• pressure fashions
PRECAUTIONS
MATERIAL • Use the equipment correctly.
• 8 steel sheets of 20 × 5 cm • Performing these operations in the appropriate places for welding will following
and 1.4 mm thick safety regulations and using personal protective equipment. suitable dual.
• 4 aluminum sheets of 20 × 5 cm
and 4 mm thick

DEVELOPMENT
1. Preparation of the sheets
a. Take a piece of sheet metal and, with a scriber and a metal ruler, draw the cutting lines of the eight steel sheets and
the two aluminum sheets.
b. The sheets are cut with manual cutting scissors, a saw, shears or plasma equipment.
c. Each of the sheets is flattened on the anvil with a hammer, burrs are removed and the skis are rounded. Use a file to
prevent cuts.
d. If the aluminum sheets need to be shaped, they are previously tempered to 160 °C with a plumber's lamp.

a Figure 1.47. Measure and mark. a Figure 1.48. Cut with shears. a Figure 1.49. Plasma cutting.
2. Welding to be made with steel sheets
a. With two butted sheets, a continuous welded joint is made with MIG welding (it
can also be a continuous bead even if it is done at intervals).
b. With two sheets overlapping by about 12 mm, a continuous welded joint is
made with MIG welding.
c. Spot welding is carried out with two overlapping sheets using MIG welding.
Previousmen Before welding, approximately 6 mm holes are made at a distance
of 2 cm between them.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 31

d. The union of two overlapping sheets is carried out by means of resistance spot welding.

a Figure 1.50. Overlapping a Figure 1.51. Spot welding. a Figure 1.52. MIG welding.

3. Welding to be done with aluminum sheets

a. With two butt plates, a continuous bead is made with MAG welding (it can also
be a continuous bead even if it is done intermittently). ovals). TIG welding can
also be used.
b. Four point welds are made with two superimposed sheets with the multifunction
resistance machine.
It is very important, when working with aluminum, that any tool When used, do not
use it with other materials to avoid galvanic corrosion problems.

4. Weld quality control a Figure 1.53. Final quality.

a. The welded steel sheets are placed on a workbench and separated with pliers.
It must be prove that the sheet being worked on tears, while the weld remains perfectly welded on the other sheet.
b. In the following figures you can see a good weld and a poor weld, since the weld points come loose due to the lack of
complete fusion of the welded material; In this case, it is mild steel.
c. Before carrying out a correct welding, it is checked what type of aluminum alloy it is, since it must be welded with a
consumable of the same nature.

a
Figure 1.54. Correct welding. a
Figure 1.55. Defective welding.
32 unit 1
TECHNICAL WORLD
Use of aluminum in the manufacture of bodies
The Audi A8 and Audi A2 are vehicles built with the ASF
(Audi Space Frame) system, which form a compact and
integral aluminum structure that gives great rigidity to the
vehicle. This type of structure tures are constructed of
extruded pieces, facing designed to form the safety cell,
giving it great rigidity. These profiles are joined to each
other by means of cast pieces capable of transmitting the
forces produced in an accident. For the construction tion of
external parts, aluminum sheets are used.
Comparatively, it is estimated that with the use of aluminum
for the body of the Audi A2, its weight has been reduced by
150 kg, than if it had been made of steel. This weight
reduction benefits a me nor consumption, which establishes
that with a 10% reduction in the weight of the vehicle there
is a fuel saving of around 7%. Not only must a vehicle be
offered with low weight, but safety must be taken care of
and the vehicle sold at a competitive price.
a Figure 1.56.
Aluminum is the metal with the greatest presence in
nature. nature, and although it is more expensive to obtain
than steel, this cost is reduced in the production process.
secondary tion, that is, in recycling, this data being taken
into account by manufacturers when reducing
manufacturing costs.
It has good anticorrosive properties, good resistance to
weather and sea water. This is because a thin layer forms
on the surface of the aluminum.
With the use of high-resistance aluminum sheets This
increases the mechanical resistance and further reduces
the weight of the vehicle. For example, the 2010 Audi A8
has 15 high-strength aluminum alloy elements.
In the image in the figure we can check the usefulness
zation of large cast pieces that are the link and support of
the body parts.
 Structural elements of the vehicle 33

IN SUMMARY
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF VEHICLES

_________V_________

Types of body Chassis types

rias for automobiles for motorcycles
vile and vehicles
heavy

_______AND___ ______AND____
• Self-supporting • Chassis
chassis steel tube monocot
• Monocoque chassis • Open and closed
• Independent chassis double cradle
• Tubular chassis chassis
• Aluminum
monocoque chassis
• Double beam
aluminum chassis
• Steel multi-tubular
chassis
• scooter chassis

enter the internet

■ You can find more information about what was developed in the unit on the following pages:
• < www.centrozaragoza.com > • < www.bmw.motorrad.es >
• < www.honda-montesa.es > • < www.vigo.psa-peugeot-citroen.com >