Acient History English

HISTORY
ANCIENT SOCIETIES
B.A. Prog. Semester 1st
Important Questions
with Answer
NOTES
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ANCIENT SOCIETIES
CONTENTS
UNIT I
1. Defining Civilizations, Historiography, Urban Revolution and Bronze Age,
Debating Metal Technology
2. Bronze Age and Debating Metal Technology
UNIT II: Bronze Age Civilizations: India and China
UNIT III: Bronze Age Civilizations Mesopotamia (Sumerian and Akkadian
Period)/Egypt (Old Kingdom) Ecological Context, Kingship and State, Social
Pattern and Economy. Art, Religion and Culture
UNIT IV: Ancient Greece: Minoan and Mycenaean
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Question 1. Explain the concept of urban revolution.
Answer - Introduction
Urban revolution refers to the historic transition of small agricultural societies into large
urban societies. It was coined by Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe in his 1936
book Man Makes Himself.
Arguably the most important contribution of archeology to scientific study is the
documentation of sociocultural evolution. V. Gordon Childe was renowned as the most

important archaeologist of the 20th Century because of his description of the Neolithic
revolution and urban revolution. For the first time, a social model was developed to
interpret the past, shedding light on the transformation of our species socially, not
biologically
Childe coined both the terms “Neolithic Revolution” and “Urban Revolution” which
each represent key landmarks in our species. The first describes the change from hunter-
gathering to localised agriculture, an important differentiator of our species. The surplus
of produce in turn leads to the freedom of time and specialisation that eventually created
the first proto-cities. In turn, cities enable the socially complex engines of commerce,
innovation, art and change.
Concept of urban revolution
The Urban Revolution, completely transformed social institutions and practices. The first
cities came into being during this phase, alongside an expansion in economic activities,
growing social stratification and coming up of new institutions of governance and rule.
For Childe, cities were not the only component due to which these complex societies came
into existence. However, they were definitely the most important one. The earliest cities
and states arose in the regions of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, India, Mesoamerica and
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the Andes. Interestingly, they evolved out of much simpler societies, with little or no
external influence
Requirements:
Childe’s model is often erroneously described as a checklist for distinguishing cities from
other settlements, but in fact it is a broader sociological schema for the advancement of
a society to a higher form of civilisation. Therefore, it is useful to consider it for:
 an archaeological analysis of ancient cities,

 as a useful set of indicators and emergent phenomena from a functioning city.
Mechanics:
The list below is an augmented set of points from Childe’s original 1950 paper. They have
been reordered and grouped. The principal theme underlying it is the evidence of a
resource surplus which leads to social transformation:
Physical:
1. Size and density - a clear separator from rural areas is both the density of the built
environment and the scale in circumference compared to villages.
2. Construction of monuments - public and audacious displays of power through

exceptional and unique buildings.
Economic:
1. Concentration of surplus and taxation - whether by money tax or in-kind, the state
builds up a resource base for emergencies or investment, as do households in the
form of savings or small businesses.
2. Full-time specialisation of labour - while villages are primarily agrarian, cities exhibit
extraordinary diversity in industry and incredible specificity in labour force skills - both
of which are socially rewarded.
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3. Exchange expanded beyond the city - trade routes are common as the surplus
developed above is spent on acquiring further goods and services.
4. State Organisation - the concept of “citizenship” based on residence not kinship.

5. Class structured society - civil leaders absorb a significant share of the surplus
without performing the work, and in addition, they often direct the expenditure of the
surplus on other aspects of the city.
Intellectual:
1. Highly developed art forms - “art for the sake of art” develops through excess, as
does complexity in form, fashion and medium.

2. Writing - movement from agrarian society to more complex interaction requires
significant mathematical and literary scripts.
3. Arithmetic, geometry and astronomy develop as rational thinking techniques
Limits:
1. Ancient civilisations are a well - studied area by archaeologists. As a result, there
have been a number of criticisms and alternatives for the “classic” characteristics of
civilisations.
2. One set of criticisms is to be expected - it deals with the general applicability of
Childe’s criteria to other ancient civilisations, where it struggles to encompass Native
Americans, Australian Aboriginals and Pacific Islanders which did not have all of these
components.
3. Another more foundational criticism cites that civilisations, like all emergent
properties, cannot be easily identified by checking components off a list: they are more
than the sum of their parts. This is a highly subjective delineation however of what
constitutes a “civilisation”.
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Conclusion
The urban revolution ushered in a new era of population growth, complex urban
development, and the development of such institutions as the bureaucratic state, warfare,
architecture, and writing
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Question 2. Define the bronze era. To create a tool, discuss the importance of bronze
discovery and use in detail.
The Bronze Age is defined as a historic time period
in which civilizations discovered the use of bronze

metal, began large-scale urban development,
and invented advanced writing systems. This time
period is important in history because of the
advancements of humankind as well as the

technological discoveries that supported these
advancements. This time period will set the tone
for a less nomadic human race and a more civilized species. The Bronze Age Timeline is
agreed by most historians to have lasted from 3300 BCE - 1200 BCE.
To create a tool, discuss the importance of bronze discovery and use in detail.
Bronze Age
The early Bronze Age was defined as the period that humans began using tools and
weapons that were made from copper and stone. At first, this was extremely rare and
hard to find, only precious items were created using copper. Eventually, civilizations
around the world began smithing copper and tin together to create a fine metal that is
called bronze. As soon as this technology was discovered, the creation of agricultural tools
using bronze became rampant around 3000 BCE.
The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and
more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building
materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and
copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors
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Bronze Age Warfare and Transportation
One of the greatest inventions of the Bronze Age was the wheel, which emerged in
Mesopotamia. The first wheels were made of wood and were solid circles. The key element
in making a wheel work is the axle in the middle which allows the circle to rotate. The first
wheels were used as potters' discs. At some point, humans switched to the use of bronze
spokes, which joined the center axle and the outer wood circle. This was a revolution in
transportation. Everything from wheelbarrows to wagons to chariots was now possible.
Humans could travel farther and faster than they could by foot and could carry more
goods with them.
Warfare was also transformed by the use of bronze. Instead of the shaped, stone knives
of the previous Neolithic era, bronze swords and spears could now serve as weapons.
These were considerably stronger and longer than stone knives, extending the range of a
warrior in battle.
Bronze Ages: Advances
The Bronze Age saw two significant advances to human civilization around the world
metal tool technology and urban development.
Tools
One reason a large portion of humans began developing cities and stopped their
nomadic, hunter-gather lifestyles was because of advancements in agriculture. In

particular, these bronze tools listed below made life much easier to provide food rather
than chasing it:
 Axes - much easier to cut down trees to build structures than stone axes
 Bronze drinking and eating vessels
 Construction equipment (metal joints, nails, hammers, etc.)

 Cauldrons - to mix drink or food in
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 Buckets - used as household items or agricultural tools
 Plow tips - instead of dull stone or wood, farm plows would be equipped with bronze
shovel tips to move dirt more efficiently
Weapons
No matter what age humans are in there will always be a time of war. Weapons probably
saw the most advancement compared to agriculture or household items during this time.
Warfare occurred on a much larger scale than the previous Stone Age because of the
number of cities that grew and civilizations that expanded.
These weapons were used during the Stone Age but gained improvements with the
Bronze Age:
 War Axe
 Arrowheads
 Spears
 Shields
 Daggers
The Bronze Age also introduced new weapons and weapon systems:
 Chariots
 Swords
 Seige equipment
 Armor plating
Bronze Sword
Bronze weapons were not only chosen for their effectiveness in battle, they also were
chosen over Stone Age weapons because of the aesthetic appeal. Though there is
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evidence of some artistic touch etched in Stone age weapons, bronze metal was so much
easier to decorate with shields and swords.
Bronze era importance for life
 The Bronze Age made life easier for people even though it soon became one of the
metals that was used less extensively. Bronze was the first metal that was worked with
by many people copper was not since it was not as durable. Bronze started the science
of working with metal.
 The Bronze Age is a time period that is widely recognised for its contributions to the
development of human civilisation. During this time, the first evidence of writing and
use of metal tools appeared. It was also an era of great social change.
Conclusion
Bronze Age, third phase in the development of material culture among the ancient
peoples of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, following the Paleolithic and Neolithic
periods (Old Stone Age and New Stone Age, respectively). The term also denotes the first
period in which metal was used.
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Question 3. Discuss the distinguished characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization,
paying special attention to city planning.
Answer – Introduction
City planning is the unique feature of Indus valley civilization. Their city planning proves
that they lived a highly civilized and developed life. Indus people were the first to build
planned cities with scientific drainage system. The Indus cities were built on a uniform
plan. Town planning was amazing in nature. A few cities have citadels to the West built
on higher platform and to the east of which is the hub of residential area. Both of them
are surrounded by a massive brick wall. The cities without citadel are found on high
mounds.
Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization, paying special attention to city planning
1. Streets
The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles. They were 13 to 34 feet wide
and were well lined. The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks.
Archaeologists have discovered the lamp posts at intervals. This suggests the existence of
street lights. Dustbins were also provided on the streets. These prove the presence of
good municipal administration.
2. Drainage System
One of the most remarkable features of the Indus valley civilization is that the city was
provided with an excellent closed drainage system. Each house had its own drainage and
soak pit which was connected to the public drainage. Brick laid channels flowed through
every street. They were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing
purposes. Large brick culverts with corbelled roofs were constructed on the outskirts of
the city to carry excess water. Thus, Indus people had a perfect underground drainage
system. No other contemporary civilization gave so much attention to cleanliness.
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3. The Great Bath
The most striking feature in
Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. It
consists of a large quadrangle. In the

centre, there is a huge swimming
pool (approximately 39 ft long, 23 ft
wide and 8ft deep) with the remains
of galleries and rooms on all four

sides. It has a flight of steps at either
end and is fed by a well, situated in
one of the adjoining rooms. The water was discharged by a huge drain with corbelled roof
more than 6 ft in depth. The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls. This solid construction
has successfully withstood the natural ravages for 5000 years. There were arrangements
for hot water bath in some rooms.
4. Granaries
The largest building in Mohenjodaro is granary which is 45.71 mtrs long and 15.23 mtrs
wide. In Harappa there are a series of brick platforms which formed the base for two rows
of 6 granaries each. In the Southern part of Kalibangan brick platforms have also been
found. These granaries safely stored the grains, which were probably collected as revenue
or store houses to be used in emergencies.
5. Buildings
People of Indus valley civilization-built houses and other buildings by the side of roads.
They built terraced houses of burnt bricks. Every house had two or more rooms. There
was also more than one storied house. The houses were designed around an inner
courtyard and contained pillared halls, bath rooms, paved floors, kitchen, well etc. Besides
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residential quarters, elaborate structures have also been found. One of these buildings
has got the biggest hall measuring 80 ft long and 80 ft wide. It might have been a palace,
or temple or hall for holding meetings. The workmen quarters are also found. There was
an excellent system of water supply. There were public wells by the side of streets. Every
big house had its own well. They also built a dockyard at Lothal.
Conclusion
The city planning system of the Indus Valley civilization has impressed many
archaeologists. They systematically planned their residential houses, public buildings, and
streets and had proper drainage systems. All homes were well-connected to the drains of
the roads. The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, a technical and political
process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment. They are
also noted for their baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply
systems, and clusters of large, nonresidential buildings.
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Question 4. Describe the Harappan civilization in detail. How did it decline?
Harappan Civilization was also known as Indus Valley Civilization as the most significant
shreds of evidence of the achievements of the Indus Valley civilization were excavated
from Harappa. Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium
BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC onwards).
The Harappan civilization was located in the Indus River valley. Its two large cities, Harappa
and Mohenjodaro, were located in present-day Pakistan's Punjab and Sindh provinces,
respectively. Its extent reached as far south as the Gulf of Khambhat and as far east as the
Yamuna (Jumna) River.
Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization – Apart from Harappa
 Apart from Harappa, some of the important sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were
Dholavira, Mohenjodaro, Ganweriwala, Lothal, Kalibangan, Surkotada, etc.

 In India, the major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization are given below:
 Lothal and Dholavira were located in Gujarat.
 Kalibangan and Balathal were located in Rajasthan.
 Rakhigarhi was located in Haryana.
 The Indus Valley Civilization was also located in Ropar which is currently located in
Punjab.
Harappan Civilization – Urban Planning
In the Harappan cities, urban planning was highly developed.
 The houses in the cities were well planned.

 The materials used for building purposes were sun-dried bricks and burnt bricks.
 Houses had separate bathing areas.
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 The houses were one or two-storeyed.
 The houses in Harappan Civilization had wells.
 Each house had a proper drainage system which was connected to the drainage
system of the streets.
 In the Harappan Civilization, the drainage system was well-structured.
 The streets of the Harappan Civilization were well-planned.
 The streets of the Harappan Civilization had a proper system of waste disposal,
lighting, drainage, and water supply.
Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) – Worship
 People of the Indus Valley Civilization practised Nature worship and Yoni Worship.
 People of the Indus Valley Civilization worshipped Fire (Havan Kund) and trees like
peepal. The Mother Goddess was worshipped as Shakti or Matridevi.
 The people of the Indus valley civilization worshipped animals like Ox and Unicorn.
 The lord of animals was Pashupati Mahadev.
Cause of the Decline of the Harappan Culture
1. Floods
M.R. Sahni is a palaeontologist who suggested a hypothesis regarding the decline of the
Harappan culture. In this hypothesis, he presented evidence of the presence of alluvium

(a deposit of clay and sand left by flowing water in a river valley) containing freshwater
shells at a height far above the present flood level. There was no clear explanation of what
created the flood. After his hypothesis, many other palaeontologists made different
assumptions, such as the possibility of a tectonic plate which produced an earthquake.

But there was no evidence to support this theory, or other theories of different
researchers.
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The floods in the Indus river might be one of the main causes for the extinction of
Harappan culture. These repeated floods may have caused a mass migration of the people
of the Harappan civilization to other regions.
2. Change of Course of the Indus River
Palaeontologists have found a lot of evidence that the Indus river changed its course
many times throughout history. In Mohenjodaro (the capital of the Harappan civilization),
water was the main source of income. When the Indus river changed its course from
Mohenjodaro, water became scarce, to the point that people of the city needed to migrate
from their capital to different places to survive. Water is essential for agriculture, which
was also a reason for people of the Harappan civilization to migrate to places suitable for
agriculture.
This change caused a drought in the region. However, a change in the course of the Indus
river could not have been the cause of the decline of the Harappan culture, since other
major cities were not affected by these changes.
3. Plague
Research by Dr. Gwen Robbins Schug, an anthropologist, shows that leprosy emerged
during the developmental period of the Harappan civilization, and its impact increased
over time. Palaeontologists have found skeletal remains of many people on the main road
in Mohenjodaro with evidence of leprosy on the bones. Through this, we can state that
there was evidence of an outbreak of plague in the region.
Research also shows the emergence of infectious diseases in the late Harappan civilization
which, many researchers believe, led to the mass migration of people from densely
populated areas to rural areas.
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4. Foreign Invasion
Sir Mortimer Wheeler, a researcher, has put forward a theory that the Aryan invasion
was the reason for the decline of the Harappan culture, since there is archaeological
evidence of genocide and unburied skeletons scattered throughout Mohenjodaro. After

autopsies were conducted on these skeletons, it revealed that their death was caused by
sharp objects or perhaps weapons. During that time, the use of weapons was known to
Aryans but there was no evidence of the Harappan people’s knowledge of weapons.
During the invasion, it might have been a one-sided genocide of the Harappan people,
caused by the Aryans when they arrived at a rich and fertile piece of land. The Harappan
civilization was the gateway to the Indian peninsula, but its people may have migrated
from the area out of fear of the Aryans. The Harappan culture gradually fell into oblivion
as the Aryans replaced the Harappan civilization with a new culture brought by them.
Areas of Harappan culture that were invaded by Aryans might have occurred due to
conflicts between rural and forest-dwelling people.
5. Natural Catastrophes
Researcher Jim G. Shaffer presented a list of natural catastrophes that could have occurred
during the Harappan civilization to cause its destruction. One of the biggest natural
catastrophes that could have occurred was an earthquake, since the Harappan civilization
was situated in an area that is prone to earthquakes. Other researchers have speculated
that the movement of tectonic plates near the area caused potentially damaging
earthquakes that could have led to major flooding in the area. As a result, many people
in the region migrated from one region to another to avoid these natural disasters.
Earthquakes became known as one of the main reasons for the decline of the Harappan
culture.
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6. Shifting away of Indus
 Changes in the course of the Indus River, according to Lambrick, might be the cause
of the downfall of the Indus Valley civilization.
 The Indus is a shaky river system with a constantly moving bed.

 The Indus River relocated thirty kilometers away from Mohenjodaro, according to
reports.
 Due to a lack of water, residents of the city and the adjacent food-producing villages
fled the region.

 This happened several times throughout Mohenjodaro's history.
 The silt seen in the city is the result of a lot of sand and silt being blown in by the wind.
 This, in combination with crumbling mud, mud brick, and baked brick constructions,
resulted in silt that was mistaken for flood silt.
7. Climatic Change
 While Mohenjodaro may have become worn down as a result of natural floods,
Harappan sites in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley suffered from progressive desiccation.

 According to D.P. Agarwal and Sood, the Harappan civilisation fell when the region
became more arid and the river Ghaggar-Hakra dried up.
 They discovered that by the middle of the second millennium B.C., dry conditions had
increased.
 Even a little loss in moisture and water availability in semi-arid locations like the
Harappa might spell tragedy.
 It would have an impact on agricultural productivity, putting city economies under
strain.
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8. Decline of Trade
The fall of the lapis lazuli commerce with Mesopotamia, according to Shereen Ratnagar,
was a factor in the Harappan civilization's demise. However, whether this commerce was
extremely important to the Harappans is questionable; hence, it could not have been a
role in their demise.
Conclusion
Many experts think that climatic change was to blame for the fall of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Most Harappan towns had been nearly totally abandoned by 1800 BCE. The
communities in the foothills eventually declined as well. Some scholars believe that the
drying of the Saraswati River, which began approximately 1900 BCE, was the primary cause
of climatic change, while others believe that a large flood hit the area.
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Question 5. Describe the main features of society, economy and religion in
Mesopotamia?
Mesopotamia was an ancient area in the Middle East. Today, most of it is located in the
country of Iraq. The word Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word meaning "between
two rivers." Those are the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.
Ancient Mesopotamia is considered the birthplace of writing and with it, recorded
history. Its people also built the world's first cities and developed the oldest known
political and administrative systems, mostly centered in what is now Iraq.
Features of society, economy and religion in Mesopotamia
1. Society
Jobs
 Men and women both worked in Mesopotamia, and most were involved in farming.
Others were healer weavers, potters, shoemakers, teachers and priests or priestesses.
The highest positions in society were kings and military officers.
 Women had almost the same rights as men. They could own land, choose to divorce,
own their own businesses, and make deals in trade. Women were among the first
people to make beer and wine. They were also healers in the community. These jobs
were later taken over by men, it seems, who saw that women were making so much
money.
 The work someone did, was also seen as giving back to other people, and for making
the gods happy. This could keep the world at peace.
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Buildings and government
 Mesopotamia gave birth to the world's first cities. The land did not have trees. So,
 buildings were mostly made of soil, which was dried in the sun and turned into
bricks. With the bricks, the Mesopotamians created the world's first columns, arches
and roofs.
 A temple was usually at the center of every Mesopotamian city. Cities and temples
were famous for their ziggurats. These were pyramids built in layers of steps.
 Mesopotamia was ruled by kings. The kings only ruled a single city though, rather
than the entire civilization. For example, the city of Babylon was ruled by King
Hammurabi. Each king and city designed the rules and systems that they thought
would be most beneficial for their people.
2. Economy
Trade and commerce developed in Mesopotamia because the farmers learned how to
irrigate their land. They could now grow more food than they could eat. They used the
surplus to trade for goods and services. Ur, a city-state in Sumer, was a major center for
commerce and trade.
Trade Economy in General
 Ancient Mesopotamia was a region that now comprises portions of Syria, Turkey
and Iraq. By far and away, their trade economy depended on its major waterways. Like
we use container ships to send goods from one continent to another across an ocean,
the ancient Mesopotamians relied on boats that sailed up and down the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. These rivers were also connected to canals, smaller rivers, lakes and
marshes where boats could sail through to deliver or pick up trade goods.
 And like any trade economy imposes fees and tariffs, the ancient Mesopotamians
did much the same. If you were a merchant back then, you could expect to pay fees
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to obtain permits to sail through one area or another. There were literally checkpoints
set up on rivers to ensure you had these permits. You could also expect to pay a fee
to dock somewhere. And, you could definitely expect to pay a duty or tariff when you
crossed into a new territory.
 Of course, people didn't just send things over water. They also traded over land.
Likewise, such merchants would pay tariffs and duties. They would haul their trade
products using human porters, camels, sledges and wagons pulled by draft animals.
 The ancient Mesopotamians traded amongst themselves but they also had the
ability to sail around the Middle East and in the Mediterranean in order to buy and sell
their products. There is some speculation they even made it all the way around Africa.
 Ancient Mesopotamians traded with East Africans, Egyptians, Indians, as well as

other Middle Eastern nations like those in Afghanistan, Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.
3. Religion
 Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with followers worshipping several main
gods and thousands of minor gods. The three main gods were Ea (Sumerian: Enki), the
god of wisdom and magic, Anu (Sumerian: An), the sky god, and Enlil (Ellil), the god of
earth, storms and agriculture and the controller of fates.
 Mesopotamian gods were Anu, the god of heaven; Enki, the god of water; and Enlil,
the “Lord of the Air,” or the wind god. Deities were often associated with particular
cities. Astral deities such as Shamash and Sin were also worshipped.
 The God Enki Mesopotamians are credited with developing the first organized
religion. They had anthropomorphic gods and epic poetry and related myths and
stories that maintained and explained their hierarchy. Mesopotamians believed that
gods could foretell all events and also believed in oracles. Mesopotamian religion
began with the Sumerians. The Babylonians and then the Assyrians adopted many
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Sumerian doctrines and myths but gave their gods credit for things like creating the
universe.
 Religion and government were closely linked in Mesopotamia. The cities were
regarded as the property of the gods and human were expected to do what the gods
asked of them as directed by the priest-kings. As rulers became more powerful,
controlling larger areas of land and more diverse groups of tribes, they increasingly
conjured up divine images and referred to themselves as having been selected by the
gods to rule. This was true in Mesopotamia, China, Egypt and Japan. It wasn't as true
in Greece, which was divided into numerous city states, but made a comeback in Rome
which was more of an empire. Some rulers like the Egyptians even viewed themselves
as gods.
Conclusion
Mesopotamia was the site of one of three earliest urban civilizations (along with the Indus
Valley in India and the Nile Valley in Egypt). In Mesopotamia there were constant tensions
between the radically new cities in the fertile river valley and the ancient ways of the
nomadic and hill peoples outside of the cities.
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Question 6. Mention "slavery" in (Greek) Greece civilization.
Slaves in ancient Greece did not have any human or
civil rights. They were tortured for different reasons
their owner could beat them whenever he wanted

when their testimony was needed for a lawsuit, they
were tortured into confessing to their own guilt or
incriminate someone else.
Aristotle’s views
It's clear that Aristotle thinks that slavery was good for those who were born natural
slaves, as without masters they wouldn't have known how to run their lives. In fact,
Aristotle seems to have thought that slaves were 'living tools' rather like domestic animals,
fit only for physical labour.
"slavery" in Unani civilization
 Slavery in Ancient Greece was acceptable and common, as in most organized societies
of the time yet, there were several differences between city states.
 The recorded history of slavery in Ancient Greece begins during the Mycenaean
civilization (1600 to 1100 BC), as indicated in numerous tablets unearthed at Pylos.
 Slaves played an important role in ancient societies since they were used in building
temples and other construction works; principally, however, they were engaged in the
crucial area of agriculture.
 Female slaves served as maids, nurses, and cooks, and there were craftsmen, artists,
musicians, and others who were enslaved but could live a decent life and earn income,
as well.
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 Craftsmen who worked with their masters lived in their own quarters and earned their
income at free will.
 Even the greatest thinkers at the time and there were a great many could not imagine
a world free of slavery since it was such an established phenomenon.
 Aristotle described slavery in Ancient Greece as natural and necessary. For Aristotle,
a slave was “living property”. That indeed was the collective mindset at the time.
 However, slaves were treated differently and conditions under which they lived and
worked could vary greatly depending on the time and location in which they lived.
Who were slaves in Ancient Greece?
 There were many sources to supply slaves to the economy. Some of the slaves had
been born free but, owing to poverty, were sold by their parents into the slave market.
 Other slaves, both men and women, were sold by their own tribes in exchange for
goods. A large number of slaves were taken as prisoners of war, captured by the
winning army.
 There are writings that mention the sale of at least 20,000 slaves by Philip II of
Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great. After conquering Scythia, he procured
children and women and sold them in the slave markets.
 Greek slaves came from the different cities of Greece while others came from Egypt
and Persia.
Slavery in ancient Athens
 It is estimated that Athens had as many as 80,000 slaves in the 6th and 5th
centuries BC with an average household possessing three to four slaves; the only
exception to that rule would be impoverished families.
 Slaves in ancient Athens were the property of their masters under Athenian law. They
could be bought, sold, and beaten, but only by their master.
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 There were also people who were considered public slaves, who were the property of
the polis, or city-state, thus being a sort of “elite” slave.
 If a male slave was freed, he became a “metic” (resident alien), and after that
designation, he could be granted citizenship.
 Many slaves worked and lived in their masters’ house, doing all the housework and, in
many cases, tending to the family’s children.
 Male slaves did the shopping for the household. If they lived and worked
independently, they made periodic payments for their masters.
 There are written documents containing records that slaves were involved in the
building of the Erechtheion and worked in the silver mines of Laurion.
 Female slaves are known to have been occupied in woolwork and the retail trade they
were also used as wet nurses for infants and known to have worked in craft shops
around the agora.
 Female slaves also worked as prostitutes in brothels and as concubines. However, a
concubine had no rights whatsoever.
Slave revolts in Ancient Greece
 Slave revolts were uncommon in Ancient Greece, although slave escapes were not.
Slaves who escaped did so merely to be free.

 Slave miners worked under extraordinarily harsh conditions in the dark although many
were needed to perform skilled and unskilled tasks outside of the pits, as well.
 Many slaves were constantly overworked and surely worked to death at times.
Furthermore, many were stigmatized or branded by their owners and kept in chains
by their contractor bosses.
 The Athens ruler Xenophon thought that it would be to the city’s benefit to invest
its funds in such slaves.
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 However, during the Peloponnesian War, many of the more than 20,000 slaves who
managed to escape Athens were miners.
 This was the only recorded successful revolt of slaves in the history of slavery in Ancient
Greece.
Conclusion
Slaves in ancient Greece were treated like pieces of property. For Aristotle they were 'a
piece of property that breathes'. They enjoyed different degrees of freedom and were
treated kindly or cruelly depending on the personality of the owner.
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Question 7. What are the main features of architecture in Egyptian civilization?
Ancient Egyptian art and architecture are produced by the civilization of ancient Egypt in
the lower Nile Valley from about the 31st century BC to the 4th century AD. The
architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world,
such as the pyramids and the Sphinx.
Egyptian art and architecture
 The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids, tombs, temples and palaces out of
stone, the most durable of all building materials. Although earthquakes, wars and the
forces of nature have taken their toll, the remains of Egypt's monumental architectural
achievements are visible across the land, a tribute to the greatness of this civilization.
These building projects took a high degree of architectural and engineering skill, and
the organization of a large workforce consisting of highly trained craftsmen and
labourers.
 Apart from the pyramids, Egyptian buildings were decorated with paintings,
carved stone images, hieroglyphs and three-dimensional statues. The art tells the story
of the pharaohs, the gods, the common people and the natural world of plants, birds
and animals. The beauty and grandeur of these sites are beyond compare.
 Egyptian art is known for its use of hieroglyphs, which were a form of writing as well
as a means of decoration. Egyptian architecture is characterized by its use of massive

stone structures, such as the pyramids and the Sphinx.
 Many Egyptian structures were built to honor the gods and pharaohs, and were often
adorned with intricate carvings and paintings.
 Egyptian art and architecture also played a significant role in the afterlife, with
many tombs and funerary objects being adorned with elaborate decorations.
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 The ancient Egyptians also developed a system of proportions and measurements that
were used in the construction of their buildings and monuments, called the "canon of
proportion"
Development of Architecture
 The Egyptians were good builders in stone, and both sculptors and engineers
delighted in great size. The Great Pyramids and the Sphinx are examples of the
Egyptian fondness for huge structures. Religion inspired the building of Egyptian
tombs and temples.
 The most famous temple was that of the god Amon, at Karnak, which occupies
part of the site of ancient Thebes. Part of this great temple still stands. Its hall is 400
feet long, 175 feet wide larger than a football field and 80 feet high. The roof was
supported by rows of giant columns. The Egyptians were the first to support roofs with
columns rather than with walls.
Tomb Architecture
 The most famous examples of tomb architecture
are the pyramids, which were built as tombs for

pharaohs.
 The design of the tomb was meant to reflect the
status of the individual buried within, with pharaohs
and nobles having the grandest and most elaborate

tombs.
 The Mastaba tombs, which were a type of tomb architecture used for non-royal
individuals, were characterized by their flat-roofed and rectangular shape, and often
had a chapel attached to them
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 The tomb architecture of ancient Egypt also included the use of funerary shafts, which
were used to bury the deceased deep underground, and were often accompanied by
elaborate subterranean tombs.
Predynastic Period
 The Predynastic period in Egypt is considered to be the time before the unification of
Upper and Lower Egypt, around 3100 BCE.
 During this time, the people of Egypt developed a complex set of beliefs and practices
related to death and the afterlife.
 Predynastic Egyptian art is characterized by a focus on animals and the natural

world, as well as the use of geometric shapes and patterns. The art during this period
is mostly found in form of pottery, as well as in rock art, and in the decorations of
personal items such as cosmetics palettes
 Predynastic architecture consisted mainly of simple mud-brick structures, such

as houses and tombs. The people of this period also developed a system of
hieroglyphs, which were used primarily for religious and funerary texts, rather than as
a form of writing.
Conclusion
Ancient Egyptian art and architecture are important aspects of the history and culture of
ancient Egypt. It is characterized by monumental structures such as the pyramids and the
Sphinx, as well as the use of hieroglyphs in art, which were both a form of writing and
decoration.
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Question 8. Describe Minoan and Mysinian civilization.
The Minoans and the Mycenaeans were two of the early civilizations that developed in
Greece. The Minoans lived on the Greek islands and built a huge palace on the island of
Crete. The Mycenaeans lived mostly on mainland Greece and were the first people to
speak the Greek language.
Minoan civilization
The Minoan civilization has been described as the earliest of its kind in Europe, and
historian Will Durant called the Minoans "the first link in the European chain". The
Minoans built large and elaborate palaces up to four stories high, featuring elaborate
plumbing systems and decorated with frescoes.
1. Language and writing
Knowledge of the spoken and written language of the Minoans is scant, despite the
number of records found. Sometimes the Minoan language is referred to as Eteocretan,
but this presents confusion between the language written in Linear A scripts and the
language written in a Euboean-derived alphabet only after the Greek Dark Ages. While
Eteocretan language is suspected to be a descendant of Minoan, there is no substantial
evidence for this. It also is unknown whether the language written in Cretan hieroglyphs
is Minoan. It is undeciphered and its phonetic values are unknown.
Approximately 3,000 tablets bearing writing have been discovered so far, many
apparently being inventories of goods or resources and others inscriptions on religious
objects associated with cult. Because most of these inscriptions are concise economic
records rather than dedicatory inscriptions, the translation of Minoan remains a challenge.
The hieroglyphs came into use from MMI and were in parallel use with the emerging
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Linear A from the eighteenth-century BC (MM II) and disappeared at some point during
the seventeenth century BC (MM III).
2. Art
 A fresco found at the Minoan site of Knossos, indicating a sport or ritual of "bull
leaping", the dark-skinned figure is a man and the two light skinned figures are women
A fresco found at the Minoan site of Knossos, indicating a sport or ritual of "bull
leaping", the dark-skinned figure is a man and the two light skinned figures are women
The great collection of Minoan art is in the museum at Heraklion, near Knossos on the
north shore of Crete. Minoan art, with other remains of material culture, especially the
sequence of ceramic styles, has allowed archaeologists to define the three phases of
Minoan culture (EM, MM, LM) discussed above.
 Since wood and textiles have vanished through decomposition, the most
important surviving examples of Minoan art are Minoan pottery, the palace
architecture with its frescos that include landscapes, stone carvings, and intricately
carved seal stones.
 In the Early Minoan period ceramics were characterized by linear patterns of
spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, fishbone motifs, and such. In the Middle
Minoan period naturalistic designs such as fish, squid, birds, and lilies were common.
In the Late Minoan period, flowers and animals were still the most characteristic, but
the variability had increased. The 'palace style' of the region around Knossos is
characterized by a strong geometric simplification of naturalistic shapes and
monochromatic paintings. Very noteworthy are the similarities between Late Minoan
and Mycenaean art.
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3. Religion
The Minoans worshiped goddesses. Although there is some evidence of male gods,
depictions of Minoan goddesses vastly outnumber depictions of anything that could be
considered a Minoan god. While some of these depictions of women are believed to be
images of worshipers and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies, as opposed to
the deity herself, there still seem to be several goddesses including a Mother Goddess of
fertility, a Mistress of the Animals, a protectress of cities, the household, the harvest, and
the underworld, and more.
Some have argued that these are all aspects of a single goddess. They are often
represented by serpents, birds, poppies, and a somewhat vague shape of an animal upon
the head. Some suggest the goddess was linked to the "Earthshaker", a male represented
by the bull and the sun, who would die each autumn and be reborn each spring. Though
the notorious bull-headed Minotaur is a purely Greek depiction, seals and sea-
impressions reveal bird-headed or masked deities.
Mycenaean civilization
The Mycenaean civilization was located on the Greek mainland, mostly on the
Peloponnese, the southern peninsula of Greece. The Mycenaeans are the first Greeks, in
other words, they were the first people to speak the Greek language. The Mycenaean
civilization thrived between 1650 and 1200 BC.
1. Major Mycenaean Centres
The Mycenaeans were indigenous Greeks who were likely stimulated by their contact with
Minoan Crete and other Mediterranean cultures to develop a more sophisticated
sociopolitical culture of their own. Major Mycenaean centres included Mycenae

(traditional home of Agamemnon), Tiryns (perhaps the oldest centre), Pylos (traditional
home of Nestor), Thebes, Midea, Gla, Orchomenos, Argos, Sparta, Nichoria, and probably
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Athens. In time, the Mycenaeans would even establish themselves on Crete and especially
at Knossos, thus superseding the Minoans as the dominant culture in the southern Aegean
by the second half of the 15th century BCE.
2. Mycenaean Religion
Little is known for certain regarding Mycenaean religious practices beyond the
importance given to animal sacrifice, communal feasting, the pouring of libations and
offerings of foodstuffs. The presence of double axe carvings and horns of consecration in
art and architecture suggest strong links with the Minoan religion, although these symbols
may have been adopted because of their political resonance. Architectural features such
as sunken basins and fresco depictions of altars hint that the Megaron may have had a
religious function. Many centres also had specific sanctuary sites for worship, usually close
to the palace complex. It is clear that burial was an important ritual as evidenced by the
presence of monumental tholos tombs, prominent gravesites and the quantity of precious
objects which were buried with the dead - golden masks, diadems, jewellery, and
ceremonial swords and daggers.
3. Mycenaean Trade
That the Mycenaean civilization had trading contact with other Aegean cultures is
evidenced by the presence of foreign goods in Mycenaean settlements such as gold, ivory,
copper and glass and by the discovery of Mycenaean goods such as pottery in places as
far afield as Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, Sicily, and Cyprus. No doubt
perishable goods such as olive oil, perfumed oil, and wine were also significant
Mycenaean exports but, unfortunately, the paucity of surviving written records - limited
to, for example, only around 70 Linear B clay tablets from a major site like Mycenae, means
that more details on interregional trade are at present lacking. The Uluburun shipwreck,
a 14th-century BCE vessel discovered off the coast of Turkey, was carrying raw material
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trade goods such as copper and tin ingots, ivory, and glass disks and was likely on its way
to workshops in Mycenaean Greece before it sank.
Conclusion
Mycenaean civilization collapsed because of its overdependence on trade and its
inherent aggressive nature and was catalyzed by invasions and natural disaster. The
most common reason that historians give for the decline of Mycenaean civilization is
that they were invaded by foreign peoples.
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Question 9. Which factors are responsible for the emergence and development of
civilization?
Civilization describes a complex way
of life that came about as people

began to develop networks of urban
settlements. The earliest civilizations
developed between 4000 and 3000
B.C.E., when the rise of agriculture and

trade allowed people to have surplus
food and economic stability. Many
people no longer had to practice farming, allowing a diverse array of professions and
interests to flourish in a relatively confined area. Civilizations first appeared in

Mesopotamia and later in Egypt. Civilizations thrived in the Indus Valley by about 2500
B.C.E., in China by about 1500 B.C.E. and in Central America by about 1200 B.C.E.
Civilizations ultimately developed on every continent except Antarctica.
Factors for emergence and development of civilization
All civilizations have certain characteristics. These include: large population centers;
monumental architecture and unique art styles; shared communication strategies;
systems for administering territories; a complex division of labor; and the division of
people into social and economic classes.
Urban Areas
Large population centers, or urban areas, allow civilizations to develop, although people
who live outside these urban centers are still part of that region’s civilization.
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Rural residents of civilizations may include farmers, fishers, and traders, who regularly
sell their goods and services to urban residents. The huge urban center of Teotihuacan,
in modern-day Mexico, for example, had as many as 200,000 residents between 300 and
600 C.E.
Monuments
All civilizations work to preserve their legacy by building large monuments and
structures. This is as true today as it was thousands of years ago. For example, the
ancient monuments at Great Zimbabwe are still consistently used as a symbol of
political power in the modern nation of Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe, constructed

between 1100 and 1450, describes the ruins of the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe.
At its peak, Great Zimbabwe was inhabited by more than 10,000 people and was part of
a trading network that extended from the Maghreb, through the eastern coast of Africa,
and as far east as India and China.
Shared Communication
Shared communication is another element that all civilizations share. Shared
communication may include spoken language; alphabets; numeric systems; signs, ideas,
and symbols; and illustration and representation. Shared communication allows the
infrastructure necessary for technology, trade, cultural exchange, and government to be
developed and shared throughout the civilization. The Inca civilization, for example, had
no written script that we know of, but its complex khipu system of accounting allowed
the government to conduct censuses of its population and production across the vast
stretch of the Andes. A khipu is a recording device made of a series of strings knotted in
particular patterns and colors.
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Infrastructure and Administration
All civilizations rely on government administration—bureaucracy. Perhaps no civilization
better exemplifies this than ancient Rome. The word “civilization” itself comes from the
Latin word civis, meaning "citizen." Latin was the language of ancient Rome, whose
territory stretched from the Mediterranean basin all the way to parts of Great Britain in
the north and the Black Sea to the east. To rule an area that large, the Romans, based in
what is now central Italy, needed an effective system of government administration and
infrastructure. Romans used a variety of methods to administer their republic and, later,
empire.
Division of Labor
Civilizations are marked by complex divisions of labor. This means that different people
perform specialized tasks. In a purely agricultural society, members of the community
are largely self-sufficient, and can provide food, shelter, and clothing for themselves. In a
complex civilization, farmers may cultivate one type of crop and depend on other
people for other foods, clothing, shelter, and information. Civilizations that depend on
trade are specially marked by divisions of labor.
Conclusion
The structure of civilization is actually responsible for the survival of the human species.
Living in groups encouraged early humans to be compassionate; they warned each
other danger and protected one another. As humans helped one another they begin to
move away from their more aggressive tendencies.
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Question 10. What are the important features of Mesolithic culture?
Mesolithic age is the period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages. The period
varies depending upon the area. However, it dated approximately from 10,000 BCE to
8,000 BCE. The Mesolithic period in Europe dated from 15,000 BCE to 5,000 BCE. This
age is the second Stone Age and was characterised by the appearance of small bladed
stones (microliths). The Paleolithic people used primitive stones, while Neolithic people
used more polished ones. The people of the Mesolithic age mostly lived on hunting,
fishing, and food gathering. Moreover, the Mesolithic people started some basic
agricultural practices too. There was development of cave paintings and ceramics during
this period. This age shows the blending of two societies, namely pastoral society and
horticultural society.
Important Features of Mesolithic culture
1. Equipment
In the Mesolithic period, man had started making miniature avatars. The size of
Mesolithic tools was very small. They were about half an inch to a quarter of an inch.
These small instruments were used as the pointed part of the arrow. Another important
change took place in the field of equipment manufacturing during this period. Now,
along with hard rocks, soft rocks are also being used in the manufacture of tools.
2. Cremation
During this period, people had also started the process of cremation of dead bodies.
Many bones remain were found during the excavation. The heads of some of those
bones were found towards the east and some towards the west. Some stone tools have
also been found near the top of the body.
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3. Food
In the Mesolithic period, the human beings of tomorrow started realizing the
importance of animal husbandry. The people of this period used to fill their stomachs by
hunting wild animals and birds, catching fish and collecting tubers and roots of the
forest, different types of fruits and flowers. Later on, they also started animal husbandry
to meet their food needs. They had also started doing agriculture in the last period of
the Middle Stone Age.
4. Animal Husbandry
In addition to wild animals and birds, the people of the Mesolithic period also used to
hunt cows, bulls, sheep, goats, buffaloes, etc., but later they came to know the
importance of these animals and started rearing them. By the end of the Mesolithic
period, humans also learned animal husbandry and till the end agriculture.
5. Housing
At the end of the Mesolithic period, humans came out of the mountains and caves and
started living in flat places by making huts. Their houses were made of wood, grass and
leaves. The floors were made of mud. Used to sleep on a bed made of straw and wood.
During this period, humans started building their homes near rivers and other water
bodies. Started storing food items in their homes.
Conclusion
The way of living life of Mesolithic man was somewhat different from the pre-Stone Age
humans, although they were mostly dependent on hunting, but together they had
learned to do some agricultural work, acquaintance with animals was also increasing, at
the end of the Mesolithic period Man had also learned to manufacture some utensils in
Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahdaha. Some tools and weapons found in the tomb show that
man used to imagine about the other world at that time.
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Question 11. Describe the following in brief.
(a) Features of Ur Nagar
(b) Sumerian religion
(c) Bronze era in China and Greece
Answer -
(a) Features of Ur Nagar
Introduction
The city of Ur was an important Sumerian city in ancient Mesopotamia, located

near modern "Tell al-Muqayyar" in the Dhikr province of southern Iraq. The city of Ur
came to prominence in 1922 when Sir Leonard Woolley excavated the ruins and
discovered the Great Death Pit and the Royal Tombs. Although Ur was once a coastal
city near the mouth of the Euphrates River on the Persian Gulf, the coastline has shifted
and the city is now well connected by land routes.
Features of Ur Nagar
(1) Crooked and narrow winding streets - Due to the crooked and winding streets of
Ur city and the non-uniform size of the plots of houses, it shows that there was a lack of
method of town planning. The streets of the city were so narrow that wheeled carts
could not reach the houses there. Sacks of grain, fuel and other materials were probably
carried to the houses on donkeys.
(2) Lack of efficient drainage - There was no such arrangement for drainage along the
streets as found in the contemporary city of Mohenjodaro. Rather, drainage channels
and earthen channels have been found in the inner courtyards of houses in the city of
Ur, which suggests that the roofs of the houses sloped inward and that rainwater was
drained through channels built into the inner courtyards.
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Used to be taken in tanks. Perhaps this was done so that the unpaved streets outside
the house do not get filled with mud when it rains heavily.
(3) The cleaning system of Ur city - The cleaning system of Ur city was not perfect.
People used to throw all the garbage of their houses in the streets. This garbage used to
fall under the feet of passers-by. Due to the dumping of garbage, the flat surface of the
streets was raised due to which the residents had to raise the threshold of their houses
as well.
(4) Absence of windows in the rooms - There were no windows in the rooms. Light
entered the room through a door that opened into the courtyard. Due to this, the
privacy of the families of the houses was maintained.
(5) Prevalence of superstition - Many types of superstitions were prevalent in homes.

Which are found written on the plaques. For example, if the threshold of the house is
raised, it brings wealth inside the house.
(6) Cemeteries for the burial of dead bodies - There was a cemetery for the
townspeople in which tombs of rulers and common people have been found but some
people were buried under the floor of the houses.
There are thirty-two known ziggurats around
Mesopotamia. Many of the ziggurats have been

destroyed over the years. Some ziggurats have
been repaired such as the Ziggurat at the city-state
of Ur.
Conclusion
Ur was a major port on the Persian Gulf, which extended much farther inland than today,
and the city controlled much of the trade into Mesopotamia.
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(b) Sumerian religion
Introduction
The ancient Sumerians, lived in the southern part of what is now Iraq. The heartland of
Sumer lay between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in what the Greeks later called
Mesopotamia. This territory, once skillfully irrigated, proved very fertile, and major cities
had long been in existence before the period when archaeologists can identify the
Sumerian people themselves.
They were energetic farmers, traders and sailors. Their religion recognized many gods,
whose feats and escapades were described in stories that were often preserved for
generations. Rituals as well as parties were enlivened by skillful harpists and singers, and
Sumerian musical instruments have even been excavated by modern archaeologists.
Polytheism
People in Mesopotamia believed in polytheism, or the belief in many gods. Poly

means "many", and theism means "god or gods". The Sumerians knew they did not have
control of the wind, air, sun, or other elements, so they knew a higher power must
control those things.
The Sumerian word for universe was an-ki. This stood for the god An and the
goddess Ki. Their offspring was Enlil, the air god. He was seen as the most powerful god
and was equivalent to Zeus in Greek mythology. Some other gods included Enki, the
god of wisdom, Inanna, the goddess of love and war, sun and moon gods, and a special
protector for each city-state. In all, the Sumerians worshipped over 3,000 gods.
The Sumerians believed their gods were a lot like people. They thought they ate,
drank, slept, and got married. However, Sumerians also believed that the gods lived
forever and had great power.
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If the gods were happy with people's prayers and offerings, they might bring good
fortunes to the city. If not, they might bring war, floods, or other disasters. As a result,
Sumerians felt that they needed to keep the gods happy for their city to grow and
prosper.
Priests
To honor their gods, priests, or people who
perform religious ceremonies, washed
statues of the gods before and after three
meals each day. Huge portions of food were

laid before the statues during each meal to
keep the gods happy. A daily meal included
12 vessels of wine, 2 vessels of milk, 108 vessels of beer, 243 loaves of bread, 29 bushels
of dates, 21 rams, 2 bulls, 1 bullock, 8 lambs, 60 birds, 3 cranes, 7 ducks, 4 wild boars, 3
Ostrich eggs, and 2 duck eggs.
The priests who performed these ceremonies were very respected. They were seen as a
direct link to the gods and were responsible for keeping the gods happy. For that
reason, they were often at the top of the Sumerian social structure. They shaved their
heads so others could recognize their importance.
Ziggurats
At the center of each city-state in
Mesopotamia stood a large structure called a
Ziggurat. The Ziggurat was the temples to the

main god of the city. However, this was not a
temple in which the people could go to worship
the gods. It was seen as a place where the gods actually dwelled.
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The top was a shrine to the gods, and only the priests could perform sacrifices and other
rituals there. They built the Ziggurats high because they wanted to be as close to the
heavens as possible.
There are thirty-two known ziggurats around Mesopotamia. Many of the ziggurats
have been destroyed over the years. Some ziggurats have been repaired such as the
Ziggurat at the city-state of Ur.
Sumerian Gods
As mentioned, Sumer had a polytheistic
religion that had multiple gods. A collection of
gods is called a pantheon. The Sumerian gods
and Sumerian goddesses were

anthropomorphic; they were humanoid and
had human motivations.
According to the Sumerians, at the beginning of time, there was only the primordial
ocean, Nammu. However, Nammu gave birth to two children: the earth Ki and the sky
An. The other Sumerian gods are descendants of the coupling of Ki and An. These
include:
 Enlil, the god of winds and storms; he was the chief god
 Ninlil, a goddess of wind and the chief consort of Enlil
 Ninurta, the god of war and agriculture and the son of Enlil and Ninlil
 Enki, the god of water and knowledge
 Nanna, the god of the moon

 Utu, the god of the sun
 Ninhursag, the goddess of fertility and motherhood
 Inanna, the goddess of love and war
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(c) Bronze era in China and Greece
Introduction
The Bronze Age was a time in early human history when people first began to use
tools made of bronze. Bronze is a hard, yellowish alloy, or mixture of metals. People
make it by melting copper and tin together. The Bronze Age began in some places
about 5,000 years ago. It began later in other places. Learning how to use bronze led to
advances in many areas of human life.
The Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is defined as a historic time period in which civilizations discovered the
use of bronze metal, began large-scale urban development, and invented advanced
writing systems. This time period is important in history because of the advancements of
humankind as well as the technological discoveries that supported these advancements.

This time period will set the tone for a less nomadic human race and a more civilized
species. The Bronze Age Timeline is agreed by most historians to have lasted from 3300
BCE - 1200 BCE.
The earliest humans lived during the Stone Age. Stone Age humans made tools and
weapons of stone. By about 6500 BCE people had learned how to shape copper into
tools and other objects. Over time the use of copper spread from what is now Turkey to
the Middle East and Europe.
Eventually people learned how to mix tin with copper t]]]]]
uygo make bronze. They probably discovered how to do this by accident. In some
places copper and tin are mixed together naturally in the ground. When ancient
46
metalworkers melted this mixture, they made a form of bronze. Bronze looked like
copper. But it was harder and more useful for making tools, weapons, and artwork.
Bronze era in China and Greece
The Bronze Age began in Greece and China before 3000 BCE. Bronze Age cultures also
developed in Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq), Egypt, and the Indus River valley (in
modern Pakistan). The Bronze Age had spread to Great Britain by about 1900 BCE.
Peoples outside Europe, North Africa, Asia, and the Middle East did not have a Bronze
Age.
The era of the Shang and the Zhou dynasties is generally known as the Bronze Age of
China, because bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, used to fashion weapons, parts of
chariots, and ritual vessels, played an important role in the material culture of the time.
At first only rich people could afford bronze.

For long time, farmers and craftspeople used
cheaper stone tools to do their work. But
eventually more people did metalworking as a
full-time job. Metalworkers, other craftspeople,
and farmers came together in cities to trade

their goods. This trade helped civilizations to
grow. Two new inventions—the wheel and the
ox-drawn plow—also helped Bronze Age civilizations to grow.
In about 1200 BCE people learned how to shape iron into tools. This began the Iron
Age and brought the Bronze Age to an end.
Conclusion
47
The Bronze Age ended abruptly around 1200 B.C. in the Middle East, North Africa and
Mediterranean Europe. Historians don't know for sure what caused the Bronze Age
collapse, but many believe the transition was sudden, violent and culturally disruptive.

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HISTORY

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1. Defining Civilizations, Historiography, Urban Revolution and Bronze Age,

Debating Metal Technology

2. Bronze Age and Debating Metal Technology

UNIT II: Bronze Age Civilizations: India and China

UNIT III: Bronze Age Civilizations Mesopotamia (Sumerian and Akkadian

Period)/Egypt (Old Kingdom) Ecological Context, Kingship and State, Social

Pattern and Economy. Art, Religion and Culture

UNIT IV: Ancient Greece: Minoan and Mycenaean

Question 1. Explain the concept of urban revolution.

book Man Makes Himself.

Arguably the most important contribution of archeology to scientific study is the

documentation of sociocultural evolution. V. Gordon Childe was renowned as the most

gathering to localised agriculture, an important differentiator of our species. The surplus

Concept of urban revolution

 an archaeological analysis of ancient cities,

resource surplus which leads to social transformation:

environment and the scale in circumference compared to villages.

2. Construction of monuments - public and audacious displays of power through

form of savings or small businesses.

developed above is spent on acquiring further goods and services.

4. State Organisation - the concept of “citizenship” based on residence not kinship.

surplus on other aspects of the city.

does complexity in form, fashion and medium.

significant mathematical and literary scripts.

3. Arithmetic, geometry and astronomy develop as rational thinking techniques

1. Ancient civilisations are a well - studied area by archaeologists. As a result, there

architecture, and writing

discovery and use in detail.

The Bronze Age is defined as a historic time period

in which civilizations discovered the use of bronze

and invented advanced writing systems. This time

period is important in history because of the

advancements of humankind as well as the

advancements. This time period will set the tone

using bronze became rampant around 3000 BCE.

copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors

Bronze Age Warfare and Transportation

transportation. Everything from wheelbarrows to wagons to chariots was now possible.

Bronze Ages: Advances

metal tool technology and urban development.

nomadic, hunter-gather lifestyles was because of advancements in agriculture. In

than chasing it:

 Bronze drinking and eating vessels

 Construction equipment (metal joints, nails, hammers, etc.)

 Buckets - used as household items or agricultural tools

shovel tips to move dirt more efficiently

number of cities that grew and civilizations that expanded.

easier to decorate with shields and swords.

Bronze era importance for life

of working with metal.

period in which metal was used.

Question 3. Discuss the distinguished characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization,

paying special attention to city planning.

Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization, paying special attention to city planning

good municipal administration.

3. The Great Bath

The most striking feature in

Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. It

consists of a large quadrangle. In the

pool (approximately 39 ft long, 23 ft

wide and 8ft deep) with the remains