CHAPTER 12
Applications of Anthropology
Syllabus Topics
(A) Applications of Anthropology:
Anthropology of sports,
Nutritional anthropology,
Anthroplogy in designing of
defence and other equipments,
Forensic Anthroplogy
(B) Methods and principles of
personal identification and
reconstruction
(C) Applied human genetics—
Paternity diagnosis, genetic
counselling and eugenics
(D) DNA technology in diseases and
medicine
(E) serogenetics and cytogenetics in
reproductive biology.
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Questions/Themes from previous
years
1. Pedigree analysis in genetic counselling.
(2022)
2. What is meant by health? Is the burden
of life style diseases on rise? Justify your
answer with suitable examples. (2022)
3. Discuss how anthropological knowledge of
the human body may be used in designing
equipments and articles of human use.
(2022)
4. How are the cases of disputed paternity
solved? Discuss the recent techniques.
(2021)
5. What is anthropometry? Discuss its role in
assessing the nutritional status and sports
capability of a person. (2021)
6. Ethics and genetic engineering. (2020)
7. What are the applications of human
genomic research in human welfare? (2020)
8. Anthropological inputs in facial
reconstruction.(2019)
9. ‘Applied human genetics has come to touch
every sphere of human life’.(2019) Discuss
in light of recent advances in molecular
anthropology.
10. What are the methods of personal
identifications? Critically examine(2017)
how personal identification helps in
criminal investigations.(2017)
11. Write short notes on Forensic Anthropology.
(2016)
12. Describe the role of Anthropology in
designing defense and other equipment.
(2016)
353
 APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY
In 1941, Margaret Mead, Elliot Smithetc founded the Society of Applied Anthropology and defined
applied anthropology as: ‘Application of anthropological perspectives through interdisciplinary
scientific investigation of human relationships for solving practical problems’. Thus, Applied
anthropology can be defined as anthropology which is used for solving a problem.
Margaret Mead-- “All anthropology is applied” (1975)

ANTHROPOLOGY OF SPORTS 2. Cultural anthropological research

History
E.B. Tylor was among the 1st anthropologists
to discuss games with an eye to considering
how the study of games might have theoretical
import for understanding the discussion of
human cultures. Tylor’s interests focused
upon issues such as the geographical
distribution of different types of games in
part as a way of tracing the origins of specific
games, such as patolli which he notes was
played in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. (Tylor
1880)
Kinanthropology: (Bill Ross 1972)
Itcombines principles and methods from
anthropology and kinesiology (the study
of human movement) to examine the
relationships between human beings, culture,
and physical activity.
Anthropologist Ajeet Jaiswal (2019) describes
the anthropology of sports as the study of
human growth and development.
Anthropologists understand sports as a
cultural performance. If one conceives of
sports as a sort of performance, one also
sees that each performance is unique to the
performer.
Anthropologists who study sports do so
within a larger context of sports and society.
Interests of anthropologists researching
sports might include
pertaining to how humans interact with
sports
3. Biological/physical anthropological
research on biological maturation or
physical growth.
(Damo, Oliven, and Guedes 2008).
Socio-cultural aspect:
Earlier sports competition involved the
wealthy attended sporting events in which
the athletes were typically not wealthy or
privileged.
Commercialization of sports have reversed
this trend (common” people attending
sporting events to watch wealthy athletes
compete). Commercialization has created
opportunities for financial and cultural
success for people with exceptional athletic
abilities.
Among Indigenous Americans, an aggressive
style of basketball called reservation
ball (Rezball) is prominent in reservation
communities. Rezball is different as its
techniques encourage relentlessly aggressive
play and quick shooting.
Sporting contexts such as baseball or football
games or the Olympics also represent cultural
frameworks through which broader secular
rituals are performed, such as the singing
of the national anthem at the beginning of
sporting events in the US or the performance
of patriotic rituals at times of crisis like the
lack on the World Trade Towers in 2001

1. Archaeological research related to

sports tools. Eg- The lacrosse sticks of
the Iroquois, hammers from the oldest
Olympic hammer-throw competitions,
and the modern-day American football
uniform. Colosseums, weapons, and
artistic representations of competition,
have been traced back to as early as 2000
BCE in China.

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 Selection of Sportsperson
Kinanthropology helps in “selection of sport-person” by providing valuable insights into various
aspects of human movement, physical capabilities, and cultural factors that influence sports
performance. They do so through:
1. Biomechanical analysis= Anthropologists analyze movement patterns, technique, and
physical abilities relevant to specific sports. By using motion capture technology, force plates,
and other tools, they can identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement in an
athlete’s movement mechanics.
2. Anthropometric assessments to evaluate an individual’s body composition (Eg- Fat %),
skeletal structure (Height, weight, width etc), and proportions.
3. Physiological testing= To assess athlete’s cardiovascular fitness, strength, power, endurance,
flexibility, and other physiological parameters.
4. Cultural considerations= Understanding the cultural background and social contexts of
athletes helps in identifying individuals who are likely to excel in specific sports that hold
cultural significance.
Since the publication of “Scientific Basis of Athletic Training” 1958 by Morehouse and Rasch,
many publications have provided insights and refinements in understanding the relationship
between height, weight, and sports performance.

Physical characteristics Preferred Sports

Tall Basketball, Volleyball, and High jump.

Short height (Compact body size and lower
Gymnastics, Diving, or Artistic skating.
center of gravity)
Boxing, Wrestling, or Weightlifting,
Heavy body weight Football, rugby, or shot.

Low body weight Long-distance running, Cycling

Preferable Physical
Sports characteristics

1. Large mass, broad shoulders, large

Tennis Player (Male) (Copley 1980) wrist and ankle diameters.
2. Ecto-mesomorphic somatotype.

Indian Kabbadi Player Kabaddi requires many essential

(Dey, Khanna, Batra 1993) components such as strength, power,
aerobic-anaerobic capacity, neuromuscular
coordination and muscular endurance.
Strength is one of the most important
component of the game. Kabaddi players
have:

1. Higher mean height and weight than

average Indian population.
2. Total body fat % and body weight
higher than footballers, hockey players
and boxers (Sodhi and Sindhu)
3. Endomorphic mesomorph somatotype

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 CASE STUDY
Physical attributes in favour of Usain
Bolt (Debaere, 2013)
Longer leg length leads to longer step
length and therefore greater speed. With
Usain Bolt towering His height of 1.96m
and weight of 96 kg provides a stride
advantage over his smaller competitors.
CASE STUDY
Physical attributes in favour of Lionel
Messi (The Athletic 2022)
Lionel Messi’s long body and short legs
provides him agility and thus edge in
football. For taller defenders that agility
can be difficult to deal with.
CASE STUDY
Book-“The Passion of Tiger Woods: An
Anthropologist Reports on Golf, Race,
and Celebrity Scandal.” (2011) By Orin
Starn
Orin Starn explored the linked between
sports and questions of race and
race relations, gender and sexuality,
globalization and nationalism.
CASE STUDY
‘Anthropology of sport’ by J. W. Trapha-
gan (2015)
Japanese children routinely participate
in athletic activities in school. The
context of sport provides a framework
for the embodiment of core values in
Japanese society and, through that, the
development of healthy, moral selves in
children.
Cave (2007) notes that these events
are typically viewed as being important
experiences through which young
people learn to persevere through
hardships and help to build a sense of
willingness to endure.
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Also, the moral discourse associated with
sport and self-building is intertwined
with another moral discourse related
to the role of fathers in the process of
child-rearing. Japanese fathers focus on
their role in raising their sons and their
desire to be directly involved—rather
than functioning as an absentee father.
(Yasumoto and LaRossa 2010)
CASE STUDY
“Play and Games in Tribal India” by
Sachindra Narayan 1995
A principle indigenous athletic game
of the Mundasis ‘the Phodi’ (a kind of
Hockey). Gedi (similar to hockey stick)
is made of lower part of thin bamboo
pulled out of its roots so that roof forms
the harder and thicker part of stick to
play the ball (dado).
Dr Sachindra Narayan redesigned
hockey sticks to suit tribal players in
Chhota Nagpur.
CASE STUDY
Book- “Testosterone Dreams: Rejuve-
nation, Aphrodisia, Doping,” (2005) by
John M. Hoberman
Hoberman explored the intersection of
sports, doping, and the pharmaceutical
industry.
1. He critically examined the ways in
which hormone doping has shaped
the competitive landscape and
influenced social perceptions of
human potential and the pursuit
of physical excellence. So, anabolic
steroid use is tolerated in sports
because people want to see
record-breaking performances and
corporate interests make a lot of
money from those performances.

2. He explored the evolution of
attitudes toward sexual behavior
beginning in the 1890s. Eg- The
entry of women into the workforce
during World War II, the Alfred
Kinsey studies, and the emergence
of sexual disinterest as a disease
state etc enhanced the acceptance
of estrogen and testosterone as
therapeutic agents.
3. He analyzed the role of technology
in shaping sports and athletic
performance.
Conclusion
By integrating knowledge from various
fields, kinanthropology helps identify and
nurture athletes.
NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Definition
Nutritional anthropology is the study of
food and nutrition from evolutionary,
behavioural, social and cultural perspectives,
and how these interact in the production
of nutritional health at the individual,
community and population levels.
Scope
Cultural Food Practices: Nutritional
anthropology examines the cultural beliefs,
values, and practices related to food,
including food preparation, consumption
rituals, food taboos, and symbolic meanings
attached to specific foods and explores how
these practices shape dietary choices and
nutritional outcomes.
Traditional Food Systems: Nutritional
anthropology investigates traditional food
systems and indigenous knowledge related
to food procurement, production, and
processing. It explores the nutritional value,
biodiversity, and sustainability of traditional
diets, as well as the cultural, social, and
economic factors that impact these food
systems.
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Food and Identity: Nutritional anthropology
explores how food plays a role in shaping
individual and group identities. It examines
how food choices and dietary practices
contribute to the formation of cultural,
ethnic, and social identities, and how these
identities influence nutritional health.
Globalization and Food Transitions:
Nutritional anthropology examines the
impact of globalization, urbanization,
and Westernization on dietary patterns
and nutritional health. It investigates
the shifts from traditional diets to more
processed, industrialized, and commercially
available food options and the resulting
consequences for health and nutrition.
Nutritional Inequalities: Nutritional
anthropology investigates the disparities
in access to and consumption of nutritious
foods within and across populations,
examines the socio-economic, political, and
environmental and explores strategies to
address them.
Anthropological Methods in Nutrition
Research: Nutritional anthropology
utilizes ethnographic fieldwork, participant
observation, interviews, dietary
assessments, nutritional analysis, and
the use of anthropological theories and
frameworks to understand nutritional
behaviors and outcomes.
Applied Nutritional Anthropology:
Nutritional anthropology contributes to
the development and implementation
of culturally appropriate nutrition
interventions and policies. It aims to
promote food security, sustainable food
systems, and improved nutritional health
by considering cultural contexts and local
knowledge.
ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL
STATUS
Nutritional Status Assessment of a
community is one of the first step in the
formulation of public health strategy to
combat malnutrition by identifying ‘at risk’
groups/populations and determine the
contributing factors.
357
 Methods a. Chest circumference (measured
1. Anthropometric method (Greek from the level of nipple in mid
Anthropos=human and metry= inspiration) in a normally nourished
measurement) child grows even faster than head
during the 2nd and 3rd year of life.
2. Biochemical method
Chest circumference overtakes the
3. Clinical method head circumference by about 1
4. Dietary intake method year age. But, in a protein energy
malnourished child, the head
1. Anthropometric method
circumference remains to be higher
Anthropometry reveals changes in the than chest circumference even at
morphological variation due to inadequate the age of 2.5 to 3 years.
food intake or malnutrition.
There are different anthropometric 5. BMI (Body Mass Index): BMI is the
measurements to get the full comprehensive person’s weight (in Kg) divided by the
overview of a person’s situation. height of a person (metres squared).
BMI is a measure to assess fat mass.
The risk of mortality and morbidity
1. Height= Height of an individual is increases with decrease in BMI and also
influenced both by genetic as well as increase in BMI.
the environmental factors. Long term
nutritional deprivation affects the
Most
height of the children. common
For children under 2 years of age, height is under-
Meaning Index
nutrition
measured by Infantometer. Stadiometer
indicators in
or a portable anthropometer is used for children
children who can stand.
Under-weight Low Weight for
2. Weight= Weight is an essential indicator weight age= Weight
of overall nutritional status. for age of the child /
Weight of the
3. Mid- Upper Arm Circumference reference child
(MUAC)= MUAC is the midpoint present of the same
between the shoulder tip i.e., the tip of age X 100
the acromion of scapula to the elbow tip
Stunting Low Height for Age
i.e., the tip of the olecranon of the fore
height = Height of the
arm of the left arm. Indicates fat- free for Age child / Height of
mass. It determine the development of
the reference
muscles that is a good tool for screen child of the
and determining the risk of mortality in same age X 100
children
Wasting Low Weight for
4. Head and chest circumference= Since
Weight height=
the head size relates to the size of the for Child’s weight
brain and brain size increases rapidly Height / Weight of the
during infancy, head circumference can reference child
access chronic nutritional problem in of the same
children under 2 years. age X 100

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 ANTHROPOMETRIC CHILD WITH PROTEIN-ENERGY
DESCRIPTION NORMAL CHILD
MEASUREMENT MALNUTRITION

RAO INDEX Ratio of standing >0.15 <0.15

(WEIGHT IN KG/ (HEIGHT height to sitting
IN CM)2 X 100) height

SKINFOLD Picking the >10 mm <6 mm

THICKNESS skinfold
between the
thumb and the
fore finger

Measurement Does not pass Passes above the elbow

BANGLE TEST (4 CM
IN DIAMETER) of wrist
circumference

KANAWATI TEST Measurement >0.32 0.28-0.32 – Mild

(MUAC/HEAD of chest 0.25-0.28 –Moderate
CIRCUMFERENCE) circumference < 0.25 – Severe

PONDERAL INDEX Ratio of weight >2.5 2.0-2.5 – Borderline

(WT/HT3) to height cubed <2.0 – Severe

CHEST Measurement >1.0 <1.0

CIRCUMFERENCE of chest
circumference at
the nipple level

MID ARM Measurement 16 cm 13.5cm – mild

CIRCUMFERENCE of the 12.5cm-Moderate
(MAC) circumference of =
the upper arm <12.5cm –Severe

II. ASSESSMENT OF ADULT NUTRITIONAL STATUS:

ADULT NUTRITIONAL
BMI RANGE (KG/M²) DESCRIPTION
STATUS
SEVERE CHRONIC ENERGY <16 BMI < 16.0 Kg/m2 is likely
DEFICIENCY to have poor energy stores
Poor physical activity or
UNDERWEIGHT < 18.5 output + increased infection
risk because of the impaired
NORMAL WEIGHT 18.5 - 24.9 immunity.

OVERWEIGHT 25.0 - 29.9 High BMI is associated with

Type 2 diabetes and high risk
OBESITY CLASS I 30.0 - 34.9 of cardiovascular morbidity
and mortality
OBESITY CLASS II 35.0 - 39.9

OBESITY CLASS III ≥ 40.0

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 Waist Hip ratio: (Higher value 3. CLINICAL METHOD:
indicates Abdominal obesity) It involves assessment of Clinical signs
and symptoms to point out particular
deficiency in nutritional status.
CLASSIFICATION WHR WHR
(MALE) (FEMALE)
Night blindness, dry eyes,
< 0.90 < 0.85 increased susceptibility to
NORMAL VITAMIN A infection. Impaired vision in
low light, dry eyes
INCREASED RISK 0.90 - 0.99 0.85 - 0.89
Rickets (in children),
SUBSTANTIALLY ≥ 1.00 ≥ 0.90
osteomalacia (in adults).
INCREASED RISK VITAMIN D Soft and weak bones, skeletal
deformities
Utility
Scurvy.
Anthropometric indicators can be used Weakness, fatigue, bleeding
1. To supervise child’s health as it is a crucial VITAMIN C gums, slow wound healing,
component that can epidemiologically joint pain
assess the nutritional status of a definite
Kwashiorkor= Edema
population of children.
(swelling), muscle wasting.
2. To evaluate the effects of nutritional PROTEIN Marasmus= Severe wasting,
intervention programme. emaciation, muscle and fat
loss, stunted growth
3. To initiate or admit children to the
programme or to discharge children ESSENTIAL Dry, scaly skin, hair loss,
from the programme. FATTY ACIDS impaired wound healing
4. To plan effective nutrition interventions.
5. Helpful for policy makers and other
public health programmes.
CILFF NOTE
2. BIOCHEMICAL METHOD:
Biochemical changes in body fluids such as
Blood, Urine, stool etc are assessed. If the
symptoms are non-specific during clinical
diagnosis, the biochemical tests confirm the
result or the deficiency disease. Also, these
tests often detect initial changes in the
metabolism of body and nutrition before
appearance of symptoms.

Eg-
1. Hemoglobin Percentage
2. Vitamin D level
3. Sugar level in Urine
4. Parasites and eggs in stool

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 4. DIETARY METHOD
An adequate and balanced diet is required
for growth, maintenance, repair, living
processes and overall health of an
individual. According to NIN guidelines
(National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR),
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
are the levels of intake of essential nutrients
required to meet the nutritional needs of all
healthy individuals in a particular life stage
and gender group.
The dietary intake of an individual or a
community is assessed by 24-hour recall
method.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR
INDIANS (ICMR-NIN, 2020)
Few Dietary Recommended
Dietary Allowance
components
(RDA)
CASE STUDY
Tribes are comparatively more vulnerable
to food and nutrition uncertainty than
their rural counterparts. Studies carried
out among the tribal groups in different
States of the country revealed
that their socio-economic conditions and
nutritional status are largely influenced
by the eco-system (Rao et al. 1994).
A study by Kapoor et al 2012 showed that
prevalence of Chronic energy deficiency
among the Car Nicobarese 45.3%.
In another study by Chatterjee K et al
(2016) among Munda children of Gumla
district, 56% of children were found to
be underweight, with 29% children as
severely underweight.

Protein Men= 54.0 g/d

Women= 46.0 g/d INDIAN TRIBES
Pregnant women= +9.5 BMI (AUTHOR)
(STATE)
(2nd trimester) +22.0
(3rd trimester) Male= 17.5, Female=
Baiga (MP) 18.3 (Chakma et al
Fats and Oils Activity Adult Adult 2009)
Level male female
Male= 18.8, Female=
Sedentary 25 g/dl 20 g/dl Oraon (JH) 19.7 (Mittal & Srivastava
Activity
2006)
Moderate 30 25
Activity Male= 17.6, Female=
Heavy 40 30
Sahariya (RJ) 17.8 (Bhasin & Jain
Activity 2007)

Dietary fibre 30 g/2000 kcal

Dietary 100 – 130g of CASE STUDY

carbohydrate carbohydrates/day

Men= Women= 1000

“Triple Burden of Obesity, Undernutri-
Calcium and tion, and Cardiovascular Disease Risk
Phosphorous mg/day.
among Indian Tribes” (2016) by Gautam
Men: 300 µg/day, Women: K. Kshatriya et al
Folic Acid (B9)
220 µg/day, Pregnant The mean high body fat percentage in
women: 570 µg/day. 3 tribes of Gujarat, which are Dhodias,
Kuknas, and Chaudharis.
The prevalence of under-nutrition was
CILFF NOTE >50% among the Koras and Bathudis.
Over 60% of women among Koras,
Oraons and Bathudis had high
undernutrition prevalence.

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 Major tribal-dominated states, such
as Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh
have experienced a high rate of
urbanization. Subsidised rice, wheat and
sugar under Food programs along with
weaning away from previous practices
of food collection from forests due to
various forest protection acts have led
to restricted diversity in food basket
of poor tribals. The study concluded
that extensive urbanization is strong
risks factor for CVDs (Cardio-vascular
Diseases).
Base studiess
1. Hawkes (2006) concluded that
globalization-driven nutritional
transition and change in food habits
disproportionately affect poor
populations. Poor are the worst
affected by a cultural convergence
towards low quality diets (such as
inexpensive vegetable oil and trans-
fat).
2. Allen LH (2006) study demonstrated
the association between low-
diversity in diet and nutritional
deficiencies.
The Adi tribe of Arunachal accesses
several indigenous plant and animal
species from diverse ecosystems,
based on their sound knowledge of
local biodiversity, and apply traditional
agronomic, cultural, and harvest
strategies to conserve and sustain
their natural resources against abrupt
weather anomalies and climate change.
CASE STUDY
“Food taboos during pregnancy and lac-
tation among tribal population of south
India” (2023) by Anju Damu Ade et al.
In a study conducted among Yanadi,
Erukulas, Nakkala, Vaddi tribes of
Tirupati district, 57 % of respondents
avoided fruits during pregnancy like
papaya, pine-apple, mango etc.
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11% respondents avoided black
coloured food items like black sesame
seeds, black berries, black grapes etc.
Over 12%respondents avoidednon-
vegetarian food like meat, chicken,
fish etc. 28 % respondents said they
don’t include any special food during
pregnancy. Over 40% of respondents
avoided vegetables during lactation.
Such avoidance was mainly to prevent
miscarriage, promote easy delivery, and
prevent foetal malformations.
CASE STUDY
Malnutrition and Onset of menarche
“Nutrient Intake through Childhood and
Early Menarche Onset in Girls: Systemat-
ic Review and Meta-Analysis” (2020) by
Ngan Thi Kim Nguyen et al.
Malnutrition, particularly undernutrition
and inadequate energy intake, can
be associated with delayed onset of
menarche.
Higher intakes of energy and protein
were associated with Early Menarche
Onset (EMO) risk. High intake of fiber-
and MUFA-rich foods may protect girls
from EMO.
ANTHROPLOGY IN DESIGNING
OF DEFENCE AND OTHER
EQUIPMENTS
Designs that do not take into account human
variations result in poor job performance.
Anthropometry (measurement of human
body) plays very important role in designing
equipment as it provides information on
the range and variation in body shapes.
Differences in body shapes affects the
utility of equipment, clothing or work space,
and is especially significant in designing
automobile seating or aeroplane cockpit
where reach or field vision is a critical factor.
 Applied Anthropology during World –war
–II: Focus on defense equipments
1. Improvising the cock-pit size in different
types of air craft and designing of
various seat configurations for both
fighters and bombers (Eg- Jet fighter
Ejection seats) which assisted in
reducing cockpit fatigue and discomfort
by proper body support.
2. Analysing human posture in zero gravity
on Skylab experience.
3. Flight clothing= Anthropologists have
provided sculptor-carved wooden head
forms in 4 statistically derived sizes:
extra-large, large, medium and small.
Designing of face masks in various
sculptured face forms for correct fit.
Clothing for high altitudes has to be
designed in a manner that would
prevent muscles from expanding.
Using the anthropological technique, it
was construed that stature and weight
generally yield the highest correlations
with other body dimensions and were
projected to be diagnostic dimensions
for complex fitting garments.
4. A gun turret is designed using scientific
principle that any extrusion from an
aircraft adds air resistance in such a
manner that the gunner has all the free
movement of his body needed. This not
only reduces their discomfort of long
occupancy in a cramped enclosure but
also increased efficiency of crewmen,
and ensured effective means of escape
from an aircraft in emergency.
Post-1942 applications:
After 1942, anthropometric applications
were exploited by other fields of human
activities to improve work efficiency by
reducing discomfort of people. The design
requirements include
1. Workplace design= designing of any
space for human occupancy during
work, recreation, rest, education,
travel, treatment, etc. Eg- Designing of
automobile interiors, aircraft cockpit,
seating apparatus, doors, tunnels,
furniture and kitchen. Measurements
required= Reach limits, body clearance,
eye location, etc.
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2. Clothing and personal equipment
design= Eg- designing of garments,
sportswear, press suits, helmets and
gloves, knobs, handles, switches, etc. to
ensure proper fitting and comfortable
movement. Measurements required=
circumferences, body contours, limb
movements etc
FEW IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES
OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN IN
ANTHROPOLOGY
1. Anthropologists prioritize user-
centered design principles, ensuring
that the appliance is intuitive, user-
friendly, and culturally appropriate
2. They consider local preferences,
cultural meanings and thus ensure
cultural sensitivity in the appliance’s
aesthetics, materials, and symbols.
3. They facilitate community
engagement sessions, involving
end-users in the design process.
They seek feedback, suggestions,
and preferences from community
members, allowing them to have a
sense of ownership and pride in the
final product.
4. They strive to understand the local
market dynamics, distribution
channels, and adoptionbarriers.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
Latin ‘Forensis’ = Court of law.
The term Forensic Anthropology entails
the application of anthropological
knowledge to queries of law.
Definition:
In 1971, Charles Snow defined forensic
anthropology as the application of
physical anthropology, the specific
knowledge of humans, race, age, sex,
and person’s unusual variation to the
medico-legal prudence problem
CILFF NOTE
363
 History: 3. Taphonomy= i.e. study of the processes
that affect the decomposition,
Scholars Contributions preservation, and alteration of human
remains. Forensic anthropologists
Publication on poison
MathiewOrfina detection and its assess the postmortem changes,
(1813) impact on animals including the effects of weathering,
John E. Purkinji Publication on nature of animal scavenging, burial, and
(1823) fingerprints (fingerprint environmental factors to estimate the
classification system postmortem interval and understanding
based on 9 principles) the context of the crime scene.
Orfilla (1825) Data about the 4. Mass disaster and human right
measurements of abuses= Eg-Airplane crashes, natural
arm bones and their
disasters, or mass graves resulting
differences in sex.
from human rights violations. Forensic
Thomas Dwight Essay on ‘The
Identification of Human
anthropologists recover, analyze, and
(1878)
Skeleton: A Medico- identify human remains, providing
(Father of
American Forensic Legal Study’. closure to families and contributing
Anthropology) to the investigation of crimes against
humanity.
Alphonse proposed a system of
Bertillon (1885) anthropometry of adult 5. Humanitarian Efforts= Forensic
persons for personal anthropologists are involved in
identification humanitarian efforts, working with
international organizations and
Scope agencies to locate and identify victims
The scope of forensic anthropology as an of human rights abuses, armed
applied discipline in physical anthropology conflicts, or natural disasters. They
was recognized by C C Show in 1972. provide expertise to ensure the proper
The scope and aim of forensic handling, identification, and repatriation
anthropologists are comprehensive and of human remains.
increasing day by day. It involves: 6. Expert proceedings and Court
1. Human identification = It involves testimony= Anthropologists provide
the collection, preservation, and expert testimony in court, presenting
examination of human skeletal remains their findings and interpretations to
for reconstruction and identification assist in legal proceedings by providing
of the incidents surrounding the objective analysis based on their
individual’s death. Eg- Skeletal analysis to specialized knowledge.
estimate age, sex, ancestry, stature, and 7. Research and Training= In areas such
other biological characteristics to create as skeletal biology, trauma analysis, and
biological profiles. Such information is human identification techniques + They
then compared with missing persons play a role in training law enforcement
records or used to establish the identity personnel, medical examiners, and
of unknown individuals. other professionals in the proper
2. Trauma analysis= To know the recovery and handling of human
cause and manner of death. Through remains.
identification of fractures, gunshot
wounds, knife injuries, blunt force
trauma, and other types of skeletal CILFF NOTE
trauma, anthropologists reconstruct
events leading to death and provides
evidence in criminal investigations.

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 Role and functions of Forensic Methods of Forensic
Anthropologists: Anthropology:
Forensic anthropologists are involved in 1. Data gathering methods:
evidence discovery and recovery:
a. Anthroposcopy involves visual
1. Identification of decomposed or examination of human body with
mutilated bodies = Any evidence left the help of a lens or x-rays.
at the site even in an unimportant b. Osteometry is the study
proportion, finger prints, skeletal and measurement of human
remains, teeth, saliva, blood or bones using calipers and an
scratches of skin tissues. Identification osteometric board. Osteometric
holds significance for legal and methods quantify many of the
humanitarian issues, in solving criminal anthroposcopic characteristics
cases, resolving inheritance concerns, in ratio scales to determine sex,
marital status, etc. age, ethnicity and stature from
2. The analysis of skeletal human skeleton.
and fragmentary remains = c. Chemical methods
Anthropologists are well versed in d. Histology= Microscopic analysis
racial variations, estimation of stature of tissues.
from broken bones and assessment
2. Data analysis methods.
of understanding postmortem skeletal
alterations. a. Decision tables= Helps make a
single determination about the
Regarding skeletal remains, forensic sex of the skeleton.
anthropologists help answer following
questions: Table Difference between Fresh (contemporary) and old
(non contemporary)
1. Whether the remains are bones?=
Bones are consumed rarely by fire Contemporary Bone Noncontemporary Bone

though exposure due to fire changes

the color and the bone’s texture, and
make the bone more deformed and
brittle which may make visual detection
difficult
2. Whether the bones are of humans or
animals?
3. Whether the bones belong to one or
more persons?= Eg- An extra set of
any of the bones means that the bones b. Range charts = Help to
belong to more than one person determine the central tendency
4. What is the sex, age, race, and stature of multiple ranges of estimates
of an individual? = An individual’s sex through visual representations.
can be determined by skull, pelvis, long
bones, and other skeletal remains such
CILFF NOTE
as the mandible, clavicle, and scapula.
Approximate age of skeletal remains
can be determined from cranial sutures,
dentition, and epiphyseal union of long
bones.

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c. Indexes
d. Discriminant functions = uses
more than two measurements to
differentiate between different
groups.
e. Regression equations= used to
predict one characteristic from
other characteristics. Sir Thomas
Galton first used regression
method to study inheritance
CASE STUDY
“Blood–Bone–Tooth Model for Age Pre-
diction in Forensic Contexts” (2021) by
Helena Correia Dias et al
Based on DNA Methylation levels
(DNAm), several age-related markers
have been investigated in different
tissues, including blood, saliva, buccal
swabs, sperm, teeth and bones, allowing
the development of tissue-specific age
prediction models (APMs) with high
accuracy to predict age in forensic
context.
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CASE STUDY
“Forensic Tools for Species Identification
of Skeletal Remains: Metrics, Statis-
tics, and OsteoID” (2022) by Heather M.
Garvin et al
Nonhuman remains comprise a
significant portion (25–30%) of total cases
assessed by forensic anthropologists.
Faunal species identification, however,
can be challenging for practitioners
given the number of bones in a skeleton,
variety of potential species, and similar
morphology amongst related species.
While forensic anthropologists are
required to be experts on the human
skeleton, zoo-archaeological training
and expertise in comparative osteology
can vary greatly amongst practitioners.
For species identification, a freely
available web tool (OsteoID) was created
from the huge study data, where users
can filter photographs of potential
bones/species using a few basic
measurements and access 3D scans
and additional resources to facilitate
identification.
OsteoID also includes supplementary
images (e.g., 3D scans), creating
an additional resource for forensic
anthropologists and others involved
in skeletal species identification and
comparative osteology.
METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF PERSONAL
IDENTIFICATION AND RECONSTRUCTION
Definition
According to Christensen et al, 2013,
Personal identification is defined as the
determination of the individuality of a
person. It also refers to the process of
linking an unknown personal object or
material (which may be a whole body, a
skeleton, a finger print, a biological fluid,
etc.) back to an individual of known
identity.
 Personal Identification may be complete
(absolute) and incomplete (partial):
1. Complete identification is the
absolute fixation or exact specification
of the individuality of a person along
with the determination of exact place in
the community occupied by him.
2. Partial identification refers to the
ascertainment of only some facts about
the identity while others remain still
unknown. Eg- as a female, Christian,
about 40 years of age, having 6 feet
height.
Need for Personal Identification:
Living:
1. Impersonation related to Inheritance
of property, Pension, Life insurance,
Voting rights, Passport
2. Disputed identity in cases of divorce or
nullity of marriage
3. Disputed sex
4. Missing persons
5. Interchange of new born babies in
hospitals
6. Identification of accused in criminal
cases of assault, murder, dacoity, sexual
offenses or an absconding soldier
Dead= Identification of victims of mass
disasters, identification of a dead body etc
Identification in the Living
Identification of living almost exclusively
depended on recognition by personal
impressions until the fingerprint was
recognized as a powerful means of
identification.
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1. Primary Characteristics= Age, Sex,
Stature etc cannot be altered after
death.
2. Secondary characteristics=
Features, personal belongings
(pocket contents, clothes including
any marks/defects/stitching,
jewellery etc.),
Identification of the Dead
Sometimes, due to rapid decomposition in
the hot season, or through damage caused
by wild animals identification of dead
becomes difficult.
1. Primary Characteristics= Age, Sex,
Stature etc cannot be altered after
death.
2. Secondary characteristics= Features,
personal belongings (pocket contents,
clothes including any marks/defects/
stitching, jewellery etc.), Hairs, Scars,
Tattoos, External peculiarities including
deformities, whether natural or due
to disease, occupational stigma, Race,
religion and nationality.
3. Comparative data/techniques:
Dental patterns or restorations,
fingerprints, footprints or handprints,
superimposition technique, neutron
activation analysis, Anthropometry,
trace evidence comparisons and other
fortuitous comparisons (Vij, 2008).
Bertillon system of Identification
Alphonse Bertillon in 1879 (French
criminologist) 1st developed the
anthropometric system of physical
measurements of body parts, especially
components of the head and face, to
produce a detailed description of an
individual, which is widely used as a
reliable, scientific method of criminal
investigation
Components:
1. Descriptive Data: Colour of eyes,
hair, complexion, shape of nose, ear
and chin.
367

2. Body measurements: T Height,
head length, head breadth, arm
span, sitting height, left middle
finger length, left little finger length,
left foot length, right ear length,
cheek width and cubit.
3. Body marks: moles, scars and tattoo
marks
4. Photographs: front view and right
profile of the head.
Limitations
1. Limited to adults.
2. Subjectivity compromises accuracy
in measurement
Components
The ‘big fours’ of personal identification
are determination of age, sex, stature and
ethnicity. Various components:
1. Race determination= The features like
head shape, breadth of nasal aperture,
nasal root, jaw thickness, brow ridge
size and forehead slope help in
categorization.
2. Sex determination= Texture of the
skull, its weight, condition of the supra-
orbital ridges, projection of frontal and
parietal eminences, shape of the orbits,
margins of the orbits, size of mastoid
processes shape of foramen magnum,
shape of palate, size of lower jaw, slope
of the forehead, and shape of palate can
help predict sex with 90% accuracy. On
combining the skull and the pelvis the
sex determination can be performed
with over 96 % accuracy.
3. Age determination= Bone histology
(number of osteon increases with
age),teeth eruption sequence, cranial
suture closer, pubis symphysis face,
sternal end of ribs and ossification of
various bones etc. Most of the bones
get ossified by the age 18 (limitation).
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Eg- Gustafson developed a method to
determine the age beyond 11 years by
studying the degenerating stages of teeth
like attrition (wearing down of incisal
or occlusal surfaces), periodontosis,
development of secondary dentine,
cementum apposition, root resorption
and transparency of root (four stages of
change.
4. Height determination= When a
complete bone is present then it is
measured and multiplied with the
multiplication factor of that particular
bone or its value is put in a regression
equation (univariate or multivariate)
and stature is estimated but when bone
is in the form of fragment then first
attempt is made to estimate the total
length of the bone and then from that
value stature is estimated.
5. Fingerprints, Iris pattern biometrics,
Retina pattern biometrics= A
fingerprint is an individual characteristic.
A fingerprint will remain unchanged
during an individual’s lifetime as they
appear in intra-uterine life
6. DNA biometrics= Almost everything
belonging to a person like saliva on
envelope; blood; hair; finger nails; used
tooth picks; ear buds; sweat etc may be
a very good source of it as every one of
these has cells containing DNA.
7. Handwriting and voice biometrics
CASE STUDY
“How Do Drugs Affect the Skeleton? Im-
plications for Forensic Anthropology”
(2022)
by Nicholas Márquez-Grant et al
Chronic Cocaine use causes ‘Cocaine-
induced midline destructive lesion
(CIMDL)’, characterized by the
destruction of the nasal septum, lateral
nasal walls and/or hard palate.
Intravenous drug injection in heroin
addicts has been associated with
osteomyelitis.

Alterations of bone mineral density,
such as osteopenia and osteoporosis,
and their consequent increased risk of
fractures, have implications in personnel
identification. Results from forensic
toxicology, in conjunction with skeletal
changes that may be drug related, could
help identification by adding to the
biological profile.
Procedure:
DNA samples can be extracted from blood,
semen, hair roots, bone or saliva
DNA is then treated with restriction
enzymes, which cuts the DNA into smaller
fragments at specific sites

APPLIED HUMAN GENETICS DNA is amplified by the technique of

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
PATERNITY DIAGNOSIS
Paternity Diagnosis helps to establish
genetic proof whether a man is the biological
father of an individual or not. This paternity Alkaline chemicals are used to split this
test is carried out by using DNA analysis. double stranded DNA splits into single
Methods of DNA analysis for Paternity stranded DNA
diagnosis
1. Before DNA fingerprinting came into
existence, blood group polymorphisms Agarose gel electrophoresis.
like ABO, MN and Rh systems were most
widely used to exclude a particular
person as the parent of a child.
The DNA bands so formed are transferred
2. Nowadays, DNA fingerprinting is used.
to nylon membrane and treated with a
The DNA fingerprinting technique
radioactively-labelled DNA probe which
assures the probability of parents to >
binds to complemental DNA sequences on
99.9% if the alleged father is biologically
the membrane
related and the probability is 0% when
the alleged father is not biologically
related to the child.
DNA Fingerprinting/ DNA Typing/ Genetic Radioactive DNA pattern is transferred
Fingerprinting: to X-ray film by direct exposure. When
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique developed, the resultant pattern is the DNA
used to determine the probable identity of a finger print.
person based on the nucleotide sequences
of certain regions of human DNA that are
unique to individuals.

CILFF NOTE

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CASE STUDY
“NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING”
(NGS) FOR PATERNITY TESTING
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a
type of DNA sequencing technology that
uses parallel sequencing of multiple
small fragments of DNA to determine
sequence. This “high-throughput”
technology has allowed a dramatic
increase in the speed (and a decrease in
the cost) at which an individual’s genome
can be sequenced. Its ability to detect
clinically relevant germline mosaicism
adds to its advantages.
Y-chromosome mini-STR can be used
for NGS-based NIPPT (Non-invasive
prenatal paternity testing) with high
accuracy in real cases, and is a promising
tool for familial searching, paternity
exclusion and sex selection in forensic
and medical applications (Wenqian Song
et al 2022)
Rules of Genetic counselling:
1. Advisors should be value-neutral.
2. Couples should be able to make
informed decision on future
reproduction.
3. Latest information should be offered.
4. Differentiate between genetic
disorders and phenotypically similar
conditions (Phenocopy)
Stages:
Gathering Medical and Family History (about
personal health, previous genetic conditions
or diseases, family history of genetic
disorders, and relevant environmental
factors.) and Pedigree constriction
Genetic screening based on biochemical
tests. Eg- In Preatal cases, procedures such
as Amniocentesis or chorionic villus biopsy
are used to get the probability of genetic
disorders

Mode of inheritance using Pedigree and

test results.
GENETIC COUNSELLING AND EU-
GENICS
GENETIC COUNSELLING:
Definition: Counselling interview
Term coined by Sheldon Reed.
According to American Society of Human
Genetics- “Genetic counseling is the process Treatment Prescription
of helping people understand and adapt
to the medical, psychological, and familial
implications of genetic contributions to
Counseling and Support for Decision-
disease, including the impact of genetic
Making regarding reproductive choices,
factors on health and well-being.”
family planning, and managing the impact
Genetic counseling can be practiced under
of genetic conditions on the individual’s
4 scenarios:
health and well-being.
1. Preconception,
2. Preimplantation,
3. Prenatal,
Follow-Up and Referrals
4. Postnatal

CILFF NOTE

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 Advantages (Fraser, 1974).
It helps the individual/family to:
1. Comprehend the medical facts
including the diagnosis, probable
course of the disorder, and the available
management
2. appreciate the way hereditary
contributes to the disorder and the risk
of recurrence in specified relatives
3. understand the alternatives for dealing
with the risk of recurrence
4. choose a course of action which seems
to them appropriate in their view of
their risk, their family goals, and their
ethical and religious standards and act
in accordance with that decision;
5. to make the best possible adjustment
to the disorder in an affected family
member and/or to the risk of recurrence
of that disorder
Issues:
1. Mistaken paternity might get
revealed. Eg- If the child is homozygous
for an allele that only the mother carries.
Phenylketonuria.
2. Confidentiality
3. Difficulty in interpreting genetic
analysis. Eg- In case of auto-immune
diseases or a dominant disease with
low expressivity.
4. Failure to differentiate between neutral
polymorphism and disease.
5. Late developing disease councelling.
Eg- Huntington’s Chorea
6. Phenocopy
EUGENICS:
The concept of eugenics was 1st introduced
by Sir Francis Galton in 1883. Galton
believed that the species could be improved
using technological means for controlled
reproduction.
Galton claimed that health and disease, as
well as social and intellectual characteristics,
were based upon heredity and the concept
of race.
The most well-known application of
eugenics occurred in Nazi Germany.
They implemented a campaign of forced
sterilization that culminated in the
near destruction of the Jewish people,
as well as an effort to eliminate other
marginalized ethnic minorities, such as the
Sinti and Roma, individuals with disabilities
and LGBTQ+ people.
Views on Eugenics:
Politically, eugenics can be practiced from a
liberal or an authoritarian standpoint.
1. Under liberal eugenics, people
autonomously choose the genetic
characteristics of individuals,
2. Under authoritarian eugenics it is the
State that determines who should or
should not be born.
Biological eugenics can also take two forms:
1. Negative eugenics= Used to avoid the
birth of people with undesirable genetic
characteristics or traits. Eg-
a. Sexual disconnection for people
with sex-linked diseases such
as Colour blindness, night
blindness, hemophilia, etc.
b. Immigration control
c. Aborting an individual with Patau
Syndrome (trisomy 13),
d. marriage restrictions on people
with genetic disroders (Eg- In
Cyprus, Thalassemia screening
is mandatory before couples can
marry)
2. Positive eugenics= People actively
pursue the selection of genetic traits
considered to be desirable. Encouraging
desirable individuals to bear more
children and also to produce genetically
enhanced children. Eg-
a. Young persons having the best
hereditary traits should be
encouraged for early marriages.
b. Selected young men and women
who have best eugenic value
should be encouraged to have
more children.
c. In regard to assisted reproductive
technology, selection of an
embryo that does not share a
defective gene with its parents.

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Studies carried out on couples with
problems of infertility have shown
that PGD (preimplantation genetic
diagnosis) reduces the frequency of
aneuploidy in couples with at high risk for
this condition, increasing the probability
of carrying a pregnancy to term. It
has also diminished the probability of
monogenic disorders such as Sanjad-
Sakati syndrome, Canavan disease,
Cystic-Fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease,
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and
others.
Sex selection for social reasons:
Sex selection for social rather than medical
reasons is another practice associated with
assisted reproductive technologies (ART)
that can affect the genetic composition of
the population, particularly in China where
the ratio of men to women is 1.2 to 1.
Marcus Pembrey (2002) argued against sex
selection, because to permit this practice
would lead us to a slippery slope, because
arguments based on the autonomy
of couples and cultural factors would
eventually lead to legitimizing the selection
of more complex genetic traits such as skin
color, height, or intelligence.
Ethical considerations
1. With the completion of the Human
Genome Project (HGP) and advances
in genomic screening technologies,
there is some concern about whether
generating an increasing amount of
genomic information in the prenatal
setting would lead to new societal
pressures to terminate pregnancies
where the fetus is at heightened risk
for genetic disorders, such as Down
Syndrome and spina bifida.
2. The emergence of statistical techniques,
such as polygenic risk scores, that can
estimate risks for more genetically
complex disorders have raised
concerns among ethicists that their use
in the context of in vitro fertilization and
preimplantation genetic diagnoses.
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The possible genomic-based screening
of embryos for behavioral, psychosocial
and/or intellectual traits would be
reminiscent of the history of eugenics
in its attempt to eliminate certain
individuals.
IS GENETIC COUNSELLING A FORM OF
EUGENICS? –A Debate
According to Ricardo Luque (2018),
In pre-implantation consultation (In
Assisted Reproduction technology),
the genetic selection of embryos can
be considered eugenic when it is
used to change the natural course of
reproduction or used for non-medical
purposes.
1. One goal is to avoid the consequences
for both the child and the parents
of having a child with a genetic
disease. This can be justified by the
reproductive beneficence principal.
2. A second goal is to reduce healthcare
costs arising from genetic disease.
Prenatal diagnosis, when linked to
abortion as a response to congenital
malformations, can be considered
negative eugenics.
Post-natal counselling (when a
couple whose child has a congenital
disease wants to know of the risk of
having another child affected by the
same disorder)=It is very similar to
preconception counseling in the way it is
carried out and in terms of the possible
eugenic consequences.
Several authors assert that when parents
abort a pregnancy based on the results
of prenatal genetic counseling, they
may be engaging in negative eugenics
because they are impeding the birth of
people with certain physical or genetic
traits.
 Applications:
In her book “The Politics of Life Itself”
1. Gene cloning to study the structure and
(2012), Nikolas Roseargues that the
function of individual genes and their
term “Eugenics” be applied exclusively to
role in various biological processes.
authoritarian and positive practices, and
2. DNA Probes= DNA Probes are short
not for liberal and negative practices.
segments of DNA that distinguish
Since biotechnological advances
corresponding sequences in DNA and
work on a probabilistic rather than a
hence permit recognition of specific
deterministic model, they do not shape
DNA sequences.DNA probes have been
the destiny of individuals, but rather
developed for Leishmania, Trypnosoma,
provide opportunities to prevent certain
plasmodium, Schistosoma, Wuchereria
pathologies and the hope that they can
and some additional human parasites.
do so. WHO also doesn’t consider
DNA probes can also be used to
genetic counseling a eugenic practice,
recognise viruses which were previously
because it is not carried out as State
hard to culture.
policy.
3. Recombinant protein production. Eg-
Nondirective counseling (patients
Insulin production
receive information in the clearest and
4. Vaccine production
most impartial form possible so that it is
they who make their own reproductive 5. Genetically modified crops with
decisions) is based on the idea of improved yield, disease resistance, or
separating clinical genetics from the nutritional content. Eg- Golden Rice.
eugenic practices. 6. Gene therapy= To correct genetic
defects or introduce therapeutic genes
DNA TECHNOLOGY IN DISEASES AND to alleviate disease symptoms
MEDICINE 7. Diagnostics= Polymerase chain
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY (RDT) reaction (PCR) allows amplification
of specific DNA sequences, making it
Recombinant DNA technology comprises
possible to detect and identify genetic
altering genetic material outside an
markers. Pathogens are isolated and
organism to obtain enhanced and desired
identified, and then diagnostic kits are
characteristics in living organisms or as
produced for infectious diseases like TB
their products. This technology involves the
and measles.
insertion of DNA fragments from a variety of
sources, having a desirable gene sequence 8. Genes from microorganisms can be
via appropriate vector. cloned and transferred to bacteria
or plants to enhance their ability to
Discovery of restriction enzymes 1968 by
degrade pollutants or remove toxic
Werner Arber paved way for RDT.
substances from the environment.

GENE THERAPY
Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a
person’s genes to treat or cure disease.
Gene therapy utilizes various delivery
methods to introduce therapeutic genes
into target cells.
1. Viral vectors (such as retroviruses,
lentiviruses, and adenoviruses) and
2. Non-viral vectors (such as liposomes
and nanoparticles).

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 Types of Gene Therapy
Gene Replacement Therapy: Replacing a defective or non-functional gene with a
functional copy. The new gene provides the instructions necessary for the production of
a functional protein, thereby addressing the underlying cause of the disease.
Gene Editing: Gene editing techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9, allow for precise modifications
to the DNA sequence. This can involve correcting disease-causing mutations, removing
harmful genes, or introducing specific genetic changes to achieve therapeutic effects.
Gene Addition Therapy: In some cases, additional genes may be introduced into the cells
to enhance their function or provide a therapeutic effect. This approach is particularly
relevant for diseases where the production of a specific protein is insufficient.
Gene Silencing: Involve the use of small RNA molecules to silence or downregulate the
expression of specific genes associated with diseases.

Applications
Gene therapy has the potential to treat a wide range of genetic disorders, including inherited
disorders (such as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy), certain types of
cancer, neurological disorders (such as Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease), and
immune system disorders.

CRISPER-Cas9 Technology
By Charpentier and Doudna (Nobel Prize in 2022)
CRISPER= Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short palindromic Repeats.

CRISPER is a genetic code or sequence found in bacteria.

» Formed due to the activity of the previous bacteriophages that had infected them.
Bacteria uses CRISPR sequence to remember each specific virus that attacks them by
incorporating virus DNA into their own bacterial genome.
This gives the bacteria protection when a specific virus tries to attack again.
CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9): A bacterial RNA-guided endonuclease that once
activated will make special enzymes that seem to have CO- evolved with CRISPR.

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 How does CRISPR work? Applications
There are the 3 key elements of 1. Gene Therapy: CRISPR-Cas9 can
CRISPR-Casg work: be used to correct disease-causing
» Guide RNA: A piece of RNA that genetic mutations by precisely editing
locates the targeted gene. This is the DNA sequence. It offers potential
engineered in a lab. treatments for genetic disorders, such
as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and
» Casg: The “scissors” that snip the
muscular dystrophy.
undesired DNA out.
2. Cancer Research and Treatment:
» DNA: The desired piece of DNA that
CRISPR-Cas9 enables researchers to
is inserted after the break.
study the genes involved in cancer
development and progression. It can be
used to disrupt or modify oncogenes or
tumor suppressor genes to understand
their role in cancer biology. Additionally,
CRISPR-Cas9 has the potential for
targeted cancer therapies by specifically
targeting and eliminating cancer cells.
3. Infectious Disease Research: CRISPR-
Cas9 can be used to modify the genomes
of viruses and bacteria, aiding in the
development of new treatments and
vaccines against infectious diseases,
such as HIV, malaria, and tuberculosis.
4. Drug Discovery: By editing specific
genes in cells or model organisms,
researchers can study their function
and assess their potential as therapeutic
targets. This approach helps accelerate
the development of novel drugs for
various diseases.
5. Precision Medicine: CRISPR-Cas9
has the potential to revolutionize
personalized medicine by enabling the
modification of patient-specific cells. It
can be used to engineer immune cells
for cancer immunotherapies or modify
CILFF NOTE
stem cells for regenerative medicine,
tailoring treatments to individual
patients’ needs.
6. Disease Modeling: CRISPR-Cas9
allows researchers to create precise
genetic modifications in animal models,
mimicking human diseases. This
technology enables the study of disease
mechanisms, identification of potential
drug targets, and testing of therapeutic
interventions.

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 Limitations
CRISPR-Cas9 has sparked discussions
around ethical considerations, including the
implications of germline editing, potential
unintended consequences, and the need
for responsible use and regulation of the
technology.
“Desiner babies” can have ecological impact
in regard to gene distribution in population.
CHIMERIC ANTIGEN RECEPTOR T
(CAR-T) CELL THERAPY
It is a way to get immune cells called T cells
(type of white blood cell that attacks foreign
pathogens) to fight cancer by editing them
in the lab.
T cells are taken from patient’s blood and
are edited by adding a gene for a man-
madereceptor (called CAR).
CAR is special receptor, created in the
laboratory, thatis designed to bind to
certain proteins on cancer cells.
CAR is then added to T cells.
This helps them better identify specific
cancer cell antigens.
These changed T cells called CAR- T cells.
CAR-T cells are then given back to the
patient.
CILFF NOTE
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Benefits of CAR-T therapy
While existing treatments work towards
increasing life of patients, CAR-T
technologyholds promise of curingcertain
types of cancers.
Unlike chemotherapy, CAR-T is administered
only once to a patient. Short treatment time
needed and more rapid recovery.
SEROGENETICS AND CYTOGENETICS IN
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Serogenetics
Serogenetics is the branch of genetics
that studies serological proteins. Eg-
Gonadotropins FSH,LH, HSG or sex
hormones like testosterone oestrogen and
progesterone.
Cytogenetics
Cytogenetics is the branch of genetics that
focuses on the study of chromosomes and
their role in inheritance, development,
and reproductive processes. It involves
analyzing the structure, number, and
behavior of chromosomes to understand
genetic abnormalities and their impact on
reproductive biology.
Cytogenetic testing can be performed
on individuals experiencing infertility
or recurrent pregnancy loss to assess
whether chromosomal abnormalities are
contributing to reproductive difficulties
 MALE Hormone Secreted By Role in Reproduction

Testosterone Leydig Cells in Promotes the development and maintenance of male

Testes reproductive organs, such as the testes, prostate, and
seminal vesicles.
Stimulates the production of sperm (spermatogenesis).
Plays a role in the development of secondary sexual
characteristics in males, such as facial and body hair,
deepening of the voice, and muscle growth.

Gonadotropin- Hypothalamus Regulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and

Releasing luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
Hormone (GnRH) Stimulates the production and release of FSH and LH, which play
vital roles in reproductive processes.

FSH (Follicle- Anterior In males, stimulates the production of sperm

Stimulating Pituitary Gland (spermatogenesis) by acting on the Sertoli cells in the
Hormone) testes.
Plays a role in the growth and development of the
seminiferous tubules in the testes.
LH (Luteinizing Anterior In males, stimulates the production of testosterone by the
Hormone) Pituitary Gland Leydig cells in the testes.
Promotes the release of mature sperm from the testes
(spermatozoa) through a process called spermiogenesis.

FEMALE Hormone Secreted By Role in Reproduction

Estrogen Ovarian Follicles Stimulates the growth and development of the uterus
lining (endometrium).
Promotes the development of mammary glands in
preparation for lactation.
Plays a role in fetal development, particularly in the
development of the reproductive system.

Progesterone Corpus Luteum Supports the maintenance of the uterine lining to allow
implantation and provide a suitable environment for the
developing embryo.
Inhibits uterine contractions to prevent premature labor.
Helps prepare the breasts for milk production.

FSH (Follicle- Anterior Stimulates the growth and development of ovarian

Stimulating Pituitary Gland follicles, which contain the eggs.
Hormone) Helps in the production of estrogen by the ovarian
follicles.

LH (Luteinizing Anterior Triggers ovulation, the release of the mature egg from
Hormone) Pituitary Gland the ovary.
Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum, which
produces progesterone.
Maintains the function of the corpus luteum in early
pregnancy.

Inhibin Ovarian Follicles, Inhibits the secretion of FSH, regulating the follicular
Corpus Luteum development and maintaining a balance between FSH
and LH levels.

hCG (Human Syncytio- Supports the corpus luteum, ensuring the production of
Chorionic trophoblast progesterone during early pregnancy.
Gonadotropin) (developing Helps maintain the uterine lining and prevent
placenta) menstruation.
Detected in pregnancy tests as its presence indicates
pregnancy.

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