Solar PV System

Theory, Planning, NEC Design & Calculations

Author: Asif Khokher, PE, NABCEP PVIP, ISA-CAP, PMP, RMP

A Comprehensive Text Book and Guide for Beginners & Professionals

Detailed debate on System Electrical Design & Calculations in accordance with National Electric Code (NEC)

Sizing Calculations of On-Grid and Off-Grid Systems

Preparation Resource for NABCEP Exams

200 Nos NABCEP Associate & Advanced Level MCQs included

 Contents
Preface

1 INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 1

1.1 PHOTOVOLTAICS 1
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1.2 ADVANTAGES 2
1.1.3 DISADVANTAGES 2
1.2 HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR CELL 2
1.2.1 INVENTIONS 2
1.2.2 CURRENT PV INSTALL BASE 4
1.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS 5
1.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC INDUSTRY STAKEHOLDERS 6
1.5 SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS 9
1.5.1 SOLAR CONCENTRATORS OR COLLECTORS 9
1.5.2 SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY COLLECTORS 10

2 SOLAR RADIATION, ENERGY AND EARTH ROTATION 12

2.1 THE SUN 12

2.2 SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR LIGHT 13
2.3 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR CONSTANT 14
2.3.1 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION 14
2.4 TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION AND AIR MASS 15
2.4.1 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS 15
2.4.2 GLOBAL RADIATION 15
2.4.3 DIRECT RADIATION 15
2.4.4 DIFFUSE RADIATION 16
2.4.5 ALBEDO RADIATION 16
2.4.6 AIR MASS 16
2.5 PEAK SUN VALUE AND HOURS 17
2.5.1 PEAK SUN HOURS 17
2.6 SOLAR IRRADIANCE AND IRRADIATION 18
2.6.1 SOLAR IRRADIANCE (SOLAR POWER) 18
2.6.2 SOLAR IRRADIATION (SOLAR ENERGY) 18
2.7 SOLAR RADIATION DATA AND MAPS 19
2.7.1 GLOBAL RADIATION MAPS, CHARTS AND TABLES 19
2.8 MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION AND SUNLIGHT 23
2.8.1 PYRANOMETER 23
2.8.2 PYRHELIOMETER 25
2.8.3 IRRADIANCE METER 25
2.8.4 SPECTRAL POWER DENSITY AND PHOTON FLUX 25
2.9 EARTH ORBIT AND ROTATION 26
2.9.1 EARTH ORBIT 26
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 27
2.9.2 SUN DECLINATION 27
2.10 SOLAR TIME AND EQUATION OF TIME GRAPH 28
2.10.1 SOLAR TIME 28
2.10.2 SOLAR NOON 29
2.10.3 LOCAL STANDARD TIME 29
2.11 SUN PATH CHARTS AND SOLAR WINDOW 30
2.11.1 SUN PATH 30
2.11.2 SUN ZENITH, ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES 30
2.11.3 SUN PATH CHARTS 31
2.11.4 SOLAR WINDOW 31
2.12 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE AZIMUTH AND TILT ANGLES 32
2.12.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE OPTIMAL ORIENTATION 33
2.12.2 NON-OPTIMAL ORIENTATION 33
2.13 SOLAR MAGNETIC DECLINATION AND TILT ANGLES 34
2.14 POWER AND ENERGY BASIC ELECTRICAL EQUATIONS 34

3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS, MODULES AND ARRAYS 36

3.1 ATOM, SEMICONDUCTORS AND BAND GAP 36

3.1.1 THE ATOM 36
3.1.2 CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR 37
3.1.3 BAND GAP OF CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR 38
3.2 SILICON ELEMENT STRUCTURE AND DOPING 39
3.2.1 PURE SILICON 39
3.2.2 DOPING 39
3.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT AND SOLAR CELL WORKING PRINCIPLE 40
3.3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT 40
3.3.2 P-N JUNCTION 40
3.3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL 42
3.4 STRUCTURE, MATERIALS AND FABRICATION OF A SOLAR CELL AND MODULE 43
3.4.1 BASIC STRUCTURE 43
3.4.2 MATERIALS OF A SOLAR CELL 43
3.4.3 FABRICATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE AND MONOCRYSTALLINE SILICON 44
45
3.4.4 MODULE ASSEMBLY 45
3.5 CURRENT-VOLTAGE-POWER CURVES OF SOLAR PV MODULES 46
3.5.1 OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (VOC) 46
3.5.2 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT (ISC) 47
3.5.3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT (PMPP) 47
3.5.4 OPERATING POINT 47
3.5.5 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT) 48
3.5.6 RESPONSE TO IRRADIANCE 48
3.6 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT AND CALCULATING VOLTAGES 49
3.6.1 RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE 49
3.6.2 STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS (STC) 50
3.6.3 CALCULATING VOC 50
3.6.4 CELL TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE RISE COEFFICIENT 52
3.7 EFFICIENCY AND FILL FACTOR 53
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3.7.1 EFFICIENCY 53
3.7.2 FILL FACTOR 54
3.8 MODULE SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS 54
3.9 SHADING AND BYPASS DIODES 56
3.10 PV MODULE LABELS 57
3.11 TEST CONDITIONS 58
3.11.1 STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS (STC) 58
3.11.2 NOMINAL OPERATING CONDITIONS (NOC) 58
3.11.3 STANDARD OPERATING CONDITIONS (SOC) 58
3.12 PV MODULE STANDARDS 59
3.12.1 IEC 61215 ED 2.0 – CRYSTALLINE SILICON PV MODULE DESIGN QUALIFICATION 59
3.12.2 IEC61730 ED. 2 - PV MODULE SAFETY QUALIFICATION 59
3.12.3 UL1703 - PV MODULE SAFETY QUALIFICATION 60
3.12.4 IEC 61701 – SALT MIST CORROSION TYPE TEST APPROVAL 60

4 CHARGE CONTROLLER 61

4.1 INTRODUCTION 61
4.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER FUNCTIONS 62
4.2.1 MULTISTAGE CHARGING 62
4.2.2 VOLTAGE REGULATION 63
4.2.3 OVERCHARGE PROTECTION 63
4.2.4 OVER-DISCHARGE PROTECTION 63
4.2.5 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED CONTROL 63
4.3 TYPES OF CHARGE CONTROLLER 64
4.3.1 SHUNT REGULATED CONTROL 64
4.3.2 SERIES REGULATED CONTROL 65
4.3.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATED (PWM) CONTROL 65
4.3.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT CONTROL 66
4.3.5 DIVERSION CHARGE CONTROL 67
4.3.6 PWM VERSUS MPPT CONTROLLER 67
4.4 VOLTAGE SETTINGS IN CHARGE CONTROLLER 68
4.4.1 VOLTAGE REGULATION SETPOINT (MAXIMUM) 68
4.4.2 REGULATION MINIMUM SETPOINT 68
4.4.3 REGULATION HYSTERESIS SETPOINT RANGE 69
4.4.4 LOW VOLTAGE LOAD DISCONNECT SET-POINT 69
4.4.5 EQUALIZATION SETPOINTS 69
4.4.6 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ADJUSTMENTS 69
4.5 SELECTION PARAMETERS OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER 70
4.6 INSTALLATION OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER 71
4.6.1 LOCATION 71
4.6.2 VOLTAGE DROP 71
4.6.3 HOOKS-UP 72

5 SOLAR PV INVERTER 73

5.1 INTRODUCTION 73
5.2 AC, DC AND QUALITY OF POWER 75
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5.2.1 AC POWER AND SINE WAVEFORM 75
5.2.2 OTHER WAVEFORMS AND HARMONICS 76
5.2.3 THREE-PHASE POWER 77
5.2.4 POWER QUALITY 79
5.2.5 DISTORTED WAVEFORMS 80
5.2.6 POWER FACTOR 80
5.2.7 VARYING FREQUENCY 80
5.2.8 EFFECTS OF POOR POWER QUALITY ON POWER SYSTEM 80
5.3 SWITCHING, POWER CONDITIONING AND CONTROL 80
5.3.1 BASIC INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONIC DEVICES 81
5.3.2 DC-DC CONVERTER 82
5.3.3 DC-AC CONVERTER 83
5.3.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKERS 85
5.4 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTERS 86
5.4.1 STAND-ALONE INVERTER 86
5.4.2 UTILITY INTERACTIVE INVERTER 87
5.4.3 STRING INVERTER 88
5.4.4 CENTRAL INVERTER 89
5.4.5 UTILITY-SCALE INVERTERS 89
5.4.6 MICRO-INVERTERS 90
5.4.7 MULTIMODE INVERTER 90
5.5 EARTHING & GROUNDING 91
5.6 SELECTION PARAMETERS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF INVERTER 92
5.7 INVERTER STANDARDS 98
5.8 FINAL NOTE: EFFICIENCY OF INVERTER 100

6 BATTERIES 102

6.1 INTRODUCTION 102

6.1.1 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A BATTERY 102
6.1.2 BASIC WORKING OF AN ELECTROLYTE LEAD ACID CELL 103
6.1.3 THREE STAGE CHARGING 105
6.1.4 FORMATION OF GASSES AND OVERCHARGING 105
6.1.5 SULFATION AND STRATIFICATION 106
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS OF A BATTERY 106
6.2.1 BATTERY CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 106
6.2.2 CHARGE AND DISCHARGE RATE 108
6.2.3 STATE OF CHARGE (SOC) AND DEPTH OF DISCHARGE (DOD) 110
6.2.4 AUTONOMY, SELF-DISCHARGE, CYCLES AND EFFICIENCY 110
6.2.5 SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF BATTERIES 111
6.3 TYPES OF BATTERIES 112
6.3.1 PRIMARY BATTERIES 112
6.3.2 SECONDARY BATTERY 113
6.3.3 SPECIFIC ENERGY DENSITY OF BATTERY 113
6.4 LEAD ACID-BATTERIES 113
6.4.1 FLOODED LEAD ACID BATTERY 114
6.4.2 SEALED OR VALVE REGULATED LEAD ACID BATTERIES 114
6.4.3 COMPARISON OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES 115
6.5 NICKEL BASED BATTERIES 116
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6.5.1 NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY 116
6.5.2 NICKEL-METAL-HYDRIDE (NIMH) 117
6.5.3 COMPARISONS OF NICKEL BASED BATTERIES 118
6.6 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES 119
6.6.1 CONSTRUCTION OF LITHIUM ION BATTERY 119
6.6.2 COMPARISONS OF LITHIUM BASED BATTERIES 120
6.7 SUPER-CAPACITOR BATTERY 121
6.8 COMPARISONS OF MAJOR TYPES OF BATTERIES 122
6.9 CALCULATING BATTERY BANK SIZE 122
6.9.1 EXAMPLE 1 123
6.9.2 EXAMPLE 2 124
6.9.3 EXAMPLE 3 124
6.9.4 EXAMPLE 4 124
6.9.5 EXAMPLE 5 125
6.10 SELECTION PARAMETERS OF A BATTERY 125
6.11 OPERATION AND INSTALLATION OF A BATTERY 126
6.12 BATTERY STANDARDS 128
6.12.1 IEC 61427 – SECONDARY CELLS AND BATTERIES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY 128
6.12.2 IEEE 937/1013 – RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LEAD-ACID BATTERIES FOR PV SYSTEMS 129
6.12.3 IEEE 1361– GUIDE FOR SELECTING, CHARGING, TESTING, AND EVALUATING LEAD-ACID BATTERIES USED IN PV (PV) SYSTEMS 129

7 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE-I: CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS, SYSTEM SELECTION, ECONOMICS AND SALES 130

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM DESIGN STAGES 130

7.2 CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS AND CHALLENGES 131
7.3 SYSTEM SELECTION AND ECONOMICS OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS 131
7.3.1 SELECTION OF TYPE OF SYSTEM 132
7.3.2 ECONOMICS OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM 133
7.3.3 PAYBACK PERIOD, NET PRESENT VALUE AND INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN 134
7.3.4 NET METERING AND STATE INCENTIVES 137
7.3.5 COST CALCULATIONS EXAMPLES 138
7.3.6 LEVELIZED COST OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS (LCOE) 142
7.4 PROJECT SCOPE OF WORK AND AGREEMENT 142
7.5 ESTIMATING USER LOAD REQUIREMENTS 143
7.6 SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS 146
7.7 REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL OR TENDER DOCUMENT 149
7.7.1 SAMPLE RFP 150

8 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE-II: SITE SURVEY AND PLANNING 153

8.1 SIT SURVEY 153

8.1.1 SITE DATA COLLECTION FOR PLANNING 153
8.1.2 UTILITY INTERCONNECTION 154
8.1.3 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR SITE SURVEY 154
8.1.4 SAFETY AND HAZARD PREVENTION 154
8.2 SHADOW TYPES 155
8.2.1 TEMPORARY SHADOWING 155
8.2.2 SHADING DUE TO LOCATION 155
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8.2.3 SELF-SHADING 156
8.3 SHADING ANALYSIS 156
8.3.1 SHADING ANALYSIS TOOLS 157
8.3.2 AREA OF THE PV ARRAY AND INTER-ROW DISTANCE 158
8.3.3 WINDOW OF OBSTRUCTION AND REDUCTION IN YIELD 163
8.3.4 DUST AND SOILING 164
8.4 PV ARRAY LOCATION AND ORIENTATION 165
8.4.1 LOCATION CONSIDERATIONS 165
8.4.2 PV ARRAY TILT AND ORIENTATION 166
8.4.3 OTHER LOCATIONS 168
8.5 OPTIMIZED STRING CONNECTION 168
8.6 EXISTING ELECTRICAL AND INTERCONNECTION EQUIPMENT 170

9 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE-III: ARRAY MOUNTING AND MECHANICAL DESIGN 172

9.1 INTRODUCTION 172

9.2 FACTORS IN PV ARRAY MOUNTING DESIGN 172
9.2.1 ELECTRICAL CONFIGURATIONS 173
9.2.2 PV MODULE CHARACTERISTICS 173
9.2.3 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT 173
9.2.4 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS 174
9.2.5 ACCESSIBILITY 174
9.2.6 THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS 174
9.2.7 ARRAY AESTHETICS 175
9.3 PV ARRAY MOUNTING LOCATIONS 176
9.3.1 ROOF TOP 176
9.3.2 GROUND-MOUNTED 176
9.3.3 OTHER LOCATIONS 176
9.4 MOUNTING STRUCTURE MATERIAL AND TYPES 177
9.4.1 GALVANIZED IRON 177
9.4.2 MILD STEEL 177
9.4.3 ALUMINUM 177
9.5 ROOFING STRUCTURE BASICS 177
9.5.1 ROOF SHAPES 178
9.5.2 PITCHED ROOF STRUCTURE ELEMENTS 178
9.5.3 PITCHED ROOF SKINS AND LAYERS 179
9.6 MECHANICAL DESIGN AND TECHNIQUES 179
9.6.1 PITCHED ROOF RACK MOUNTING 179
9.6.2 ESTIMATING PV SUPPORT MATERIAL FOR ROOF RACK MOUNTING 181
9.6.3 BALLASTED MOUNTING SYSTEMS ON COMMERCIAL BUILDING 183
9.6.4 POLE MOUNTING 184
9.6.5 GROUND MOUNTED SYSTEM 185
9.6.6 TRACKING SYSTEM 186
9.6.7 ARRANGING MODULES 186
9.6.8 WIND LOADING ANALYSIS 187
9.6.9 SELECTING FASTENERS OR SCREWS 190
9.6.10 BALANCE OF SYSTEM LOCATIONS 193
9.7 APPLICABLE CODES FOR INSTALLATION 194
9.7.1 INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE AND RESIDENTIAL CODE 194
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9.7.2 INTERNATIONAL FIRE CODE 194

10 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE IV - SOLAR PV SYSTEM SELECTION, SIZING AND CALCULATIONS 197

10.1 INTRODUCTION 197

10.2 PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION CONCEPTS AND INVERTER SELECTION 198
10.3 LOAD AND CRITICAL DESIGN ANALYSIS 200
10.4 EQUIPMENT KEY DESIGN CONCEPTS AND PARAMETERS 203
10.5 SYSTEM LOSSES 205
10.6 SYSTEM SIZING CALCULATIONS: ON-GRID SYSTEM 206
10.6.1 PV ARRAY AND STRING SIZING 210
10.6.2 INVERTER SIZING 213
10.7 SYSTEM SIZING CALCULATIONS: OFF-GRID SYSTEM WITH BATTERY BACKUP 214
10.7.1 PV ARRAY, STRING AND INVERTER SIZING 214
10.7.2 BATTERY BANK SIZING 216
10.8 SPECIFICATIONS OF EQUIPMENT AND HOURLY CALCULATIONS 218

11 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE–V: ELECTRICAL DESIGN, COMPONENTS AND NEC 220

11.1 INTRODUCTION 220

11.2 NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE OVERVIEW 220
11.3 PV SYSTEM DEFINITIONS: NEC 2020 ARTICLE 690.2 223
11.4 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS: NEC ARTICLE 690.4/690.6 225
11.5 VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS: NEC ARTICLE 690.7 226
11.5.1 MAXIMUM PV CIRCUIT VOLTAGE 226
11.5.2 CALCULATING MAXIMUM STRING VOLTAGE AND NUMBER OF MODULES 227
11.5.3 CALCULATING MINIMUM STRING VOLTAGE AND NUMBER OF MODULES 229
11.5.4 DC-DC CONVERTER AND BIPOLAR CIRCUITS 230
11.6 CIRCUIT SIZING AND CALCULATIONS: NEC ARTICLE 690.8 231
11.6.1 MAXIMUM CURRENT: 690.8(A) 231
11.6.2 CONDUCTOR SIZING: 690.8(B) 233
11.6.3 CONDUCTOR VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATIONS 239
11.7 OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION: NEC ARTICLE 690.9 242
11.7.1 CIRCUITS AND EQUIPMENT: 690.9(A) 242
11.7.2 OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE RATING: 690.9(B) 248
11.7.3 SINGLE OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE FOR CIRCUITS: 690.9(C) 250
11.8 STANDALONE SYSTEM: NEC ARTICLE 690.10 250
11.9 ARC-FAULT PROTECTION FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEMS: NEC ARTICLE 690.11 251
11.10 RAPID SHUTDOWN OF PV SYSTEMS ON BUILDING: NEC ARTICLE 690.12 252
11.11 DISCONNECTING MEANS OR DISCONNECT SWITCHES 256
11.11.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM DISCONNECTING MEANS: NEC ARTICLE 690.13 256
11.11.2 DISCONNECTING MEANS FOR ISOLATING PV EQUIPMENT: NEC ARTICLE 690.15 259
11.12 WIRING METHODS: NEC ARTICLE 690.31 260
11.12.1 WIRING SYSTEMS: 690.31(A) 260
11.12.2 IDENTIFICATION AND GROUPING: 690.31(B) 262
11.12.3 CABLES: 690.31(C) 263
11.12.4 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS ON OR IN BUILDING: 690.31(D) 265
11.12.5 BIPOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM: 690.31(E) 266
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11.13 COMPONENT INTERCONNECTIONS AND MATING CONNECTORS 267
11.13.1 COMPONENT INTERCONNECTIONS: 690.32 267
11.13.2 MATING CONNECTORS: 690.33 267
11.14 GROUNDING & BONDING 268
11.14.1 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 268
11.14.2 GROUNDING AND BONDING: NEC 240 275
11.14.3 SYSTEM GROUNDING: PART V NEC 690.41 285
11.14.4 SUMMARY GROUNDING AND BONDING 292
11.15 MARKING: NEC 690 PART VI 294
11.16 LARGE SCALE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS: NEC 691 295
11.16.1 DEFINITIONS: NEC 691.1 295
11.16.2 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LARGE SCALE PHOTOVOLTAIC STATIONS: NEC 691.4 296
11.16.3 EQUIPMENT: NEC 691.5 296
11.16.4 ENGINEERING DESIGN: NEC 691.6 296
11.16.5 CONFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTION TO ENGINEERING DESIGN: NEC 691.7 297
11.16.6 DIRECT CURRENT OPERATING VOLTAGE: NEC 691.8 297
11.16.7 DISCONNECTING MEANS FOR ISOLATING PV EQUIPMENT: NEC 691.9 297
11.16.8 ARC-FAULT MITIGATION: NEC 691.10 297
11.16.9 FENCE BONDING AND GROUNDING: NEC 691.11 297
11.17 A NOTE ON UNDERWRITER’S LABORATORY 298

12 UTILITY INTERCONNECTION, ENERGY STORAGES AND STANDALONE WIRING ACCORDING TO NEC 299

12.1 INTRODUCTION 299

12.1.1 POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION 299
12.1.2 INTRODUCTION TO INTERCONNECTION CONCERNS AND SPECIAL CONDITIONS OF NEC 705 300
12.1.3 INTERCONNECTION CODES AND STANDARDS: IEEE1547 301
12.2 INTERCONNECTED ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION SOURCES: NEC 705 303
12.2.1 SCOPE: NEC 705.1 303
12.2.2 DEFINITIONS: NEC 705.2 303
12.2.3 EQUIPMENT APPROVAL: NEC 705.6 303
12.2.4 SYSTEM INSTALLATION: NEC 705.8 304
12.2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF POWER SOURCES: NEC 705.10 304
12.2.6 SUPPLY SIDE SOURCE CONNECTIONS: NEC 705.11 304
12.2.7 LOAD SIDE SOURCE CONNECTIONS: NEC 705.12 307
12.2.8 POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS (PCS): NEC 705.13 313
12.2.9 GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION: NEC 705.32 313
12.2.10 LOSS OF PRIMARY SOURCE OR UTILITY POWER: NEC 705.40 313
12.2.11 UNBALANCED INTERCONNECTIONS: NEC 705.45 313
12.3 ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (ESS): NEC 706 314
12.4 STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS: NEC 710 315

13 ANNEXURE A: NABCEP MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 317

13.1 INTRODUCTION 317

13.2 SAMPLE QUESTIONS SET 1 (1 – 70) – NABCEP ASSOCIATE LEVEL 317
13.3 ANSWERS WITH BRIEF EXPLANATION OF SAMPLE QUESTION SET 1 330
13.4 SAMPLE QUESTIONS SET 2 (1 – 70) – NABCEP ASSOCIATE LEVEL 335
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13.5 ANSWERS WITH BRIEF EXPLANATION OF SAMPLE QUESTION SET 2 347
13.6 SAMPLE QUESTIONS SET 3 (1 – 70) – NABCEP ADVANCE LEVEL 354
13.7 ANSWERS WITH BRIEF EXPLANATION OF SAMPLE QUESTION SET 3 366

14 ANNEXURE B: IMPORTANT EQUATIONS 372

14.1 BASIC ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY 372

14.2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS 372
14.3 COST AND FINANCIALS 374

15 ANNEXURE C: BIBLIOGRAPHY 375

16 ANNEXURE D: LIST OF FIGURES 376

17 ANNEXURE E: INDEX 383

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Copyright © 2024 Asif A. Khokher (asif.khokher@innovasyses.com)
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior
written permission of the publisher, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law.
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject
matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that neither the author nor the publisher is engaged in
rendering legal, investment, accounting or other professional services. While the publisher and author
have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or
extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein
may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional when appropriate. Neither
the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages,
including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, personal, or other damages.
Book Cover and Illustrations by Author
1st Edition, Year of Publication: 2024

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Preface
In the face of mounting environmental challenges and the ever-increasing demand for energy, the world finds itself
at a critical juncture. The urgent need to transition towards sustainable energy solutions has never been more
apparent. The need of this book originates from the mounting requirement to educate and train the individual and
professionals for the renewable sector, especially in Solar Photovoltaic Systems.
This book embarks on a captivating exploration of the transformative power of solar photovoltaics. It unravels the
particulars of harnessing sunlight to generate electricity and examines how this remarkable technology is
revolutionizing the global energy landscape. As solar photovoltaics continue their exponential growth and
increasingly become a mainstay in the global energy mix, it is vital to comprehend the underlying principles and
breakthroughs that make this technology so compelling. Throughout these pages, we will embark on a voyage of
discovery, uncovering the remarkable concepts and engineering marvels that underpin photovoltaic cells, modules,
and arrays.
This book is intended for those who are willing to build foundational and professional knowledge of Solar PV Systems
leading to System Designing in reference to National Electric Code. Readers may include but not limited to beginners,
professionals, instructors, project managers, associations, institutes or those individuals who are preparing for
NABCEP Exams.
We will delve into the practical aspects of deploying solar photovoltaics, especially on rooftops, which are integrated
into our urban landscapes. Starting from understanding the theory of Sun Energy, Photovoltaic Modules, Charge
Controllers, Inverters and Batteries, chapters later in this book finally lead to various stages of System Designing
which includes Initial planning, Proposals, Financial aspects, Site Surveying, On-Grid/Off-Grid Sizing calculations, and
finally, design of electrical components in accordance with the National Electric Code (2020/2023). Principles of
electrical design will enable us to optimize performance and maximize the safety aspects of this clean and
inexhaustible energy resource. This book comes with comprehensive calculation examples which are necessary for
any working professional.
Moreover, this book has been designed to prepare an individual willing to take further challenge of industry exams
or certificates like NABCEP. Hence, more than 200 sample questions with solutions have also been incorporated in
the book to build the confidence in the preparation of such exams.
As we journey through the chapters of this book, it is my hope that readers will not only gain a comprehensive
understanding of solar photovoltaics but also be inspired to become advocates for renewable energy in their own
right. Whether you are a student, a professional, an entrepreneur, or simply an environmentally-conscious individual,
your role in championing solar power's cause is paramount.
It is my sincere hope that this book not only informs but also inspires readers to take action. Whether you are an
industry professional, a student, a policymaker, or a concerned individual, the power to make a difference lies within
each of us. We must come together to accelerate the adoption of renewable energy solutions and propel our world
towards a sustainable and thriving future.
In conclusion, let this book be a guiding light in your quest to unlock the potential of solar photovoltaics and embrace
the profound changes it can bring to our world. Together, we can harness the boundless power of the sun and
illuminate a brighter, cleaner, and more sustainable future for generations to come.

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