Possible exam questions

General Geography I: PHYSICS

1-Consequences of the sphericity of the earth

It conditions the way in which the earth's surface receives energy, shape + movement
shape the physical characteristics and allow imaginary lines to be drawn on it, difficulty in
representing the surface in 2D. On the surface we are not aware of the movement, bending on
axis and around the sun. We can orient ourselves and locate ourselves on the surface, day, time
zones, East-West cardinal points, geographic network, meridians and parallels.

Periods of lighting and darkness, heating and cooling occur. Various forces are generated:
centrifugal, gravity and Coriolis.

2-Geographic consequences of translational movement

365 days, the hours of light and darkness change, seasons and terrestrial areas occur, as well as
4 key moments, solstices and equinoxes. Depending on proximity to the sun Perihelion or
Aphelio 150 million, it varies -3 or +2 approx. Astronomical year, time elapsed between the
Earth passing twice in front of a fixed star: Sun.

Solar year, between two equinoxes.

3 -Earth movements and geographical consequences

Succession of seasons and terrestrial zones, polar, temperate or intertropical zones.

Possibility of representing special relationships through cartography to know the characteristics

of the Earth's surface in the necessary detail. Or geodesy, survey and representation. Different
projections. Scale, also aerial photo, remote sensing...

4-Relationship between the length of the day and the movement of the earth

If the earth did not rotate, ½ of the earth would always have light, the other darkness, without
light, if solar energy there is no life, there would be no diversity of climates or meteorological
phenomena.

5-What is the pluviometric shadow effect? How is it produced? Causes? Consequences?

The pluviometric shadow is seen in the mountains or mountains, in which one of the areas is
dry due to the low ppt received due to a barrier, it is located on the leeward side of the
mountain range, it is also known as orogenic desert, shadow orographic. When an air mass
moves from a low altitude to a high altitude it expands and cools, cold air has less capacity to
carry moisture so it cools, letting the moisture escape, forming clouds. Moist air collides with
the physical barrier, forming clouds that release rain and snow as they rise against the
mountain. When it starts to go down it warms up again and clouds dissipate.

6-What is the density of air? Factors that modify. Impact of the differences between different
points on the Earth's surface

The density of air is the mass per body it has, its specific, or unit weight. 1u=V2. It will vary
depending on TºC and % Humidity. The air mass with + vapor is less dense, it rises, if it is hot
the volume rises and is more stable. The differences caused by the density of the air have an
impact on meteorology and pressure fields. And directly in the movement of atmospheric air.
7-The atmospheric structure

The influence of the atmosphere varies as we ascend from the surface. There is a criterion that
allows dividing into layers due to their different thermal behavior. The Troposphere lower layer,
turbulent movements, TºC drops 0.65º per 100m. It is a layer full of impurities. The
stratosphere has almost total absence of H2O and little presence of gases, here TºC up to 100º,
they absorb ultraviolet rays, ozone, 50km.

Upper atmosphere, Mesosphere 80km, almost total absence of atmospheric air, - wavelength
200-300º Thermosphere. Another consequence of radiation + absorption by air Ionization.

8-The factors that explain the unequal distribution of sunshine on the earth's surface. -
Difference between those of cosmic origin and those of geographical origin. The area of
greatest average insolation on Earth

Non-homogeneous earth performance, different thermal contrasts, distribution of solar

radiation, thermal balance generates compensatory heat transfer mechanisms. Movement of
the atmosphere and oceanic waters act in mechanism, part of the radiation is absorbed for
H2O, hydrological cycle.

But the factors that explain the unequal distribution of sunshine are cosmic and geographical.

Sun-Earth distance eccentricity, perihelion, aphelion

Height sun rise-sunset different incidence Ecuador and Tropics , slow in Tropics

Influence of Sun light duration

atmosphere effect

Geo-Unequal distribution of lands and seas, differential energy balance.

Geo-Topographic elevation, high peaks plus insolation.

Solar radiation distribution on the earth's surface

Thermal differentiation of troposphere, part is used to heat the air that rises and sets
atmospheric mechanisms in motion.

9-What is the effect of the Earth's atmosphere on solar radiation and the unequal distribution
of Earth's sunshine?

The atmosphere has an important effect on solar radiation and the unequal distribution of
insolation, the different path of solar rays has its consequence on the alatitude, clouds play a
fundamental role in this process, favoring or preventing the passage of solar energy. Filtered
work.

10-What are the explanatory factors for the unequal distribution of temperatures on the
Earth's surface?

Intrinsic and extrinsic (air masses and ocean currents)

Most important earth movement WE 30º-60º latitude

Air mass transferred by ocean currents.

Thermal structure at altitude, troposphere TºC descent, vertical gradient.

11-What is Jet Stream or Jet Streams? How many jet streams are there in each hemisphere
and what relationship do they have with the surface action centers?

The Jet Stream is a seasonal cycle, a wind flow of high speed 200-400 discovered in HN 2GM, in
winter it is more concentrated, it has ramifications but its origin is unknown. They influence the
action centers in height because they cause air movement and it is a dominant system of air
movement. Other dominant wind systems are the equatorial belt, the intertropical trade belt,
westerly winds in mid-latitudes and easterly winds in high latitudes. Fast current phases 150km
h, high latitude zones, curvature undulations and it slows down taking a more sinuous path,
Gota Fría.

12-What are anticyclones and storms? Differentiates high and low thermal and dynamic
pressures. Causes. How do they differ based on surface and height maps? Examples Thermal
AP and Dynamic AP

Anticyclones are closed isobars of high pressure that represent a certain center of action with
more than 1,015mb. The storm, on the other hand, is closed isobars of low pressure. The high
and low thermal pressures vary their masses due to the air temperature they possess, that is, in
the case of the anticyclone, there is a decrease in cold air and its temperature inverts, in the
case of a storm the opposite occurs. The dynamics are by advection, by transportation of a
vector air mass, a displacement of the air itself. They are differentiated by the letters A or B,
and the millibars that the pressure isobars have. If they are greater than 1,015mb, it is an
anticyclone, but rather a storm.

13-What are local winds? Types and causes that originate them

Local winds are the result of influences on the irregularities of the terrain, they give rise to
favorable meteorological conditions, they are sea breezes, currents due to different heating of
the water, mountain and valley winds, depending on the heat of the slopes, winds from
drainage, according to gravity from high to low regions and the Foehnn or Chinook effect,
mountain barriers, dry ascension.

14-Absolute humidity, relative humidity and humidity at the saturation point.

They refer to the amount of water vapor that the air has. The saturation point is when it
condenses producing dew. Contact cooling, cooling by adiabatic rise and mixing air masses at
different temperatures.

15-The general atmospheric circulation

The general atmospheric circulation is defined by the pressure distribution map, dominant wind
systems on the Earth's surface and atmospheric circulation at altitude. The dominant winds are
the trade winds, the equatorial belt, the winds from the east and west, their position varies
seasonally, the zonal model is altered by the distribution of oceans and continents. At altitude
we find the dominant circulation from the west, the JetStream.

16 -The distribution of precipitation on the earth's surface. Concept of precipitation regime.

Causes of different precipitation and main precipitation regimes

PPT regime is variation in ppt during the year. Isohyet map to represent. Different ppt
distribution. Areas with more ppt land near Ecuador, Latitudes 1/2, Monsoon and Subtropical
area. We find the equatorial, tropical + monsoon and Mediterranean, oceanic continental
regime. There are three climatic zones, warm, between tropics, convergence zone, temperate
trade winds, usual storms, western and polar winds, and cold air masses. ( -Seasonal variations
of precipitation)

17 -The causes of atmospheric pressure differences

Thermal and dynamic, thermal thermal circulation hot air rises cold descends. Dynamic air
circulation x thermal balance as rotation of the earth.

Winds and atmospheric circulation, wind any movement of air caused by pressure differences,
integrated by direction and intensity.

Dynamic analysis of air movement, depending on pressure differences and Earth's rotation
movement.

Air movement due to pressure difference, initial force of the air, different pressure in the
Earth's atmospheric pressure field. Perpendicular to isobars and speed and direction will
depend on the pressure gradient and density of the air.

Apparent Coriolis force, wind deviation, result of the action of the Earth's rotation movement,
is the planned trajectory deviation of the wind. Law Buys Ballot.

Moves convergence and divergence, contribution or loss of air to the surface compensated by
atmospheric moves, convert B to diver A.

18-Main mechanisms of atmospheric air saturation

Mixture of unsaturated air masses at different TºC, air plus amount of vapor and more TºC
become saturated and need to be cooled.

Contact cooling, when a mass of hot air moves over a cold surface, winter oceanic air masses
cool below the dew point = fog, summer cold wall...

Cooling by rise, + effective, strong condensations and abundant ppt occurs in large volumes of
air. Thermodynamic origin, ascending and descending movements important to understand
condensation and atmospheric ppt.

19-Explain the different causes that cause the rise of an air mass

Lifting air masses are of three types.

Convective, soil heats up, density loses and pressure increases stable. Tropical Ecuador, Lati ½
summer storms. Thermal

Orographic, windward, leeward, air when overcoming hot-Foehnn summit, leeward dries out
and – humidity, + pressure.

Cyclonic, advance of warm and cold fronts causes rise, can cause saturation and subsequent
condensation of H2O vapor, sudden elevation of hot air causes abundant rain, contrast with –
intensity.

20-What is a fold? Parts of a fold and four examples of fold types

A fold is a tectonic deformation produced by tangential forces in compression and results in

undulation of rock strata, different in style, anticline or syncline. Anti: outer concavity earth,
older rocks below.
Hinge: Max curvature part

Flank: Surface that joins anticline and syncline hinges to each other

Axial plane: Ideal surface, plane bisector of the angle formed x flanks

Folding axis: Intersection of the axial plane with the horizontal surface.

21-Faults: Produced by tectonic movements related to forces in tension or with component

forces, lips, voussoir, jump plane.

22-What are the differences between granite and limestone? Explain the origin, composition
and response to erosion of both.

Both are sedimentary, or exogenous, they form on the surface but there are different origins.
Granite has a detrital origin, due to the mechanical erosion of other stones. On the other hand,
limestone has a chemical origin, thanks to the aqueous medium, and is carbonated. Both are
stratified differently. The response or resistance to erosion depends on physical properties,
such as cohesion, homogeneity, degree of passivity, permeability... Coherent limestone,
incoherent granite.

23-The properties of rocks. Their responses to tectonic stresses and erosion

Material rocks that constitute the earth's crust formed by juxtapositions of elements belonging
to one or several minerals or by grouping of detritus derived from the fragmentation of other
or certain organisms. Homogeneous or hetero, cohesion allows us to differentiate coherent and
incoherent.

Eruptive, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Properties influence forms, condition action, endogenous forces and external agents. Response
vs tectonic stresses, stable zones of rock crust subjected to pressure in instability zones. Master
elastic or plastic. Different response or resistance. Space-time units of geo era, period, epoch,
age, chrono...

24 - Terrestrial structure

Cortex-Mantle-Core

Crust, continent and ocean, continent depth Mohorovic, granitic and basaltic, + sedim + thick
orogeneic activity zones. Ocean homogeneous, except dorsal and big pits. 3 sublayers.

Complex Precambrian Shields, continent parts made up of very old materials, prior to the
Cambrian, subjected to processes of emtamorphism and granitization, stable and rigid, which is
why tectonic push fragments.

Mantle, crust limit, - veil. Seismic waves, ultrabasic, peridotite gabbros.

Core, 29000km to center, mantle ------------ Gutenberg, the Earth's magnetic field is created.

25-Rocks and rock cycle

-Eruptive rocks- igneous, magmatic- endogenous

They come from cold incandescent magma from inside the Earth, an internal non-fossil origin.

Intrusive or plutonic: They are formed by the slow cooling of incandescent magma, crystals
form and appear crystallized on the surface.
Site: classified according to depth to which they cooled: Batholiths and Laccoliths (-)

Compo: Silica, iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium...

Different color, there are Sialic, Symmatic rocks..

Extrusive or volcanic: sudden cold origin magma red incandescent when it emerges from the
surface.

They emerge on the surface to form currents or flows, cones, necks and needles, chimneys,
lapilli...

Silicate minerals, Basalt, Black solid rock…

-Sedimentary rocks (exogenous):

Formed on the surface, strata arrangement, thickness=power there are fossils.

External origin, waste accumulation, destruction of others, erosion. Detrital, chemical and
organic.

Deposit stratification, accumulation of strata. Horizontal, oblique…

They collect compositions from other rocks.

Det: OTHER MECHANICAL EROSION, ruditas, sandstones, pelites

Chim: AQUEOUS MEDIUM, carbonated, silicon, saline

-Metamorphic rocks:

Sedim or plutonic rocks undergo physical alterations, dynamometamorphism, contact, regional

metamorphism.

Ancient or modern folding and proximity of granitic masses.

Chemical and mineralogical composition, + that of the original rock, main rocks: neis, marble...

Rock cycle: Evolution and rock relationship. Crystal, weathering, erosion, mythification and
metamorphosis

They transform, they respond to different forms of energy.

26-The structural reliefs of sedimentary basins

There are two types: horizontal aclinal and vertical monoclinal.

The aclines develop in parallel unaffected by tectonics. Sedimentary basin center. Simplest
form structural surface.

His p. Primitive structural: Last erosion layer has barely acted

His p. Structural derivative: Layer on surface is not the last sedim layer. Erosion if it has acted in
the last sedim layers. Erosion has acted on the last sedimentary layers.

Topographic forms x erosion: Horizontal platforms (tables, moors), witness hills (conical shape)
and forehills, erosion continues to act on witness that disappears.

The relationship between the river network and sedimentary structure does not normally
present a predetermined direction, but its influence on relief creation is very important.
Monoclinal or inclined forms (slopes) are created, formed on the edges of sedimentary basins
or areas where tectonics has tilted alternating sedimentary series of crumbly rocks resistant to
erosion in a single direction. The profile is asymmetrical, with a front and back.

Slopes: monoclinal forms with dipping

Monoclines: Dip +20º

Hog Back: 90º approx.

The relationship of the monocline structure with the river network is a determining factor in
evolution, unequal performance according to resistance to sedimentation or sedimentation
rate of strata.

27-The failed structural reliefs

Shields made up of very rigid materials that cannot be folded by the push of internal tectonic
forces and respond to them or pressures by breaking, giving rise to failures. (record u Horst, the
first fails below, the second fails above).

Regions very affected Germanic style, rivers settle and form valleys, Horst form plateaus,
horizontal movements give rise to tear failures. They can also be accompanied by volcanic
phenomena.

Original fault scarp (primitive): It comes directly from dislocation produced by tectonic
movements.

The value of identical topographic gradient and fault jump.

For it to be preserved, the raised lip must have a resistant material, the failure must be recent
or the erosion must have barely occurred.

Fault line scarp: Result of the different action on adjacent faulted blocks of different resistance,
for them to form the fault must have been leveled previously, by erosion (direct or inverted,
the first rock – resistant to the sunken block, the second + resistant) or fossilization and then
erosion.

Composite fault line scarp: result of the simultaneous action of mixed tectonics and differential
erosion.

2 types: caused by fault replay (2nd tectonic action) or exaggeration of scarp due to the action
of uneven erosion.

The relationship with the hydrographic network with faulted structures can be concordant
when the H2o circulates in parallel between two scarps that form horsts or discordant if it is
not parallel to the scarps.

28-The folded structural reliefs. Shapes and relationship of the hydrographic network with
these structures

The folded structural reliefs can be concordant or discordant.

In the concordant ones there are the simple ones, in which the network runs parallel
longitudinally to the axes of the fold through syncline valleys (tectonic) or compounds, when it
does so through syncline and anticlinal valleys (tectonic and erosive).

In the discordant ones, the drainage is transverse to the direction of the folding axes, there is
total independence between the folding structure and the hydrographic network.

29-Folded reliefs appear in certain types of rocks. Say which ones and why and explain the
formation of four shapes derived from these reliefs

The folded structural reliefs belong to the group of erogens, and appear in sedimentary covers,
the most basic form being the folding of a succession of undulations (provided there is a level of
detachment).

-Original, direct or primitive forms: Topography agrees with the structure, elevations (Mont)
coincide with the anticlines and depressions (Val) with the synclines, erosion can cause
incipient forms of a varied relief (Ruz).

-Derived forms: Erosion has acted more giving rise to structural and erosive forms of the same
altitude. Erosive action in ravines gives rise to the Ruz, dismantling upper layers and leaving
remains (Chevrons). Erosion of the hinge gives rise to an anticline valley (Combe).

The relationship with the hydrographic network is simple or complex concordant,

differentiating in the longitudinal parallel course to the axes of anticline (erosive) folding, this
being only part of the complex. And discordant.

30-Apachalense relief

Erosion surface affected by new tectonic uplift, new erosion on previously folded materials.

Presence of new alignment of parallel bars or ridges of the same height, not very high,
originating from more resistant strata (sandstone or quartzite)

Hydrographic network that is installed on this complex has peculiar characteristics, main river
courses run differently, they open deep and narrow perpendicular or oblique passages, Wáter
Caps. or Wind Caps.

31 -Exokarst forms

Closed depressions and canyons.

Sinks and uvalas: Torca. Bristle depression circular plan, rounded contour. Dominant profile of
Cuba or Cubeta, shape similar to a well-funnel, great oscillation depth is formed in places that
favor the retention and depth of the h20 related to sinking phenomena.

Poljés: = large closed depression, non-circular plan, framed plain configuration x +- steep walls,
elongated shape, related to important tectonic accidents and always in large areas, + favorable
conditions for dissolution-sinking. Flat bottom often covered with clay.

Canyons: Valleys with steep, vertical flanks and at their feet a slope of debris accumulates. They
are usually crossed by H2o courses, cave openings are observed on the walls, frequent in
springs, which contribute water to the main channel in its modeling, dissolution and perhaps
subsidence phenomena.

minor forms

Lapiaz and bogaz: Calcareous rock outcrops deeply affected by detailed shapes produced by
Karst dissolution, characterized by a series of grooves formed by dissolution as deep +- grooves
of unequal width, they can appear in flat areas or slopes and vertical walls. They form x surface
dissolution of limestone x H2o from runoff or retained water.

intermediate form

Tormos and arches: Large limestone blocks with a pronounced fungiform appearance and
several meters high.

Pinnacles: Limestone mass arranged in thick pointed columns.

32-Main conditions for the development of karst modeling

Karst model is formed in sedimentary rocks (calcareous), sensitive to dissolution processes.

Characteristics of calcareous rocks and their dissolution.

Limestone, dolomite. Carbonated sedimentary rocks of chemical origin composed of x calcium

carbonates or + magnesium.

Along with impurities, they are hard rocks, crossed by many fissures and joints, they are
impermeable. Rock is attacked only by grooming water, on the surface and inside.

Series of factors for karst development: rock is massive and not excessively folded, is furrowed
by a network of fissures and joints and there should be a sufficient volume of ppt to provide
H2O and enable the presence of vegetation.

33-Explain the phenomenon of the stream, indicating geographical conditions and main areas
where it occurs. What are the most common ways it manifests itself and the consequences it
gives rise to?

The stream is formed by the work of H2o that flows without being channeled, in a stable and
permanent way. Temporary phenomenon and occurs on slopes with a certain inclination and
slightly inclined slopes.

It occurs when H2o ppt or snow/ice melt circulates freely on the surface of the slopes. Different
forms depending on conditions, concentrated, Bad Lands, diffuse and laminar, Sheet Flood.

Conditioning factors: nature, volume and ppt rhythm, vegetation cover, verticality and length,
rock characteristics, lower soil layer and human action.

34-The dynamics of the slopes: elementary erosion processes

Materials resulting from weathering sensitive to gravity.

Scrolling by elements:

Free fall and detachment: Rapid movement displacement, result of the breakage of the
rock wall into fragments of various sizes that descend down the slope and remain stabilized in
1, trajectory depending on the inclination and roughness of the slope and the size and shape of
the fragments due to accumulation.

Crawling: Displacement and redistribution of particles x action of gravity, individually

1x1 = slow descent as a whole, crawling x gravity, triggering agents: footprints, roots...

Mass movement: Movements that affect a considerable volume of materials

Solifluxion: H2o ROLE Important in the muddy mass on stable lowering,

different forms. Precise + water, in more frequent glacial regions. Very linked earth flows,
material flow saturated with water that facilitates its evacuation + frequent in clay soils.

Glide. Rapid and massive movement of materials down a slope can occur in a
catastrophic manner; there must be an adequate sliding surface. Layered slip. Motion Triggers
Seismic, copious ppt..

Mass movement is a universal phenomenon in all climatic regions, with the key to the wear and
tear of interfluves, the key action of streams.

35-Weathering or explain the chemical processes (it was not asked but I added the
mechanical processes to cover the entire topic)

Weathering is the alteration of the rock by the action of atmospheric and biological agents. The
rock decomposes and disintegrates, leaving the materials to be mobilized by agents of erosion.
Geo action. From erosion by physical or chemical weathering. It acts constantly and very
important.

Mechanical fragmentation processes of thermal origin, daytime heat and nighttime cold cause
temperature changes and can cause exfoliation and crumbling. And of water origin, H2o
penetrates rock pores and fissures, subjecting it to stress, when freezing + volume 9 + pressure
fragmentation- gelifraction.

Chemical processes, causes chemical changes, important h2o in chemical weathering, active or
passive part.

Dissolution, physical and chemical combination process, molecules of a body dissociate into
ions by the action of a solvent, atmospheric H2o, important mineralogical constitution, also
porosity and cracking of the rock, which allows H2o to penetrate, as well as allowing it to
possess certain chemical compounds, capable of increasing solvent power. Terra rrosa,
costaras, shells may appear.

36- What role does weathering play in relief modeling? Describe the two types of mechanical
weathering processes according to the origin of the fragmentation. Give an example of a
morphoclimatic zone where mechanical weathering processes are abundant and justify your
answer.

Weathering is the alteration of rock by the action of atmospheric and biological agents. The
rock suffers the action of these agents, mechanically (by breaking down the rock) or chemically
(transforming its properties), acting together. Weathering is of decisive importance in the
modeling of the relief, as it prepares the formation of the soil and leaves the rocks available for
erosion. Without it neither vegetation nor continents would exist.
The mechanical weathering processes cause fragmentation or ruptures in the rock, without
altering the mineralogical composition of its materials and resulting in loose particles or clasts.
There are two types of fragmentations depending on their origin:
- Fragmentations or clastias of thermal origin (thermoclasty). The intense daytime heat and
nighttime cooling mean that the rocks are subject to large temperature changes, greater on the
surface than in the interior. As a result of these changes, the following may occur:
• Granular disaggregation: small elements are detached.
• Peeling: small plaques separate, like the skin of an onion.
• Cracking: fragments of a certain size come off.
Cryoclasm (kryos, cold) - also called gelifraction - occurs when, due to temperature variations,
the water that fills the gaps in the rock freezes. The transition from liquid to solid causes an
increase in the volume of water, -approximately 10%-, which subjects the rock to tension,
which leads to the detachment of fragments. If the ice penetrates through the pores, it gives
rise to fine particles and is called microgelfrication; and if it does so through cracks or fissures,
larger fragments are generated - even blocks, and it is considered macrogelfrication.

- Fragmentations of water origin. Water in liquid state, upon penetrating through the pores and
fissures of the rock, subjects it to stress, giving rise to the following phenomena:
• Hydroclasty (hydro, water). Fragmentation that occurs in the rock due to the changes
in volume it experiences when it undergoes significant variations in its water content.
There are rocks, such as clayey rocks, which are very hydrophilic, which swell with
water in a liquid state and deflate when it evaporates.
• Haloclasty (halos, salt). Water with many salts that, when evaporated, gives rise to the
formation of crystals capable of causing great tension in the pores and fissures of the
rock.
Regarding the morphoclimatic zones in which mechanical weathering processes are common,
we can say that fragmentations of mechanical origin are influenced by climatic conditions,
which cause changes in temperature and the greater or lesser presence of water. Thus, clastias
of thermal origin will be typical of semi-arid or desert areas, where there are temperature
oscillations between night and day. Gelifraction, for its part, will take place in periglacial areas,
where freezing and thawing processes occur. Hydroclasm in tropical areas where there is rain,
but also a dry season. Haloclastia, finally, occurs in desert areas with high concentrations of
salts in the water.

37- What is a torrent? Parts of which it consists.

A torrent is a short water course, which circulates through a fixed channel, with a steep slope
and temporarily. Its main characteristic is this seasonality, since it is episodic, it can remain dry
for much of the year. It consists of three parts:
- Reception basin: high part and funnel-shaped, it is formed on the slopes and each
contribution of rain makes it widen and deepen. The predominant erosion work is
excavation).
- Drainage channel: middle area inscribed in a gorge. Excavation and lateral erosion take
place in this part, but transportation predominates.
- Dejection cone: area in which the slope softens because it reaches the valley and the
torrent loses speed. The transported materials are deposited in it and the water is
distributed over it in divergent channels.

38-The action of the river as an erosive agent. How they do it and the processes with which
they carry it out.

The erosive action itself is carried out by:

• Corrosion: solvent and chemical action of water.
• hydraulic action: loss of cohesion and removal of materials.
• abrasion: wear of the bottom and walls caused by the impact of the
materials.
• wear or friction (the materials themselves are rounded, polished or
crumble).
In any case, almost all of the erosive work of running waters is due to turbulence. When the
river's capacity to transport materials is exceeded, the phase occurs in which the materials are
deposited and accumulate, giving rise to alluvial constructions.
-Glaciers and their erosive work

It is difficult to observe the erosive work of the glacier while it occurs, since the ice itself makes
it difficult, but from the traces left it is possible to reconstruct the shape. Glaciers are highly
efficient erosive agents that depend on their dynamism and are capable of to carry out all
phases of erosion. By itself, ice does not have the power to erode compact rocks, but in its
movement when passing over the joints it is capable of tearing and fragmenting the rocks; This
accumulating load acts like a giant file that acts by abrasion and produces grooves and grooves
on the bottom and walls. On crystalline rocks and compact limestone, the abrasive action
produces a polishing effect on the rock; and in the fissures and cracks of the rock itself,
gelifraction occurs, which also contributes to breaking up the blocks that are dragged and
contribute to the erosive capacity.
In addition to the abrasion effect, at the bottom, overexcavation can occur (action of
mobilization and dislodgement of fragments of various sizes that gives rise to a deepening of
the bed).
The abrasive work of the glacier is more intense in the unevenness of the bed and in the effects
of erosion, several conditioning factors come into play such as the slope, the speed, the
resistance of the rock, the thickness of the ice, and the volume of the fragments. transported.
When observing some of the current glaciers we can see that there are a series of dark lines on
the surface, they are moraines (made up of rocky materials that the glacier drags), there are
moraines in various positions, such as those on the surface (fed by landslides and avalanches ),
other more abundant moraines are on the edges, and are called lateral, there are also bottom
moraines (some in contact with the bed and others internal to the ice mass). A terminal or
frontal moraine is also formed, and when two tongues of lateral moraines converge and join
together, one is created in a central position. The term moraine is used to refer to both the
materials transported by the ice and those that are deposited when it is removed.
However, regarding the erosive work of glaciers, not all experts are unanimous, since some are
ultraglacialists (the ice has an enormous erosive capacity), others are antiglacialists (the glacier
is a transport agent and the ice protects the terrain. that covers it, it does not erode it) and
other compromisers (the glacier is capable of excavating, but does not generate new
morphologies).

39-The rivers. Characteristics. Factors that affect them Networks and river regimes
They are permanent water currents that circulate through a bed and are organized in networks,
carrying out the tasks of erosion, transport and accumulation.
The activity of the river and its characteristics are conditioned by physical and biogeographic
factors. The river receives rainfall from its basin; Part of them evaporates and another part
infiltrates the ground, from where it can reach the river through the sources. The flow of the
river results, therefore, from the sum of the water from precipitation plus that contributed by
the sources (less infiltration and evaporation).
Other fundamental physical factors are related to the relief and characteristics of the rock
(altitude, slope, exposure to winds and the nature of the rock).
Vegetation is the main biogeographic factor that affects the river because in addition to
intercepting part of the precipitation, it can act by regulating contributions and stopping floods.
Nor can we forget the action of man, who voluntarily or involuntarily intervenes in rivers
(felling forests, clearing and cultivating land, construction of reservoirs, canals...)
Regarding river networks and regimes, river courses are organized in hierarchical and
structured networks, which ensure the drainage of a basin. The hydrographic basin is the
surface of land whose waters flow into the same river. The limits of the basin are at the
watersheds, which are the lines that mark the limit between the waters that go to a river and
those of the adjacent one.
The river is formed by the concentration of runoff water from its entire basin, which reaches it
directly (through the surface) and indirectly (underground runoff).
Drainage networks are made up of a main collector and a series of tributaries; The shapes of
the drainage networks are very varied and there are parallel, radial, rectangular, dendritic...
Rivers have what we call a fluvial regime, and it depends on what their main food is; There are
three main regimes, the glacier (of high mountain areas where there is perpetual snow and
glaciers; it has low waters in winter and high waters after the melting of the snow), the nival
(where we highlight the mountain nival where the maximum channel is in around June because
the snow accumulated below the level of perpetual snow melts earlier. In plain areas with cold
continental climates there is also a melting in spring of the snow that falls in the winter, which
can cause large floods) and pluvial (this type has liquid precipitation as its main source and
depending on the climate, it can vary in pluvial oceanic and tropical pluvial; in addition, in areas
with a Mediterranean climate there is a pluvial regime). In general, long and large rivers can
present complex regimes since they go through different climatic characteristics on their long
journeys.

40-How are regional glaciers different from local glaciers? What are the forms of
accumulation generated by glacial action and how are they produced?

Regional glaciers, also called inslandsis, are enormous extensions of ice with a slightly convex
profile in the shape of a cap and regardless of the surface they cover. The large inlandis are one
over Antarctica and the other over Greenland. Local glaciers, for their part, are much more
numerous and more varied in shape, they are more widespread, but they are less thick. They
are located in mountain areas in various geographical locations and adapt to the shape of the
relief they cover. There are three types of local glaciers, called cap, platform, fiel or
Scandinavian glaciers, which are like the Inlandis but small in size; the alpine or valley, which
can face lobe or foothill glaciers; and the Pyrenean or cirque glaciers.
Regarding the forms of accumulation generated by glacial action, when the ice disappears or
recedes, a deposit of the materials it carried occurs. These can reach up to 100 meters thick
and are called till or tillites.
The so-called glacial muds (made of heterogeneous, irregular materials, of various sizes and
pasted in clay, sand or pulverized rock) are very characteristic of the action of the inlandis that
covered a large area of today's temperate zones.
Moraines become deposits when the ice disappears and occur in all types of glaciers. The one
located in front of the glacier, which marks its maximum reach, is the terminal moraine. Behind
it, several successive retreat moraines may appear, indicating the stages of the glacier's retreat.
In valley glaciers these are crossed, closing the valley and they extend on the slopes, in the
lateral moraine.
In the glacial plains, behind the moraines, formations like small hills are observed, they are the
drumlim ; Other deposits also appear in the formation of which water currents play an active
part. In front of the terminal moraine, fluvioglacial plains are formed (with a gentle slope, in
which hollows appear that result from the action of water currents and flow into a small delta.
on the outside of the ice).
Lakes are largely associated with glaciers, and occur both in mountains where there were small
glaciers, and in the large plains covered by the Quaternary inlandis; Materials from glaciers
called varves (alternation of sand and clay) are deposited in the lakes and are used for dating.

41-What are river terraces? Explain how they are produced and what are the main ways in
which they manifest themselves. Explain, from a geographical point of view, why they are
especially valued areas.

Alluvial terraces arise when the alluvial plains appear interrupted by linear steps that leave a
type of steps hanging by a slope. The existence of several levels of terraces demonstrates a
succession of changes in river activity. Terraces appear in many rivers of various sizes and their
most general explanation is that the terraces are based on climatic factors that have been able
to cause large variations in flow and load (Quaternary glaciations). The terraces have various
shapes, such as nested, staggered, symmetrical, asymmetrical...
From a geographical point of view, terraces are especially valued areas, since they are suitable
for cultivation, city locations, roads, airports...

42-The periglacial domain and its erosion process

The periglacial domain is found in all areas with a cold climate whose temperatures pass several
times the threshold of 0 o C (temperature of freezing of water and melting of ice), and whose
precipitation regime ensures the necessary amount of water to occur. state changes. In the
periglacial domain (unlike the glacier) there are soils and vegetation (in a sparse, poorly
developed and discontinuous manner), although they are insufficient to change the abiotic
character of the environment in which the relief develops.
Regarding the erosion process, the morphogenetic system of this domain is characterized by
the abundance of mechanical weathering processes (gelifraction, gelivation or cryoclasm), with
dissolution processes also being important.
The essence of the erosion process is the action of alternating ice-thaw, and its action varies
depending on the type of rock; If the rock is porous, the water penetrates through its pores and
when it freezes it crushes it until it forms sand and gravel (microgelifraction), and if the rock is
fissured, the water penetrates through said fissures and when it freezes it fragments it into
blocks and angular edges (macrogelifraction). ).