Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930

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Government Information Quarterly

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Public value creation through the use of open government data in

Australian public sector: A quantitative study from employees’ perspective
Nuria Benmohamed *, Jun Shen , Elena Vlahu-Gjorgievska
School of Computing and Information Technology, University of Wollongong, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Public value creation is one of the most important opportunities of open government data (OGD) for different
Open government data stakeholders including public sector agencies, private businesses, academia, citizens, and civic organizations.
Public value However, OGD has hardly any value on its own, yet the value is created by its use, hence supporting OGD portal
Australian public sector
use is a key point to delivering public value. Indeed, making an effective impact on OGD requires users to
Open data quality
Open government data portal quality
activate its value. Therefore, this study aims to propose a model to explore factors that hinder or facilitate public
Service support value creation using OGD from the public sector employee perspective. Using the DeLone and McLean (2003)
model as a theoretical basis with the combination of the Moore (1995) framework, the study model was validated
in the Australian public sector, using partial least square structural equation modelling. The results of this study
support the validity of the research model and discover the factors that have a significant influence on public
value creation through the use of OGD in the Australian public sector. Findings reveal that employee’s OGD
portal use and their satisfaction significantly predict the public value of OGD, while the OGD portal quality, open
data quality and service support indirectly affect the public value of OGD. Furthermore, the moderator analysis
suggests that awareness of the value of OGD among public sector employees has a critical effect on the delivery of
public value.
The proposed theoretical framework can be used to assess the factors affecting OGD public value creation by
users in the public sector, which can help researchers and developers to improve and update their system, based
on the results.

1. Introduction government data by joining the open government data partnership

The rapid development of information and communication tech­
nology has generated a huge amount of data. Governments can be
considered as one of the main data sources in both the public and private
sectors. Open government data (OGD) are government-related data
known as a subset of open data that can be redistributed, used, and re-
used without copyright restrictions (Jetzek et al., 2014; Wang et al.,
2018). In addition, Janssen defined OGD as government-related data
that are non-confidential and non-sensitive data that is made available
without any restrictions on its usage or distribution (Janssen et al.,
2012). OGD consists of various datasets, including budget and spending,
population, census, geographical, and parliament minutes. It also may
include data owned by public administrations such as subsidiaries or
agencies, including data related to climate, pollution, public trans­
portation, congestion, traffic, childcare, and education. Numerous
countries have already demonstrated their commitment to opening
(OGP).
In recent years, many countries around the world have started to pay
attention to the importance of OGD, considering the potential value and
benefits of OGD, especially for the social and economic development of a
country. OGD could stimulate the public to participate in government
events to improve government transparency, accountability, and
collaboration. Furthermore, OGD can be used by individuals and orga­
nizations to create innovative products and services by developing new
scientific and research insights, creating economic growth, and gener­
ating new policies (Zhao & Fan, 2018).
Also, OGD supports the democratic process as it can help the public
to provide feedback and conclusions from the published data which will
improve the decision-making process and increase civic engagement
(Janssen et al., 2012; Zhao & Fan, 2018). OGD portals are created to
help data accessibility and usability by the public, non-profit organiza­
tions, and private agencies (Okamoto, 2017). Public organizations are

* Corresponding author at: Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.

E-mail addresses: ngob163@uowmail.edu.au (N. Benmohamed), jshen@uow.edu.au (J. Shen), elenavg@uow.edu.au (E. Vlahu-Gjorgievska).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2024.101930
Received 28 September 2023; Received in revised form 22 March 2024; Accepted 23 March 2024
Available online 30 March 2024
0740-624X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Benmohamed et al.
one of the stakeholders in the open data ecosystem. They are not only
OGD producers of data for different stakeholders to reuse but also, they
can reuse open data produced by other providers in the OGD portals
(Okamoto, 2017).
Many scholars argued that OGD has a great potential contribution to
create public value (Attard, Orlandi, Scerri, & Auer, 2015; Zuiderwijk &
Janssen, 2014; Hitz-Gamper et al., 2019; Benmohamed et al., 2022).
However, OGD has hardly any value on its own, yet the value is created
by its use, hence supporting OGD use is a key point to delivering value
(Janssen et al., 2012). While there are a growing number of conceptual
framework studies on the benefits and OGD adoption (dos Santos Brito
et al., 2015; Hossain et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018), there remains a lack
of empirical research on public value creation from OGD portal use from
a public sector employee perspective.
In this research, the term OGD use refers to the use of OGD portal by
public agency employees for various activities such as publishing their
agencies’ datasets and/or retrieving published datasets by other
agencies or different departments from the same agency to achieve
desired benefits, foster innovation, and improve government service.
Public agencies use open data portals as data suppliers by publishing
their agency’s datasets for promoting social value which includes
transparency, accountability, collaboration, and communication be­
tween different government agencies and/or utilizing the existing
datasets on the OGD portals for analysis and integration with other
datasets and information systems to enhance existing services, create
innovative services or policies in the public sector. Public sector em­
ployees are one of the OGD portal users who utilize OGD as a part of
their work for its benefits (Janssen & Zuiderwijk, 2014; Martin &
Begany, 2017; Smith & Sandberg, 2018). This can be beneficial for
enhancing the existing services and creating innovative services or
policies in the public sector. The employees can use the open data to
improve not only public services but also decision and policy-making
processes (Gascó-Hernández et al., 2018; Lyon et al., 2015; Martin &
Begany, 2017). Also, they can use the open data for innovation purposes
by developing new information products or services (Smith & Sandberg,
2018).
Researchers argued that many possible factors could affect OGD use
and its success (Janssen et al., 2012; Attard et al., 2015; Wang & Lo,
2020). Thus, this study focuses on exploring the factors of public value
creation of OGD portal use from the employees’ perspective. In this
study, the view of public value creation is created by the employees
involved in the public value creation process to achieve the public
agencies’ goals and deliver benefits to both citizens and public
organizations.
This study aims to comprehend factors contributing to the IS and
public value manner, using the IS Model and public value theory as the
measurement model. Thus, this study covers the IS success factors which
include system quality, data quality, service support and its impact on
the OGD portal use, user satisfaction, and the public value creation of
OGD from the employees’ perspective.
In this research, we focus on Australian public sector organizations
for many reasons. Firstly, according to the United Nations, Australia is
ranked second in e-government development (United Nations, 2016).
Also, according to the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet
(DPMC), Australia is one of the leading countries in national OGD
adoption by open government declaration (Department of the Prime
Minister and Cabinet, DPMC, 2016). In addition, the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reported that
Australia is one of the leaders in promoting government data reuse in the
public sector (OECD, 2020). In the main OGD portal of Australia (data.
gov.au), there are >89,000 datasets published in the Data.gov
(Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, DPMC, 2019). These
datasets are created, managed, and published by different government
agencies. According to (OECD, 2020) Australia has made a very big
enhancement in data availability among OECD countries since 2017,
especially in terms of stakeholder engagement. Additionally, Australia
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Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
has improved in providing more high-value data on the federal open
data portal (OECD, 2020), being one of the leaders in terms of promoting
government data reuse within and outside the public sector. Moreover,
it has been estimated that the Australian economy could gain the ben­
efits of policy innovation based on OGD by up to $16 billion per year
(Hardy & Maurushat, 2017). Although the overall level of data acces­
sibility has increased in recent years, the stakeholder engagement on the
federal OGD portal remains below the OECD average (OECD, 2020). To
further promote the use and reuse of Australian OGD, research on the
factors that enable public value creation of OGD use is urgently needed.
Therefore, this study focuses on exploring the factors that enable or
inhibit public value creation using OGD in the Australian public sector,
aiming to investigate and answer the following research question:
Q. What are the factors that enable or inhibit public value creation of an
OGD use from an employee perspective?
2. Literature review
Scholars have argued that the creation of public value is one of the
most important opportunities of OGD for different stakeholders (Attard
et al., 2015; Zuiderwijk & Janssen, 2014; Hitz-Gamper et al., 2019).
Literature argues that the adoption of OGD contributes to improving
transparency and accountability of governments by publishing the data
resources held by governments, increasing the public’s trust, and
enhancing transparency. Moreover, OGD allows external data de­
velopers and firms to utilize OGD to create new services and products,
which encourage innovation and enhance economic growth (Afsarma­
nesh et al., 2016; Dawes et al., 2016; Janssen et al., 2012; Zhao et al.,
2022; Zhenbin et al., 2020). However, publishing government data to
the OGD portal is insufficient to create public value, as OGD has little
value on its own. Instead, making an effective impact on OGD requires
users to activate its value (Janssen et al., 2012; Stuermer & Dapp, 2016).
OGD platforms and data formats need to be designed in a way that en­
ables external users to easily access, combine, and use the data provided,
even if it originates from multiple different public and/or private or­
ganizations (Jetzek et al., 2014). Thus, public value creation of OGD
from the employee perspective is crucial to explain possible factors
affecting the OGD use toward public value.
The definition of OGD users is expanded from OGD’s targeted end
users (i.e., citizens) to other government departments and agencies,
corporations and businesses, journalists, universities, communities, and
individuals, with each having different purposes for using OGD (Wilson
& Cong, 2021). Different type of users plays a different role in data use
and reuse responsibility of stimulating value creation to the public
(Zuiderwijk & Janssen, 2014).
The citizen’s perspective of OGD use has been studied widely in the
literature (Souza et al., 2022; Talukder et al., 2019; Zuiderwijk et al.,
2015; Zuiderwijk et al., 2019). For example, Souza et al. (2022) dis­
cussed the effects of eight predictors of citizens’ attitudes toward open
government use in Brazil. Results show that the effects of six predictors
of citizens’ attitudes toward OGD include, ease of use, usefulness,
intrinsic motivation, political satisfaction, government trust, and in­
tensity of internet use. The result also, found that education, income,
and region have a significant effect on the ease of use and usefulness of
OGD. Similarly, a study by Islam et al. (2023) investigated the contin­
uance usage intention of OGD technologies among citizens in
Bangladesh. The result proved that performance expectancy, effort ex­
pectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions directly affect
users’ satisfaction. In addition, users’ satisfaction and facilitating con­
ditions have a significant impact on the continuance usage intention of
OGD technologies. In a study by Chen et al. (2023), the researchers
studied the impact of privacy concerns on usage intention toward OGD
portals in China. The authors indicated that trust and privacy concerns
are significant predictors of usage intention toward OGD portals among
chines citizens. Similarly, Hossain et al. (2018) investigated the impact
of OGD use among citizens and public value delivered to the citizens.
N. Benmohamed et al.
Results indicated that the OGD use has a positive impact on citizen
empowerment through accountability, collaboration, and participation.
However, cases of employees have barely been studied in the literature.
Not much is known about factors affecting government employees to
engage, use, and reuse OGD to create public value.
In recent years, researchers have paid more attention to OGD
adoption among agencies. For example, Zhao and Fan (2018) studied
the implementation of OGD among different agencies under the same
local government. The authors used the resource-based theory to
investigate the factors that affect OGD implementation of constituent
agencies using a questionnaire survey. The analysis of the study found
that significant factors affect OGD implementation of constituent
agencies within the same local government. A questionnaire survey is
conducted to analyse factors affecting OGD implementation including
technical capacity, organizational awareness, organizational arrange­
ment, and regulations. Results showed technical capacity and other
organizational factors in a government agency have a positive influence
on OGD implementation and that regulations moderate the relationship
between technical capacity and OGD implementation. In addition, Zhao
et al. (2022) focused on the influential factors of OGD performance
based on the resource-based theory and institutional theory from mul­
tiple dimensions of internal resources and external pressures. Their re­
sults proved that the organization arrangement, legal and policy, and
horizontal pressure have significant positive effects on OGD perfor­
mance. Similarly, a study by Wang and Lo (2020) focused on the factors
influencing the adoption of OGD among firms in Taiwan based on the
sociotechnical perspective. The authors studied social and technical
systems factors that affect the firms to adopt OGD including top man­
agement support, government support, competitive pressure, perceived
benefits, and perceived barriers. The study model was tested using
survey data from firms with experience in OGD adoption in Taiwan. The
results showed a significant relationship among top management sup­
port, competitive pressure, and the adoption of OGD by firms.
However, researchers argue that the adoption of OGD does not al­
ways lead to the aimed goals of OGD in the public sector. For example,
Zuiderwijk et al. (2019) conducted a survey aimed to investigate the
benefits of OGD. The study discovered a disconnection between the
stated aims and benefits delivered, due to some reasons related to a lack
of appreciation for the diversity of interests and technical capacity.
Public organizations can reuse open government datasets to improve
organizational performance and release public value. Although a few
works of literature focused on the implementation of OGD in the public
sector, the research attempted to explore the factors affecting OGD
adoption at the organizational level in general (Wang & Lo, 2020;
Wilson & Cong, 2021; Zhao et al., 2022; Zhao & Fan, 2018). In addition,
most of those papers focus on using organizations’ resources and ca­
pacity to improve OGD’s overall performance in the public sector.
Therefore, there is a lack of OGD portal use from the employee
perspective in the literature.
3. Theoretical framework and development of hypothesis
3.1. Moore (1995) framework for public value
According to Moore (1995), public value can be considered as the
product of governmentally produced benefits generated from either its
physical products or services. Considering the public sector perspective,
managers or government employees aim for cost-effective and efficient
government services (Moore, 1994) support public interest, and achieve
public goals (Pereira et al., 2017).
Many scholars used Moore (1995) framework for the public value
perspective in the e-government literature. They argued that the use of
an e-government system has a great potential contribution to creating
public value (Karunasena & Deng, 2012; Scott et al., 2016; Twizeyimana
& Andersson, 2019). In the public sector, public value can be catego­
rized into social and economic value (Moore, 1994; Pereira et al., 2017).
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Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
Social values including transparency, accountability, democracy,
communication, participation, and collaboration have been the most
widely cited in the e-government system studies (Abu-Shanab, 2015; dos
Santos Brito et al., 2015; Hossain et al., 2018; Janssen et al., 2012;
Jetzek et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2018; Zuiderwijk, 2018; Zuiderwijk
et al., 2015). The economic value is also identified as the ability of the e-
government system to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of gov­
ernment services to citizens (Jetzek et al., 2013).
3.2. The information systems success model
The information systems (IS) success is a popular model used in in­
formation system literature which was first published by DeLone and
McLean in 1992. The IS model includes six dimensions namely system
quality, intention to use, system quality, user satisfaction, information
quality, and individual and organizational impact. The model then had
been updated in 2003 by DeLone and McLean (2003) by adding a
“service quality” measure as a new dimension of the IS model, and by
grouping all the “impact” measures into a single impact or benefit
category called “net benefit.” (DeLone & McLean, 2003; Sterrenberg &
Keating, 2016). The IS model argues that the success of an information
system is predicted by information quality, system quality, service
quality, use, and user satisfaction. Furthermore, the model state that the
quality of information, the quality of the system, and the quality of
service will lead to greater use which will in turn enhance user satis­
faction, and when greater use and user satisfaction occur eventually
some net benefits are delivered (DeLone & McLean, 2003).
Researchers have used the IS model for measuring and evaluating the
performance of e-government systems and their impact from different
perspectives (Mellouli et al., 2020; Purwanto et al., 2017). For example,
Mellouli et al. (2020) focused in their study on the IS model to evaluate
the e-government from the public value perspective. Also, Wibowo et al.
(2023) have used the IS model to investigate the factors affecting the
success of OGD adoption using the acceptance and use of technology
theory (UTAUT) from administers employees’ perspective.
The net benefit in this study refers to the public value of OGD use. As
in the Moore (1995) framework, the goal of any public organization is
achieving the stockholder’s needs. Therefore, the net benefits in our
research model include the benefits of OGD use for individual users of
OGD applications and organizations.
3.3. Proposed research model
3.3.1. The public value of OGD
OGD is a strategic, open resource, it holds potential for several
stakeholders, including public sector agencies, private businesses,
academia, citizens, and civic organizations (Saxena & Janssen, 2017).
All of these might be able to co-create value or simultaneously appro­
priate the generated value. Previous studies discussed the definitions of
public value as the overall value created by the government for its cit­
izens through various actions (Saxena & Janssen, 2017). In this study,
government employees play the main role of the public value creator
using OGD in the public sector to help them achieve the stakeholder’s
needs. The use of OGD helps the employee to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of government service which leads to promoting economic
values. In addition, the use of the OGD has great potential for service
innovation through the new ideas and insights that can be generated
from OGD.
One of the most important stakeholders of the OGD portal is the
public sector itself represented by various organizations and agencies.
The use of the OGD portal could help in improving transparency and
accountability of government officials and functions and enable greater
participation and communication with citizens and other stakeholders
of civil society in public sector decisions such as policy making, gov­
ernment innovation, and public services delivery. Also, through public
engagement between OGD portal stakeholders and public agency
N. Benmohamed et al.
employees, the efficiency and effectiveness of government can be
enhanced, and the quality of decision-making can be improved by col­
lective expertise and knowledge sharing. Therefore, the use of OGD
portals has a significant impact on employees which overtime will be
expanded to positive impacts on the achievement of the public sector
and as a result, improve the public service. Thus, the net benefits reflect
the impact of benefits of OGD use in the public sector communities
which includes employees, organizations and citizens.
Government employees play a pivotal role not only as OGD providers
and ecosystem initiators but also as stimulators of OGD use. This type of
role is therefore expected to be significant in the public value creation of
OGD compared to other types of stakeholders. It is important to recog­
nize the public sector as an active open data portal user to release the
public value of OGD.
Researchers argue that releasing OGD has many benefits including
improving the effectiveness and efficiency of government (Hardy &
Maurushat, 2017). Furthermore, many scholars argued that OGD has a
great potential contribution to create public value (Attard et al., 2015;
Zuiderwijk & Janssen, 2014; Hitz-Gamper et al., 2019; Benmohamed
et al., 2022). Using the OGD in different sectors has different advantages
for individuals and communities. For example, using OGD for weather
and geography can help the farming and industry sectors, while using
OGD in hospital admission has the benefit of improving the health
sector. Also, the use of OGD has the great potential to make transparency
and accountability, as the government shares the data with the public
which increases the trust between citizens and governments (Hardy &
Maurushat, 2017; Jetzek et al., 2013; Zuiderwijk-van Eijk et al., 2012).
The public value of OGD can be considered as the ability of the OGD
system to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of government ser­
vices to users (Jetzek et al., 2013) and simulate social values such as
democracy, transparency, and participation between government and
citizens (Twizeyimana & Andersson, 2019). For example, government
agencies can use datasets of other agencies from open data platforms to
integrate with their datasets to create new services or enhance existing
ones which results in improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
public sector operations (Yang & Wu, 2016).
Also, the use of the OGD portals provides interaction with stake­
holders and engagement in decision-making processes which will lead to
the enhancement of democracy. Additionally, the use of the OGD portals
could facilitate the provision of information by governments to all citi­
zens and promote transparency and trust between citizens and govern­
ments (Hardy & Maurushat, 2017). These impacts reflect the public
value creation of OGD at both the organizational level and in commu­
nities (Yang & Wu, 2016).
The net benefits construct was introduced by DeLone and McLean
(2003) and expanded so the construct refers to the extent to which IS
contributes to the success of not only individuals but groups, organiza­
tions, industries, and societies. The use of the OGD system contributes
not only to the success of individual employees in achieving their work
effectively, but over time increasingly expanded to organizations and
communities. In addition, the use of the OGD system through OGD
portals will indirectly increase the benefits of the government service
and make it more effective.
According to Moore (1995), public value can be defined as a balance
of efficiency and effectiveness measures with enhancement in demo­
cratic and social values such as engagement, participation, collabora­
tion, and trust in government. Also, public value can be explained as the
value citizens attach to the outcome of government policies and their
experience of public services (Moore, 1994). Thus, the creation of public
value can be seen as a function of both the value received from the
service or product and the cost of consumption and resources expended
to produce the service. Delivering the public value of OGD has an impact
on the employees, their organization, and the community in general who
use the public sector service and get benefits of improving the service.
The public value of OGD use represents the concept of net benefits in IS
research (DeLone & McLean, 2003). Therefore, net benefits can be
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Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
defined based on six main broad objectives of OGD: improving effi­
ciency, effectiveness, and service innovation as well as enhancing de­
mocracy, transparency, and communication. Public value reflects the
net benefits created by the government for various stakeholders in so­
ciety. Hence public value often includes both economic value and social
value. While economic value covers efficiency and effectiveness gain
and reduced costs of operating public programs and service innovation,
social value includes intangible benefits such as government trans­
parency, democracy, and communication (Moore, 1995).
OGD benefits are put forward as a net benefit in the IS model
(DeLone & McLean, 2003) and simultaneously it covers efficiency,
effectiveness, and service innovation as well as democracy, trans­
parency, and communication dimensions of OGD public value. In this
perspective, public organizations can support achieving public goals
besides the benefits as well as the value of better government. Public
value can be created by obtaining the efficiency and effectiveness of
government service as well as increasing transparency, accountability,
collaboration, and service innovation (Pereira et al., 2017). The public
value of the OGD system is considered as the degree to which a public
organization uses OGD as a basis to support the benefits delivery (de
Oliveira et al., 2021). Also, the relationship between the use of OGD as a
resource and the generation of value is not necessarily a direct rela­
tionship. Yet, public value can be produced by pathways by which OGD
is used and transformed into public value (Harrison et al., 2012; Twi­
zeyimana & Andersson, 2019). In this research, we use six dimensions of
public value, namely, communication, efficiency, effectiveness, de­
mocracy, service innovation, and transparency and trust between citi­
zens and government instead of net benefits.
Our research model is based on the IS model (DeLone & McLean,
2003) and its previous empirical applications measuring e-government
success from the perspective of employees. Compared to these studies,
we have used public value dimensions in place of ‘net benefits. Although
‘net benefits’ refer to ‘the extent to which the e-government system
contributes to the success of individual employees’, over time, they
‘ceased to be the impact of only one employee but increasingly expanded
to organizations’ (Stefanovic et al., 2016, p. 720). Thus, our model
consisting of seven interrelated and interdependent dimensions, namely
OGD portal quality, open data quality, service support, OGD use, user
satisfaction, and OGD public value will be proposed.
3.3.2. OGD system quality
OGD system quality is defined as the degree to which system func­
tionality can best meet the needs of the user, with maximum ease and
minimum problems encountered (DeLone & McLean, 2003). System
quality is addressed as the overall technical performance of the system
which is related to its ease of use, flexibility, and response time (Seddon,
1997). This variable is frequently mobilized in the literature (Flor­
opoulos et al., 2010; Stefanovic et al., 2016; Wang & Liao, 2008). Yet,
there is no consensus about its impact on intention to use and user
satisfaction. Researchers have found that system quality influences
significantly the use and user satisfaction (Stefanovic et al., 2016). Also,
the functionalities of e-services and the usability features of e-govern­
ment service delivery channels are critical for citizens (Deng et al.,
2018). Moreover, Agbabiaka & Ugaddan, 2016 have found that the
quality of e-government systems such as providing availability, visual­
ization capabilities, guidance, and documentation has a positive impact
on e-government value creation and a positive influence on e-govern­
ment system usability.
Therefore, we propose the following H1 & H2
H1: OGD portal quality has a positive effect on OGD use.
H2: OGD portal quality has a positive effect on users’ satisfaction
with the OGD use.
3.3.3. Data quality
Data quality in the IS Model refers to the quality of the information
system that is produced by a system (DeLone & McLean, 2003). Data
N. Benmohamed et al.
quality is defined as the attributes of the output from the system which
include relevance, accuracy, conciseness, completeness, currency,
timeliness, and usability (Petter et al., 2008). Accuracy, appropriate­
ness, timeliness, and completeness are generally measuring whether
data meets the user’s needs (DeLone & McLean, 2003). Researchers have
noted that providing accurate and relevant data with an appropriate
level of detail and disseminated timely is vital for the creation of public
value through the e-government system (Deng et al., 2018). Also, several
researchers have highlighted the impact of data quality on the use of e-
government systems and user satisfaction (Floropoulos et al., 2010;
Wang & Liao, 2008). Researchers found that low quality of data can
affect the use of e-government systems (Stefanovic et al., 2016). The
published data that has low quality can result in less transparency and
reduce the benefits of OGD. High data quality can be a significant factor
that enables OGD use and leads to OGD public value. Thus, H3 &H4 state
that:
H3: Data quality has a positive effect on the OGD use.
H4: Data quality has a positive effect on user satisfaction with the
OGD use.
3.3.4. Service support
Service quality is the overall support delivered by the service pro­
vider which can be delivered by the IS department, a new organizational
unit, or outsourced to the service provider (DeLone & McLean, 2003).
Service support is defined as the quality of the service support that users
receive from the IS department which can be measured by attributes
such as accuracy, reliability, and technical competence of the personnel
staff (Petter et al., 2008). Service quality is considered an important
factor in the success of e-government systems (Wang & Liao, 2008).
Service quality also has been considered widely as a significant factor to
promote the intention to use e-government and users’ satisfaction
(Floropoulos et al., 2010; Veeramootoo et al., 2018; Wang & Liao,
2008). In this study, service support is considered as the support
received from the agency or unit which can be measured by required
services such as technical, training and knowledge, privacy, and top
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Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
management support to promote OGD use among public sector
employees.
Service quality in our model is named service support which mea­
sures the OGD ‘s general quality support provided by the public agencies
to promote OGD use and user satisfaction in the process of OGD public
value creation. Many works of literature discovered that several gov­
ernment agencies fail to reveal the advantages of their investments in
OGD. The OGD use in different countries did not achieve its intended
benefits due to different reasons. For example, Zuiderwijk and Janssen
(2014); Hossain et al. (2018) suggested that there is a lack of under­
standing of the main objective of OGD and it is important to understand
what factors contribute to enhancing OGD use to achieve its benefits.
Since OGD has been widely adopted in many countries, there is a gap in
analysing the possible factors that lead to the lack of OGD use and
achieving its benefits in the public sector.
Technical factors are one of the most cited reasons affecting the use
of OGD to create public value (Conradie & Choenni, 2014; Zuiderwijk &
Janssen, 2014). The inconsistent format and standards of government
data will result in the misuse of these data. The value of OGD requires
technical support that enhances the use of these open data (Conradie &
Choenni, 2014; Zuiderwijk & Janssen, 2014). The OGD technical skills
support of the agency is essential for unskilled employees to be able to
complete their tasks and deal with those data effectively. OGD knowl­
edge and skills support is one of the key drivers for OGD use faced by
many users in the public sector (Conradie & Choenni, 2014; Zuiderwijk
& Janssen, 2014).
Many agencies are concerned that OGD may cause potential legal
liability and privacy issues caused by misuse of the opened data (Janssen
et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2015; Zuiderwijk & Janssen, 2014). OGD re­
quires data privacy to be assured, and government agencies should
support privacy for these published data. A study by Zhenbin et al.
(2020) aimed to identify the motivations and challenges that affected
government staff to publish their datasets as open data in Singapore.
They found that working with sensitive information was a significant
barrier for the government staff to publish their datasets as open data.
N. Benmohamed et al.
Researchers found that top management support is a significant
factor influencing the effectiveness of the many information system
function in an organization (Wang et al., 2018). Top management sup­
port is vital to increase not only efforts to build an atmosphere for the
adoption of OGD, but also for constructing effective innovative capacity
of the organization use (Mustapa et al., 2022). A lack of resources is a
common issue for supporting any innovation in the government agency,
top management is responsible for supporting any needs of OGD use. A
study by Wang and Lo (2016), Hossain et al. (2021) found that top
management support is the most influential factor of publishing gov­
ernment agencies open datasets that can increase the likelihood of
maximizing the benefits of OGD.
A study by Zhenbin et al. (2020) developed a theoretically grounded
model to explain factors that drive public agencies to share their data on
OGD platforms. The researcher surveyed 102 government staff aimed to
identify the motivations and challenges that affected staff to open their
agencies’ datasets in Singapore. The result indicates that the top man­
agement authorities and relationships with external innovators who use
released data were the most significant drivers for the agency’s data-
sharing behaviour.
OGD public value can be created by public sector employees by of­
fering support for both the adoption and reuse of OGD. The service
support is intended to facilitate the service needed to increase the use of
the OGD portal by employees to both publish the open data and/or reuse
the existing open data.
Thus, we argue that OGD use in the public agency requires combined
service support that includes technical support, training and knowledge
support, top management support, and privacy support that facilitates
the use of OGD among employees to reveal its great benefits for both
users and organizations. Thus, H5 &H6 state that:
H5: Service support has a positive effect on OGD use.
H6: Service support has a positive effect on users’ satisfaction with
OGD use.
3.3.5. The OGD use
Although OGD has been adopted widely in the world, the actual use
of these open data by the public sector is still in the early stages
(Kawashita et al., 2022). The OGD use refers to the degree that the
employees utilize the capabilities of an OGD system. In the e-govern­
ment literature, the use of the IS system measures the attitude of users
concerning dependency on the OGD system frequency of system use,
duration, and tendency of future use (Stefanovic et al., 2016). When the
use of the OGD system is high, user satisfaction increases. In their model,
DeLone and McLean (2003) have suggested that use and user satisfac­
tion are closely interrelated and that positive experience with the sys­
tems’ use will lead to promoting user satisfaction. Also, in studies by
Wang and Liao (2008); Stefanovic et al. (2016), the researchers found
that a significant influence of use enhances user satisfaction with e-
government. Hence, the use of the OGD system, through a direct effect
on employee satisfaction, can also affect its success in delivering public
value. The hypothesized relationship between use, user satisfaction, and
the three quality variables is based on the theoretical and empirical
work reported by DeLone and McLean (2003). As they suggest, use and
user satisfaction are closely interrelated. Positive experience with “use”
will lead to greater “user satisfaction” and then because of usage and
user satisfaction, different net benefits will occur (DeLone & McLean,
2003). In this model, the feedback links from net benefit to both use and
user satisfaction were excluded because of the complexity and to reflect
the cross-sectional nature of this study. Therefore, we propose the
H7and H8:
H7: The use of OGD positively affects the users’ s satisfaction.
H8: The use of OGD positively affects the OGD public value.
3.3.6. User satisfaction
User satisfaction is the general attitude that the users have toward
the e-government system (Stefanovic et al., 2016). The success of this
6
Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
type of system depends on user satisfaction (Wang & Liao, 2008). User
satisfaction had a positive effect on net benefits (Stefanovic et al., 2016).
In addition, some benefits may occur following a positive experience
with the use of OGD systems. User satisfaction refers to assurance of the
effectiveness and success of any government system. Satisfaction in the
context of public value creation of e-government is one of the criteria
upon which success should be assessed through increased levels of user
satisfaction with public sector services (Agbabiaka & Ugaddan, 2016).
Both the use and user satisfaction were found to affect the net benefits of
the e-government system (Stefanovic et al., 2016; Wang & Liao, 2008).
This indicates the importance of these variables in promoting employee-
perceived net benefits.
Net benefits are defined as the extent to which an information system
contributes to the success of individuals, organizations, and commu­
nities (Agbabiaka & Ugaddan, 2016). In their model, DeLone and
McLean (2003) argued that net benefits will be created because of the
satisfaction experienced by a user. A study by Wang and Liao (2008),
reported that user satisfaction has a significant association with net
benefits. Therefore, H9 states that:
H9: User satisfaction positively affects the OGD public value.
3.3.7. OGD awareness
The OGD is still a new concept and challenging for many users who
are unfamiliar with the OGD and its potential impact on both individuals
and organizations (Janssen & Zuiderwijk, 2014). Scholars pointed out
that OGD awareness can be a significant factor in increasing OGD use
and reuse. Researchers argued that the difficulty of understanding the
nature and value of OGD might make it less attractive to users (Janssen
et al., 2012). For agencies, the process of providing open data in
machine-readable format is still not clear (Conradie & Choenni, 2014)
and some do not even understand the value and impact of OGD (Zui­
derwijk & Janssen, 2014). Unawareness of OGD value might signifi­
cantly affect OGD use in the public sector. If government employees do
not understand the concept and value of OGD, they might pay less
attention to the use of OGD. Several studies argued that the lack of
understanding of the OGD benefits can be a significant barrier to OGD
adoption in the public sector (Hardy & Maurushat, 2017). Also, Zhao
and Fan (2018) argued that the awareness of the requirements and value
of OGD will help government agencies actively adopt and use OGD.
Researchers indicated that many government agencies face either a lack
of understanding of the nature of OGD or a lack of awareness of the
values of OGD. Many of the public agencies do not have a clear view of
the difference between the OGD, government information disclosure,
and government informatization (Zhao & Fan, 2018). Thus, the aware­
ness of OGD benefits is a significant factor affecting the government in
releasing its data (Hardy & Maurushat, 2017). Awareness in this study
considers the understanding of the nature and value of OGD. Thus, when
agencies increase the awareness of OGD value, the OGD use will be
increased which will increase the public value delivered. As the agency
awareness can strengthen the relationship between the OGD use and the
OGD public value delivered. Therefore, we propose H10.
H10. Awareness has a moderation relationship between OGD use and
OGD public value.
4. Methodology and study design
4.1. Sample and data collection
In our study, the questionnaire survey is used to conduct empirical
research, and the items as shown in (appendexA.1) are derived from
existing questionnaires in the literature (Wang & Liao, 2008; Talukder
et al., 2019; Zuiderwijk & Janssen, 2014; Zhao & Fan, 2018; Verma and
Gupta, 2015; Abu-Shanab, 2015; Scott et al., 2016). After the comple­
tion of the first draft of the questionnaire, a preliminary investigation
was conducted. We invited 15 experts to fill out the questionnaire and
make recommendations as a pilot study.
N. Benmohamed et al. Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930

The survey was conducted using the Qualtrics platform and run be­
tween November 2021 and June 2022. This research was approved by
the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) under approval ethic
number (2021/338). The official email for the organization invitation
was sent to 150 randomly selected Australian public-sector organiza­
tions in New South Wales whose emails were listed on the national
Australian OGD website (www.data.gov.au). The e-mail was requesting
the invitation letter to be forwarded to the respective personnel (such as
OGD members, IT members, IT managers, or officers) who are engaged
in OGD use and worked for a certain period for the agencies. Only 199
complete responses were received out of 250 responses, and after per­
forming data cleaning a total of 168 valid responses from various
Australian agencies were included for further analysis. Given the con­
dition for participation in this study, only people who had experience in
using OGD in the course of their work commitments to participate in the
study, the sample size is reasonable, and the given answers are relevant
in understanding the phenomena of the study. This requirement ensures
that respondents have a relative understanding of the overall status of
the OGD use in the agency to ensure the accuracy of the research. The
sample size satisfied the minimum statistical requirement of PLS-SEM
analysis (Hair et al., 2017). The 7-point Likert scale ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree was used to measure the instrument.
5. Data analysis and result
The SPSS was used for descriptive analysis, and the Smart PLS was
used for testing the relationships of the model constructs and the hy­
potheses using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-
SEM). PLS-SEM is chosen for many advantages such as, it can handle a
model with large or small sample sizes of data, and normal, or non-
normal distribution of data. Also, PLS-SEM can be used for a complex
model with measurement model and structural model analyses. In
addition, PLS-SEM can be used for complex model reflective and
formative measurement constructs, it has great statistical power in
predicting the significant relationship in the model as it consists of a
component-based technique for the estimation of the model (Hair et al.,
2017; Hair et al., 2022).
5.1. Descriptive statistics
Descriptive analysis as shown in Table 1, the male participants
(54.5%) was higher than the females (45.5%), (38.7%) of participants
were between the ages of 41 and 50, (45.8%) of participants had a
postgraduate degree, (41.1%) of participants had (1–3) years of OGD
experience and the (43.5%) of participants’ position as members of the
IT department.
5.2. Common method bias
To test the potential of common method bias (CMB), Harman’s single
factor test is used which is a very comment method to evaluate biases in
participants’ responses to measurement items (Hair et al., 2017). The
variance should be lower than 50% to indicate the model is free of CMB
(Fuller et al., 2016; Hair, 2014). Our results show that the total variance
is 22.288%, of the variance was explained by one factor, which is lower
than the 50% threshold, after unrotated factor analysis. Thus, CMB is not
an issue in our model.
In addition, Hair et al. (2017); Hair et al. (2020) advised that in
Smart PLS, the collinearity assessment of the inner variance inflation
factor (VIF) indicates test whether all values of each construct were less
than the threshold value of 5.00. The result of the multicollinearity
assessment indicates that no critical issue among the predictor con­
structs in the structural model. (See Appendix A.4, for common method
bias and Appendix A.3 for multicollinearity assessments).
5.3. Measurement model assessment
In the measurement model assessment, the two-stage disjoin
approach is used to test the reflective formative model which indicates
the first order has reflective indicators while in the second order, the
dimensions are formative. In stage one, the estimation and measurement
model assessment for the lower-order components is based on the
standard model, which draws direct relationships between the con­
structs related to literature or theories. The higher-order component is
not included in the PLS path model. Then, in stage two, the latent var­
iable scores from the stage one results allow the creation and estimating
of the model (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020).
When evaluating higher-order models, the same model evaluation
criteria generally apply as for any PLS-SEM analysis (Hair et al., 2017;
Hair et al., 2022). However, higher-order constructs need to consider
two additional measurement models for which the evaluation criteria
should include both the measurement models of the lower-order com­
ponents and the measurement model of the higher-order construct,
which reflects the relationships between the higher-order component
and its lower-order components (Hair et al., 2017).
5.3.1. Reliability and validity
In PLS, reflective construct reliability is typically assessed using
composite reliability. Composite reliability (CR) indicates how well the
latent variable can be measured by the instruments (Hair, 2014). It is
recommended that all constructs exceed 0.70 for each of the assessment
measures (Hair et al., 2017). Convergent validity was measured using
the average variance extracted (AVE).
All constructs met the thresholds thus confirming the reliability and
validity of the constructs as presented in Table 2. The service support
that includes technical support, training and knowledge support,

Table 1
Descriptive analysis.
Gender Frequency % Job Position frequency %

Male 91 54.5% Head of the OGD department 4 2.4%

Female 76 45.5% Head of the IT department 10 6%
Age
22 or younger 1 0.6% Members of the OGD department 40 23.8%
23–30 17 10% Others 41 24.4%
31–40 55 32.7% Members of the IT department 73 43.5%
41–50 56 38.7% OGD usage experience(years) frequency %
51 or older Education 30 17.9% <1 year 29 17.3%
School 2 1.3% 1–3 69 41.1%
Diploma/undergraduate 54 32% 4–6 43 25.6%
postgraduate 77 45.8% 7–9 11 6.5%
Others/please specify 35 20.8% >10 years 6 3.6%
Not identified 10 6%
Total 168 100%

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N. Benmohamed et al. Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930

Table 2 shows that the values of AVE are above the threshold which means the
The reliability and validity of the model. convergent validity is achieved in this study.
>0.70 0.60–0.90 >0.50
5.3.3. Discriminant validity
Construct items Factor CR AVE
loading The discriminant validity measures how unrelated constructs are
Awareness AW1 936 0.862 0.759 correlated with each other. The correlation of such constructs must not
AW2 802 be high. The discriminant validity is measured by comparing the cor­
OGD Use OGDU1 0.733 0.857 0.667 responding bivariate correlation of the AVEs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981;
OGDU2 0.856
OGDU3 0.856
Hair et al., 2017). The AVE for each construct is present at the top of the
OGD User OGDUS1 0.896 0.899 0.816 Fornell-Larker criterion table. The results in Appendix A.5 indicate that
Satisfaction OGDUS2 0.911 the corresponding bivariate correlation shows a smaller value than the
OD Quality ODQ1 0.803 0.835 0.561 AVE, which means that discriminant validity is achieved in the study.
ODQ2 0.733
The Heterotrait monotrait ratio (HTMT) criterion has also been used
ODQ3 0.817
ODQ4 0.629 in the literature to measure discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2020; Hair
OGD Portal Quality OGDPQ1 0.759 0.855 0.542 et al., 2022). The HTMT criterion is 1, and any value under this
OGDQ2 0.686 threshold indicates that the discriminant validity is achieved (Hair et al.,
OGDPQ3 0.715 2020; Hair et al., 2022). The result in Table 3 indicates that discriminant
OGDPQ4 0.733
OGDPQ5 0.738
validity has been achieved in this research. The cross-loadings (see
Service Support Privacy Support 0.854 0.661 Appendix A.2 for cross-loading results) show all indicators have higher
(Reflective- PS1 0820 loading than their cross-loadings with other constructs. Therefore, the
Formative) PS2 0.855 discriminant validity of the model is established.
OGD Public Value PS3 0.758
The assessment of the stage two results begins with a test of the
Training and 0.891 0.734 higher order constructs (HOC) measurement model collinearity. To
Knowledge Support validate the (HOC)constructs, we need to first assess the collinearity of
TKS1 0.724 the VIF of the lower order construct (LOC) for the HOC. Table 4 shows
TKS2 0.911 that VIF < 5 so there is no multicollinearity issue.
TKS3 0.913
Then the assessment of the outer loading, weights, and its signifi­
Top Management 0.839 0.635
Support 0.811 cance Table 4 shows that all the formative constructs privacy support,
TMS2 0.739 and top management support outweigh are significant. Yet, the training
TMS2 0.786 and knowledge support construct and technical support outer weight
TMS3 0.833 0.628
were not significant, so further analysis of outer loading was assessed,
Technical support 0.802
TS1 0.897 and all formative constructs were significant.
TS2 0.626
TS3 5.4. Structural model assessment
OGD Public Value OGDPV1 0.706 0.857 0.502
OGDPV2 0.747
OGDPV3 0.757
Once the data is reliable, the next step in the data analysis is to
OGDPV4 0.708 evaluate the structural model of the research (see Fig. 1). The structural
OGDPV5 0.698 model evaluates the relationship between the constructs, that is, how
OGDPV6 0.625 one construct directly impacts the other construct. In this stage, the
AVE = average variance extracted; CR = composite reliability. coefficient of determination (R2), path coefficients (hypothesis testing),
and effect size (f2) are assessed (see Tables 6 & 7). Path coefficients
privacy support, and top management support (reflective-formative) (hypothesis testing) as a part of assessing the structural model, the P-
construct was tested first stage as reflective lower order constructs, and value and Beta value must be considered (Albers, 2017; Hair et al.,
further analysis of higher order formative construct in the second stage 2017). To assess whether the relationships are significant, we ran the
using latent variable score was performed for testing the model. 5000-resample bootstrapping procedure. Assuming a 5% significance
The outer loading was significant as shown in Table 2. It is recom­ level, we found (see Table 5) that all relationships in the structural
mended that indicators with outer loadings between 0.40 and 0.70 model are significant, except (DQ - > User satisfaction) as (t = 0.289, p
should be considered for removal only if the deletion leads to an increase = 0.773). Therefore, data quality has no significant impact on user
in the composite reliability and an acceptable threshold value of 0.708 satisfaction. The P-value indicates the significance of the hypothesis
or higher (Hair et al., 2017). Since Cronbach’s alpha and composite which must not be above 0.05 (P < 0.05), and the Beta indicates the
reliability were fulfilled, the items ODQ4, OGDPQ4, TS3, OGDPV5, and positive or negative association. The outcomes of the model hypotheses
OGDPV6 were retained. are stated as either supported or rejected. Table 5 indicates that all
The AVEs which square root of each construct’s AVE should be hypotheses are supported except the H4 is rejected.
higher than its correlation with any other construct for all constructs
were all higher than 0.50 which means that they fulfil this criterion as 5.4.1. Coefficient of determination (R2)
well (Hair, 2014; Hair et al., 2017). The R2 value is applied to validate the model’s predictive power
which is calculated as the squared correlation between the actual and
5.3.2. Convergent validity predictive values of a specific dependent construct (Hair et al., 2017).
The convergent validity indicates how the variables are related to The R2 value of the dependent value is 0.75, 0.50, or 0.25, which is
other constructs in the study. To achieve convergent validity the con­ considered substantial, moderate, or weak, respectively (Hair et al.,
structs should correlate with the related constructs only and must not 2017). As shown in Table 6 and Fig. 1, the results show in this study that
correlate with the others. Two main factors are used to indicate the R2 value of the OGD use (0.297), the OGD public value (0.348), and
convergent validity factor loading and average variance extracted the user satisfaction (0.444).
(AVE). The threshold for AVE is above 0.4, while the threshold value for
loading is above 0.7 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair, 2014). Table 2 5.4.2. Effect size (f2)
The f2 is used to assess the impact of the independent construct from

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N. Benmohamed et al. Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930

Table 3
HTMT.
ODQ OGDPQ OGDPV OGD Use OGDUS B8PVS TSS TMS TKS

ODQ
OGDPQ 0.858
OGDPV 0.568 0.603
OGD Use 0.608 0.543 0.618
OGDUS 0.562 0.658 0.614 0.711
PVS 0.413 0.401 0.571 0.447 0.6
TSS 0.653 0.342 0.333 0.155 0.284 0.344
TMS 0.456 0.412 0.492 0.546 0.336 0.591 0.23
TKS 0.476 0.289 0.276 0.22 0.183 0.208 0.643 0.211

Note: ODQ = open data quality, OGDPQ = open government data portal quality, OGDPV = open government data public value, OGD use = open government data use, OGDUS =
open government data user satisfaction, PVS = privacy support, TSS = technical support, TMS = top management support, TKS = training and knowledge support.

Table 4
(HOC) VIF the Outer Loading, Weights, and its Significance of formative constructs.
outer weight Original sample (O) Sample mean (M) Standard deviation (STDEV) T statistics (|O/STDEV|) P values VIF

Privacy support - > Service Support 0.702 0.685 0.129 5.427 0 1.285
Technical Support - > Service Support 0.139 0.141 0.14 0.992 0.321 1.406
Top Management Support - > Service Support 0.363 0.345 0.147 2.473 0.013 1.235
Training and Knowledge Support - > Service Support 0.113 0.117 0.141 0.804 0.422 1.355

Fig. 1. Partial least squares result of the structural model. The figure shows the structural model with path coefficients and coefficient of determination of
endogenous variables.

the model to determine whether this construct has a major effect on the
dependent construct (Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020). The f2 value of
0.02, 0.15, or 0.35, is considered to have a small, medium, or large
impact on the dependent construct respectively (Hair et al., 2017). As
shown in Table 7, the results of this study found that the f2 values of OGD
use (0.158) have a medium impact on the construct user satisfaction.
While the OGD use (0.114), and user satisfaction (0.075) have a small
impact on OGD public value.
relevance.
5.4.4. Mediation analysis
To assess mediation analysis Zhao et al. (2010) suggested that the
indirect effect should be significant. Mediation analysis was performed
to assess the mediating role of OGD use and user satisfaction between
the three quality constructs and the OGD public value, Table 5 shows the
indirect effect results.

5.4.3. Predictive relevance(Q2) 5.4.5. Control variable effect

The Q2 is used to measure whether a model has predictive relevance
which indicates the predictive relevance of the endogenous constructs.
Q2 values above zero show that the model has predictive relevance. In
Smart PLS, the blindfolding procedure is run to find the Q2 value (Hair
et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2020). Table 6 shows that the Q2 values of the
model are above zero which indicates the model has predictive
Gender, age, OGD usage experience, and education were included as
control variables to examine their influence on OGD use. To achieve this,
the bootstrapping technique has been conducted using Smart PLS with
5000 subsamples to determine the path coefficient between these con­
trol variables and the OGD use construct (Hair et al., 2020). As shown in
Table 9, the demographic control variable of the employee’s test result

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N. Benmohamed et al. Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930

Table 5
The hypotheses test includes (p-value) and Hypothesis Testing on Mediation.
PATH COEFFICIENT HOC Original sample Sample mean Standard deviation T statistics (|O/ P Status
Relationship (O) (M) (STDEV) STDEV|) values

DQ - > OGD Use 0.248 0.255 0.085 2.924 0.003 Supported

DQ - > User satisfaction − 0.025 − 0.025 0.087 0.289 0.773 rejected
OGD Portal Quality - > OGD Use 0.176 0.173 0.081 2.183 0.029 Supported
OGD Portal Quality - > User satisfaction 0.303 0.305 0.086 3.509 0 Supported
OGD Use - > OGD Public Value 0.33 0.334 0.08 4.109 0 Supported
OGD Use - > User satisfaction 0.353 0.35 0.077 4.597 0 Supported
Service Support - > OGD Use 0.245 0.251 0.084 2.932 0.003 Supported
Service Support - > User satisfaction 0.211 0.216 0.072 2.929 0.003 Supported
User satisfaction - > OGD Public Value 0.277 0.276 0.085 3.269 0.001 Supported
Hypothesis testing on mediation
Relationship Original sample Sample mean Standard deviation T statistics (|O/ P Status
(O) (M) (STDEV) STDEV|) values
OGD Portal Quality - > User Satisfaction - > OGD Public Value 0.084 0.085 0.038 2.234 0.026 Supported
service support - > User satisfaction - > OGD Public Value 0.059 0.06 0.029 2.015 0.044 Supported
OGD Portal Quality - > OGD Use - > OGD Public Value 0.058 0.059 0.032 1.798 0.072 rejected
DQ - > OGD Use - > User satisfaction - > OGD Public Value 0.024 0.024 0.012 2.08 0.038 Supported
DQ - > OGD Use - > User satisfaction 0.087 0.089 0.036 2.445 0.015 Supported
DQ - > User satisfaction - > OGD Public Value − 0.007 − 0.005 0.025 0.281 0.778 rejected
OGD Portal Quality - > OGD Use - > User satisfaction 0.062 0.061 0.033 1.908 0.056 rejected
OGD Portal Quality - > OGD Use - > User Satisfaction - > OGD 0.017 0.016 0.01 1.776 0.076 rejected
Public Value
service support - > OGD Use - > OGD Public Value 0.081 0.086 0.039 2.09 0.037 Supported
DQ - > OGD Use - > OGD Public Value 0.082 0.085 0.035 2.338 0.019 Supported
service support - > OGD Use - > User satisfaction - > OGD 0.024 0.024 0.011 2.183 0.029 Supported
Public Value

Table 6 Table 8
Predictive validity (R2) and predictive relevance(Q2predict). The moderator Awareness effect.
R-square R-square adjusted Q2predict bootstrapping Original Sample Standard T statistics P
sample mean deviation (|O/ values
OGD Public Value 0.348 0.332 0.279
(O) (M) (STDEV) STDEV|)
OGD Use 0.297 0.284 0.260
User satisfaction 0.444 0.430 0.318 Awareness - > 0.155 0.157 0.074 2.085 0.037
OGD Public
Value
Awareness x − 0.017 − 0.009 0.06 0.292 0.770
Table 7 OGD Use - >
F square. OGD Public
Value
f-square interpretation

Awareness - > OGD Public Value 0.035 small

DQ - > OGD Use 0.045 small the R square of the OGD public value construct with the awareness
DQ - > User satisfaction 0.001 no effect moderator was increased (R2 = 0.348).
OGD Portal Quality - > OGD Use 0.024 small
OGD Portal Quality - > User satisfaction 0.088 small
OGD Use - > OGD Public Value 0.114 Small to medium 5.4.7. Indirect effects
OGD Use - > User satisfaction 0.158 medium The mediating effects can be assessed in Smart PLS by using a
User satisfaction - > OGD Public Value 0.075 small bootstrapping technique (Hair et al., 2017). Using a 5000 bootstrapping
service support - > OGD Use 0.068 small sample was specified to estimate the significance of both direct and in­
service support - > User satisfaction 0.060 small
Awareness x OGD Use - > OGD Public Value 0.001 no effect
direct effects. As shown in Table 5, our results confirm that there are a
total of nine indirect effects that are supported.

shows that the (age, OGD usage experience, education, and gender) has
no impact on the OGD usage among employees of this study.

5.4.6. The moderator effect Table 9

Moderation occurs when the relationship between two constructs is Demographic effect on OGD use.
not constant but depends on the values of a third variable which is
Original Sample Standard T statistics P
referred to as a moderator variable. The moderator variable (or sample mean deviation (|O/ values
construct) could change the strength or the direction of a relationship (O) (M) (STDEV) STDEV|)
between two constructs in the model. To assess the effects of the
OGD-usage- − 0.077 − 0.075 0.058 1.33 0.184
moderating relationship the change indicates whether the effects of the experience -
moderator increase or decrease the strength of the focal relationship > OGD Use
(Hair et al., 2022). Table 8 shows that the moderator awareness is not age - > OGD − 0.116 − 0.116 0.065 1.795 0.073
Use
significant in the relationship between the OGD use and the OGD public
education - > 0.119 0.119 0.062 1.912 0.056
value. However, the moderator has a positive effect on the OGD public OGD Use
value. The model was tested before adding the moderator awareness and gender - > 0.014 0.012 0.069 0.199 0.842
the R square of the OGD public value was(R2 = 0.324), Table 8 shows OGD Use

10
N. Benmohamed et al.
6. Discussion
This research aims to investigate the factors that enable or inhibit
public value creation using OGD in the public sector. The research ad­
dresses factors affecting the success of creating public value as benefits
delivered using the Australian OGD portal from the perspective of the
public sector employees as primary users. In this study, we have
empirically validated the proposed model for measuring the OGD public
value which is based on the IS model and the Moore (1995) public value
framework.
The results of the study support the validity of the proposed model
for investigating the possible factors affecting OGD use to create public
value from the employee perspective as all hypotheses are supported,
except H4 which is rejected.
Based on our model and structural equations, it can be proven that
OGD portal use has a significant positive impact on the OGD public
value. Results indicated that both OGD portal use and user satisfaction
have a strongly positive effect on the OGD public value. This result is
consistent with (Stefanovic et al., 2016) which indicated that the em­
ployee’s e-government system use, and employee satisfaction have a
positive impact on the net benefits. Among these two constructs, OGD
portal use has the highest impact on OGD public value, as the OGD use
has the most effect size on OGD public value (0.114). In addition, OGD
use has a positive impact on user satisfaction and has the highest impact
(0.158) on user satisfaction which is consistent with previous research
findings by Wang and Liao (2008); Stefanovic et al. (2016); Wang and
Liao (2008) who found that e-government system use has a significant
impact on user satisfaction. The result of this study indicates that higher
OGD use has a high influence on the OGD public value as well as
employee satisfaction in the public sector.
Additionally, the results indicate that the OGD portal quality has a
positive direct effect on the OGD use and the users’ satisfaction. Also, the
OGD portal quality has an indirect effect on the OGD public value.
Similarly, Stefanovic et al. (2016) found that the system quality of the e-
government system has a significant impact on both the use and user
satisfaction. This is unlike the previous result by, Wang and Liao (2008)
who found that the e-government system quality impacts significantly
only the user satisfaction, while its effect on use was not significant.
The IS model hypothesizes that service quality is one of the impor­
tant dimensions of any information system success (DeLone & McLean,
2003). The service support in this study includes the four sub-
dimensions (privacy support, technical support, training and knowl­
edge support, and top management support) which have a positive
direct effect on OGD use and user satisfaction and an indirect effect on
the OGD public value. Compared to other service support sub-
dimensions, based on the reliability assessments of the formative outer
wight, privacy support appears to be the most important sub-dimension
of service support followed by top management support. The potential
OGD misuse and privacy concern is still one big concern for government
agency employees regarding OGD use (Yang and Wu, 2016). In addition,
Attard et al. (2015) indicated that privacy issue caused by OGD is still a
concern for the governments releasing OGD. Top management support is
a critical driver to help in assisting issues and making dynamic changes
required to achieve the desired objectives and benefits of OGD (World
Bank, 2015).
OGD requires special knowledge and training to integrate existing
data resources and consider issues of data format, personnel privacy,
and data security. Previous studies indicated that technical support is a
very important factor of OGD (Conradie & Choenni, 2014; Zuiderwijk &
Janssen, 2014), which is consistent with our conclusion. In a study by
Zhao and Fan (2018), the researchers found that a high level of technical
and training staff of OGD is important to enhance the capacity of OGD.
Additionally, in line with previous studies, the knowledge and training
skills of OGD users impact engagement with OGD (Purwanto et al.,
2020; Zuiderwijk & Reuver, 2021). To improve service quality, public
agencies need to provide the required skills and knowledge to meet the
11
Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
OGD user’s needs and expectations (Purwanto et al., 2020). Therefore,
the service support has a positive impact on promoting the use of OGD,
user satisfaction, and the release of OGD public value.
In addition, the results of the study found that open data (OD) quality
has a positive influence on OGD use yet has no influence on employee
satisfaction. Interestingly, the OD quality has a significant indirect
impact on OGD public value. As the OGD use mediates the relationship
between the OD quality and the OGD public value. This means that the
OD quality has a positive effect on the OGD public value with the in­
clusion of the OGD use. This finding is reasonable because our re­
spondents were relatively experienced users of OGD so the low-quality
data may not affect them, as they have the required skills to deal with
the low-quality data. The second reason could be that the Australian
open data published on the main portal is considered a high-quality
standard. As OECD (2020) reported even though the overall level of
Australian OGD accessibility has increased in recent years, stakeholder
engagement on the federal OGD portal remains below the OECD average
(OECD, 2020). This explains the result that Australian OD quality is
relatively high as the data published in the main portal is not just
available but also reusable for different stakeholders even with little
experience working with data. Yet, the overall OGD usage is still not
improving. Our finding is in line with previous results found by Stefa­
novic et al. (2016), information quality has a positive impact on the use
of e-government systems but not on user satisfaction. However, Agba­
biaka & Ugaddan, 2016 found that OD Quality has no impact on OGD
use or OGD user satisfaction. Unlike previous studies found that data
quality is not an issue for experienced users of OGD as they can deal with
these data (Purwanto et al., 2020).
The moderation analysis shows that the awareness does not affect the
relationship between the OGD use and the OGD public value. However,
awareness has a positive significant impact on increasing the OGD
public value. The result of the study is in line with previous studies that
suggested OGD awareness has a great potential to affect OGD public
value (Zuiderwijk et al., 2015). Also, Zhao and Fan (2018) found that
awareness was a significant factor that influenced OGD performance in
the public sector.
The demographic control variable of the employees’ test result shows
that (age, education, OGD usage experience, and gender) have no
impact on OGD usage among employees in the public sector. Similarly,
the results by Stefanovic et al. (2016); Nam (2014), found that em­
ployees’ backgrounds and characteristics are not a predictor of e-gov­
ernment use. The results contribute significantly to the use of the IS
model implication and its generalizability (Stefanovic et al., 2016).
The findings of this study can be generalized to all the public
employee who use the Australian OGD portals in their work activities.
The factors affecting employees’ use of OGD portals identified through
this study appear to reflect a broad view of the employees’ perceptions
of other organizations within Australia. It is likely that those OGD portal
users use similar functional tools and face similar technical, privacy, and
knowledge challenges in their OGD portal usage. Additionally, the
model of this study was developed in the Australian context, which is a
democratic nation, and applies similar policies in all public sectors.
Moreover, the demographic result indicates that there is no difference in
the background characteristics of the employees, which gives more
support to the generalization of the study.
The findings of this study suggest that to increase OGD public value,
it is not enough to just publish open data in the OGD portals. The gov­
ernment needs to consider OGD systems that provide high-quality data,
and that are usable, user-friendly, and easy to use for public sector
employees, who, in turn, will enhance services for citizens and agencies.
Also, to promote OGD use, service support is very crucial for employees
who face difficulties in accessing the data. Also, training and knowledge
support could help an unskilled employee who lacks the knowledge and
education needed to deal with OGD. In addition, technical support can
increase the technical issues that appear with OGD use. Importantly,
privacy is one of the biggest concerns in using OGD in the public sector,
N. Benmohamed et al.
so the updated support of privacy is vital for employees dealing with
OGD.
The results of this study indicate that governments should pay more
attention to the awareness of the benefits, value, and nature of OGD use
in the public sector. Governments can improve the use of open data
technologies by increasing employees’ expectations that such technol­
ogies will help them accomplish their tasks more quickly, increasing
their productivity and improving their job performance. As well as the
enhancement in intangible values of using OGD to promote democracy,
accountability, transparency, communication, and trust between citi­
zens and governments.
6.1. Theoretical and practical contributions
The proposed theoretical framework can be used to assess the factors
affecting OGD public value by users in the public sector, which can help
researchers and developers to improve and update their system, based
on the results. The research model can also be used for other e-gov­
ernment systems.
Using the IS model as a theoretical basis with the combination of the
Moore (1995) framework provides several advantages as it can produce
a unique understanding that cannot be achieved with a single theory-
driven model, and it strengthens the significance and predictability of
the results. Our study provides insight into IS theory models that can be
better applied to the research of public value creation of OGD portal use.
Therefore, combined relevant theories build a theoretical model to
explain the important factors that determine employee intention to use
OGD portals. Moreover, applying the combined theories better explore
the public value creation phenomenon of employees’ use of OGD portals
and thus fill the theoretical gap.
Moore (1995) framework of public value can be defined as a
balancing of efficiency and effectiveness measures with enhancement in
democratic and social values such as engagement, participation,
collaboration, and trust in government, thus applying the Moore (1995)
framework to OGD public value creation from the public sector could
make the view of OGD benefits wider in the community. Delivering the
public value of OGD has an impact on the employees, their organization,
and the community in general who use the public sector service and get
benefits of improving the service. The public value of OGD use in this
study represents the concept of net benefits in IS research (DeLone &
McLean, 2003). Public value reflects the net benefits created by the
government for various stakeholders in society. OGD public value is
activated by the usage of OGD portals by the public sector in the orga­
nization, hence the use of OGD determines the realization of the OGD
public value.
Our findings provide a valuable reference for the public value of OGD
to some extent.
First, from the perspective of the IS model, the results indicate that
the variables of the research model (system quality, data quality, and
service support portal use and user satisfaction) have a great effect on
the value creation of OGD. Also, the IS model suggests that the success of
any system can be determined by the system quality, data quality, and
service support, which have effects on both the system use and user
satisfaction which gradually will promote the net benefits.
Our findings show that policymakers should consider promoting the
OGD portal use which in turn will lead to user satisfaction and then
deliver the OGD public value. OGD portal developers and government
agencies that provide open data should work together to better support
OGD users and their needs and expectations. Thus, the study contributes
to the OGD domain in terms of the model’s validity, which can be used to
investigate factors affecting public value creation from the public sector
employee perspective in different contexts.
Government agencies should pay more attention to privacy issues
which appear to be the biggest challenges affecting employees to use
OGD portals and the public value creation of OGD in the public sector.
Meanwhile, a high level of technical, skilled staff and technical training
12
Government Information Quarterly 41 (2024) 101930
on OGD are critical factors to improve the use of OGD portals and deliver
public value. Also, top management leaders should actively participate
in OGD to help the public organization overcome the challenges faced by
the users of OGD and make the required changes. Governments can
improve the use of open data technologies by increasing employees’
expectations that such technologies will help them accomplish their
tasks more quickly, increasing their productivity and improving their
job performance.
Moreover, the OGD portal use is still a new phenomenon for many
employees in the public sector. Thus, the public sector should take ac­
tions to raise awareness of the value of OGD in the public sector which is
a vital factor that promotes understanding of the significance of the
value of OGD use among public employees.
6.2. Limitation
This study has some limitations that give opportunities for future
research. The data collection is limited only to one state, New South
Wales, in Australia. Therefore, data collection from different countries
for comparison could provide further insights. Future research can also
enrich the investigation of public value creation of OGD in other con­
texts and countries. Also, the research, model has been tested from a
public sector perspective, future research would be more beneficial to
test the research model from a private sector perspective. In addition,
our data are obtained by questionnaires, in the future, qualitative
methods can be employed to further enrich the result of the study.
7. Conclusion
The government across the world has stimulated wide adoption and
use of OGD platforms at all levels which can bring benefits for both
government and the public citizens. Through the use of OGD platforms
by the government, the public can be more directly involved in public
service delivery and policymaking. Hence, OGD platforms can be used as
a strategic tool in alignment with government performance goals to
create public value. Therefore, this study aims to get a deep insight into
the factors affecting public sector employees to create public value
through the use of OGD platforms. Based on the IS model with a com­
bination of the Moore (1995) framework as a theoretical model, the
quantitative study was applied with data obtained from the Australian
public sector.
The study results show that the increase in OGD portal use and user
satisfaction has a great impact on the public value of OGD. Also, the
OGD portal quality and service support indirectly affect the public value
of OGD. The result of the moderator analysis suggests that awareness of
the value of OGD among public sector employees has a great potential to
affect the delivery of public value. Thus, public administrators and
policymakers should focus on these factors to promote the public value
creation of OGD.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nuria Benmohamed: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
draft, Software, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Jun
Shen: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration.
Elena Vlahu-Gjorgievska: Writing – review & editing, Validation,
Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
N. Benmohamed et al.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.giq.2024.101930.
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Nuria Benmohamed is a Ph.D. student in the School of Computing and Information
Technology at the University of Wollongong. Her research interests include big data an­
alytics, e-government, social media, and data science. She has over 18 years’ experience in
the IT field in both teaching and research since 2004.
Jun Shen is a Professor in the School of Computing and Information Technology at the
University of Wollongong. His research interests include applied computing, AI in edu­
cation, computational intelligence, applications learning technology ITS. He has been
engaged in many funded projects.
Elena Vlahu-Gjorgievska is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Computing and Informa­
tion Technology at the University of Wollongong, received her PhD degree in 2013. She
has been working in academia since 2007 and joined the University of Wollongong in
2017. Her research interests include digital health, health informatics, and persuasive
technologies.