Topic 6 Key Concepts

DEAKIN UNIVERSITY
Principles of Physiology
• Control and regulation of digestion
SLE211
• Structure and anatomy of the digestive tract
• Stomach – stores food and begins protein digestion
Gastrointestinal Physiology • Small intestine – the site where most digestion and
1 absorption takes place

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Digestive system performs four basic digestive processes:

Digestive system - takes nutrients, water and electrolytes from the
food we eat (breaks it down biochemically) and transfers it to the
internal environment. 1) MOTILITY - moves food through the digestive system

Ingested food is the body’s “fuel” to produce ATP (active transport,

contraction, synthesis and secretion). 2) SECRETION - enzymes that breakdown food

Food must be biochemically broken down before being absorbed by

the digestive system and transported to the cells via the circulatory 3) DIGESTION - mechanical and chemical
system.
95% of food ingested is made available to the body cells. 4) ABSORPTION - movement of digested end products from GI
tract into blood or lymph.

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 MOTILITY Single unit smooth muscle
Tone is ongoing.
On top of tone there are two basic types of digestive motility.
Muscular contractions that:
mix the contents in the digestive tract 1) Propulsive movements - propel or push contents forward through the digestive
move contents along the tract. system.
Moves at different velocities through different regions.
Walls of digestive tract contain smooth muscle (single-unit smooth muscle).
Maintain a constant level of tone.
Eg. Movement of food through oesophagus is rapid as oesophagus is a passageway
Tone: from transporting food from mouth to stomach.
maintains steady pressure on the contents of digestive system. Movement of contents through small intestine is much slower - time for breakdown
prevents walls from remaining permanently stretched after distension. and absorption of food.

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SECRETION

Number of digestive juices secreted along the digestive route.

2) Mixing movements
Digestive secretion consists of:
- water
a) mix the food with the digestive juices - movement promotes the - electrolytes
digestion of food.
- organic constituents eg. Enzymes, bile salts or mucus.

One exception - Stomach

All these ingredients are extracted from the plasma.
b) facilitates absorption - all absorbing surfaces of the digestive tract
are exposed to the contents.
Secretion of all digestive juices requires energy -
Active transport of raw materials into cell (some diffuse passively).
Drives secretory process of endoplasmic reticulum.

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 DIGESTION
Raw materials needed to produce
digestive secretions extracted from Biochemical breakdown process.
plasma.
Structurally complex food stuffs are converted to smaller absorbable units by
enzymes.
Product emptied into duct.
Humans consume 3 different biochemical categories of energy rich foodstuffs.
Secretion can be modified when it 1) carbohydrates
moves through duct.
2) proteins
3) fats

Figure 16-1 Sherwood (2004)

Exocrine gland secretion Cannot be absorbed directly as they are too large.

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What does the digestive system consist of?

ABSORPTION Digestive tract - 9m length of tubing running through the middle of the body from mouth to anus.

Most absorption occurs through the small intestine.

Small absorbable substances, water, vitamins, electrolytes transferred from the
digestive tract lumen to the plasma or lymph.

Mouth, pharynx (throat), oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (caecum, appendix,
These major processes will be examined as we examine the digestive tract in more colon & rectum) and anus.
detail.
Accessory digestive organs - salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder.

All organs are continuous with each other.

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 Contents of the digestive tract are “outside” the body. Digestive tract has same basic structure from oesophagus to anus.
Digestive tract continuous from mouth to anus
Lumen of tube is continuous with the external environment. Specialized regions along the way.
Must be absorbed to get inside the body.
4 major tissue layers (from innermost layer out)
Important because condition essential for digestion that cannot be
tolerated by the body.
1) mucosa 3 layers - mucous membrane
Innermost
1) pH of stomach is 2.0 when HCl secreted. Body fluids pH = 6.8-8.0 - lamina propria

2) Enzymes produced to digest food - only activated in lumen. - muscularis mucosa

Protects body tissues. 2) submucosa
3) Intestine inhabited by millions of microorganisms - normally 3) muscularis externa 2 layers - outer longitudinal muscle layer
harmless until they enter the body proper.
- inner circular muscle layer
4) serosa Outermost

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Regulation of digestive function

Carefully regulated for maximum digestion and absorption.

Four factors involved in this process

1) Autonomous smooth muscle function

2) Intrinsic nerve plexuses
3) Extrinsic nerves
4) Gastrointestinal hormones
Figure 16-2 Sherwood (2013) Layers of digestive tract wall

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1) Autonomous smooth muscle function
Smooth muscle cells that do not have a constant resting membrane
potential.
Display rhythmic, spontaneous variations in membrane potential -
prominent type is slow-wave potentials.
These are known as the Basic Electrical Rhythmn (BER) of the gut
OR
Pacesetter potentials.
Group of smooth muscle cells that are specialized to produce slow-
wave potentials “Interstital Cells of Cajal”
Located at the boundary between the longitudinal and circular
muscle layers.
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If food is in the digestive tract……….
Digestive tract is stretched.
Resting membrane potential is closer to threshold potential.
Membrane potential reaches threshold.
AP frequency increases.
Contractile activity increases.
If no food in the digestive tract……….
Resting membrane potential further from threshold.
Decrease chances of reaching threshold.
AP frequency is lowered.
Contractile activity decreases.
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Slow-wave potentials produced by these cells spread to
the adjacent contractile smooth muscle cells via gap
junctions.
Slow-wave potentials are not AP’s and do not directly
induce muscle contraction.
They are wave-like fluctuations in membrane potential.
Result from the cyclic variation in the rate at which Na+
pump transports Na+ out of the pacesetter cell.
If the waves reach threshold - rapid burst of action
potentials - rhythmical cycles of muscle contraction.
Slow wave membrane potential from interstitial cells
of Cajal (ICC) generate and conduct signals that
regulate smooth muscle (SM) excitability.
Whether wave reaches threshold depends on
mechanical, neural input and hormonal factors that
influence “resting potential”.
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In smooth muscle when threshold is reached
Voltage gated Ca2+ channels are activated.
Ca2+ influx into the smooth muscle cell.
The greater the number of AP the higher the cytosolic Ca2+
concentration, the greater the cross bridge activity,
the stronger the contraction.
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 2) Intrinsic nerve plexuses Enteric NS - influences all facets of the activity in the digestive tract.

Interconnecting network of nerve cells. Various types of neurons.

Two major networks Sensory -respond to specific local stimuli

1) Myenteric plexus (Auerbach’s) - located between the two
muscle layers.
Neurons - innervate the smooth muscle cells
2) Submucous plexus (Meissner’s) - located in the submucosa. - exocrine and endocrine gland
Your stomach really does have - secretion of hormones
a mind of its own. The “little
Intrinsic because they are located within the digestive tract. brain” in your gut
- official name is the enteric
Run the entire length of the digestive tract from mouth to anus.
nervous system (ENS) - is a
Some neurons excitatory (release ACh) - cause contraction.
Enteric nervous system - nervous system of the digestive tract. densely packed collection of
nerves which span your entire
Some neurons inhibitory (Nitric oxide, Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)) - cause
digestive tract relaxation.

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3) Extrinsic nerves

Nerves that originate outside the digestive tract.

Innervate the digestive organs. 4) Gastrointestinal hormones
Nerves from autonomic NS (sympathetic and parasympathetic).

Hormones mainly produced within the GI tract.

Influence digestive tract motility and secretion
Hormones carried via the blood to other areas of digestive tract.
modifying activity of enteric plexuses
altering levels of hormones secreted. Excitatory and Inhibitory effects.

Sympathetic input - inhibits or slows down digestive motility and secretion.

Parasympathetic input (vagus nerve) - increases smooth muscle motility and promotes secretion of
digestive enzymes.

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