Accurate Inlet Boundary

Conditions to Capture
Combustion Chamber
and Turbine Coupling With

Benjamin Martin1
CFD Team CERFACS,
Toulouse 31000, France
e-mail: benjamin.martin@cerfacs.fr
Florent Duchaine
CFD Team CERFACS,
Toulouse 31000, France
Laurent Gicquel
CFD Team CERFACS,
Toulouse 31000, France
Nicolas Odier
CFD Team CERFACS,
Toulouse 31000, France
Jer^
ome Dombard
CFD Team CERFACS,
Toulouse 31000, France
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Large-Eddy Simulation
The coupling between different components of a turbomachinery is becoming more
widely studied especially by use of computational fluid dynamics. Such simulations are of
particular interest especially at the interface between a combustion chamber and a tur-
bine, for which the prediction of the migration of hotspots generated in the chamber is of
paramount importance for performance and life-duration issues. Despite this need for
fully integrated simulations, typical turbomachinery simulations however often only con-
sider isolated components with either time-averaged constant value, radial profile or
least frequently two-dimensional maps imposed at their inlet boundaries preventing any
accurate two-way coupling. The objective of this study is to investigate available solu-
tions to perform isolated simulations while taking into account the effect of multicompo-
nent coupling. Investigations presented in the paper focus on the full aero-thermal
combustor-turbine interaction research (FACTOR) configuration. The first step of the
proposed method is to record conservative variables solved by the large-eddy simulation
(LES) code at the interface plane between the chamber and the turbine of a reference
simulation. Then, using the spectral proper orthogonal decomposition (SPOD) method,
the recorded data is analyzed and can be partially reconstructed using different numbers
of frequencies. Using the partial reconstructions, it is then possible to replicate a realistic
inlet boundary condition for isolated turbine simulations with both velocity and tempera-
ture fluctuations, while reducing the storage cost compared to the initial database. The
integrated simulation is then compared to the isolated simulations as well as against sim-
ulations making use of averaged quantities with or without synthetic turbulence injection
at their inlet. The isolated simulations for which the inlet condition is reconstructed with
a large number of frequencies show very good agreement with the fully integrated simu-
lation compared to the typical isolated simulation using average quantities at the inlet.
As expected, decreasing the number of frequencies in the reconstructed signal deterio-
rates the accuracy of the resulting signal compared to the full recorded database. How-
ever, isolated simulations with a low number of frequencies still perform better than
standard boundary conditions, especially from an aero-thermal point of view.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4052099]

Introduction components by taking into account the flow unsteadiness at the

interface between components. The ability to mimic the complex
The coupling between different components in turbomachinery
dynamics of turbulent flows by a small number of the more ener-
is a topic of paramount importance for manufacturers. The behav-
getic modes is crucial to be able to analyze and model the com-
ior and performance of an isolated component can indeed be
plex physics with a low memory cost. Proper orthogonal
strongly altered when installed in the complete configuration,
decomposition (POD) is commonly used to extract spatially
reducing the expected performance and/or lifespan in some cases.
orthogonal modes from a series of flow snapshots at different
Numerically, it is possible to study these phenomena by perform-
times. In its standard form, POD [1,2] is performed in the time
ing integrated simulations of multiple turbomachinery compo-
domain, but it can also be formulated in the frequency domain. In
nents. However, unsteady simulations are often needed to capture
the frequency domain, the method is called spectral proper orthog-
the spatial and temporal interactions occurring at the interfaces.
onal decomposition [3]. The recovered modes vary in both space
And despite the constant progress of computational power,
and time and are orthogonal under a space–time inner product,
unsteady simulations of multiple components is still not conceiva-
which is well-suited to investigate the spatio-temporal coherence
ble as of today in a design phase for engine manufacturers. With
of the dataset. Thanks to the extraction of the most energetic fre-
this in mind, other options have to be considered to replicate the
quencies at the flow inlet, it is then possible to create unsteady
interactions between components at a lower cost.
inlet boundary conditions with realistic velocity and temperature
The aim of this study is to investigate the use of realistic bound-
fluctuations.
ary conditions applied to simulations of isolated turbomachinery
Despite having the capability of investigating spatio-temporal
coherence from an initial database, the use of the spectral proper
1 orthogonal decomposition (SPOD) method still raises issues that
Corresponding author.
Manuscript received July 13, 2021; final manuscript received July 26, 2021; need to be considered. First, the choice of the inner product will
published online November 1, 2021. Editor: Jerzy T. Sawicki. affect the spectrum recovered by the SPOD method. In a

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power FEBRUARY 2022, Vol. 144 / 021007-1
C 2022 by ASME
Copyright V
configuration aiming at investigating the combined effect of hot-
spot migration and swirled flow on the turbine aero-thermal prop-
erties, the chosen inner product should at least associate the
velocity and temperature at the interface. Second, as mentioned
earlier, to reduce the overall storage cost of the recorded database,
partial reconstruction are created, hence raising the question on
the impact of the omitted information on the resulting inlet bound-
ary condition. Finally, the use of the SPOD method is significantly
more complex compared to a standard boundary condition using
time-averaged constant value or two-dimensional (2D) maps. The
benefits of this method should therefore be substantial in order to
be considered as a credible candidate to replace in some configu-
rations the standard boundary conditions.
In a first part, the full aero-thermal combustor-turbine interac-
tion research (FACTOR) setup used to address the aforemen-
tioned issues is presented. The integrated configuration composed
of the combustion chamber and the stator of the high-pressure tur-
bine, which will be used as a reference, is at this occasion
detailed. Then, the flow topology of the integrated simulation is
studied to correctly understand the complexity of the flow at the
interface between the combustion chamber and the turbine. In a
second part, the SPOD method is briefly introduced and used to
analyze the recorded database to extract its spectral properties.
Different inlet boundary conditions are then generated through
various partial use of the initial spectrum. Finally, the integrated
simulation is compared with experimental data, isolated simula-
tions with standard inlet boundary conditions as well as isolated
simulations using the partially reconstructed databases as inlet
boundary conditions.
Reference Configuration
The studied configuration is the high pressure turbine vane of
the FACTOR test rig. Dedicated to the investigation of the inter-
actions of lean combustion chambers with the high-pressure tur-
bines, the FACTOR project has generated a large database around
two state-of-the-art experiments: a trisector combustor studied at
UNIFI [4] and a full annular combustor equipped with its turbine
stage located at DLR G€ottingen [5]. The configuration is CFD-
friendly as it features an annular periodicity of 18 deg with one
combustor and two nozzle guide vanes. The swirler aligned with
the leading edge of the second nozzle guide vanes (NGVs). Many
large-eddy simulation (LES) of the combustion chamber either
isolated or within integrated computations along with the turbine
are available [6–11]. Downstream of the swirler (Fig. 1), the flow
field features a central recirculation zone in the combustion cham-
ber and the breakdown of the swirler generates a processing vor-
tex core (PVC), which is characteristic of this kind of fuel
injection system, used to anchor the flame. In the chosen configu-
ration, the NGVs are positioned so that the hot streak exiting the
swirler impacts the leading edge of vane #2. Because of the swirl-
ing motion generated by the fuel injection system, the combustion
chamber exit features high levels of turbulence (turbulence inten-
sity up to 20%), as well as residual swirl and temperature nonuni-
formities [12]. All of these characteristics make isolated turbine
simulations with realistic inlet conditions quite difficult to
perform.
Fig. 1 Fully integrated FACTOR configuration
021007-2 / Vol. 144, FEBRUARY 2022
In the following, a first configuration addresses both combus-
tion chamber and vanes at once (Fig. 1). This case has been shown
to accurately predict the effects of the flow and thermal nonuni-
formities generated by the combustor on the turbine [12].
For this specific LES prediction as well as for all forthcoming
predictions presented in this work are performed using AVBP, a
massively parallel CFD code developed by CERFACS [13]. The
code solves the three-dimensional LES-modeled compressible
Navier–Stokes equations based on a fully explicit cell-vertex for-
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mulation. The Lax–Wendroff scheme is used for the discretization
of the convective terms, providing second-order space–time accu-
racy [14], while the subgrid scale (SGS) viscosity lSGS is modeled
using the wall-adapting local eddy-viscosity model [15]. The LES
explicit filtering is guaranteed by the use of a SGS model,
accounting for a filter characteristic length equal to the cube-root
of the node volume. Both combustor walls and turbine blades are
multiperforated to ensure a proper cooling and to mimic the tech-
nological features of a real engine. The mass flow distribution of
the different injections with their associated temperature and loca-
tion are shown in Fig. 2. To accurately reproduce the multiperfo-
ration patterns, effusion cooling at inner and outer liners in the
chamber and on the NGV surface are modeled using a heterogene-
ous coolant injection model [16].
Meshes used contains 29.6 M cells in the plenum/chamber and
12.4 M cells for the NGVs. Refinement regions are enforced
around the swirler blades, combustor walls and turbine blades.
The maximum yþ is 120 for the swirler blades, 80 for the combus-
tor walls and 100 for the vanes (close to the trailing edges). All
walls are considered adiabatic and in accordance with the yþ val-
ues in the domain, the near-wall region is modeled with a log-law
wall function [17].
In agreement with the available experimental data, plenum and
cooling flow are defined as mass flow inlets, while the outlet
boundary condition is defined as a pressure outlet. Both inlet and
outlet boundaries are imposed using Navier–Stokes characteristic
boundary conditions [8,18,19].
In terms of flow topology, the FACTOR configuration features
a PVC at 500 Hz generated by a swirled fuel injection system.
This swirled flow at a temperature around 500 K creates a hotspot
that directly impacts NGV #2 of the turbine stage, as evidenced
by a view of streamlines seeded from the swirler exit in Fig. 3.
This organization of the flow can also be clearly seen in Fig. 4.
The black region shows an isosurface of low static pressure to
highlight the PVC. Additionally, the isosurface of Q-criterion
reveals the strong turbulent activity at the guiding duct exit, which
is then transported to the combustion chamber exit. This turbulent
activity is still present throughout the turbine vanes. The isosur-
face also shows the cold flow injected via the heterogeneous mul-
tiperforation. Regions with vortices at 300 K are located close to
the combustor walls (both hub and shroud) and around the turbine
vanes.
This strong turbulent activity and thermal nonuniformities at
the turbine inlet motivates the choice of the FACTOR configura-
tion to study the impact of turbine inlet boundary condition
Fig. 2 Mass flow and temperature distributions of the different
inlets. Contours on the walls represent the multiperforation
patterns.
Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 3 View of the streamlines seeded from the swirler colored
by total temperature
Fig. 4 Instantaneous view of the turbulent activity in the inte-
grated simulation: precessing vortex core in black (isosurface
of low static pressure) and turbulent eddies (isosurface of
Q-criterion) colored by static temperature
modeling. These observations are confirmed by the contours of
axial velocity and total temperature as well as the corresponding
root-mean-square (RMS) values at midspan of the turbine NGV
section (Figs. 5 and 6). It clearly shows the strong turbulent activ-
ity as well as the complex temperature fluctuations in the turbine
stage.
Database Generation and Spectral Proper Orthogonal
Decomposition
To generate the database needed to build realistic inlet bound-
ary conditions for isolated simulations, the integrated simulation
is run for tsim ¼ 0:1 s.
Fig. 5 Mean axial velocity and axial velocity RMS (ms21 ) at
midspan of the turbine NGV section: (a) u and (b) urms
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
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Fig. 6 Mean total temperature and total temperature RMS (K)
at midspan of the turbine NGV section: (a) Ttot and (b) Ttot,rms
First, to better apprehend this simulation time tsim with respect
to the flow physics within the configuration, two characteristic
times are recalled, the domain through-flow time (between the
swirler exit and the turbine exit), sdomain ¼ 11 ms, and the turbine
through-flow time (between the turbine entry and exit),
sturbine ¼ 0:65 ms.
The total simulation time tsim can then be compared to these
two characteristic times yielding
tsim ’ 9sdomain ’ 154sturbine (1)
Confirming that statistical convergence is as required in light of
usual recommendations. The conservative variables are recorded
at the chamber/turbine interface at a sampling time dt0 ¼
5:0  106 s (equivalent to 100 physical timesteps), which gives a
total of 20 000 snapshots during tsim . Using the two characteristic
times introduced above, the following relationships are obtained:
sdomain ¼ 2200dt0 and sturbine ¼ 130dt0 . The position of the
recorded plane is shown in Fig. 1 in green (interface between the
chamber and the NGVs).
Second, to confirm that the simulation time is sufficient to reach
a satisfying statistical convergence, the spatial averages of the
RMS values for the axial velocity and static temperature at the
inlet are computed from the recorded plane snapshots and are
plotted against the averaging time duration in Fig. 7. It shows that
tsim is indeed more than sufficient in to obtain converged values.
Fig. 7 Spatial averages of the RMS values for the axial velocity
and static temperature at the turbine inlet. The black dashed
lines correspond to the final value for an averaging time of
0:1 s.
FEBRUARY 2022, Vol. 144 / 021007-3
 As stated in the introduction, different methods are available to
perform a modal decomposition of the initial high-dimensional
system. POD can be considered. However, in its standard form,
POD operates in the time domain by decomposing the flow field
in a sum of products of spatially orthogonal modes and temporal
coefficients with random dependency. The PVC impacts the
NGVs periodically. There is thus a strong time dependency that
may not be correctly captured by POD. By providing orthogonal
modes in the spatio-temporal domain at each discrete frequency,
the SPOD is therefore well-suited for the present configuration. A
link between a spatially varying information and frequency is fur-
thermore very often needed for appropriate understanding of com-
plex or turbulent flows. Note that the link between SPOD and
dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) [20] has been looked into
[3] and “for stationary data, SPOD modes correspond to opti-
mally averaged DMD modes computed from an ensemble of
stochastic realizations of a process” [21]. For these reasons, the
unsteady database consisting of instantaneous snapshots of
the turbulent flow extracted at the combustor/turbine interface in
the integrated simulation is analyzed using SPOD as described in
Refs. [3] and [22].
From the original derivation of Ref. [23] and to preserve the
space/time correlation among all variable of interest, the com-
pressible energy norm E is used to take into account the density
and temperature fluctuations [22]
" #
1 a0 2 q02 q R T 02
02 02 02
E¼ qu þ qv þ qw þ þ (2)
2 cq ðc  1ÞT
where q is the density, u, v, w are the three components of veloc-
ity, T is the static temperature, a0 is the sound speed, c is the spe-
cific heat ratio, R is the gas constant, _ corresponds to the local
temporal averaging operator and 0 the local temporal fluctuations
relative to the local temporal average.
The vector of the realizations of the flow fluctuations q there-
fore contains five quantities and the appropriate weighting matrix
W for the inner product between flow realizations is defined from
the compressible energy norm E of Eq. (2) as
2 3
a0 2
2 03 6 … 0 7
q 6 cq 7
6 u0 7 ð 6
6 q ⯗ 7
7 tion where a swirled hot flow directly interacts with the NGVs, a
6 07 1 6 7 strong importance of the PVC on the temperature distribution at
q¼6 7
6 v 0 7; W ¼ 2 6 q 7dV (3)
4w 5 V6 ⯗ q 7
6 7
0 6 q R 7
T 4 0 … 5 after to evaluate the impact of such choices on the isolated LES
ðc  1ÞT
Fig. 8 SPOD spectrum
021007-4 / Vol. 144, FEBRUARY 2022
The main outcome of SPOD is a spectrum as shown in Fig. 8 for
the FACTOR interface database. It is obtained from the SPOD
method detailed in Refs. [3] and [22]. The matrix containing all
the snapshots of the database is multiplied by itself using the
aforementioned inner product. In this method, a discrete Fourier
transform is then performed on the resulting matrix, for which an
eigenvalue problem is solved. Note that in this study, the goal is
to build various inlet conditions using partial reconstruction of
the initial database, so only one mode is computed in this case,
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hence using only one block in the Welch method to maximize
the spectral discretization. The different partial reconstructions
will yield multiple instantaneous snapshots corresponding to
realistic turbulent inlet boundary condition but with a reduced
storage cost. As it can be seen in Fig. 8, the spectrum recon-
structed from SPOD highlights the presence of the PVC with a
peak at 500 Hz in accordance with other simulations. Its first har-
monic is also visible in the spectrum. Additionally and to give a
better understanding of the spatial mark of the PVC, the first and
unique mode of the SPOD is shown at 500 Hz for the tempera-
ture and axial velocity in Fig. 9. It clearly displays two very dis-
tinct behaviors. For temperature, two regions in the hub and
shroud vicinities are in phase opposition (two regions with oppo-
site sign in Fig. 9(a)). For the axial velocity, the mode is more
chaotic with multiple regions of varying intensities in phase
opposition (Fig. 9(b)), hence highlighting the complexity of the
flow induced by the PVC.
To perform isolated simulations, note that the recorded data-
base can simply be directly imposed at the inlet of the isolated tur-
bine LES prediction. But from this initial spectrum, it is also
possible to reconstruct other inflow conditions with portions of
frequency ranges (partial reconstruction) to reduce the storage
cost. It also offers the opportunity to study the effect of the partial
reconstruction on the isolated simulation. This is specifically
detailed in the section Building Turbulent Inlet Boundary
Conditions.
Building Turbulent Inlet Boundary Conditions
As stated above, the aim of this study is to be able to perform
an isolated turbine LES simulation based on a restrained domain
as shown in Fig. 10 while taking into account the coupling with
the chamber located upstream of the blades. In such a configura-
the blade surface is to be expected. Different choices can be made
in terms of information imposed at the inlet. The objective is here-
prediction.
To do so, six new inflow signals are constructed from the
SPOD spectrum by placing an energy cutoff or a bandpass filter at
different levels, as shown in Fig. 11, resulting into:
Fig. 9 Nondimensional amplitude of the first SPOD mode at
500 Hz: (a) static temperature (K) and (b) axial velocity (ms21)
Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 10 Isolated NGV configuration
Fig. 11 SPOD spectrum with the associated threshold for
cases F1, F2, F3, F4, and F6 and the limits of the bandpass filter
for case F5
 F1: contains the entire initial spectrum with a total of 10,000
frequencies,
 F2, F3, F4, and F6: correspond to an energy cutoff set at
103 ; 102 ; 101 , and 1, respectively, retaining a decreasing
number of frequencies,
 F5: relies on a band-pass filter around the PVC frequency at
500 Hz and its first harmonic.
These six cases using an inlet boundary condition generated
from the recorded database are furthermore compared to more
simple and traditional boundary conditions:
 S0: the inlet boundary condition is defined by specifying a
constant scalar value for each quantities imposed at the inlet,
i.e., the three moments (qu,qv and qw) and the temperature.
The scalars imposed are constant in space and time.
 T0: the imposed quantities are identical as S0, with the addition
of velocity RMS randomly generated and added to create tur-
bulent activity. The turbulence is injected via a synthetic
approach proposed by Guezennec et al. [24]. The velocity
RMS is obtained from the integrated simulation by performing
a temporal and spatial average of its value at the interface.
 S2: the inlet condition is imposed from a 2D map issued
from the database temporal average of the needed quantities
without RMS.
 T2: it is identical to S2 with an additional 2D map for veloc-
ity RMS that are then used to randomly generate local turbu-
lent activity at the inflow. The 2D map of velocity RMS is
obtained from a temporal average only of the data recorded
in the integrated simulation. Unlike case T0 the value of
velocity RMS used to generate the synthetic turbulence is
not constant in space.
Note that in the nomenclature of the traditional boundary cases,
“S” stands for steady boundary condition without turbulent injec-
tion and “T” stands for turbulent boundary condition with the
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
injection of synthetic turbulence. Finally, “0” corresponds to a 0D
inlet for which only a scalar is imposed, where as “2” corresponds
to 2D, meaning that a 2D map is imposed at the inlet.
For cases T0 and T2, the velocity fluctuations are injected in
the computational domain at the inlet using synthetic turbulence.
The fluctuating velocity field is obtained from a sample of random
Fourier harmonics. Then this spatio-temporal signal is then added
to the mean boundary flow using Taylor’s assumption with a fro-
zen turbulence approach [25,26]. Note that this field does not sat-
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isfy the Navier–Stokes equations: it only satisfies the continuity
equation and its spectrum is fixed and differ from the reference
one.
The first indicator which will be looked at is the memory
required to store inlet boundary information in each case. As
stated above, for the integrated simulation, the quantities are
exchanged at chamber/turbine interface and it does not require
any storage. The database generated by recording the quantities at
the interface contains 20,000 temporally equally spaced snap-
shots. The size of this database is thereafter the reference to com-
pare the memory requirement of each inlet conditions.
From cases F1–F6, the inlet condition is generated from a par-
tial reconstruction of the initial database by choosing only the fre-
quencies in the SPOD spectrum above a certain threshold. For
case F1, the entire database is kept, hence giving 10,000 frequen-
cies in total. As a result, the memory compression is only 50%
(10,000 fast Fourier transform (FFT) coefficients are stored for
each node of the inlet boundary condition compared to 20,000
snapshots). From F2 to F6, the reconstruction is only partial with
a decreasing number of frequencies in each case. For these cases,
only the FFT coefficients of the chosen frequencies are stored
which explains the increase of memory compression.
For case S0, only four scalars need to be stored, hence the
memory cost is close to zero. It is the same for T0, with the addi-
tional scalar for the velocity RMS. Finally, for S2 and T2, an aver-
aged 2D map is stored for each quantity imposed at the inlet. As a
result, it is equivalent to storing 1 flow snapshot. The values of
memory compression and selected frequencies (for cases for
which it is relevant) are summarized in Table 1.
Finally, for all the cases for which the inlet conditions is recon-
structed from the initial database, the total energy contained in the
reconstructed spectrum is indicated in the same table.
As stated above, the memory compression for the partial recon-
structions is an important factor to reduce the size of the initial
database. However, to justify the use of the presented method, the
computational resources required for isolated simulations using
the realistic SPOD boundary condition should remain lower than
the complete simulation of the combustion chamber and the tur-
bine. In this regard, the CPU cost of each simulation for the same
simulation time is compared in Table 2 for the reference inte-
grated simulation and for the two types of boundary conditions
(BC). The standard one, which corresponds to the average CPU
cost of cases S0, T0, S2, and T2, simply uses time-averaged con-
stant value or 2D maps. The realistic BC cases using the SPOD
approach correspond to the average CPU cost of cases F1–F6. As
it can be seen with the relative difference values, the use of the
proposed realistic boundary condition causes a 8.9% increase in
computational cost. Note that this increase in cost is not dependant
of the number of frequencies selected in the partial reconstruction.
Nevertheless, the cost increase remains much lower than the refer-
ence integrated simulation, showing a clear benefit of the proposed
BC. In the cases with realistic BC, the values of the database are
read and imposed at each node of the turbine inlet, which causes
the cost increase compared to standard boundary conditions.
Results and Discussion
Integrated Simulation: Validation and Comparison With
Experiment. To validate the chosen numerical setup, the inte-
grated simulation used as a reference in the rest of the paper is
FEBRUARY 2022, Vol. 144 / 021007-5
Table 1 Number of frequencies of the partial reconstruction, memory compression of each case relative to the initial database
and total energy contained in the reconstructed spectrum when applicable

SPOD frequencies Memory compression Total energy contained in the reconstructed spectrum

Ref. — 0.00% —
F1 10000 50.00% 100%
F2 1172 94.14% 99.06%
F3 497 97.52% 90.31%
F4 72 99.64% 44.45%

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F5 42 99.79% 27.30%
F6 1 99.99% 11.89%
S0 — 100.00% —
T0 — 100.00% —
S2 — 99.99% —
T2 — 99.99% —

Table 2 CPU cost comparison of the reference simulation and

isolated simulations with standard boundary conditions with or
without turbulence injection (BC) and realistic SPOD BC

Relative difference
Nondimensional CPU compared to the
cost for the 0.1 s simulation standard BC

Ref. 3.375 þ237.5%

Standard BC: 1.0 —
S0, T0, S2, T2
Realistic BC: 1.089 þ8.9%
F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6

Fig. 13 Time-averaged total pressure and total temperature on

first compared to the available experimental data at planes 40 and
41 (Fig. 10). For the total pressure, since the inlet total pressure is
slightly different to the experiment alone, the total pressure is
scaled by the averaged inlet total pressure (142,580 Pa for the
experiment and 148,075 Pa for the integrated simulation). As can
be seen in Fig. 12, there is a good agreement between the two
cases at plane 40 for temporally averaged variables. The topology
of the flow is well recovered by the simulation with a low pressure
region at the center of the vane which is a marker of the residual
swirl generated by the swirler. The hotspot region highlighted by
the presence of high values of total temperature contours are also
similar, with comparable shapes and positions. For plane 41
plane 41: (a) total pressure—experiment, (b) total pressure—
integrated simulation, (c) total temperature—experiment, and
(d) total temperature—integrated simulation
(Fig. 13), the contours obtained from the integrated simulation
differ more. The drop in total pressure generated in the wake of
the NGVs obtained in the simulation is more pronounced com-
pared to the experiment. However, the overall shape is well-
recovered although a slight deviation close to the hub is observed.
For the total temperature, the agreement with the experiment is
very satisfying. The absolute values of total temperature are anal-
ogous and the regions of low total temperature are matching.

Isolated Simulations: Comparison With the Integrated Sim-

ulation. Before comparing the results obtained with a recon-
structed turbulent inlet boundary condition, it is worth looking at
the reduced mass flow rate, total pressure and temperature drops
throughout the NGV stage in each case between plane 40 and the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
40
Q RTtot
Table 3 Reduced mass flow rate Qr 5 40 L2
Ptot
(with Q the mass
flow rate, R the gas constant and L the midradius of the
turbine), ratio of total pressure and total temperature along the
turbine stage

Qr P40 Out
tot =Ptot
40
Ttot Out
=Ttot

Ref. 0.00877 1.112 1.034

F1 0.00877 1.112 1.034
F2 0.00877 1.112 1.034
F3 0.00877 1.112 1.034
F4 0.00878 1.111 1.034
F5 0.00877 1.110 1.033
F6 0.00877 1.109 1.034
S0 0.00878 1.103 1.023
Fig. 12 Time-averaged total pressure and total temperature on T0 0.00875 1.108 1.022
plane 40: (a) scaled total pressure—experiment (partial), (b)
scaled total pressure—integrated simulation, (c) total S2 0.00877 1.111 1.032
temperature—experiment, and (d) total temperature— T2 0.00875 1.110 1.029
integrated simulation

021007-6 / Vol. 144, FEBRUARY 2022 Transactions of the ASME

outlet (the planes are defined in Fig. 10). This is done to check Table 4 Spatial average of axial velocity and total temperature
that the inlet boundary condition chosen for the different cases RMS on planes 40 and 41
does not affect the simulated operating point, which could distort
the conclusions obtained by the comparisons. The results are Plane 40 Plane 41
shown in Table 3. It is clear that each operating point resulting
h urms i h Iu i h Ttot;rms i h urms i h Ttot;rms i
from the considered isolated simulations is very close to the refer- (ms1) (%) (K) (ms1) (K)
ence integrated simulation. All reduced mass flow rates are within
a 0.2% difference compared to the reference, which is not surpris- Ref. 12.91 28.28 33.01 18.80 22.81
ing since the conservative quantities are imposed at the inlet. F1 12.85 28.24 33.04 18.83 22.79

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Regarding the inflow to outflow condition ratios, they are calcu- F2 12.86 28.27 33.06 18.84 22.77
lated as a mass-flow weighted spatial and temporal average. Some F3 12.75 28.03 33.18 19.19 22.93
differences are observed for these two ratios, especially for F4 8.53 18.72 26.54 17.78 25.05
40
Ttot Out
=Ttot . This can be explained by the properties of the flow. For F5 6.75 14.82 20.72 15.46 22.74
instance, it is not surprising to see that case T0 produces the lower F6 3.40 7.45 12.17 11.53 18.20
drop in total temperature since the turbulent activity is less pro- S0 0.96 2.09 2.22 6.73 4.95
nounced for this case because of the chosen inlet boundary condi- T0 12.71 27.92 2.89 8.65 10.09
tion, hence reducing the overall loss generation.
S2 0.96 2.11 2.10 7.10 6.34
As mentioned above, being able to reproduce the effects of the
T2 11.78 26.04 9.79 17.44 14.96
chamber with a realistic boundary condition is valuable. But it is
important to verify that the information injected at the inlet is cor- Spatial average of turbulence intensity on plane 40. The color of the values
rectly transported and behaves as in the integrated simulation up to are determined by their relative difference compared to the reference.
the turbine entry. In this regard, the evolution of turbulent kinetic Green for relative differences lower than 5%, orange between 5% and
energy (TKE) for all cases from the inlet to the turbine entry is plot- 20% and red for relative differences greater than 20%.
ted in Fig. 14. The TKE is spatially averaged over the complete plane
of each x position. For cases F1, F2, and F3, it shows that the level significantly below the reference curve (20%–35%, Fig. 14). The
of TKE at the turbine entry is very comparable to the reference level. underlying reason is that for the synthetic turbulence approach,
When the number of frequencies is the SPOD reconstruction is the assumption of homogeneous turbulence is made, meaning that
decreased (F4, F5, F6), the level of TKE is much lower. Finally, for the levels of h vrms i and h wrms i are comparable to h urms i. How-
the two cases using the synthetic turbulence injection (T0 and T2), ever, for the reference case and for cases F1–F3, the flow turbu-
the level of TKE is also lower than the reference. lence is anisotropic, with h vrms i=h urms i ’ 1:16 and
To further appreciate the differences introduced by the choice h wrms i=h urms i ’ 1:17, which implies a greater TKE at the tur-
of the inlet boundary condition, average velocity and temperature bine entry. Note that this could have been avoided if the RMS
RMS are compared in each case for planes 40 and 41 and the tur- value chosen for the isotropic turbulence had been
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
bulence intensity is also given at plane 40 (Table 4). Since plane 2
40 is directly located downstream of the inlet, the properties 3 ðh wrms iref þ h wrms iref þ h wrms iref Þ instead of h urms iref only.
obtained for this plane are almost exclusively impacted by the
inlet boundary condition. It can be seen that the cases for which a
relatively high number of frequencies (full reconstruction for F1)
are kept in the reconstruction (cases F1, F2, and F3), the RMS val-
ues are very comparable to the reference. For F4–F6, the RMS
values are slowly decreasing. Unsurprisingly, for the two cases
with no turbulence injection (S0 and S2), RMS values are very
low for both velocity and temperature. Finally, for the two cases
with turbulence injection (T0 and T2), the velocity RMS is close
to the reference since this value has been specified in the boundary
condition parameters. Note that even if the values of h urms i for
T0 and T2 are comparable to the reference, their level of TKE is

Fig. 14 Evolution of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) from the Fig. 15 Axial velocity RMS (ms21 ) comparison at plane 40: (a)
inlet to the turbine entry. The TKE is normalized by the maxi- ref., (b) F1, (c) F2, (d) F3, (e) F4, (f) F5, (g) F6, (h) S0, (i) T0, (j) S2,
mum of TKE of the reference case. and (k) T2

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power FEBRUARY 2022, Vol. 144 / 021007-7
This will be fixed in a later study. Lastly, since the turbulence
injection method used in this case does not generate temperature
fluctuations, the temperature RMS are much lower compared to
the reference.
To better understand the differences introduced by the choice
of the inlet boundary condition, RMS of axial velocity and total
temperature on plane 40 are presented for each case in Figs. 15
and 16. Firstly, in the reference simulation, a region of high RMS
is observed in the center of the channel. This is due to the PVC
creating a recirculation zone and generating high turbulent fluctu-
ations in this region.
Additionally, in accordance with the average values of Table 4,
velocity fluctuations are indeed injected in cases T0 and T2. Note
that the pattern observed in Fig. 15(i) is an artifact of the synthetic
turbulence injection method and is linked to the presence of the
blade close to the inlet, hence invalidating the hypothesis of iso-
tropic turbulence considered in the method. With the 2D map of
T2, the boundary condition is also not able to accurately repro-
duce the topology of the reference integrated simulation. Further-
more, as stated above, since the synthetic turbulence does not
inject temperature fluctuations, the total temperature RMS levels
are far from the reference in both cases.
Regarding the boundary condition generated from the SPOD
spectrum, the results are more interesting. From cases F1–F3, the
velocity and total temperature RMS contours are almost identical
to the reference. In the reference case and all cases using an inlet
boundary condition generated from the SPOD analysis, two
regions of high total temperature RMS are observed close to the
hub and shroud due to the mixing of the hot stream from the
chamber and the cooling flows of the multiperforated walls. Inter-
estingly, this mixing between the hot and cold streams is also
present in case T2 to a lower degree. This also shows that despite
the partial reconstruction used for cases F2 and F3, the recon-
structed database still contain the required information to mimic
Fig. 16 Total temperature RMS (K) comparison at plane 40: (a)
ref., (b) F1, (c) F2, (d) F3, (e) F4, (f) F5, (g) F6, (h) S0, (i) T0, (j) S2,
and (k) T2
021007-8 / Vol. 144, FEBRUARY 2022
the coupling with the combustion chamber. Finally, for cases
F4–F6, the velocity RMS levels are significantly lower compared
to the reference but also compared to the cases with synthetic tur-
bulence injection. However, in terms of temperature fluctuations,
the behavior is more satisfactory since levels are closer to the ref-
erence with a pattern similar to the reference one. This confirms
that capturing the effect of the PVC on the velocity/temperature is
of importance.
As an additional comparison, the time-averaged axial velocity
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in plane 40 is shown in Fig. 17. For the three cases, the repartition
and amplitude of the velocity are very similar. This is not surpris-
ing since for cases F1–F6, the velocity fluctuations generated
from the SPOD spectrum are superimposed to the mean flow.
Finally, to present a more quantitative comparison of the cases,
the radial profiles of total temperature with the RMS envelope at
plane 40 are given in Fig. 18. Cases F3, F6, and T2 are compared
to the reference. As already observed in the 2D comparison, if the
number of frequencies used in the partial reconstruction remains
high enough, the boundary condition accurately reproduce the
effect of the chamber at the turbine entry. As a result, in the refer-
ence versus F3 comparison, apart from the RMS envelope close to
the shroud, no difference is visible. For cases F6 and T2, the fluc-
tuation levels are two low and the mean profile deviates from the
reference.
To further analyze the impact of the inlet boundary condition
on the temperature distribution behind the turbine, total tempera-
ture and total temperature RMS contours are provided for each
case for plane 41 (Figs. 19 and 20). In line with previous observa-
tions, cases F1, F2, and F3 are almost identical to the reference
for both quantities. It confirms that this choice of inlet boundary
condition in the case of isolated simulations is suitable to correctly
reproduce the coupling with the chamber.
Starting from F4 and going to F6, the wake of the blades is
more pronounced in the total temperature contours. A decrease of
temperature fluctuations is also observed for these three cases.
Interestingly, since the spectrum of F6 only contains 1 frequency,
its contour of mean total temperature is close to case S2. How-
ever, the fluctuations generated by the single frequency allow to
reach higher levels of total temperature RMS compared to S2.
Looking at S0 and T0, it is clear that imposing 0D values at the
inlet of the turbine is not suitable to correctly replicate the effect
of the chamber of the turbine. The total temperature RMS are
very low compared to the reference for both cases despite the
injection of synthetic turbulence for T0. Additionally, particularly
for the total temperature, the boundaries between the isovalues are
sharper for S0 compared to T0. This difference is explained by the
lack of turbulent mixing for case S0.
In terms of mean total temperature, the results of T2 are rela-
tively good. The temperature patterns are decently recovered,
with accurate temperature levels in the blade wakes and at the hub
and shroud. However, since the synthetic turbulence injection is
only able to generate velocity fluctuations, the total temperature
RMS levels remain lower than the reference. Again, as for the S0/
T0 comparison, the isovalues of T2 are smoother compared to S2
due to the turbulent mixing.
For the radial profiles of plane 41, the conclusion is similar to
the radial profiles of plane 40. If the number of frequencies in the
Fig. 17 Time-averaged axial velocity (ms21 ) comparison at
plane 40: (a) ref., (b) F3, and (c) F6
Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 18 Radial profiles of total temperature with RMS envelope at plane 40: (a) ref versus F3,
(b) ref. versus F6, and (c) ref. versus T2
Fig. 19 Time-averaged total temperature (K) comparison at
plane 41: (a) ref., (b) F1, (c) F2, (d) F3, (e) F4, (f) F5, (g) F6, (h)
S0, (i) T0, (j) S2, and (k) T2
SPOD boundary condition is sufficient, the agreement is very
good compared to the reference (Fig. 21). But the number of fre-
quencies is too low or if a standard turbulence injection method is
used, the mean profile and RMS envelope are not matching the
reference.
Finally, in Figs. 22 and 23, the contours of adiabatic wall tem-
perature and RMS for stator vane #2 are presented. These quanti-
ties are shown only for vane #2 since the hotspot of the chamber
directly impact its leading edge. It is therefore more exposed to
the high temperatures of the combustor. In the reference case, it is
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
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Fig. 20 Total temperature RMS (K) comparison at plane 41: (a)
ref., (b) F1, (c) F2, (d) F3, (e) F4, (f) F5, (g) F6, (h) S0, (i) T0, (j) S2,
and (k) T2
clear that the turbine is exposed to high temperature fluctuations.
The maximum adiabatic wall temperature is around 450 K, con-
firming its direct interaction with the chamber hotspot despite the
film cooling protecting its surface. As a comparison, case F3 is
also shown. The case constitutes a good compromise between the
memory cost (compression of 97.52% relative to the initial data-
base) and the accuracy of the inlet boundary condition. As can be
seen from the two figures, only minor differences with the refer-
ence are visible, which does invalidate the thermal predictions
obtained from case F3.
FEBRUARY 2022, Vol. 144 / 021007-9
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Fig. 21 Radial profiles of total temperature with RMS envelope at plane 41: (a) ref versus F3,
(b) ref versus F6, and (c) ref versus T2

Fig. 22 Time-averaged adiabatic wall temperature (K) on stator Fig. 23 Time-averaged adiabatic wall temperature RMS (K) on
vane #2: (a) ref., (b) F3, (c) F6, and (d) T2 stator vane #2: (a) ref., (b) F3, (c) F6, and (d) T2

By further reducing the number of selected frequencies in the the overall surface of the blade compared to the reference. Inter-
reconstruction, the thermal predictions become unsatisfactory. In estingly, the case T2 is able to match relatively closely the adia-
case F6, the high temperatures at the root of the suction side are batic wall temperature of the reference. However because of the
not recovered and the temperature fluctuations are also lower on lack of temperature fluctuations injected at the inlet, the

021007-10 / Vol. 144, FEBRUARY 2022 Transactions of the ASME

temperature RMS levels are much lower, consistently with obser- Qr ¼ reduced mass flow rate
vations from Duchaine [27]. Finally, for both F6 and T2 cases, the R¼ gas constant
region of low temperature at the upper left reveals the presence of ref ¼ reference case
a strongly coherent hub corner vortex. This strong coherence is RMS ¼ root-mean-square
not observed in the reference or F3 cases. SGS ¼ subgrid scale
SPOD ¼ spectral proper orthogonal decomposition
T¼ static temperature
Conclusions and Outlook Ttot ¼ total temperature
The aim of the study presented in this paper was to investigate TKE ¼ turbulent kinetic energy

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the use of accurate turbulent and unsteady inlet boundary condi- u, v, w ¼ three components of velocity
tion for isolated turbine configuration by use of high fidelity simu- UNIFI ¼ University of Florence
lations. Results show that a database of unsteady snapshots c¼ specific heat ratio
recorded at the chamber/turbine interface of a fully integrated q¼ density
simulation can serve as a basis to build realistic inlet boundary s¼ characteristic time
condition accounting for both velocity and temperature fluctua- hi ¼ spatially averaged quantity
tions. The recorded database is first analyzed using SPOD to eval- 0 ¼ temporal fluctuations of a quantity
uate its spectral properties. From this initial spectrum, it is _¼ time-averaged quantity
possible to construct partial reconstructions of the database in 40 ¼ plane 40
order to reduce the storage cost while keeping the essential infor-
mation of the combustor effects. References
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Transactions of the ASME