Grammar Reference UNIT 1 ‘Avoiding repetition To avoid repetition in many languages itis common for words tobe rissed out This is called lips. In English itis common forthe main verb to be missed out, leaving just the auiiary, and this can cause problems. [> 11 Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition In short answers ‘When a Yes/No question i asked, we wse the alia omits own when answering rther than repeating the whole verb form, “Wil i rain hi afternoon?” “Yes 1 dhink it wil (ai this alternoon).” “Should eis fortis es” Ve, think you should nevis forthe test)” Notes ‘Ther isa difference inthe short answers between have and have go. “Dees se have ogo?” "Yes, she does? “Has she goto go "Yes she has? ‘Commenting on given information ‘When we make comments in conversation, we usually avoid repeating information that has just been given. ‘Marys coming? hnow se i? ‘Angela car speak Recsian and Hlngariar’ ‘She coy cam she? Note ‘Where there is no auxiliary verb in Present and Past Simple positive statements, dvdoesa fullver, ‘Lado Italy‘ do t00, and so does James? “Tehught the fleas wonderful didn. haved it? Responding witha different auxiliary “To knove which auiary verb to use, ts necessary to reconstruct the part of the sentence that s missing, and to consider carefully the ‘meaning and the time ofthe events inthe sentence. “t didn't see he fil “Oh, you should have (een the fil). 1 was great “You must see the Renoir exhibition, Irs superb!’ ‘I have (scen it). “Tish youd ok the door when you Tove’ “But | dd (locked i): Using more than one auxiliary ‘When there is more than one auailiary, we can use one or more when responding. ‘He could have been lying” ‘Yes, hecould/could have/ould have been” ‘Would Ihave enjoyed it? ‘No, I don’t think you would/would have ‘We always use more than one if there isa change in auxiliary. “You should be given arise” ‘Well, haven't ben ‘She can't have told hint yo! ‘She must have! {> 12 Reduced infinitives ‘Weean use to instead of the all infinitive in replies. ‘Haven't you done the washing-up yt” ‘No, ns just going? ‘Are you coming fora wall?” "No, don't want to! ‘The verb 10 beis not usually reduced 1010 She’ ess moody than she used t0 be vast as impressed as Ti expected tobe UNIT 2 Phrasal verbs {> 2.1 Multiple meanings ‘Phrasal verbs can have multiple meanings. ‘She worked out the plot of her book. (= devise plan) Work out how much Lowe you. (= caleulate) Teau’t work out her handwriting. (= understand) ‘Their marriage dide’t work out. (= wasn't successful) Tm sure you'll work out your differences. (= resolve) ‘She works out atthe gym every day. (= do exercises, train) {> 2.2 Degrees of metaphorical use ‘There can be ferent degrees of metaphorical use Sentence fis an example of transferens Take of your coat. Literal The sick sailor was taken off the ship. They've taking Sp off come tax. We're taking ofa fortnight in the surmmser, The plane took of. His business staking off He's a good mimic. He can takeoff the teacher perfectly. Metaphorical in that it derives from the meaning of take offin sentence e. Tis is typical of the way in which the ‘meaning and use of phrasal verbs graw and change. §} 23 Transferred or metaphorical meanings “The transferred (or metaphorical) meanings of phrasal vers are often derived fom the itera meaning The court stod up when the judge care in itrl) You should sand up for what you believe in. transfered) Come round 0 my house (iteral) Ske cncing rec ts my pent of Views (einlered) She gave aay her money (iteral) Don't give aay ny scet transferred) {> 2.4 The grammar of phrasal verbs “There are four types of phrasal vers ‘Type I: verb + adverb (no object) > “He went ou (itera) 1 din’ put enough wood onthe fre, 50 went out. (metaphorical) ‘Type 2: verb + adverb + object (separable) > {put up the piture on the wal. (literal) put up my sister forthe night, (metaphorical) ‘Type 2 phrasal vers are separable. The abject (nown or person) can come between the verb and the adverb, I put the picture up. put ny sister up. Buti the bjs pronoun it aby comes even the verb andthe I put it up. (NOT-+ptpt) {put her up. (NOT-tputapsher) If the object i along noun phrase, a noun witha qualifying clause, or @ noun clause, the adverb comes immediately after the verb, This avoids the adverb being too far separated from the verb. They turned dow the majority ofthe applicants forthe job. ‘Sho told off the children who had stolen her apples. You should think over what I've been talking t0 you about‘Type 3: verb + preposition + object (inseparable) She came across the sret. (tral) 1b She eame across an old letter while she was tidying her drawers. (metaphorieal) “Type 3 phrasal verbs are inseparable The object (noun or pronoun) always comes after the preposition. ‘She came across a lester ‘She came across it. NOT-She-cemeiewcrone ‘Type 4: verb + adverb + preposition + object ‘Don't just sit there! Get on with your work, (Continue with it) ‘ve got to cut down on my spending (reduce) “Type phrasal verbs are nearly all metaphorical. The object cannot change position. Itcannot conse before the adver or the preposition. Tn looking forward 10. NOT Fmooking forwards. Tense review English tenses have two elements of meaning: time and aspect Time Is the action present, pastor future? Docs it refer to all time? It is important to remember that sme and tense are not always the same in English. Present tenses often refer tothe present time, but not always; similarly past tenses do not always refer to past time Your plane leaves at 10.00 tomorrow morning. (present tense form referring to the future) Inthe book, the heroine goes back to her youth (present tense form. referring to the past) wish Fkmew the answer, but I don't. (past tense form referting to the present) could come tomorow if you lik. (past tense Form refering tothe future) Aspect “The three aspects add another layer of meaning tothe action ofthe verb. Simple Theaction is seen as a complete whole. Continuous The action is seen as having duration. Perfect ‘Theaction is seen as completed before another time. Choosing the correct tense ‘The choice of verb form depends on many factors, and not on a set of rigid grammatical rules, 1 Thenature ofthe action or event Because English can employ its various aspects, events can be viewed ‘ith a maltplicity of implications. Look at this sentence: Thave ben asking my husband to mend this door fortwo years. {In some languages this verb form is in the present ~ 1 ask my dusbond ...~ which indeed conveys the same basic message. But English has added on two aspects. The perfect aspect emphasizes both past and present, so thatthe enormity of this lack of DIY can ‘be appreciated. The continuous spect expresses the repetitive nature ofthe wife's requests. She hast asked once but a hundred times, every week fortwo years. Neither of these ideas are expressed by the present tense, 2 How the speaker sees the event ‘Look at these sentences: a He always buys her lowers 1 Hel alwys buying her flowers I al to Peter about i thisaternoon {4 be talking to Peter about it this afternoon In cach pair of sentences, the actions ar the same, but the speaker looks at them differently. In sentence othe Present Simple expresses a simple fact. The Present ‘Continuous in sentence b conveys the speaker’ atitude, one of mild surprise or ization. In sentence ¢, will expresses @ promise or a decision made at the ‘moment of speaking, In sentence the Future Continuous is Interesting for what it does express. There is no element of intention, ‘volition or plan. The speaker is saying that in the natura course of ‘events, a5 life unfolds, he and Peter wil cross paths and talk, independently ofthe will or intention of anyone concerned, Its a casual way of looking at the future, which is why we can find it in questions such as Will you be using the computer for long?, ‘which is mach less confrontational than Are you gong tobe using the computer for lang? 3 The meaning ofthe verb In some cases, the choice of werb form might be suggested by the ‘meaning ofthe verb. A verb such as belong expresses a state or condition that remains unchanged over a period of time. Other such, verbs are mean, understand, believe, adore, remember, ec. It woul ‘therefore be more likely o find them in simple verb forms. This house belonged ro my grandfather. Now it belongs to me. ‘Similarly, verbs such as wait and rain express the idea of an activity ‘over a period of time, and so are often found in continuous ver’ forms. TTve been waiting for you for hows! esraining again. {> 25 The simple aspect ‘The simple aspect describes an action that is scen to be complete. ‘The action is viewed as a whole unit, ‘The su rises nthe ens. (= al time) [Pye read the hook and seem the film. (complete) [My jarher always wore a suit to work, (habit) He died in. 1992. (action completed in the past) This shop will elose at 5.30. simple fact) Because the simple aspect expresses a completed action, we must use iti the sentence contains a number that refers to ‘things done! She's written three letters today. drink fve cups of tea a day. {> 2.6 The continuous aspect Continuous verb forms express activites, oa serie of activities, viewed at some point between their beginning and end. The continuous aspect, focuses on the duration of an activity: we ae aware ofthe passing of time. The activity is mor permanent and is duration i imited 1m saying with frends until fonda place of my own. (temporary) Why are you wearing tae sil ha? (in progres) ve been learning English for years (duration) ‘The activity may not be complet. {ve been painting te kitchen. (We dont know i is finished) He was dying ut he doctors saved hi Who's been drinking my beer? There’ some left.) Compare: Who's drunk my beer? (Ital one.) ‘The action of some verbs, by definition, lasts Long time for example, liveand work The continuous aspect gives these actions limited duration and makes them temporary. “Hans is living in London wile he's earning English Pm working asa waiter until 1 goto univers ‘The action of some other verbs lasts a short time. These ar often found inthe simple aspect She’ cut her finger. He hit me Inthe continuous aspect, the action ofthese vers becomes longer ot repented. ve been cutting wood (fr along time) “He was hiting me (again and agai)> 27 The perfect aspect “The perfect aspect expresses two ideas: 1 Anaction completed before another time Te read his latest book. (sometime before now) ‘When 1 arrived, Mary had cooked the mea. (some time before | arrived) Til have Farmed my lines before he play starts. (some ime before then) 2. Amaction producing a result ora state of afurs relevant to alter situation Te ea his att book (I know the story now.) Wher {arived, Mery had cooked the mea. (It was ob the able then.) Twill have learned my lines before he play starts. (0 know them in time for the play.) ‘An important characteristic of perfect ver forms therfore, i tha they explcl ink an earlier action or event with a ater situation. I we want to direct attention specifically othe result or state produced by the carlicr action without drawing attention tothe activity tat has produced tha sate, we don't use a perfect form, {naw the book. I's good. (present) ‘The meal was ready. I ate it. (past) {il know ny lines 1 giv good performance. (ature) Anather characteristic of perfect vec forms is thatthe exact time ofthe action or even is either irrelevant or disregarded. The important lement are not fie when, but the occuerence ofthe action itself and ‘he results or sate of fie produced by i > 28 Active and passive ‘The passive is frequently used in English to express ideas that require a teflexive or impersonal construction in other languages, and in many ses alo used where other languages use the active. Else spoken al over the world, His books ae sol ir Europe Passive sentences move the focus of attention from the subject of an active sentence othe objet. Shakespeare wrote Hares in 1598. Harilet, one of the great rages fll ime, was written in 1599, In most cases, by and the agent are omitted in pasive sentences. This is ‘because the agen ist koovn, int important ris understood. This house was bil in the seventeonoh century ‘The escaped prisoner has been recaprured. Sometimes we prefer to end a sentence with what is new: “What a lovely painting!" “Yes, it was painted by Canaletto,’ In informal language, we often use you or they to refer to people in general ‘or to:no person in particular. In this way we ean avoid using the passive. You cn by anything in Harrods. Theyre lng a new airport soon > 29 Future forms English has several forms which expres future events, nd which one the use selects depends on how he or she ses the event as muchas its ‘certainty or nearness to the present. The main forms are given here in order of frequency of use. wil {ile anton as anauary ofthe fture in simply reiting a future ever. ‘The Queen will open the new hospital next Thursday. “Tomorrow will be warm and sunny everywhere. Willcan also function as @ modal auxiliary to express ideas of willingness and spontaneoos intention, Will you help me for a minute? What a lovely shirt! I buy it going to Going 1 expresses a premeditated intention, Pm going to decorate he bathroom this weekend ‘The Government is going to reorganize the entre Civil Service Going 0s also used to predict a future event for which there is some evidence now. Great news! I'm going to have a baby! ‘They're looking very angry. I think they're going to start throwing stones The Present Continuous ‘The Present Continuous is used to express an arrangement, usually for the near Future. “What are you doing tonight? ‘T'm going owt fora meal? Ivis wrong to use the Present Simple inthis sense. We cannot say Aha dovyow dertonight? of He-sesrgetonthe-pertyon-sataedat ‘The Present Continuous cannot be used to express an event that has not ‘been arranged by human beings. We cannot say 4+ reining omorrow Heeger Sie nateam nies, ‘The Present Simple ‘The Present Simple is used to express a future event which is seen as ‘being certain because ofa timetable or calendar. What time does the itm start? My tomin gets in a 11.00. ‘The Cup Final takes place on Apri 13, ‘The Future Continuous ‘The Future Continuous expresses an activity that wil be in progress axound a specific time inthe futue. Don't phone at 8.00 ~ Pl be having supper. This time tomorrow Pl be flying 10 Hong Kong. The Future Continuous also expresses an action that will occur in the natural course of events, independently ofthe will or intention of anyone dieectly concemed. Inca few minutes we will be landing at Heathrow Airport. (Of course the pilot has not just decided this!) “Hurry up! The bus wil be leaving any mint ‘The Future Continuous is often used to express a casual or polite uestion about someone's future plans, The speaker is tying not to impose hivher will in any way. This is related to the use of the Future Continuous described above ie. that it can express an action that will ‘occur independently ofthe will or intention of the people concerned. Compare: Will you bring Kate othe party? (Perhaps a request.) Will you be bringing Kate fo the party? ('™m just asking.) ‘The Future Perfect ‘The Future Perfect expresses an action that will ave finished before a definite time in the future. Ihave finished my work by the time you get back. ‘Most ofthe leaves will have fallen by the end of November. {> 2.10 The future in the past ‘Sometimes when we are talking about the past, we want to refer to something that was in the future at that time, This is called the future in the pasty and it is expressed by was going ro, the Past Continuous, or ‘would, Would is very common in reported speech and thought. ‘The las tie I 52 you, you were going to start a new job, Did you? was in a hurry because Iwas caching a plane that afternoon. ‘He said held give me abi. ‘The uses ofthese three forms are exactly parallel to gong to, the Present ‘Continuous, and willto refer tothe real future. Fm going to start a new job. intention) Pn earching a plane this afternoon. (arrangement) Ti give you ait. (olfer)“The future in the past is often found in narratives. Alice smiled as she thought of the evening to come. She was meeting Peter, and together they ‘were going to seca play atthe Adelphi Theatre. She was sure the evening would be enjoyable. UNIT 3 Position of adverbs B31 Adverb + adjective When an adverb qualifies an adjective or pas participle, it comes immediatly before it. ‘The hotel i completely full. We were deeply disappointed wits his performance. > 3.2 Adverb + verb ‘When an adverb qualifies verb + object, we donot usually put the adverb between the verb and its object. like Mozart very much, (NOT Llikesery sch Mozar.) Tsay have lunch at 1.09, (NOT Uhavesaballykanch at 1.00) > 33 Front, mid, or end position? ‘There are three normal positions within a sentence for adverbs 1 Front (at the beginning ofthe cause) Today we're studying adverbs, Obviously i's difficult. However, we're having fun. 2 Mid (before the main verb, but after the verb 10 be) 1 sincerely hope you can come tthe party. Pat and Peter are always ate 3. End (at the end ofthe clase) They told me the news yesterday. She peaks thre languages fluently. Different kinds of adverbs goin different positions, and many can go inal three. The rule about this are complicated, and you should consulta good grammar book for details. However here are their common postions. Manner end ormid | She quickly rdied the room. (quickly, sincerely, gently) She tidied the room quickly. Place end They're playing outside, (her, ouside, upstairs) Point in time ced or front | We're going to Paris tomorrow. (tomorrow, yesterday, tonight) Tomorrow we're going to Paris, Indefinite time mid Tse already sen the fil (alread, stil, just) 1 still don’t understand Some indefinite time adverbs Te seen the film already. «an go in the end position. Thaven't seen it yet. Frequency. mid always drink fa in the morning (always never seldom) Comment front or mid | Obviously Igor it wrong (Clearly, obviously, naturally) Tobviously go it wrong Linking front ‘Teas raining, 0 we went home. (however, s, although) Degreelintensifier before the | really ike you, (before a verb) (very, nearly, realy) word they | I'v really hot (before an adjective) quality You very nearly killed me! (before another adverb) Notes VP Some adverbs can be both comment and manner. The position depends on which ean se the boat clearly, (manner) Clearly you need to curb your spending. (comment) Many herbs grow naturally in hor climates. (manner) Naturally, '1 pay you back the money I owe you. (comment) 2 Some adverbs expres how complet something is “They come in mid-position. hav completely jogoten her name Wehave almost firished our work 3 Ifthere is more than one adverbial inthe end poston, the normal order is manner, ples, te "He played well esterday. I watched th slowly above the horizon. 1 as at home yesterday Sp 34 Adverb collocation ‘Adverbs can go with certain verbs or adjectives ‘because ther isa link in meaning between the two. For example, emotions can be deep, so we often find the adverb deeply with words that express felings. deeply regret deeply embarrassing deeply hurt Rete are some move examples, Treely adit “desperately anxious | highly recommended fel strongly severely damaged fully insured ‘walk briskly easly confused sadly missed §> 35. Adverbs with two forms Some adverbs have two forms, ne with and one without =: Sometimes the two meanings are connected: ‘We were fing high over the ocean. 1 think ery highly of Joe ana his work. Hold tight! The trains going to move We contol our expenditure tightly Sometimes the two meanings ate not connected: We work hard (a lot) T hardly recognized her. (= almost not) “ur ight ound. (= completely) fT remember rightly, they live here (corey) B36 just Just has several meanings eaclly This house is just right for us only He isn't a man, He's just a boy. short time before Te just tried phoning you. ‘ight now Tm just getting dressed, simply, only | just want you to go, 1 just lke an egg for breakfast. ‘equally,no less You're just as bad as David, Just about means alm “Are you ready to go?" Just about? It can express something that is nearly not posible. can just reach the top shelf. Sometimes it doesn't mean very much, I just ‘emphasizes what you'e saying! Just what do you think you're doing?! 1s jus credible!UNIT 4 {> 41 Discourse markers Discourse markers are word and expressions that show how apiece of discourse is constructed. They can: + show the connection betrcen what is being said now to what was said before + show the connection between what is being sid now to what i about to be sid. + Show the speaker’ atiude to what hasbeen said. + show the speaker’ attitude to what he/she is sying. lari, ditet, correct, persuade, te. “Thislist snot exhaustive ‘asially, youTe spending too much money. (This isthe most importa point.) You think I'm wrong, but aetually I'm right. mn coreting you as gently a possible) Quite honestly, you needa better jo. (me going to speak to you sincerely) “Apparently, there are good jobs inthe City. (Uv head tis butt done nif is are) Admittedly, you'd have to move, (enw this point weakens what 'm saying) Surely you can understand what I'm 3 {rao now hy you dont orc wih ne ‘Alte all, gave you good advice before (Dont frger this. I explain why Fe right) ‘Asa matter of fact, | saved your company. (Chis sa face which might surprise you.) ‘Mind you/Stl that was a long time ago. (Utocirs 9 me that this contrasts with what I jus said) Actually, you die thank me then, ether. (Cm adding some new information to what ut said.) {mean shy should {bother about yout (ns trying to make chings lar Jou.) ‘Obviously, you aren going to take my advice, (This fee cannot be dred) Atleast I doubt ifyou wil (Fm correcting or changing what I just said.) ‘Naturally, youl do what you think is bes. (Ofeoursethisis what I would expect) Anyway is upto you. (Tm concuding and not aking about that any more) Alin ll, finding an interesting jo is easy. (Ui considering every par ofthe situation.) “The bll’in your court, so to speak. (Tm using words that don? have ther usual mearing) By the way, can you lend me some money? (This it connected to wha we've been aking about.) Tags and replies Iehas ben said that a solid grasp ofthe stems of ania i essential to mastery of spoken Engh {> 42 Question tags Falling intonation With fling intonation on the tg this snot a el question, It means “Age with me, aco me" sa lovey day i The film was great, wn? Note ‘Weecan reply oa statement witha question tg, “Lovely day today” Yes tt i™ Sone filly” Yes La, are “Their ids have ou god appetites? “es, they have have thy? Rising intonation With a sing intonation on the tg, we realy want to know something because we aren't sure ofthe ans ae You did't ay that to him, didyou? ‘They wouldn't take my car away, would they? Notes [Notice the auxiliaries in these questions tags. Let’ go, shall we? Give me a hand, will you? Don't forget to post my ete, will ou? Nobody phoned, did they? ‘These question tags can be used in requests, You couldn't lend me a renner, could you? You haven’ seen Peter anywhere, have you? Same way tags ‘These occur after affirmative sentences, The tag is postive andthe intonation rises. The speaker repeats what he/she has just heard and uses the tag to expres interest, surprise, concern, or some other reaction, a So yon Kevin's site, re ou? Ive hear at about you So you lke rap music, do you? Well, just listen to this. Reinforcement tag “There is no inversion in the tag and the intonation rises, The tag ‘emphasizes the idea in the main clause by repeating it and these tags are used to expres that the speaker knows exactly what he/she is talking abou “ee aw She's a clever gin Theis. You're blind, you ae Its possible to introduce the subject ofthe sentence in the tag. In this ‘ase, there can be inversion She's a lovely dancer, Jane is Tikes his food, does Maleolm. > 43 Replies Short answers ‘Short answers are used in reply to Yes/No questions "Did you have a good time? "Yes, di. It was great? "Have you been to Russia?” ‘No, I haven’, but a like to” Reply questions ‘We use reply questions to show interest, and to show we're listening, “Thad a terrible day today? “Did you, dear? "The boss was in afoul mood. “Was he?” ‘Avoiding repetition ‘This was dealt with in Unit 1, “Who wants an ice-cream? ‘T da (1 want an iee-cream.) "Who care to the party?’ ‘Everybody didUNIT 5 ‘Adding emphasis > 51 Structures which add emphasis Sentences can be emphasized by adding certain structures. They are called cleft or divided sentences. Look at ths base sentence. Lucy moved to London, ‘We can emphasize different parts ofthe sentence according to which clement i the most important: What Lucy did was move to London. Where Lucy moved to was London. (Where= the place which/that) Why Lucy moved to London was because .. (Why = the reason why) eas Lucy wholthat moved ro London. (who the person wholthat) Or we ean emphasize the whole sentence: What kappened wes that What surprised me was the fact that | Lucy moved to London, What interests me is why > 5.2 Negative inversion Sentences can be given emphasis by negative inversion, which can take place 1 after negative adverbial such as never, nowhere, not for one mine, tot since, not unt never again arly. tis mainly used in written English but can aso be used to emphasize points in mote formal spoken English such a when making speeches, [Never had he eaten such a huge meal. "Nowiere wll ou cone gers 2 more hospitable nation. Nothing do they appreciate more han a rp to the county [Not until 1918 eid British women et the vote Rarely do you meet aman of such integrity. 2 in cerain established sentence patterns. “Hardly had he begun to speak when the majority of he gusts depared [No sooner had we se dove to diner than the doorbell rang. “Lite did anyone realize the seriousness ofthe situation. 3 after expressions with onfyand no, Only when I myself became a parent did I realize the value of my parents advice [Not only did she vite short stories but she was aoa painter of talent. ‘At no time was [ever informed. Ii no way car this government deny its gui, On no account wil compromise my ideals (What = the thing which/that) § 53 Pronunciation Of course a major way of adding emphasis in spoken English is by stressing individual words, In English a change of word stress changes the meaning ofa sentence. Look at this base sentence: Jon tke the brown shoes. Toko likes the brown shoes, (Tom doesnt.) John likes the brown shoes. (He doesnt hate them.) Jol likes the Brown shoes. (Not the black ones.) Jol likes the brown shoes. (Not the brown sandals) Note Ikis possible to stress the word the (pronounced Si) when it means that something isso superior to the alternatives, it ean be considered the only teal choice. ‘ol wants brown shoes, Jimmy Choo sos are the brown shoes o buy Bp 54 Emphatic do, does, did Do, des and did can be used to give emphasis in positive statements in the Present and Psst Simple, and also in the imperative. Ton does lik the brown shoes (You were wrong!) ‘Do come with ws om Holiday, Wed love you ta 1d love you relly Fd. He does seem rather upset. ‘They did question him very thoroughly, dias they? UNIT 6 Reporting with passive verbs ‘We can report words and actions using the passive in various ways. Sp 61 It passive verb + that clause It is said that Bet Molamy, the writer earns $l a yoar. Is reported that she i ving in a rented house in Malibu. [thas been alleged that she married her third husband lat wook. It is known that she has been working on @ new book. Iris said that the book is based om her experiences inthe Far Eat. It is understood that she has been given an advance of $500,000. ‘Other verbs that follow this pattern are: agree ‘alealate discover hope show allege claim estimate know suggest announce consider expect presume suppose assume decide fear propose think believe declare __feel. recommend ‘With some verbs we can use an infinitive instead of a that dause, Ih was agreed to buy the company for €500 milion tis hoped to i a solution wo she problem son. It has ben decided 10 relocate. 1138 planed 19 move our premises to Scotland. > 6.2 Subject + passive verb + to infinitive ‘Bet Molam is said to earm $1m a year. (Present Simple infinitive) She i reported to be living in Malibu. (Present Continuous infinitive) She is alleged to have married her third husband. (perfect infinitive) She is known to have been working on a new book. (perfect continuous infinitive) The book is said to be based on her experiences. (present passive infinitive) ‘She is understood to have been given an advance, (perfect passive infinitive) Other verbs that follow this pattern aret “lege consider mow say think estimate presume suggest. understand expect___Teport suppose Notice this transformation with there: eis thoughe that there has been a plane crash this aflernoon. ‘There is thought to have been a plane crash this afternoon. Ieisestimated thae there are one milion unemployed. ‘There are estimated to be one million unemployed.> 63 seem and appear "We can use seem and appear to give information without st categorically that we know ito be ru They can be usd in to patterns 1 t+ seem/appear + that classe Ie sems that shes upset. “eappears that she crying. “eSeems that Irae a mistake “it appeared tha his car had been tlon. 2 Subject + seem/appear + to infinitive She seoms tobe upset, She appears tobe crying. Tscem to have made a mistake Hiscar appears to have been stolen ‘We can make the statement more tentative with the se of would Iewould seem the problem has ben nipped in the bud. Twould appear fo have mild my wale UNIT 7 Modal auniliary verbs Modi verbs are a very rch and subtle area ofthe English language. ‘They can all refer tothe certainty, possibility, or probability of an event, and they can ll refer to future time, Certain modal an also express other areas of meaning (se below). {> 71 Modals of probability in the present and future “The main modal verbs that express present and future probability are given here in order of degrees of certainty, will being the most certain and mighould being the las eta, 1 will Will and wort are used to predict future event whichis seen as certain, a future fact Tbe om holiday next week: I won't do any work atl Tirm will end on June 20h, Willand wor’ are also used to express what we strongly believe to be true about the present, Tey indicate an asumption based on our ‘knowledge of people and things: thei routine, character, and qualities. Ie that he phone? 1 be John. He said hel ring around now. “Twonder what Me’ doing now? “e's 700. suppose shel Be geting ready to go out.” ‘Don't take the meat ou of the oven. It won't be ready yt 2° must and can’t ‘Must is used to asert what we infer orconchde tobe the most logical or rational interpretation ofa situation or events, We havea Jotof evidence but tists ertain chan will Ww ook over there! That must be Joh’ new car You must be joking! I iply dont believe you. ‘The negative ofthis us of muss can't She can’t have a te-year-old daughter! She's only swenty-five herself 3 should Should expresses what may reasonably be expected to happen. I also ‘artis the meaning that we want whatever s predicted happen, and is therfore not used to expres negative or unpleasant ident ‘an alo suggest a conditional if everything has gone/goes according to plan then (3) should happen. (ui guests should be here soan. (i they haven’ got lost) ‘This homevsork shoulda’ cake you too lng (i youve understood vwhat you have to do) We should be moving into our new house soon (a ong asa the arrangements go smoothly) 4 may ‘May expresses the possibilty that something will happen or s already happening. We may goto Greece for our holidays. We haven’ decided yet. ‘We may not have enough money to go abroad this yer. 3. might ‘Might, lke may, expresses possibility but in a more tentative way. Te amight ran. Take your umbrella might not be back in time for supper, so don’t wait for me. 6 could (Could is used in a similar way to might Tr could rain, bu T doubt. ‘That French film eould be worth seing, but i dda ger very good ‘The negative, could not is NOT used to express future possibility. Might not is the negative of could inthis use. Ti Tooks lke i could rain, but it might not. “He might not come. ‘The negative couldn'thas a similar meaning to can'tin 2 sbove, only slightly weaker. ‘She coulda’ have a 10-year-old daughter! She's only 25 herself? 7 can ‘We use canto express what is generally and atime true, and logically possible. reling im town can be dangerous. Gan cannot be used to predict future pos possibleor will be able to ‘in years come i'l be possible to have holidays onthe moon. Well be able to travel by spaceship. > 72. Modal auniliaries in the past ‘All the modal verbs given above are also used with have + past participle the perfect infinitive) to express varying degrees of certainty Shout the pas. Again, wllivoul is the most certain and mightcould the least certain, Gan sa special case (se belo). You meta man with a bg, black moustache? That would have been my Uncle Tom “ewon't have been Peter you met at he pary. He was iid. ‘Ie must have been Simon. He looks very like Pater ‘Itcan't have been avery intresting par. Noone seems to have enjoyed it Wheres Henry? He should have been ire ages ag! Tie may have gt ls, He might have decided not to come. He could have had a acident. “He can hardly have forgotten to come Cart haves only used in questions or with hardly, on o never. ‘Where cathe have got to? ‘They eam only have known each eter for a few weeks [> 73 Other uses of modal auxiliary verbs, present and past Obligation -Mustis used to express strong obligation. The pat is expressed by had 10. You must try harder! I had to work hard to pass my exams. ‘Should is used to express milder obligation. The past s expressed by should have (+ past participle). You should rest. You should have taken it more seriously, ity. We must use will be Permission Gan and may are used to ask for permission. May sounds more formal ‘than car. Can ask you a question? ‘May 1 ask what the purpose of this vise ist‘The past of may and can is expressed by was allowed to Could can only bbe used to report permission. was allowed to do whatever I wanted when J was young. My parents said Teould stay out until afer midnight. Ability Can is used to express general ability: the form in the past i cul eam swim, Feould swine when Twas 6 ‘To express particular ability on one occasion in the past could is not used. Inscad, was able to or managed tis used The prisoner managed to exape by climbing onto the roof was able t give the police a fll description. Willingness Won't expresses a refusal, by ether people or things. The past is would’. The car won't star, He was angry because she wouldn't end hea any mene Characteristic behaviour/habit Willis used to express character would, He'll st for hours staring into the fre, [My graratna would always bring me a litle present when she came to If willis stressed, it suggests criticism and iritation David wil leave his homework until the last minute. I's infuriating. ‘behaviour. The past is expressed by Past forms of need [Nee has two past forms, ‘Needs have (+ past participle) expresses an ation that was completed ‘ut that waset necessary You needa’t have bought any butter: We've got os Dida’ need to (+ infinitive) expresses an ation that was not necessary ‘pute do not know it was infact completed or not. The context usualy makes this leat. 1 did need to do ary sopping becese Twas eating ot that night UNIT 8 81 would Would can expres past abi When Iwas Kd, we'd go ooking for mushrooms (My snndfather would tin his armchair and nod of If would sesed suggests criticism and ination. [My sister ould borow my clothes without king I really anoyel me. Stressed wuld can also be used to cricize a ingle past action, The ‘meaning is'that's typical of you/hiny/her. Did she say I hit her? She would say that. I hate her, Wilds use o express the Faure in the past (ee p78). I eporis speech and thoughts. You promised you'd help me. Te you woul ite Would can expres refusal on a particular pst occasion Tasted hime was going outwith anyone but he woulda tl ne. The printer would stp printings tuned if a the main. Real and unreal tense usage Introduction English tense usage can be divided into two categories tenses used to refer to fict, and those used to refer to non-fact. Fact is what is considered to be real or quite possible; non-fact is what is supposed or ‘wished for, which s either unceal or improbable. Fact | I work in a resturant, but I don't earn much. IL finda beter jo, 1 take it. Non-faet | fish I had a lor of money Thad a lt of money, I would open my own restaurant, “Tenses used to reer to fact ate seated to real time, For example, a past -verb form refers to the past. Thad a lovely holiday in Spain last year. “Tenses used to refer to non-fact are not related to realtime. Generally speaking this uneeaity is expressed by shifting the verb form "backwards; for example, from present to past had a cay, {could visit my friends. Here the past verb form does not refer tothe real pas, but to the ‘wished for present and future, It has the effet of distancing the ‘meaning from reality. {> 8.2 Type 1 conditional sentences (real) eis important to understand this diference between fact and non-fact when discusing conditional sentences. + Type I conditional sentence are based on fact in el time. They express possible condition and is probable result. Hitrains, PM get wo. Af he doesn’t come soon, we'll miss the bus. ‘+ Willis no usually usd inthe condition clause, However, it ean appear when will expresses wilngness (Orin the negative esa), you'll wash the dishes, ut them away: ( you are willing to) ‘if Peter won’ give you aif 1 wil (i Peter isnt willing to) 1 you will smoke, of coxrse youl get acough it you insist on smoking) When wil expeses insistence, itis stressed and never contracted + Should and happen to can be used in the condition cause to suggest that something may happen by chance, bot is unikly. you should come across Pec rel her to give me a ring you happen to find my bok. pop sti the post to me There are several other ink with meanings similar ofthat can introduce Type 1 conditional sentences. Provided/Provding Ihave the time, I'l ive you a hand 0 fit Supposing you isthe plane, what wil you do? Ti eome tomorrow ules I hear from you before. (i don't hear from you) > 83 Type 2 conditional sentences (unreal) “ype 2 conditional sentences are not based on fact. They express a situation which i realty in the present and fa probable rest. This unreal is shown bya tense shift ‘backwards Present “> Past, will > would If Tere taller, Ta join the police force. (Ia reality Tam not, and never will be, tall enough o join the police force.) {Ifyou sa a ghost, what would you do? (I don't believe in ghost, so L sont think you will ever see one.) ‘The dilerence between Type | and Type 2 conditional sentences is not related to time, Both can refer to the present ot the future. By using @ past verb form in Type 2, the speaker suggests that the situation isles probable, or impossible, or imaginary.‘Compare the following. [fit rains this weekend, 1... (Sai in England, where ran is common.) [fit rained in the Sahar, the desert would. {This would be most unusual) here isa mucear war, we will rea posibility) ‘If there was a nuclear war, we would ... (I am an optimist and I think tuclear war very ually to happen.) If you come to my country, you'll have a good time. (Possible.) Ifyou cane fom ny cur, you'd understand us eter. (Impossible ~ you don't come from my country) Notes eres often used instead of wus especially when the syle is formal eis also commonly used inthe expression if were you. when giving advice Ife were more honest, he woud bea beter person ‘fd were you, Pa cook it fora tle onger. The Type 2 conditional can make a suggestion sound les direct and hence more polite ‘Would it be convenient if I called this evening around 8.007 Would you ind f opened the window slightly? Wouldis not usually used in the condition clause. However, as with will in Type can appear when it exprese willingness, Aga t makes a suggestion sound more polit. 1 would be grateful if you would give his mater your serious attention. ‘Were to ca be used in the condition dause to siggest that something i unltely to happen you were to find tha your neighbour were drug smugelers, what would you do? | 84 Type 3 conditional sentences (unreal) “Type 3 conditional sentences like Type 2, are not based on fact. They express situation which is contrary to reality inthe pat. This unreaity {sshown bya tense shift backwards! ast + Past erfect, would -* would have If Thad ono his background, I would never have employed hm. ( didnt know his background and I did employ him.) [Thai seen it with my own eyes, T woul have thought it pose (L did see with my own eyes, soit ust be possible) §P 8.5 Type 2 and Type 3 mixed It is posible foreach ofthe two clauses in a conditional sentence to havea diferent ime reference, and the result sa mixed conditional If we had brought « map with us, we would know where we are ‘fwe had brought. is contrary o pat fact (we didnt bring a map). “he would know. is contrary to present fat (we dont know). If dd’ lve her, woule't have marred her If dda’ lve her. contrary to present ft (I do love he). would’ have marred hers contrary to pat fat (1 did marcy bet) ‘Cate needs to be taken when the Type 2 conditional refes to the Future, 1 come othe party next Saturday if Thad’ arranged to goto the theatre “his conditional is sometimes ‘unmized to reglarize the tense sequence. I ould have come othe party next Saturday if Thadn’ arranged to goto the thetre, (Lam a pessimist. Nuclear waris 2 Hypothesizing “There are certain other constructions that havea hypothetical meaning and, as in conditional sentences, the unrality that they expres is again shown by shifting the ve form ‘baccarat I veh Ike the answer (Bu | dont kno) ‘only hah behave so bay (But 1 did behave badly.) / {> 8.6 Hypothesizing about the present and future ‘The Past Simple tense frm is sed for presen ad future ime reference. Notice that were i sed instead of was, especially in formal syle Twish Twere taller! If only he were here now! ‘Supposingsuppose you had a milion pounds? What would you do? Present state v. present action or event ‘When we hypothesize about a present state, the Past Simple tense form, is used. Irish you lived nearer, Ifonly Thad a car! ‘When we hypothesize about a present action or event, would is used, wish you'd help more inthe house. only she woulda’t wash her sacks in the bath! Would here expresses willingness in the first sentence, and annoying habit in the second, wish Af only Notice that it is unusual to say I wish/f only I wouldnt. because we can control what we want to do. However, we can say ish/[fonly 1 cou ish I could remember where I put my glasses. only could give up smoking, ‘We can say wishf only... would o refer to a definite time in the future, but only if we tink that the action will probably not happen. wish she'd come with me tomorrow. {only youd fx the car this weekend, we could go fora drive. its posible that our wish wil be realized, then a different structure such a8 Thopeis needed. Thopeit doesn rain tomorrow. Fact. non-fact Notice the difference between fact and non-fict in the following pair of sentences, He looks as if he is French. (Fact ~ itis possible that he is.) Hie loks as if he were French. (Non-fact~ we know he isn't) ‘The same distinction is found with other as iffas though structures. Why is hat girl smiling at meas though she knew me? He behaves as if he owned the place. Wes time {es time can be followed by an infinitive, Hes time to go to bel. Its time for us to go. Itis alo possible to use a past tense. es time we went home, Its time Iwas going. ‘When we want to say that it is time for someone els to do something, the past tens is often used. es time you got your hair ct. would rather ‘Would rather can be followed by an infinitive (without te) Pe rather have red wine, please, “When would rather is followed by another person, the construction, would rather + person + past tense form is used, Td rather you kept this a secret. ‘She would rather you paid by cheque. [> 8.7 Hypothesizing about the past “The Past Perfect tense form i sed fr pastime reference. 1 wish she hadn't beens unkind ‘only the police had loked in the atic, they would have ound ht Supposing Suppose we had missed th plane? What wel we have doe?would rather ‘Would rather + the Past Perfect is possible, but its more usual to express the same idea using wish Tid rather youd ef. wish youd lef. Fact nonfact [Notice the diflerence between fact and non-act in the fllowing sentences He looked as if he was tired. (Fact ths is probably how he felt.) He looked as if he had seen a ghost. (Non-fact ~ very improbable.) would like Would lke can be used with a peefec infinitive to talk about things we swish we had done. {would like to have lived inthe eighteenth contury. ‘This can also be expressed by would have liked followed by cither an ‘ordinary infinitive or a perfect infinitive Tywould ave liked to live Told have liked to have ived_| it th eighteenth century. Pm not used to driving on the lef Do you feel upto going out this evening? P92 Verb patterns with the infinitive Verb + infinitive + to ‘The pattern of verb + infinitive + tis used 1 2 ‘After certain verbs agree offer promise refuse want He asked 10 doit. After certain verbs + object ‘ask bog encourage order persuade tell want ‘They asked him todo it. ‘The same forms can be used to refer to the present and the future itis contrary to fact. Twould like to have stayed in | would have liked to stay in would have liked to have stayed in tonight, instead of going out. Note Some verbs can take both of the above patterns, ask beg want help ‘She wanted 19 doit She wasted him todo it Verb + infinitive without to {> 8.8 Softening the message ‘We can make our message les direct by using certain constructions. A past tense {wondered if you were five tonight? I thought we could go othe cinema ‘The continuous Twas hoping you could tell me the answer. When will you Be arriving? would Would tbe posible for you to come back tomorrow? Would it be beter you did ty way? wold say/think shen her seventies. {would have sidhought she was about 65, woulda’ be surprised if Jack did't come soon. just hough Pl give you a ring to see you wee alright. ow have thought che could have rerembered my birthday UNIT 9 ‘Verb patterns {> 91 Verb patterns with the gerund “The gerund or ~ng form is used: 1 After certain verbs deny regret suggest He admitted scaling the money 2. After prepositions, prepositional verbs, and phrasal verbs “After leaving schol he joined the army. She apologized for arriving late [ve given up smoking a ast. Note ‘The preposition 10 (not to as part of the infinitive) can cause problems. ‘This is because 10 + -ing seems a strange combination. Ym looking forward to secing yor. admit make let help They made me do it Notes t 2 3 All infinitive paterns are possible with help, ‘The passive of make takes ta, Twas made todo it ‘The passive of leris allowed ta, Lovas allowed todo it > 93 Verb+ that + clause In some (not al) ofthe above examples a that cause can be used after the main vee in pace of gerund or nine, There i no change in rmeaning, Tha itself can be omitted. ‘She admit (that) she had made a mistake He, Promised (that) he would doit ‘They suggested (that) we should have along break Notes 1 2 Suggest has special problems, These constructions ate also posible. They suggested (that) we have « long break: They suggested (that) we had a long break. He wanted thet hde-dtis a common mistake, [> 94 Verb + -ing or to with little or no change of meaning ‘The verbs begin, star, and continue can take ether ~ing ot toand mean the same, warted tt | began a continued | "8 Note “The choice may be governed by style or the nature ofthe following. verb, 1s just starting to rain. (NOT. He: storting reining) slowly began to understand the siwation. (NOT degan