ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE I

INTRODUCTION

LIS 202: Organization of Knowledge 1 is a second semester course with 3 credit unit which will last
for a minimum duration of one semester. It is a compulsory and a pre-requisite course for LIS 301 for
all undergraduates in the Department. It is also suitable for library and information students who wish
to acquire the needed knowledge on how knowledge is been organized. This course will further help
students to gain practical skills on how books and various resources in the library are classified for
easy accessibility and retrieval.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
The goal of this course is to provide you a general understanding of how information resources are organized
and classified. This includes overview of concepts, information explosion and the need for organization
of information resources; library catalogue, Concept of Cataloguing, Standard Techniques of
Identification and Description of Bibliographic Units through Descriptive Cataloguing Using
AACR2, Subject Cataloguing and Classification using Library of Congress and Sear’s List of subject
headings, Concept of classification, Factors Determining the Arrangement/Organization of Library
Resources, classification schemes, etc.

AWARDING OF MARKS AND GRADING SYSTEM:

Continuous assessment and final examination shall be awarded marks as follows:
Continuous Assessment 40%
Final Examination 60%
Total 100%
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Information Explosion, Overload and Need for Organization of Knowledge/Information
3. Meaning of Library Catalogue
ii. Functions of Library Catalogue
iii. Importance of Library Catalogue
iv. Types and Format of Library Catalogue
4. Concept of Cataloguing
i. Catalogue Entry
ii. Kinds of Catalogue Entry
iii. Elements of Catalogue Entry
5. Stages/Types of Cataloguing
i. Descriptive Cataloguing
ii. Subject Cataloguing
6. Standard Techniques of Identification and Description of Bibliographic Units through Descriptive
Cataloguing Using AACR2
7. Subject Cataloguing and Classification using Library of Congress and Sear’s List of subject
headings
8. Concept of Classification
i. Factors Determining the Arrangement/Organization of Library Resources
9. Classification Schemes
i. Library of Congress Classification (LC)
ii. Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
iii. Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
iv. Colon Classification
v. Bibliographic Classification (by Bliss)
10. Filing Rules
i. Word by Word
ii. Letter by Letter
11. Revision
INFORMATION EXPLOSION
Information can be said to be the outcome of a processed data; it is data that has been processed,
interpreted and understood by the recipient. In short, when data turn out to be meaningful after
conversion, it is known as information. It can be communicated in the form of content of a message
or through observation and can be obtained from various sources such as newspaper, television,
internet, people, books, and so on. Hence, for anything to be termed information, it must have
undergone some processes. These processes involve collecting data, organizing, filtering and
transforming data into information that is meaningful to the user. Regularly, thousands of printed
books and other information materials are published locally and internationally. More and more
information is generated on the internet daily with the advancement of information communication
technology (ICTs). This vast amount of information increases every day and it has been so
overwhelming that people find it difficult to access, read and use available information resources.
This has resulted in what is known today as “information explosion”

What is Information Explosion?

It is a situation in which information is abundantly available. It is the proliferation, creation, spread or
increase in the amount of information either published or unpublished form. It is a situation that
describes the rapidly increasing amount of published information and the effects of this abundance of
data (Johnson, Zion & Prabhu, 2019). Information Explosion has been further explained as a situation
in which users and managers of information are overwhelmed with available information.
Apart from the publication of thousands of printed publications, there are millions of data and
information available to the public on the internet and social media platforms. Many of these vast
amounts of information are sometimes irrelevant to the recipients or users. This abundance of
information makes it impossible and challenging for users to read all the available information
because users are confused as to how they can search and evaluate resources on the internet to get the
right information they need to satisfy their needs.
Too much information can be overwhelming and stressful for people to locate and use. It can also
cause anxiety and fatigue for users and may affect decision making as users may not be able to get the
actual information they need.
Therefore, as the amount of available data grows, the problem of managing the information becomes
more difficult, which can lead to what is called information overload.
Information Overload

Information overload is a problematic phenomenon to people or information users in general due to

the constant generation of information in printed format, on the internet and social media platforms
such as emails, television, radio, webpages etc. Umezor (2017) defined information overload is “a
situation in which the speed at which information is flowing is so overwhelming that it is difficult to
keep pace with it. It equally applies to a situation in which there is so much
information available but access to it is a major problem.” Information overload, therefore, is the
overabundance of information that hinders information users’ capacity from processing it due to
excess of information. Information overload can also be termed infobesity, information bog,
information smog, information anxiety, information glut, information explosion etc.

Causes of Information Overload

There are various causes of information overload and they are:
1. Increase Duplication and Transmission of Data across the
Internet
2. Increase Production Rate of New Information
3. Increase in the Channel of Information
4. Increase the amount of Historical Information
5. Inaccurate and Contradictions of Information

1. Increase Duplication and Transmission of Data Across the Internet

One of the causes of information overload is the duplication and transmission of thousands of the
same information content or data across the internet. Duplication of data makes it difficult for
information users to locate the specific information resources they need to satisfy their needs. For
example, a user is in search of information on Malaria parasite on the internet; you will be shocked at
the number of information resources the user will come across on the internet.
Sometimes, the user will see ten (10) copies of the same title of a book or an article. Some of the
copies may be in Microsoft, pdf, Html, Slide Share etc. Duplication and transmission of data on the
internet make it overwhelming for information users to search for information let alone locating the
right information that they need.

2. Increase Production Rate of New Information

New information is produced on a regular and daily basis. The information could be published or
unpublished on the internet. An increase production rate of information may cause problems for
information users because not all users can be able to keep up with information thereby making it
difficult for users to locate and select the right information. The production rate of new information
resources makes it tough for users. For example, an information user may need
information in an area in business management, while he/she is struggling to understand business
management by reading the first volume of a title, another volume of that same title is published and
have updated information on the volume he/she is currently reading. The increase in information
production may be disturbing and stressful for the user due to the vast amount of information on the
same topic.

3. Increase in the Channel of Information

There are so many channels through which information is shared that cause an information explosion.
These channels include emails, instant messaging, television, radio and other social media platforms.
Through these channels, a piece of single information can be shared countless
times over the internet. For example, when an information user searches for information on Diabetes
on Google, he or she can get thousands of Webpages on the internet that discusses diabetes. These
Webpages will give too much information on diabetes that will overwhelm the user and makes it
difficult to understand and if the user is not careful, he/she will be confused.

4. Increase in the Amount of Historical Information

With the advancement of information communication technology (ICT), people can have access to a
vast amount of historical information just by a click on the internet or reading historical books.
However, due to the abundance of historical information on the internet and published books, it may
cause fatigue for users.
5. Inaccurate and Contradictions of Information
Inaccurate and contradictory information can lead information users to make the wrong decisions.
Most times, the information found on the internet are not written or published by professionals in
various fields and as such many of the information is inaccurate and the content of information
resources contradict each other. These contradictions can confuse information users and can lead to
fatigue and anxiety.

The Need for Organization of Knowledge/Information

From the causes of information overload, we know we are living in the era of information explosion.
Information resources are scattered all over the place in various media and formats. There is a need
for this scattered information or knowledge to be arranged or managed in such a
way that information seekers or users can have access, locate and retrieve information at the right
time and place. It becomes necessary for information or knowledge to be organised to avoid
confusion on the part of information users.

By organization of knowledge, we mean activities geared towards making information materials

accessible to the users of the library. It involves document description (cataloguing) and classification
which is aimed at providing speedy access to information resources in the library. The organization of
information or knowledge will help to avoid chaos and save the time and effort of users in searching
and locating the needed information.
The term “Library” is one that is often misused. Any collection of books, large or small is usually
referred to as a library. This is wrong. According to Mole and Ekere (2014), a collection of books
does not become a library until it has been organized for efficient use, with due emphasis on speed
and ease of access. It is the organization that makes the difference because without it, one may
wallow aimlessly and come out of the library frustrated and conclude that there is nothing of use to
him in the library.
Thus, a library may be likened to a well-planned city with roads carefully laid out and houses duly
numbered. A room containing books that are not organized for easy retrieval is a mere reading room,
and should not be mistake to as a library. Libraries house books, non-book materials and electronic
information resources for access by library users. Therefore, libraries are the only institution that is
charged with the selection, acquisition, organization, storage and dissemination of information
resources to meet the information needs of their users.

The organization of information, therefore, means that information is

arranged in a convenient way to ensure users not only locate information resources but also get the
right information they need. This means that the vast amount of information scattered in various
format and media such as radio, television, social networking sites, blogs, email etc. are arranged and
classified according to their content for easy access and retrieval. Organization of knowledge is
essential as it facilitates easy retrieval of information resources in the library. Without such
organization, it would be difficult to locate a particular material, especially if the materials are many.
This is the idea behind Organization of Knowledge. It is then the librarians’ task to organize the
total library resources with suitable bibliographic control to facilitate access to the resources by the
library clientele. The traditional means for accomplishing this goal is what we refer to as
Cataloguing and Classification.

WHAT IS LIBRARY CATALOGUE?

A library catalogue is a list of all the information resources held by a library or group of libraries. It is
the list of all items in a collection, usually arranged by author, title or subject. According to Edoka
(2000), library catalogue is a list of books and other media of a collection of a library or a group of
libraries arranged according to some definite plans. It is a list of materials in the library arranged in a
kind of order for the smooth and easy retrieval of information by the clientele (Mole and Ekere,
2014).
A catalogue can be linked to a bibliography which is also a list of books and other information
resources. But unlike a bibliography, a catalogue refers to the holdings of a specific library or group
of libraries (Union Catalogue). It is an inventory (stock) of the holdings of a library or group of
libraries.

Functions of the Library Catalogue

The main functions of the library catalogue are to enable the library clientele to determine the
following:
1. What book a library has by an author.
2. What book a library has on a subject.
3. Whether a library has a book on a title.
4. The revision of a book a library has.
5. What other bibliographical details a library’s book has.
6. Where in the library a book can be located in the shelf.

The library catalogue by its design will provide ready access and answers to these enquiries as
follows:
1. Enquiry No.1 can be answered by author entry.
2. Enquiry No.2 can be answered by subject entry.
3. Enquiry No.3 can be answered by Title entry.
4. Enquiry No.4 can be answered by Edition statement.
5. Enquiry No.5 can be answered by entire element of a main entry.
6. Enquiry No.6 can be answered by the class mark (Call Number.)

Importance of Library Catalogue

1. It enhances access to library collections.
2. It enables users to locate books on a particular subject.
3. It enables users to identify sources of information.
4. It makes it possible to identify a book with a particular author.
5. It provides full bibliographic details of a book.
6. It enables user to know whether or not certain books are in the library.
7. It shows at a glance the number of copies a library has on a title.

Types and Format of Library Catalogue

There are four main types of library catalogue. These include:
1. Card Catalogue
2. Book or Printed Catalogue
3. Sheaf Catalogue
4. Computerized Catalogue
1. Card Catalogue
This is a catalogue in which the entries are arranged systematically on cards. In a typical African
library, card catalogue is the commonest form of catalogue (Aina, 2004). Even with the shift to online
library services and its accompanying online public access, many of these libraries still maintain their
card catalogues. In the card catalogue, entries are prepared on rectangular cards measuring 5 inches
by 3 inches (5” x 3”) 12.5x7.5 cm. which are stiffer than paper and more durable and are a filed in a
catalogue cabinet (of drawers). Each card contains a separate entry for each book or other item. The
cards are punched with a hole in the middle of the bottom edge and are firmly held together in a
drawer with a rod which passes through the drawer and cards into an adjustable block fitted into the
end.
2. Book or Printed Catalogue
Though the card catalogue is the commonest form of catalogue in libraries, it is not the oldest. The
book catalogue is the oldest. This is a printed catalogue in book form. It is an alphabetical
arrangement of catalogue entries in a printed book form. Examples of the book catalogue are library
of congress ‘National Union Catalogue’ and the ‘British Museum Catalogue of printed books’.
Entries are arranged alphabetically in a classified order.
3. Sheaf Catalogue
In this catalogue, entries are made on oblong standard slips of paper measuring about 6 inches by 4
inches (i.e 6” x 4”). The papers are light and have holes or slots at one edge through which they are
fastened to loose leave or sheaf binders. Each binder has a locking/releasing mechanism to allow the
insertion of new entries when required yet ensure that slips remain securely in place when the
catalogue is consulted.

4. Computerized Catalogue
The computerized catalogue is presently in three forms;
i. Machine Readable Catalogue (MARC): This was developed by the Library of Congress in
conjunction with the British library. In this catalogue, entries are entered into a file at any point and
can be transmitted to a central data file from which other libraries can obtain or access such entries
online by means of telecommunications links.
ii. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC): This is the most modern and most efficient form of a
catalogue (Aina, 2004). It enables users to search and access very specific entries of a library.
Bibliographic records of all documents in a library collection are stored in the computer memory
disk. The OPAC catalogue makes it possible for library catalogue to be accessed from various points
and at any time. To use it, one needs a computer with large memory and internet access.
iii. CD-ROM Catalogue: The computerized catalogue can also be on a compact disc (CD-ROM).
This is a large storage medium, as the entire catalogue of a library can be in just one compact disc,
accessible through the computer. It is therefore, computerized and online like the MARC and OPAC
catalogues, but unlike them, the CD-ROM catalogue is not flexible and not easily updated. To be able
to use it, one needs a computer with CD-ROM drive.

Catalogue Entry:
Catalogue entry is the record of a material in a catalogue. Each entry in the catalogue contains the
bibliographic record of the material it represents in the collection. Bibliographic record refers to the
transcription of complete cataloguing information of any information material. The purpose of such
record is two-fold:
i. To provide information necessary to describe an item accurately for the purpose of distinguishing it
from other items.
ii. To provide its location in the location.

Kinds of Catalogue Entry

Catalogue entry is of various kinds including
1. Main Entry
2. Added Entry
3. Author Entry
4. Title Entry
5. Subject Entry
6. Series Entry

Main Entry: This is also known as principal or primary entry. It is the principal and foremost entry
made for a book. It contains the foremost, fullest and objective description of a book including the
main author or title where there is no author, other bibliographic and physical details of a book, notes,
call number and tracings.
Added Entry: This is also known as secondary entry because it is any other entry made for a book
other than the main entry. For instance, where a main entry is made for the book under the (first)
author’s name, every other entry made for the book under the second, or third author’s name or under
the title, series title, etc, of the book are referred to as added entries. Added entries are prepared to
provide alternative access points or a work other than the main entry. However, an added entry,
before it is created, is first justified by indicating it in the statement of responsibility or imprint area
(for author added entries). It is also mandatory to indicate it in the tracing.
Author Entry: This is the entry in which the author (which could be personal or corporate author) of
a book occupies the first line and heading of the entry. In such case, the surname of the first personal
author is the entry word and, therefore filing word of the entry. For corporate authorship, the first
word, not an article is made the entry word and therefore filing word of the entry.
Title Entry: This is the entry in which the title of a book is the first line and heading of the entry. In
this case, the first word, not an article of the title is the filing word of the entry.
Subject Entry: This is the entry in which the subject(s) assigned to a book is (are) the first line of the
heading of the entry word and therefore the filing word of the entry. The assigned subject may be in
form of a subject heading or subject number.
Series Entry: This is the entry in which the series title of a book is the first line and heading of the
entry. Similarly, the first word, not an article is the entry word of the entry.

ELEMENTS OF AN ENTRY
The AACR II (1998), identified eight (8) different elements of descriptive catalogue entry.
1. Heading
2. Title and Statement of responsibility
3. Edition Statement
4. Imprint
5. Collation
6. Series Statement
7. Notes
8. ISBN
Heading: This is the word/words at the first line or head of a catalogue entry. It is usually the
author’s names and other identification marks of the author. It could also be title of the book if there
is no author or if the author cannot be ascribed. The heading contains the entry word which is the first
word, not an article, in the heading by which the entry is filed in a catalogue or bibliography as the
case may be.
Title and Statement of Responsibility: This is the name of the book followed by the name(s) of
persons responsible for the intellectual content of the book.
Edition Statement: This is a statement used to indicate if there is significant changes in the text or
content of a book. E.g 2nd ed., rev. ed. etc.
Imprint: This element is used to indicate or state publication information covering three elements:
Place of publication, Publisher, and Date of publication.
Collation: This element provides the physical description of the book material. It indicates the page
for a one volume work; number of volumes for a multi-volume work; illustrations in the work (if any)
and height of the work in cm.
Series Statement: This is a statement of the series titles to which a book belongs (if any)
Notes: This is an indication of relevant and distinguishing information about the book which are not
covered in the other parts of the entry. E.g bibliography, references etc.
ISBN and ISSN: These mean International Standard Book Number and International Standard Serial
Number respectively. They are the identification number assigned to each title of a book or serial (as
the case may be) of the same edition to distinguish it from other titles and different editions of the
same title.
E.g
 BABATUNDE, Temitope
Introduction to cataloguing and classification/Temitope Babatunde. 3rd ed. New York:
Heineman, 2004.
XIV, 320p. : ill. ; 30cm. (World series in cataloguing processes)
Includes bibliographical references pp. 313-320
ISBN: 0-8345-05564-7
1. Cataloguing Z
2. Classification 693
I. Title .B33
2004

9. Call Number
10. Tracings

1.Heading: Babatunde, Temitope

2. Entry word: Babatunde
3. Title: Introduction to cataloguing and classification
4. Statement of Responsibilty: /Temitope Babatunde
5. Edition Statement: 3rd ed.
6. Imprint: New York: Heineman, 2004
7. Collation: xiv, 320. : ill. ; 30 cm.
8. Series Statement: (World series in cataloguing processes)
9 Notes (Each Note is in a separate paragraph) – Bibliography: PP. 313-320
10. ISBN: 0-8345-05564-7
11. TRACINGS (The Subject is preceded by Arabic numeral, author added entry, title preceded by
Roman Numerals. 1. Cataloguing 2. Classification. I Title
12. Call No. Z545.B.33
Concept of Cataloguing
Cataloguing is the process of describing each of the books and information materials that a library
has. Mole and Ekere (2014), in their book “Theory and Practice of Cataloguing and Classification”,
defined cataloguing as the process of describing an item of a collection with a view to determining its
bibliographical attributes. It is an aspect of library technical services which involves the organization
of library information resources to ensure relative speed and ease of access by the clientele of the
library. Technical services are the assignments carried on in a library which are concerned with the
processing of library materials in order to make them easily accessible to the users of the library.
Cataloguing involves the full bibliographic description of each book, monograph, treatise and most
other types of materials acquired by the library, adhering to the set down rules of the practice. It also
involves the determination of subject contents of the material, and generally, the determination of the
actual position of each new addition in the library’s scheme of book arrangement, otherwise known
as classification.

Stages/Types of Cataloguing
Cataloguing involves two broad stages, namely:
1. Descriptive Cataloguing
2. Subject Cataloguing
Descriptive Cataloguing:
Descriptive cataloguing is the systematic description of the physical attributes of library material as
an item in order to pool together all the significant data about the material and to distinguish it from
other items, especially those available in the library. It is also known as preliminary cataloguing
because it precedes the original or subject cataloguing and actual classification of the material. It is
that part of cataloguing process which relates to the bibliographic description of books, as
distinguished from the process of assigning subject headings and classification.
When a material is being descriptively catalogued, three questions must arise:
1. What information should be given?
2. In what order should the information be given?
3. Are some punctuations necessary to distinguish each information from the other? If so, what
punctuations?
To answer the first question, sufficient details are provided to identify the publication. These include:
author(s) (single, joint or corporate), title, edition, imprint (i.e place of publication, publisher and date
of publication), collation (i.e number of pages and whether it is illustrated or not), series statement,
notes, ISBN etc. In most libraries, such relevant bibliographic details of each book are entered into a
cataloguing worksheet and contain vital information that helps to provide a clear description of the
material being catalogued.
To answer the second and third questions, the description is done according to a set of rules known as
Anglo-American Cataloguing Rule, second edition (AACR II). The use of the AACR II ensure
uniformity and consistency in descriptive cataloguing practice.
In manual cataloguing, the cataloguer besides identifying items of information to be included in the
description, also considers the order in which they should appear and applies the punctuation that
should follow each item of information. If the library is computerized, all the cataloguer does is fill in
the catalogue worksheet. The produced is entered in the computer and the computer supplies the
punctuation when necessary.
Subject Cataloguing
Subject cataloguing is the process of assigning subject(s) to an item in a collection. According to
Mole and Ekere (2014), it involves all the professional techniques and processes of identifying the
subject matter or content of a work and choosing subject and acceptable word or item from a heading
list to describe the subject. It follows the descriptive cataloguing in the library’s cataloguing routine.
The idea about subject cataloguing is that users of fairly large libraries such as academics and
research libraries usually do not have the author or title of a document in mind. Rather, they are
interested in documents on particular area (subject) in which a user is researching, studying or writing
(Aina, 2004). Consequently, cataloguers provide subject headings for every document catalogued in
that particular library to enable users have access to books on required subjects.
Having determined the subject of a work, the next stage is to assign a class number to it that
accurately portrays its subject content and determines its shelf location.
Book by One Author
Book by one author should be entered under author card. The last name of the author is the entry
word, and therefore the filing word. The last name should be separated from other names with
comma.
Example:
DAS, P. G.
Modern political theory: a handbook/P. G. Das. Northampton: New Central book, 2006.
xx, 460p. : ill. ; 22 cm.
Includes bibliographical references: pp. 461-470
ISBN: 81-7381-225-X

Edited book
In an edited work, the title of the book should be used as the heading of the entry. The editor should
be used in the statement of responsibility. The first word and not the entire title becomes the filing
word.
Example:
Poverty alleviation from biodiversity management/Matt F.A. Ivbijaro. Ibadan: Book builders,
2012.
xiv, 430p. : ill. ; 22 cm.
Includes bibliographical references: pp.431-440.
ISBN: 234-4546-6789-0

In this case, “POVERTY” is the filing word.

Book by Three Authors
In book by three authors, the name of the first author should be used as the heading of the entry,
while other authors should be provided in the statement of responsibility.
Example:

GLAUTIER, Michael
Accounting theory and practice/Michael Glautier, Brian Underdown and Deigan Morris. _8th ed.
– England: Pearson, 2011.
xxv, 836p. : ill. ; 26 cm.
Includes bibliographical references at the end of every chapter
ISBN: 6578-234-456-678

Book by more than three authors

In book by more than 3 authors, the title of the work should be used as the heading. The name of the
first author should be used in the statement of responsibility with et al. The authors should be
provided he added entries after the subject. Example:
International history of the twentieth century and beyond/Anthony Best. et.al. _ 4th ed. – New York:
Routledge, 2004.
xxix, 666p. : ill. ; 26cm.
Includes bibliographical references: PP.655-660
ISBN: 978-456-5647-678
1. History
2. Best, Anthony
3. Cole, Smith
4. Andy, Carol
5. Bernard, Charles
Corporate Authorship
This refers to agency, body, or organization that authorizes or commissions a publication, and under
whose official name it is entered in the publisher's catalogue. In book by corporate author, the title of
the book is used as the heading while the agency or organization responsible is used in the statement
of responsibility. Example:
Management of libraries in Nigeria/Nigerian Library Association. -Abuja: Longman Educational,
2013.
xxiv, 230p. : ill. ; 24cm.
Bibliographical references: PP. 220-224
Includes index and appendix
ISBN: 987-2345-675-8

Note:
1. In a situation whereby a book has more than one place of publication or more than one publisher,
separate the first publisher with a semi-colon. Example:
Akure; Ibadan: University Trust publishers; Crystalline publishers, 2006.

2. If a book has an accompanying materials such as CD Rom or DVD Rom, you have to include it in
the physical distribution, immediately after the size of the book. Example:
24cm. + CD Rom + DVD Rom.

3. If the book is illustrated, indicate it after the statement of responsibiilty by using semi-colon.
Example: /Blessing Abiodun; illustrated by Elijah Azeez. – 2nd. ed. – Ibadan: University Press, 2009.

4. If the preliminary pages are unknown, you have to generate it by numbering the leaves where the
pages ought to be starting from the title page. The pages must be enclosed in parenthesis.
Example: [xxiv], 450p. : ill. ; 24cm.
5. If no date of publication appears at all, supply an appropriate date of publication enclosed in
parenthesis. Example:
Macmillian, [2007 or 2008] Meaning One year or the other
Macmillian, [1990?] Meaning probably date
Macmillian, [2000 and 2008] Use only for dates fewer than 20 years apart.
Macmillian, [ca 2000] Meaning approximate date
Macmillian, [199-] Meaning Decade certain
Macmillian, [199-?] Meaning Probable decade
Macmillian, [19- -] Meaning Century certain
Macmillian, [19- -?] Meaning probable century

Steps Involved in Determination of Subject

To prepare subject entries or assign subject(s) for books, the following steps may be taken:
1. Examine the work in question by reading the title, table of content, introduction, the preface,
author’s/editor’s forword and the introductory chapter. This is to develop an idea of the subject matter
of the book. In many cases, the title will not include information about the subject of the work. Other
information as given may help to determine the subject, after which chapter and section headings as
listed on the contents page should be scanned. If the nature of the work is still unclear, the brief
publisher’s introduction on the cover may help in determining its subject. Further assistance or
confirmation can be found in the authors/editor’s foreword and introductory chapter.
2. Consult list of subject headings or thesaurus being used in library to establish an appropriate term
for the subject matter so predetermined and to ensure uniformity and consistency.
3. Sometimes there is a scope note accompanying a subject in the list. Read this note carefully to
satisfy yourself that the subject is adequate. Also check if the subject may need geographical or other
forms of subdivision.
4. Also examine the “see” and “see also” reference (in the SLSH) and the “NT”, “BT” and “RT” (in
the (LCSH) and other terms that describe the book more adequately and accurately.
After taking into consideration necessary factors and making proper judgements, assign subjects
headings(s) for the document based on the nature and content of the document and what is prescribed
in the subject heading list in use. While it might be easy to assign subject(s) to certain topics, others
may pose a great challenge to the cataloguer. For instance, a book with the title “Introduction to
librarianship” might have as its subject “librarianship” while a book titled “History of libraries in
Nigeria” might have as subject “Libraries – Nigeria – History”.
Lists of Subject Headings
These are publications serving as standard tools for the assignment of subject(s) to information
materials. They are used in the library to establish an appropriate term for the subject matter of the
book and to ensure uniformity and consistence in choice and form of the words. The most popular
subject heading around the world includes:
1. Sears List of Subject Headings (SLSH) first published in 1923.
2. The first edition of Library of Congress list of Subject Headings (LCSH) was published in 1909,
though work on creating LCSH list was started in 1897. The latest 38th edition was published in year
2016.
3. ALA List of Subject Heading, (ALSH) (American Library Association) first published in 1895.
4. Medical Subject Headings (MESH).

1. Sears List of Subject Headings (SLSH)

The SLSH was first published in 1923. It is a similar and simplified version of the Library of
Congress Subject Heading. The SLSH is in bold and light face type arranged alphabetically. The
subject headings in bold face type are primary or usable or preferred headings assigned to books
while those in light face type follow those in bold face type and are unused. The latest version of
Sears List of Subject Headings (twenty-second edition) was published by Grey House Publishing in 2018.
Physical Characteristics of SLSH
Each bold face type primary heading has almost 4 sets of subject headings subordinated to it namely:
UF, BT, NT and RT sets of subject headings.
Below is a typical entry in the SLSH
 HOUSES: (May subdiv. Geographically) 643; 728
Use for general materials on building in which people live. Materials on residential building,
from the standpoint of style and design are entered under DOMESTIC ARCHTECTURE
UF Dwellings, Homes, Residences
SA Types of houses eg. Earth sheltered house etc.
BT BUILDINGS
NT Apartment houses, Housing kitchens, Rooms
RT Building, House construction

The bold face type primary heading may be assigned to a book on that subject. Following a bold face
primary subject heading may be the note “may subdivide geographically” (for subjects, which can be
treated geographically).

Sometimes, there is a scope note accompanying a bold face type primary heading. The essence of the
scope note is to:

a. Specify the range of use of a bold face type primary heading.

b. Draw distinction between related headings. (See above)

Sets of related subject heading arranged alphabetically are subordinated to a bold face type primary
heading.

“UF” Sign

The first set is UF sign. The headings are in light face type. The UF sign signifies that each of the
subordinated light face headings are not usable. From each of the headings preceded by a UF code, a
“see” cross reference can be made to the primary heading if the library has a book on the primary
heading. E.g Librarianship See Library Science.

“BT” Sign

The second set of headings that may be subordinated to a primary heading is that preceded by the
“BT” sign. The heading consists of broad subject headings and is in bold face type. The BT sign
signifies that a “see also” cross reference should be made from each of the subordinated bold face
type headings to the primary heading if the library has books on the primary heading.

Example: Information Science See Also Library Science

“NT” Sign

The third set of headings is that preceded by the “NT” sign. The headings consist of terms narrower
than the primary headings and are in bold face type.

The NT headings can be applied in two ways:

i. They consist of headings that are usable as the primary heading and can as well be considered for
use for the publication in hand if the heading is more suitable than the primary headings. But for an
NT heading to be used, the cataloguer has to turn to the page where it appears as bold face type
primary heading.

ii. Where a library has book(s) on the subordinated NT headings, the cataloguer should make a “see
also” cross reference from a chosen primary heading for a book to each of the subordinated bold face
NT headings. Example: Library Science See Also Cataloguing.

“RT” Sign

The last set of subordinated headings is usually preceded by “RT” sign. The headings are in bold
face and consist of terms related to the primary heading. The RT headings can be applied same way
as the NT headings. Example: Library Science See Also Library Services.

Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)

The LCSH was first published in 1909 (though in parts from 1909-1914) with the title Subject
Headings used in Dictionary Catalogues of the Library of Congress). The second edition was
published in 1919. The title changed to “Library of Congress Subject Headings” when the 8th edition
was published in 1975. The 16th edition made use of the following codes: “X” (now replaced by UF)
“XX” (now replaced by BT and RT), “See also” (now replaced by RT and NT). The last print edition
(34th edition) was published in 2016.

Below is a typical entry of the LCSH.

 BOOKS AND READING (May subd. Geog) Z1003-Z1003.5
Here are entered works on the significance of books in people’s lives, including their attitudes
toward and interest in reading. Works on the art of reading are entered under reading.
UF Appraisal of books
Books – Appraisal.
Readings and books
Reading habit
Choice of books
BT Reading
RT Reading interest
SA Subdivision Books and reading under classes of persons, ethnic groups or names of individual
NT Best Sellers
Blind – Books and reading
Books – Reviews
Prohibited Books
Reference books

CALL NUMBER

A call number is an identification number assigned to information materials in the library. It is a

unique number giving to every item of information resources in the library. A call number is made up
of class number (ie. The subject area) and cutter number. The cutter number is determined using
cutter figure table. Example:

Cutter Figure Table:

After initial vowels. Five of the 26 alphabet letters are vowels: A, E, I, O, and U.

for the second letter: b d l-m n p r s-t u-y

use number: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
After initial letter S

for the second letter: a ch e h-i m-p t u w-z

use number: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

After initial letters Qu

for the second letter: a e i o r t y

use number: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

After other initial consonants. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L,
M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y.

for the second a e i o r u y

letter:
use number: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

For expansion

for the letter: a-d e-h i-l m-o p-s t-v w-z
use number: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Example:

Vowels S Qu Consonants
Abdul .A23 Sadron .S23 Quade .Q33 Campbell .C36
Eto .E86 Singer .S56 Queiroz .Q45 Ceccaldi .C43
Ilardo .I43 Solomon .S65 Quinn .Q56 Chertok .C44
Obasa .O23 Shillingburg .S55 Quorum .Q67
Udezi .U34 Stinson .S75
CONCEPT OF CLASSIFICATION

The word “classify” means to arrange in classes or to assign to categories. Classification is the
systematic arrangement of groups or categories according to established criteria. It refers to the
grouping of things according to their degree of similarity and differences. It encompasses the notion
of the process of grouping like things together. Library classification is the arrangement of library
information resources (book and non-book materials) of a library or group of libraries into classes
according to their similar characteristics. It is a system of organizing library materials (books, serials,
audiovisual materials, computer files, maps, manuscripts, etc.) according to their subject and
allocating a call number to that information resource. In a broad way, library may arrange things by
format, shelving all the books together, all the videos together, all the CD’s together etc. But then, all
of these formats are arranged by subject. Some libraries interfile the various formats in order to keep
everything on one subject together. But, however the format issue is resolved; all materials in
libraries are ultimately arranged by subject. The idea is to place materials on the same subject
together on the shelf, and have the classification act as an address so you can find it.
Classification systems group entities that are similar based on their common characteristics.
Characteristics here refer to the attributes by which entities or concepts are grouped together, or by
which subjects are subdivided. Characteristics are therefore, the determining factors in classification
because classification tends to bring together items that are related by virtue of certain common
characteristics which they possess.

It is important to note that unlike subject heading or Thesaurus where multiple terms can be assigned
to the same work, in classification systems, each work can only be placed in one class. Most
classification systems like DDC and Library of Congress classification, also add a "cutter number" to
each work which adds a code for the author of the work.

Classification systems in libraries generally play two roles. Firstly, they facilitate subject access by
allowing the user to find out what works or documents the library has on a certain subject. Secondly,
they provide a known location for the information source to be located (e.g where it is shelved).

The ultimate aim of library classification is to ensure the optimum utilization of library information
resources. It is intended to achieve a particular purpose which is to enhance quick identification,
location, retrieval of information resources in a library. Without library classification, the search for
the resources will be unguided, misdirected, and haphazard. This will result in time wastage and
frustration. Classification was, therefore, designed to prevent waste of time and frustration in the use
of library information resources.

CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
Modern library classification employs philosophy classification as it organizes knowledge in style. It
does this by evaluating and classifying thoughts, ideas and concepts representing the whole field of
human learning. Library classification schemes are logical arrangements of subjects and the system of
symbols representing those subjects. Each classification scheme organizes the entire body of
knowledge into classes and further division and subdivision done in line with the format, rules and
principles of each scheme. Traditionally, classification schemes used in libraries includes:

i. Library of Congress Classification (LC)

ii. Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
iii. Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
iv. Colon Classification
v. Bibliographic Classification (by Bliss)

1. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION (LC)

The Library of Congress classification scheme was first published in 1902. It was originally designed
and developed for the use of the Library of Congress in United States of America only. It was not
based on any philosophical system for classifying knowledge. It was designed to classify the books of
the Library of Congress collection and future expansions of the collections. Over the course of the
twentieth century, the system was adopted for use by other libraries as well, especially large academic
libraries in the United States. It is currently one of the most widely used library classification systems
in the world.

The Outline of the Scheme

The system divides all knowledge into 21 basic classes, each identified by a single letter of the
alphabet. Only letters of the alphabet – I, O, W, X and Y have not been assigned subjects. Most of
these alphabetical classes are further divided into more specific subclasses, identified by two-letter
combinations. The first letter of an LC call number represents one of the 21 major categories of the
LC System. The second letter represents a subdivision of main category.

For example, Class L: Education has subclasses LA – History of Education, LB – Theory and
Practice of Education, LC – Special aspects of Education. Also, class N- Fine Art, has subclasses
NA, Architecture; NB, Sculpture, ND, Painting; as well as several other subclasses. Each subclass
includes a loosely hierarchical arrangement of the topics pertinent to the subclass, going from the
general to the more specific. Individual topics are often broken down by specific places, time periods,
or bibliographic forms (such as periodicals, biographies, etc.). Each topic (often referred to as a
caption) is assigned a single number or a span of numbers. Whole numbers used in LCC may range
from one to four digits in length, and may be further extended by the use of decimal numbers.
Example; a book titled “Introduction to Research Methodology” written by Azeez in 2008, has
Education – research as the subject. The call number becomes LB1028.A94 2008.
The outline of the Scheme
A -- GENERAL WORKS
B -- PHILOSOPHY. PSYCHOLOGY. RELIGION
C -- AUXILIARY SCIENCES OF HISTORY
D -- WORLD HISTORY AND HISTORY OF EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, NEW
ZEALAND, ETC
E -- HISTORY OF THE AMERICAS
F -- HISTORY OF THE AMERICAS
G -- GEOGRAPHY. ANTHROPOLOGY. RECREATION
H -- SOCIAL SCIENCES
J -- POLITICAL SCIENCE
K -- LAW
L – EDUCATION
M -- MUSIC AND BOOKS ON MUSIC
N -- FINE ARTS
P -- LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Q -- SCIENCE
R -- MEDICINE
S -- AGRICULTURE
T -- TECHNOLOGY
U -- MILITARY SCIENCE
V -- NAVAL SCIENCE
Z -- BIBLIOGRAPHY. LIBRARY SCIENCE. INFORMATION RESOURCES (GENERAL)

Dewey Decimal Classification: Brief Information of DDC

The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system is a general knowledge devised by Melvil Dewey.
He devised the scheme in 1873 at the age of 23 and first applied it to the Amherst College library.
The scheme was first published in 1876 and has since gone through many languages and editions.
DDC is the most widely used library classification scheme in the world. It is used in more than 135
countries and translated into over 30 languages. However, it is mostly used in public and school
libraries. E.g. In the USA, It is used in 95% of all public and school libraries.

FEATURES OF THE DDC

1. DDC is a hierarchical classification: The scheme developed progressively from the general
discipline to the specific in subordinate and coordinate relationships. It has 10 main classes which are
assigned to broad disciplines. Each of the main classes is always preceded by 3 digits to the left of the
decimal for ease of use. E.g.

MAIN CLASSES

000 Computers, information & general works

100 Philosophy & psychology
200 Religion
300 Social sciences
400 Language
500 Science
600 Technology
700 Arts & recreation
800 Literature
900 History & geography

2. DDC is a Decimal Classification: The main classes, division, sections, sub-division proceed or
divide in tens. Each of the 10 main classes of DDC is divided into 10 divisions and each of the 10
divisions is subdivided into 10 sections and further subdivision of each of the 10 sections may be
made in tens by the addition of a decimal point and more digits until provision is made for every
subject in a discipline.

MAIN CLASSES

000 Computers, information & general works

100 Religion
200 Philosophy & psychology
300 Social sciences
400 Language
500 Science
600 Technology
700 Arts & recreation
800 Literature
900 History & geography

DIVISIONS: The Science class is divided into 10 divisions

500 Science

510 Mathematics

520 Astronomy

530 Physics

540 Chemistry

550 Earth sciences & geology

560 Fossils & prehistoric life

570 Biology

580 Plants

590 Animals (Zoology)

SECTION: Physics is further divided into 10 sections

530 Physics

531 Classical mechanics

532 Fluid mechanics

533 Pneumatics (Gas mechanics)

534 Sound & related vibrations

535 Light & related radiation

536 Heat
537 Electricity & electronics

538 Magnetism

539 Modern physics

540 Chemistry

540 Chemistry & allied sciences

541 Physical chemistry

542 Techniques, procedures, apparatus, equipment, materials

543 Analytical chemistry

544 No longer used—formerly Qualitative analysis

545 No longer used—formerly Quantitative analysis

546 Inorganic chemistry

547 Organic chemistry

548 Crystallography

549 Mineralogy

SUBDIVISION: Classical mechanics is further divided into 10 subdivision.

531 Classical mechanics

531.1 Dynamic, statistics and particles

531.2 Statics of solid

531.3 Dynamic of solid

This continues till 531.9

3. DDC is a classification by discipline: DDC is classification by discipline not by subject. Basic

classes are organized by traditional academic disciplines or fields of study. This is the most basic
principle of the DDC. The basis for DDC arrangement and development of subject is by discipline.
4. DDC adopts Pure Notation: Notation is a series of symbols, which is used to represent a subject in
library classification. DDC employs pure notation consisting only Arabic numerals divided decimally.
A 3-figure numeral is used consistently and this makes the system easier for the user.

Differences Between DDC and the LCC Scheme

1. Notation: The DDC has pure notation as it consists of only Arabic numerals while the LC has
mixed notation as it consists of a combination of letters and Arabic numerals. E.g Physics QC21
(LCC) 530 (DDC)

2. Expressiveness: The DDC notation is expressive as one can easily identify major and subordinate
classes by merely looking at the notation. This is not the case with the LCC

3. Structure: The structure of the DDC is hierarchical and is based on philosophical order of
knowledge. The 10 main classes of DDC correspond roughly to the fundamental disciples of
knowledge. The LC is a rough breakdown of the entire body of knowledge into 21 classes represented
by 21 out of the 26 alphabets.

4. Mode of Division: The DDC has decimal classification because the division are in tens. There are
10 main classes, each subdivided into 10 divisions, each further divided into 10 sections and further
subdivisions made in tens by the addition of a decimal point. In the LC, the body of knowledge is
divided into 21 of the 26 alphabets and further divided on enumerative basis using Arabic numerals.