Demo Control To Res Electrico SJ LP

AUTOMATED ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATIONS
Motor Control
Electrical
JOHN PARDO
Industrial electrical automation systems

with Wired Logic
Electric Motor Control

Electrical Automation Systems with Wired Logic
THEORETICAL-PRACTICAL MANUAL
JOHN PARDO 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTOMATED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS Motor Control Electrical----------------------------------------1
Electric Motor Control--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
Chapter 1- Introduction to automated electrical installations--------------------------------------------------------11
1.1- Terms in automated installations-----------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.2- Elements of an automated installation-----------------------------------------------------------------------12
1.2.1- Operational elements--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
1.2.2- Actuators or actuators-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
1.2.3- Sensors or sensors-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
1.2.4- Control element--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
1.3- Development of industrial automation-----------------------------------------------------------------------13
1.4- Structure and components of automation installations-----------------------------------------------------16
1.7- Industrial automation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Chapter 2- Connection of electric motors------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
2.1.1- Classification of electric motors-------------------------------------------------------------------------18
2.1.2- How to connect a dual-voltage split-phase single-phase motor.------------------------------------19
2.1.3- How to change the direction of rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor.--------------------21
2.1.4- Color-coded NEMA terminal marking-----------------------------------------------------------------21
2.2- Three-phase 6-terminal electric motors----------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.3- Three-phase 9-terminal electric motors----------------------------------------------------------------------25
2.4- 12-terminal three-phase electric motors---------------------------------------------------------------------28
2.4.1- Terminal identification-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
2.5- Induction motors with wound rotor---------------------------------------------------------------------------30
2.6- DC motors-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
Chapter 3- Command and signaling elements-------------------------------------------------------------------------33
3.1- Electromechanical sensors-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
3.4- Pushbuttons------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
3.2- Selector switches------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Rotary electric selector-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
CONTACT BLOCKS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
3.5- Emergency stop button-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
3.6- Signal lamps-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
3.6.4- Push button with pilot light------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
3.6.5- Beacons and signaling columns-------------------------------------------------------------------------50
3.7- radio modules----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
Chapter 4- Contactors, manual and magnetic starters-----------------------------------------------------------------53
4.1- contactor----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
electromagnetic contactor-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
4.1.1- Contactor Parts---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------54
4.1.2- Contactor operation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
4.1.3- Auxiliary contact block-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------57
4.2- Manual starters--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------60
4.2.1- Single or monopolar manual starter---------------------------------------------------------------------60
4.2.2- Double or bipolar manual starter------------------------------------------------------------------------60
4.2.3- Triple, three-pole or three-phase manual starter-------------------------------------------------------61
4.2.4- Disadvantages of manual starters-----------------------------------------------------------------------61
4.3- Magnetic starter-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
4.3.1- Two-wire control circuit----------------------------------------------------------------------------------63
4.3.2- Three-wire control circuit--------------------------------------------------------------------------------64
Chapter 5- Protection devices--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------65
5.1- Circuit breaker, breaker or automatic switch----------------------------------------------------------------67
• .1.1- Types of magneto-thermal circuit breakers-----------------------------------------------------------68
5.2- Overload or thermal relay--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
5.2.1- Operating principle----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------71
5.4- Engine guard-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
5.4.1- The magneto-thermal motor protector in direct start-------------------------------------------------80
5.4.2- How to connect a motor protector-----------------------------------------------------------------------81
5.4.3- Motor protector with contactor--------------------------------------------------------------------------82
Chapter 6- Relays----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
6.1- Relays-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
6.1.1- Functioning-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
6.1.2- 8-pin and 11-pin relay connection-----------------------------------------------------------------------85
6.2- Solid state relays------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------89
Chapter 7- Timers----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
7.1- Timer or timer---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
7.2- Timer to connect or work (ON-DELAY)--------------------------------------------------------------------94
7.3- Timer for disconnection or rest (OFF-DELAY)------------------------------------------------------------95
7.4- 8-pin timer connection-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------97
Multifunction timer--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
Pneumatic timers-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
Chapter 8- Automation circuits-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
basic------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
8.1- Types of circuits-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
8.2- Structure for installation of an electric motor--------------------------------------------------------------100
8.3- Force and command schemes--------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
8.4- Connection and protection of the control circuit----------------------------------------------------------103
8.5- Two-wire control----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
8.6- Three-wire control---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------105
8.6.1- The thermal relay in automation diagrams-----------------------------------------------------------108
8.6.2- Diagrams of electrical control circuits with emergency stop button------------------------------109
8.7- Start-stop from multiple stations----------------------------------------------------------------------------110
8.8- Jog control------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------112
8.8.1- Jog control using control relay-------------------------------------------------------------------------113
8.8.2- Jog with selector-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------113
8.9- March signaling------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------114
8.10- Stop signage-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------115
8.11- Test pilot light-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------115
8.11.1--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------115
Failure signaling----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------115
8.12- Control of three wires fed into the secondary of a-----------------------------------------------------117
control transformer.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------117
8.13- Intermediate control through control relay--------------------------------------------------------------118
8.14- Reversing the direction of rotation of three-phase motors--------------------------------------------119
8.14.1- Electrical interlock by auxiliary contact--------------------------------------------------------------120
8.14.2- Electrical interlock by push buttons-------------------------------------------------------------------123
8.14.3- Mechanical interlock for contactors-------------------------------------------------------------------125
8.15.3- Jogging in reversal circuit using control relay-------------------------------------------------------126
8.16- Sequence control of three-phase motors with manual start-------------------------------------------128
Chapter 9- Control Transformer----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134
9.1- control transformer--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
Chapter 10- Actuators----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------137
10.2- Soleonoid----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------138
10.3- Solenoid valve or solenoid valves------------------------------------------------------------------------139
Chapter 11- Starting electric motors-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------142
11.1- Direct start---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------142
1 boot = 5 to 8 l nominal.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------142
C start = 0.5 to 1.5 C nominal.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------142
11.2- Star-delta or star-delta starting----------------------------------------------------------------------------144
Id = 1.5 to 2.6 In----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------144
Cd = 0.2 to 0.5 Cn--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------144
11.3- Starting motors with split windings “part-winding”---------------------------------------------------149
11.5- Stator starting by resistors---------------------------------------------------------------------------------151
v, R= 0.055 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------151
in-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------151
11.6- Starting using rotor resistors------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
11.7- Autotransformer starting-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------157
11.8- Electronic start----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------160
11.9- Starting three-phase motors in single-phase networks-----------------------------------------------------164
(v) F--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------165
11.10- Starting single-phase motors with three-phase components---------------------------------------------166
Chapter 12- Electromechanical and electronic sensors--------------------------------------------------------------167
12.1- Pressure switch----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------167
12.1.1- Pressure sensors------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------169
12.2- Limit Switch, position switch or limit switch-----------------------------------------------------------170
Limit switches-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------170
12.2.1- Example of application of a direction of rotation inverter circuit---------------------------------174
12.3- Flow switch--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------174
12.3.1- Flow sensors----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------175
12.4- Temperature switch or thermostat------------------------------------------------------------------------176
12.4.1- Bimetal temperature switch----------------------------------------------------------------------------176
12.4.2- Gas or bulb type temperature switch------------------------------------------------------------------177
12.4.3- Manual or safety temperature switch-----------------------------------------------------------------177
12.4.4- Electronic or digital temperature switch--------------------------------------------------------------178
12.5- Electric float or level switch------------------------------------------------------------------------------178
12.6- Proximity or presence sensors----------------------------------------------------------------------------180
12.7- Connection of proximity sensors-------------------------------------------------------------------------188
12.7.1- Two-wire connection------------------------------------------------------------------------------------188
12.7.2- Three wire connection----------------------------------------------------------------------------------188
Chapter 13- Speed control-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------190
electric motors------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------190
13.1- Three-phase two-speed induction motor-----------------------------------------------------------------190
13.1.1- Dahlander type three-phase induction motor or consequential poles-----------------------------192
13.3- frequency converters---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------195
13.3.1- Operating principle--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------196
13.3.2- Programming of frequency converters----------------------------------------------------------------198
13.3.3- Connection of the speed variator----------------------------------------------------------------------201
Chapter 14- Braking of electric motors--------------------------------------------------------------------------------204
14.1- Counterflow braking---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------204
14.2- DC injection braking---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------205
14.3- Electromechanical braking--------------------------------------------------------------------------------207
Chapter 15- Electrical automation panels or cabinets---------------------------------------------------------------209
15.1- Types of electrical panels----------------------------------------------------------------------------------209
15.2- electrical control panel-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
15.3- Construction aspects----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------212
15.4- Wiring and connection elements--------------------------------------------------------------------------214
15.4.1- Terminal strip or terminal blocks----------------------------------------------------------------------214
15.4.2- Terminal marking----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------215
15.4.3- Cable marking--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------216
15.4.4- Cable termination----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------218
15.4.5- Tip terminal for electrical control cables-------------------------------------------------------------218
15.4.6- Quick connect systems----------------------------------------------------------------------------------219
15.4.7- Direct insertion distribution terminals----------------------------------------------------------------219
15.5- Wiring fixation----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------220
15.5.2- Cable gland or gland connector------------------------------------------------------------------------220
15.5.3- Flanges or tigh rack--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------221
15.6- Elements for air conditioning-----------------------------------------------------------------------------223
15.6.1- Natural air conditioning---------------------------------------------------------------------------------223
15.6.2- Forced air conditioning---------------------------------------------------------------------------------223
15.7- Steps for assembling the electrical cabinet--------------------------------------------------------------224
15.8- Terminal block and cable numbering--------------------------------------------------------------------229
Chapter 16- Automatic transfer systems------------------------------------------------------------------------------232
16.1- Manual transfer switches----------------------------------------------------------------------------------232
16.2- Automatic transfer systems--------------------------------------------------------------------------------233
16.2.1- Force devices---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------233
16.4- Detection and troubleshooting of automatic transfer switches---------------------------------------237
Chapter 17- Control with electronic devices--------------------------------------------------------------------------239
17.1- Diodes--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------239
17.2- Rectifiers-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240
17.3- Zener diode--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------248
17.4- Transistor----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------250
17.5- Field Effect Transistors------------------------------------------------------------------------------------252
17.5.2- IGBT Transistor------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------265
17.6- Thyristors--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------266
17.6.1- SCR--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------267
17.6.2- TRIAC----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------269
Chapter 18- Maintenance and repair of automated electrical installations---------------------------------------272
18.2- Maintenance of starters, contactors and magnetic relays----------------------------------------------276
18.2.1- Causes of breakdowns----------------------------------------------------------------------------------277
18.3- Maintenance of auxiliary devices of control circuits--------------------------------------------------277
18.4- Detection and location of faults in control circuits-----------------------------------------------------278
18.5- Contactor breakdowns-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------278
Contacts do not close when pressing the start button----------------------------------------------------------278
The contactor does not remain powered after releasing the start button-------------------------------------279
The contactor does not open when the stop button is pressed------------------------------------------------279
The engine does not start despite the starter coil being energized--------------------------------------------280
The contactor once closed produces a lot of noise-------------------------------------------------------------280
In contactors with permanent contact control, thermostat, float, etc., connect and disconnect at intervals
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------280
Main contacts get too hot------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------280
Premature contact wear--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------281
Contact welding-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------281
Excessive heating of the coil (more than 80º C over an ambient temperature of 35º C) It may be due to:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------281
Coil breakage due to mechanical causes-------------------------------------------------------------------------282
The magnetic circuit does not perform the attraction correctly-----------------------------------------------282
Deficiency in disconnection---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------282
18.6- Strategy for locating faults in control circuits--------------------------------------------------------------282
6.1.1- Failure analysis-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
18.9- Examples of fault diagnosis in automation circuits----------------------------------------------------285
Appendices-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------288
A- Electrical controls symbols (American ANSI and NEMA standards)--------------------------------------288
B- Electrical controls symbols (European IEC standard)--------------------------------------------------------290
18.9-
Automated electrical installations
1
Chapter 1- Introduction to automated

electrical installations
Automating means establishing a system capable of replacing man (totally or partially) in the performance of a
task that must be carried out reliably and satisfactorily. Facilities that are capable of carrying out this type of
automatic processes are called automated facilities.
Automated installations or systems have two fundamental areas or levels of application:
• Industrial automated installations.

• Automated installations in homes and buildings (home automation).
Industrial automated facilities are usually established to constitute systems that are capable of optimizing
processes, reducing costs and labor, accelerating production, etc. An example of an industrial automated
installation could be the management of the transfer of merchandise through a conveyor belt.
On the other hand, home automation systems are those installations applied to homes and buildings that have
the purpose of providing comfort, security and energy savings. An example of a very common home automation
installation is the control of awnings and blinds depending on the brightness or the absence/presence of
inclement weather.
1.1- Terms in automated installations

Before beginning to study the fundamentals related to automated installations, it is advisable to know certain
basic definitions. These are:
• Automatic: automatic can be defined as the study of procedures that are intended to replace the
human operator with an artificial system whose purpose is to carry out a task that will be previously
planned or programmed.
• Industrial automation: industrial automation is the application and study of automation to establish
systems that are capable of controlling processes in the industrial field.
• Automation: automation is a device that is capable of replacing manual actions to guarantee the proper
functioning of a machine or even an installation.
• PLC: the PLC or programmable PLC is a device capable of operating an automation. This is possible
thanks to a computer program implanted in the PLC that can be written and modified from an external
terminal.
• Home automation: home automation can be defined as “automation applied to the home”,
therefore it encompasses the technologies and mechanisms dedicated to controlling processes within
the home.
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1.2- Elements of an automated installation

The elements that constitute an automated installation can be classified into two fundamental blocks:
operational elements and command elements.
1.2.1- Operational elements

The operating elements are capable of acting directly on a machine or detecting variations in the environment
that will condition the operation of the installation. These elements can make a machine move or perform a
certain action. The operating elements are divided into two groups: the actuators or actuators (motors) and the
sensors or sensors (photodiodes, temperature sensors, etc.).
1.2.2- Actuators or actuators

An actuator is a device that, in response to the signal from a control element, acts on some output variable,
since it is capable of transforming the signal it receives (usually from an automation) into useful work. .
Actuators are usually governed by a control element and may require some pre-operation to amplify the signal
supplied to them. This pre-amplification consists of allowing or interrupting the supply of energy from the
source to the actuator.
Direct and alternating current motors are the most used actuators in the industrial field.
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Electric motor
1.2.3- Sensors or sensors

Sensors are devices capable of acquiring information from the environment. This information may be related to
the variation of specific physical quantities or to the state of certain components. The variation of the measured
magnitude is sent to the control element in the form of an electrical magnitude.
To convert the physical quantities captured into electrical quantities, so-called transducers are used. These are
classified according to the type of transmission signal:
• All-or-nothing transducers: All-or-nothing transducers can transmit a binary signal (0, 1). Limit switches
are an example of transducers of this type.
End of race
• Numerical transducers: transmit binary combinations. Encoders are transducers of this type.
• Analog transducers: supply an analog signal (5 V, 24 V, etc.).
1.2.4- Control element
The control element is usually a programmable controller, although other controller devices can also be used.
The control element constitutes the center of the automated process and must be capable of communicating
with each and every one of the devices that make up the automated installation.
1.3- Development of industrial automation

The evolution of industrial automation arises from the need to improve the old manual control systems and
techniques, which required an extremely qualified workforce and greatly slowed down the speed and
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competitiveness of the processes.

The first step in the improvement of these processes arises from the appearance of wired logic, where part of
the old manual techniques are replaced by electrical and electromechanical equipment such as contacts, relays
or timers.
However, at the end of the sixties, industrial processes were increasingly demanding, and automation systems
using wired logic began to pose problems such as the need to have highly qualified personnel to carry out
design, execution and maintenance tasks. of the facilities. In addition, repairs due to breakdowns to replace the
manual control Digital logic and

Hardwired logic
system programmable
technology
Fig 1. 1 - Evolution of industrial automation

components of the automation system involved a great cost, causing enormous economic losses due to the
stoppage of the industrial process.
The process of updating the facilities using relays was also very long and expensive, since electrical technicians
had to individually relocate and rewire each of the machines in the process.
Control panel using wiring logic based on relay control.

This was the problem General Motors faced in its automobile manufacturing industries, which used hundreds or
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thousands of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and closed-loop controllers. They thought about reducing
costs in hardwired installations due to the continuous production changes that were made in manufacturing,
and began looking for an economical, flexible and robust control system.
In 1968, the Bedford Associates company took over the automation of the General Motors industrial plant,
which led to the market launch of the first commercial PLC model: the MODICON 084, of which more than 1,000
units were sold. The great success of the product led to the MODICON 184 coming onto the market in 1973.
Currently, in automation processes, there are different typologies to carry out the desired tasks. In general, the
control systems used are:
• Wired logic: through contactors, relays, timers, counters and electrical and electromechanical devices
with similar characteristics.
• Programmable controllers and programmable relays: a programmable controller, or PLC, is an
electronic device programmed in a high-level language (close to the user) and therefore suitable for
human cognitive capacity, designed to carry out an automatic process in real time by performing
sequential tasks. or combinational, with timing, counting and arithmetic-logical functions through
analog or digital inputs and outputs in adverse working conditions. PLCs are basically used in the
industrial sector, given their enormous power, such as in production chains, robot control and the like.
The difference with programmable relays, also known as logic modules, is that these are used in
automation for the tertiary and residential sector (home automation, store lighting, control of energy
management automation in buildings and similar).
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Eaton Programmable Relay

Industrial PCs: An industrial PC is a computing platform for industrial applications. They are used in
process control and data acquisition given their great computing capacity, processing power and
memory. Because their architecture is standard to a PC, they are low cost but are also more reliable and
expandable than. home PCs.
Computer or industrial PC
1.4- Structure and components of automation installations
An automated system is made up of the elements and functional blocks shown in Figure 1.9:
1. Electrical network. Three-phase energy supply that can come from:

• A company transformation center, in very small industries.
• One or more own transformers (as occurs in most current industries).
2. Entry line to the electrical installation. If it comes from a company transformer it will be called an
individual derivation.
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3. General low voltage switchboard (CGBT) and secondary switchboards and cabinets. They contain the
protection, maneuvering and management devices of the automated system (electrical switchgear). In
some industrial electrical installations, all the devices are housed under the same envelope, but the
most common thing is to have independent cabinets or panels for the circuits that feed the receivers
and for the management and control circuits.
4. Command and control zone. This is where operators interact with the automated system, from
controls, desks or operating rooms. It is also possible to carry out process monitoring.
5. Sensors and detectors. They are the inputs of the automated system that are responsible for measuring
external variables and sending information captured in the form of electrical signals. There are
numerous types of sensors, depending on the type of variables they are capable of measuring. Some
examples of sensors and detectors are: capacitive, inductive, magnetic, temperature, pressure, speed,
level, position, etc.
6. Receivers and actuators. They are the outputs of the electrical system. The most common in industrial
automation installations are motors, resistors, capacitor banks, solenoid valves, signaling lamps, robotic
cells, etc.
7. Electric conductors. Responsible for transmitting electrical energy or information signals between the
various components of the automated system.
Structure of an automated installation

In industrial automation installations, electrical conductors and circuits can be divided into two groups:
• Force circuits: force or power circuits are responsible for supplying electrical energy to the receivers of
the automatic system (generally rotating electrical machines).
• Maneuver or control circuits: the maneuver circuits, or control circuits, are responsible for powering
the sensors, detectors, electromagnets, controls, pushbuttons, timers and other management and
supervision components of the installation. It is on the maneuver circuits where the operators interact
with the process.
The wiring of the power circuits is independent of the wiring of the maneuver circuits, and both circuits are
interrelated through electrical components common to both, such as contactors, thermal relays and similar, as
will be studied in later units of the book.
1
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1.7- Industrial automation

In the field of industrial production, process automation has gone from being an optional work tool to a
fundamental element if you want to compete in the globalized market. Every businessman must establish
automation systems to increase the reliability of their products, reduce production times, perform complex
tasks, reduce waste or defective parts and, especially, increase profitability.
Among the objectives that are intended to be achieved when automating an industrial process, the following
stand out:
• Reduce the necessary labor.

• Simplification of work.
• Increased efficiency.
• Reduce production errors.
• Increase in product quality.
• Productivity increase.
• Improve the competitiveness of the company.
Industrial automation systems enjoy greater demand every day given that the advancement of technology is
closely linked to the increase in competitiveness with other companies in terms of quality, reliability and
production volumes.
Regarding the areas where this discipline is developed, the following stand out:
• Mining.
• Medicine.
• Mechanics.
• Textile.
• Feeding.
In short, automated systems are implemented in any industry in which it is desired to improve, reduce and
accelerate production.
Chapter 2- Connection of electric

motors
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric
motors work through the interaction of the magnetic field generated in the internal coils of the motor, these
fields can generate force in the form of rotation of a shaft.
At an industrial and commercial level, electric motors play an essential role, since they are the driving elements
of machinery and equipment, such as pumping systems, compressors of air conditioning systems, conveyor
belts, fans and an infinite number of applications.
1
8
2.1.1- Classification of electric motors

The classification of motors comes fundamentally according to their power source. Therefore, these can be
classified into two large groups, direct current (DC or DC) electric motors and alternating current (AC) motors.
AC motors are the most used types. These can be classified in turn into single-phase motors and three-phase
motors.
2.1.2- How to connect a dual-voltage split-phase single-phase motor.
Some single-phase split-phase motors are manufactured with 2 working windings to connect to 2 commercial
voltages, 110 and 220 Volts alternating current.
Centrifugal switch
Single-phase split-phase motor with 2 running or working windings
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9
This type of motor maintains the same power (hp) regardless of the connection. If the 2 working windings are
connected in parallel the resistance is half that if they are connected in series. If we have it with 220 Volts, it will
consume only half the current.
"If we have 220 volts the work windings go in series, if we have 110 volts they go in parallel"
Low voltage connections
Low voltage connections for dual voltage split phase single phase motor
At 110 volts the running windings are connected in parallel.
High voltage connections for dual voltage split phase single phase motor
In 220 volts the running windings are connected in series and in the middle of these a terminal of the starting
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0
winding is connected so that only 110 volts reach the starting winding through this “voltage divider”.
It is important to remember that the low voltage starting winding is powered at full voltage 110 volts. At high
voltage we do not want 220 volts to reach it, so we limit the voltage through a series-parallel connection.
2.1.3- How to change the direction of rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor.

Single-phase split-phase motors can rotate because they are connected as two-phase motors at startup.
The change of rotation is obtained by modifying the sequence of the start winding with respect to the work
winding.
These wires are terminals T5 and T8 belonging to the starting winding.
Connections for changing the rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor
2.1.4- Color-coded NEMA terminal marking

To obtain a motor for two voltages, it has double running windings, these will be connected in parallel for low
voltage (110 volts) and in series for high voltage (220 volts).
The marking of the NEMA terminals has a color code that not all manufacturers follow, the terminals T1, T2, T3,
T4 correspond to 2 run windings, the start windings terminals are T5, T6, T7 and T8, given Since most single-
phase motors have a single starting winding, terminals T6 and T7 have not been assigned a color for thermal
protection P1 and P2.
2
1
SPLIT PHASE MOTOR TERMINAL COLOR
T1 = Blue T5 = Black P1 = Not assigned

T2 = White T6 = Gray P2 = Brown
T3 = Orange T7 = Pink
T4 = Yellow T8 = Network (red)
2.2- Three-phase 6-terminal electric motors

The 6-terminal motors are designed to work at 2 voltages, “Triangle” (Delta) connection for a low voltage and
“Y” (Star) connection for a high voltage. The ratio between voltages is 1.732 (square root of 3) to 1, example
220/380 volts. The highest voltage is always a star connection.
They are manufactured with standards of the International Electrical Commission "IEC Motors"
Three-phase motor connection with 6 delta terminals for the lowest service voltage 220V
2
2
Three-phase motor connection with 6 star terminals for the highest service voltage 380V
Internal winding configuration
They have a terminal board housed inside the connection box.
The terminal block has a standardized layout and identification of the terminals of the stator windings, as in the
diagram in the following figure.
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3
Three-phase motor Internal configuration of 6-terminal

terminal box three-phase motor
Sheets to make Jumper
6 terminal motor
The distance between the vertical and horizontal terminals is the same, and it normally has three copper plates,
with two holes separated by said distance, so that two terminals can be electrically joined together with them.
The windings can be connected in a star or in triangle.
Symmetrical terminal connection system

Let us remember that we are talking about motors with "IEC" standards, where the values of their design
parameters are different from those of the American continent, the nominal frequency used is 50 instead of 60
Hertz.
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4
If we connect a 220 volt three-phase and 50 Hz motor. In a 220 volt three-phase and 60 Hz system. The engine
speed will increase by 20%, in practice if these connections are carried out, the changes in the mechanical and
electrical parameters will be taken into account.
In the case of 6-terminal motors, instead of using the nomenclature of U, V and W, it uses the terminals T1, T2,
T3...T6, and can be connected for both a star and delta configuration.
NEMA standard 6-terminal three-phase motor connection
2.3- Three-phase 9-terminal electric motors

The most common three-phase asynchronous or induction electric motors, manufactured under the American
standards of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), have 9 terminals.
• They are designed for two voltages, with a ratio of 2 to 1. Example 230/ 460 volts.
• And two types of connections; “Delta Type Connections” or “STAR Type Connections”,
• Each type can be connected in low voltage (parallel) or in high voltage (series)
If we check continuity we identify the type of connection, in Delta we will have 3 groups of 3 terminals, in
Estrella we would have 1 group of 3 terminals and 3 groups of 2 terminals.
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5
Terminals of a 9-point three-phase motor

At low powers (up to 40 HP) the most used connections are Series Star for high voltage and Double Star (stars in
parallel) for low voltage.
Connection of three-phase motor with 9 terminals with internal star at the lowest service voltage 220V (double
star)
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6
Connection of 9-terminal three-phase motor with internal star to the highest service voltage 440 V (double
star)
At higher powers the connections used are Delta Series for high voltage and Double Delta (Deltas in parallel) at
low voltage.
Connection of 9-terminal three-phase motor with internal delta to the highest service voltage 440 V (serial
delta)
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7
Connection of 9-terminal three-phase motor with internal delta at the lowest service voltage 220 V (delta
double)
The connection diagram has that function, to guide us in connecting the motor, however, the interpretation
diagrams' function is to facilitate reading and understand the relationship between the elements in a circuit.
2.4- 12-terminal three-phase electric motors

Three-phase asynchronous electric motors, manufactured under the American standards of the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), may in some cases have 12 terminals.
12-terminal three-phase motor

In the US, they are designed for two voltages with a ratio of 2 to 1. Example 230/ 460 volts. And two types of
connections; “Delta Type Connections” or “STAR Type Connections”, each type can be connected in parallel (for
low voltage) and in series (for high voltage).
In low powers (up to 40 HP) the most used connections are Star, in higher powers the connections used are
Delta
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8
A terminal identification system can be used to make connection diagrams when we do not have the diagrams
at hand.
2.4.1- Terminal identification

The system used as a means to determine the sequence of the terminal numbers of a three-phase motor
consists of drawing an inverted “Y” connection with 12 terminals, then numbering said terminals starting on the
outside with terminal T1 at the top and continuing a spiral to the right, ending inside.
System to identify terminals in star connection

From here the drawing is complemented, for high voltage the series star connection is made and for low voltage
a double star connection.
This connection usually comes on the data plate or on the cover of the connection box.
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2.5- Induction motors with wound rotor

Their use is not as widespread as squirrel cage or short-circuit rotors, but they are used for very specific
applications that require high torque.
The terminal box has the six terminals common in three-phase motors, which allow the stator windings to be
connected in star and delta, in the same way as has been seen for squirrel cage rotor motors. But in addition, it
has three additional terminals for the external connection of the rotor winding, labeled K,L,M.
Terminal box of a wound rotor motor.

These motors are designed to work with the rotor in a short circuit, but if this connection is made at start-up,
the overcurrent would be of such magnitude that it would endanger the switchgear and the conductors that
feed it. Therefore, it is necessary to "short-circuit" the rotor at different times, eliminating several groups of
power resistances.
The technical complexity required by the maneuver to eliminate these resistances in steps discourages manual
starting, making it necessary to use an automation circuit. In future units you will have the opportunity to
practice this type of start.
Connection of adjustable resistance to wound rotor motor

2.6- DC motors
A direct current motor is a machine capable of transforming electrical energy, supplied in the form of direct
3
0
current, into mechanical energy.

DC motors are classified mainly taking into account the arrangement of the field (excitation) and armature
windings. They may be:
Independent excitation motor
• series motor
• Shunt motor, shunt or parallel motor
• Compound or compound engine
2.6.1- series motor
As mentioned before, in this type of motors the inductor and induced coils are connected in series.
Serial DC motor connection
The series engine is such that:

1. It can develop a high starting torque, that is, just when starting, the engine torque is high.
2. If the motor load decreases, the current absorbed decreases and the motor increases its speed. This can be
dangerous. At idle the engine is unstable, as the speed increases abruptly.
3. Its coils have few turns, but a large section.
2.6.2- Shunt or parallel bypass motor
The inductor coils are connected in parallel (shunt) with the induced coils.
The characteristics of this engine are:
1. At start-up, motor torque is less than in the series motor.
2. If the absorbed current decreases and the motor is idle. The nominal rotation speed hardly changes. It is
more stable than the series.
3. When the engine torque increases, the rotation speed hardly decreases.
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Parallel or shunt DC motor connection
2.6.3- Compound Engine

In this case, it can be said that the motor is a combination of the series motor and the shunt motor, since one of
the inductor coils is in series with the armature, while the other is in parallel with it.
Connection of compound or compound DC motor

It is characterized by having a high starting torque, but it is not in danger of being unstable when working at idle,
as is the case with the series engine, although it can reach a very high number of revolutions.
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2
Chapter 3- Command and

signaling elements
Contactors and relays are the quintessential elements of wired electrical automation, however, any system that
claims to be automatic must have sensors to capture the signals and receivers on which to act.
3.1- Electromechanical sensors

These sensors have an actuation element (button, handle, pedal, etc.) that opens and/or closes one (or more)
electromechanical contacts.
Types of electromechanical sensors

The graphic symbology used to represent this type of sensors in the diagrams is based on the contacts (open
and/or closed) and the drive system. Thus, in one part of the symbol the contact or contacts are represented,
and in another, linked by a dashed line, the drive.
Parts of a control device
Currently, most manufacturers use modular elements, which are easily assembled depending on the needs of
the circuit. In these systems the contacts are the same for any mechanism and what changes is the drive head.
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3
3.4- Pushbuttons
They are manually operated. They allow circuits to be opened and/or closed when pressure is exerted on it. Its
contacts return to the rest position, using a spring, when the action ceases.
loo ,
European/American European/American
Symbology NO Symbology
Pushbutton (Normally NC Pushbutton
Open) (Normally Closed)
In these the operator must be pressed and can have contacts with two possible states: normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC). To identify the function of each button, they can be of different colors, the most typical
are:
• Green , the start button. It will have an associated normally open contact (NO).
• Red , the stop button. It will have a normally closed (NC) contact associated with it.
Representation of buttons
The pushbutton buttons can be of different colors, but special attention must be paid to the green color used for
start-up and the red color used for stop.
Element Symbol Identifier

14/13
Push button with normally open contact (run

my
button) yes
1Tzi LU
Pushbutton with normally closed contact (stop

pushbutton) yes
-35
Or 1
Double chamber push button with open contact

contact and closed contact yes
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4
Name labels are installed around the push button on the control panel. This in order to identify its purpose. They
come in many sizes, colors and languages. Examples of label text are: START, STOP, FWD, REV, JOG, UP, DOWN, ON,
OFF, RESET and RUN.
Push button labels

In the push buttons the normally closed contact block (NC: Normaly Close) (used in stop buttons) has the mark
on terminals 1 and 2, in the normally open contacts (NO: Normaly Open) they are marked with the numbers 3
and 4.
Identification marks on push buttons

Double action push buttons are manufactured for this purpose, they are made by placing a double contact block
on a single push button, with one normally closed contact plus one normally open contact.
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5
A push button can have two contact blocks, one Normally Open (NO) and one
Normally Closed (NC)
Or individual contacts can be mounted, some brands accept up to 3 contact blocks per level with a maximum of
three levels (9 contacts)
Push button with contact blocks

In the following circuit in situation (A) The red pilot light is turned on through the normally closed button
contact; (B) The green pilot light comes on when the momentary contact button is pressed.
Combined NC and NO pushbutton
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6
3.2- Selector switches

They are manually operated and have two positions. The change from one to the other is carried out by acting
on the control element, which can be a lever, a rocker arm, a rotary handle, etc.
All switches have a mechanical interlock system, which allows them to be held in one position until the control
element is operated again.
These are some symbols to represent the different types of switches:
Rotary electric selector

They are manually operated and have two or more positions. They allow the signal to be redirected through
different circuit branches through a common terminal.
A rotary electric selector has the function of opening or closing contacts according to a manually selected
position.
Regarding the status of the contacts, it is necessary to count or create a table for each position since there can
be an infinite number of combinations. It is advisable to verify if the functions of the provided table are actually
fulfilled.
Electric selector
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7
In the two-position selector, when it is in position 1, output 1 is activated, when it is activated and changed to
position 2, contact A opens and contact B closes, therefore output 2 is activated. .
Two position selector
In the three-position selector when it is in position 1, output 1 is activated, when this is activated and changed
to position 2, contact A is opened and contact B is open, so in this position no output is activated. When it goes
to position 3, contact B closes, therefore output 2 is activated.
Two position selector
The types of selector operators are:
1. Handle with lever,

2. Symmetrical hand, and
3. Selector with key
Types of Electric Selector Operators
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8
The selector has three positions:
In the HAND position, the pump can be controlled from the manual switch.
In the OFF position, the system is completely turned off
In the Auto position, the pump will start as long as the level sensor has its contact closed. For example,
when the level drops, its contacts close and the pump turns on, when it reaches the established level, its
contacts open and the pump turns off.
NC CONTACTS IN NORMAL CONDITION
NC CONTACT
OPEN
NC CONTACT Three-position selector states

OPEN
NOT CLOSED
CONTACT
Manual and automatic control of a water pump
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9
industrial joystick
A joystick is an operator that selects different circuit conditions when the joystick moves from the center position to one
of the other positions, closing the contact of the position that is moved.
CONTACT
BLOCKS
Industrial Joystick
The most common joysticks can be moved from the center position to one of four different positions (up, down, left or
right). The advantage of a joystick is that a technician can control many operations without removing his hand from the
joystick and without taking his eyes off the operation performed by the circuit.
Joystick classification according to number of

positions
The most common circuit condition controlled by a joystick is to control a crane in the up, down, left, right, or OFF
position.
In the crane application, two reversing motors drive the hoist and pulleys. One forward and reverse starter motor controls
the crane drive motor, and another forward starter motor
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Forward and reverse controls the pulley motor. The joystick can only turn on one motor starter at a time.
Circuit for controlling the direction of a crane using a joystick
3.5- Emergency stop button
Emergency stop buttons are devices that users manipulate to initiate a complete shutdown of a machine, system or
process.
Physical appearance and symbology of the emergency stop button

An emergency stop button is a safety device from which the red mushroom-head-shaped operator protrudes, which must
be pressed manually only when dangerous situations arise in a machine. or automated system.
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1
Emergency stop button control panel mounting

Emergency stop buttons must be visible and easily accessible where they can be easily reached by the operator.
They should always be red, mushroom-headed with a yellow circle on the bottom surface.
The unlocking must be carried out once the contingency presented has been analyzed and supervised and if the damage
has been repaired.
“IN SOME CASES IT IS NECESSARY TO USE A KEY OR TURN THE BUTTON TO UNLOCK”
Interlocked button
The emergency stop buttons must only be operated in abnormal operating conditions, and their function is to effectively
stop the equipment that is in operation, and must not deactivate electromagnetic brakes or lighting equipment.
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2
Emergency stops should never be used as normal stops in automated and robotic equipment, since these have a series of
stop buttons that stop part of the processes and an emergency stop would stop abruptly, hitting the fine precision
mechanisms, losing the reliability of operation.
Non-latching NC NC contact with NC contact with

contact interlock interlock (remove
push button to unlocking with key)
unlock)
European emergency stop symbols

We must remember that a machine must be stopped once a job has finished or at the end of a maneuver by "pressing the
stop button" in normal stop conditions.
And that the emergency stop should only be pressed in abnormal conditions, that is, dangerous situations.
3.6- Signal lamps

Signal lamps and push buttons on the electrical control panel allow simple dialogue between operator and machine.
The signaling lamps and push buttons on control panels form the interface, “machine-man communication board”.
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3
Signal lamps and push buttons on electrical control panel
This dialogue is limited to “all or nothing” signals; turning lamps on or off by the machine, and action on push buttons by
the operator.
Thanks to a standardized and intuitive color code related to safety and traffic regulations.
In operation Fault or Ignition Auxiliary

OR running warning With voltage functions
Signal lamps for control panel
Color code . The DIN EN 60073 (VDE 0199): 01.94 standard, like IEC 73, clearly defines the meaning of certain colors. This
is intended to improve the safety of service personnel, as well as facilitate the management and maintenance of electrical
installations and equipment.
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4
COLOR MEANING CLARIFICATION APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Act in a dangerous state or in Emergency Disconnection (Stop). Initiate

RED Emergency
an emergency. emergency disconnection (Stop) functions,
conditionally for STOP/NO.
nvention to suppress an abnormal state.
Intervention to restart an automatic process
YELLOW Abnormal Act in an abnormal state. that was interrupted.
GREEN Sure Actuate in safe condition or START/YES, however WHITE is preferred.

prepare in normal state.
BLUE Mandatory Act in a state that requires Reset function.

mandatory operation.
START/YES (preferred)
WHITE They have no STOP/NO
special meaning For general initiation of
START/YES
assigned functions, except desco
GREY STOP/NO
emergency connection (see
also the following Note).
START/YES
BLACK STOP/NO (preferred)
Communication occurs in both senses, man-machine and man-machine.

It will be informed by means of an illuminated lamp when an operation is required, for example “open door”.
Pilot light symbols (IEC European Standard)
If this is done, a new lamp will inform that “door closed” has already been carried out, indicating that the process can
continue.
green pilot light

The electric motor running signal lamp indicates when an engine is working.
The green mica, illuminated by a small incandescent lamp or LED technology, informs the operator that the motor is
working.
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5
Therefore, its ideal location is usually above the control buttons, or inside them.
The lamps are 2-terminal devices with manufacturer markings “X1” and “X2”, which are powered with control voltages.
They are control signal outputs and in our case they represent the motor in operation.
Red or yellow pilot light
The fault or abnormal conditions signaling lamp informs us when there are dangerous conditions that may harm people,
equipment or materials.
The regulations establish that red pilot lamps be used to indicate dangerous conditions.
The failure indication must be accompanied by a machine stop order.
white pilot light
The electrical voltage presence signaling lamp informs us when there is electrical energy in the controls of a machine or
automated system.
The standards establish that white (neutral) pilot lamps be used to indicate that there is voltage.
This indicator lamp is part of the control station (operator panel), initiating the man-machine dialogue.
Voltage signaling lamp
When the main disconnector is closed, it usually turns on, since the lamp is controlled by auxiliary contacts.
Its function is for the operator to be notified that “there is voltage”, to take the necessary precautions (start-up
conditions).
The use of LED technology pilot lamps is recommended, due to their low energy consumption, durability, and resistance
to surges and vibrations.
Relevant information about “there is tension” generates a climate of safety and attention, important for decision making,
effectiveness and productivity.
3.6.4- Push button with pilot light

Pilot lights provide a visual indication of the status of many motor-controlled processes allowing personnel in remote
locations to observe the current status of the operation. They are commonly used to indicate whether an engine is
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6
running or not. Figure 4-15 shows the circuit for a push-button start/stop station with a pilot light connected to indicate
when the starter is activated. For this application, the red pilot light illuminates to show when the motor is running, since
the motor and drive are located in a remote location that is not in view of the button station.
Elevator button
The push button with pilot light allows you to see if the button was activated by ordering an operation.
In industrial equipment, orders can be sent through control tables or button stations where the operator does not see the
equipment in operation.
Push buttons can have pilot lights for monitoring your commands.
Push button start with pilot light
Next to the contact block, the lamp block is assembled, a lamp is mounted on it, it can be incandescent or light-emitting
diode (LED).
The lamp illuminates the translucent mica that forms the operating part of the push button.
Under the push button operator in addition to the contact block there is a lighting block.
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7
PILOT
Start and stop control with start button with pilot light
The diagram shows how the lamp is connected to the start button, in a start and stop control circuit.
When we press the start button at the same time that the “Contactor M” coil that powers the motor is energized, the
lamp lights up.
The lamp is connected in parallel with the contactor coil, so he or the operators will know by seeing the illuminated
button that.
1. The commanding team is in operation,

2. and that the button has already been activated.
In industrial equipment there are times when it is necessary to comply with a sequence (activate permissions) so that the
equipment can operate. The light signaling indicates the orders placed.
Some lamp blocks have a transformer to reduce the voltage that powers the lamp according to safety standards.
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8
Test pilot lights
The "test" pilot lights are designed to reduce the time required to solve a suspected defective lamp, lack of voltage in the
network or a failure in a part of the circuit to be tested.
Pilot light for test or circuit test
The test pilot lights can be powered from two separate input signals of the same voltage. This is done by connecting the
"test" terminal to the second input signal as illustrated in the test test circuits in Figure 4-17. Pressing the test pilot light
opens the normal signal input to the light and at the same time completes a path directly to L1 and illuminates the lamp if
the unit is not faulty.
Test lamp connection in a start-stop
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3.6.5- Beacons and signaling columns

The beacon has a signaling unit, the towers can have up to 5 units.
Signal column
They are used in automated systems to indicate the status of machines, through acoustic and visual signals.
The information can be used by operators, maintenance personnel, or supervisors, as they indicate operation, failures or
even lack of raw materials.
These can have continuous light, high power light, intermittent light or flash.
The module color can be red, green, transparent, blue, yellow and orange.
The towers are made up of a top, a base and a maximum of 5 modules and can be organized in any order.
The assembly is usually quick and without tools it is inserted and rotated, achieving an electrical and mechanical
connection at the same time
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0
Connection of the modules in the signaling tower
If the signaling column uses an acoustic module, it is mounted on the top of the tower.
3.7- radio modules

The WIN (Wireless Information Network) signal tower radio system
It allows the control of up to 50 machines at the same time and centrally on one or more PCs without connection to
machines.
3.7.4- Acoustic signaling

Acoustic signaling devices are based on buzzers, bells, sirens, horns and whistles.
They are installed to signal automation situations that require the operator's immediate attention, such as: alarms, faults
or protection tripping.
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Types of acoustic signals
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Chapter 4- Contactors, manual and

magnetic starters
4.1- contactor
The contact is a device for connecting and disconnecting power circuits, used in practically all industrial
automation installations to control the opening or closing of the electrical supply to the terminal receivers of
the circuits.
electromagnetic contactor
It is an automatic control component, since no facility operator interacts or operates directly on this device.
The opening and closing offered by the contact is carried out through a coil (electromagnet), located in the
maneuvering circuit associated with the automation that is to be controlled. When the electromagnet receives
electrical power, the contacts of the contactor that remained open in the rest state (those of the power circuit
and the corresponding auxiliaries) close, allowing the passage of current. On the other hand, the contactor
contacts that remained closed (mainly auxiliary type) will open. This situation will remain this way as long as
the contactor coil remains connected.
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3
4.1.1- Contactor Parts

The contactor has the following parts: coil, magnetic circuit and electrical contacts.
Feeding
Contactor Parts
1. Coil: Coils are manufactured for different working voltages (12V, 24V, 48V, 115V, 230V, etc.), both for
alternating current and direct current.
Contactor coil symbology
2. Contacts: From the outside of the contactor, some contacts are identified from others, since the power
terminals are labeled with single-digit numbers (1 – 2, 3 – 4, 5 – 6) and are normally open. The control
ones have two-digit numbers (13 - 14, 21 - 22) and can be open or closed.
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4
Symbology of the contactor power contacts
NEMA SYMBOL
Normally open
(NO) contact for
control
Contact
usually
closed (NC) for
control
Types of contacts in the

contactor
Of the auxiliary ones, those
that end in 3 – 4 are open at
rest and those that end in 1 – 2
Normally open are closed. The number in front
(NO) force of them is the order number
contacts (first, second, third, etc.) that
the auxiliary contact makes on
the contactor.
4.1.2- Contactor operation

If you connect a coil to the mains through a switch, as shown in the figure, you will observe that when the
switch is open, the magnetic circuit is inactive and the hammer is kept separated from the stock by the spring.
In this situation, the electrical contacts, both power and auxiliary, are in their rest position. That is, open are
open and closed are closed.
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5
If the switch connected to terminal A1 of the coil is closed, the coil is energized and the magnetic circuit closes,
moving all the contacts of the contactor with it. In this situation the open contacts close and the closed
contacts open.
If the switch returns to the open position, the coil will no longer be energized, opening the magnetic circuit
through the spring and therefore bringing the contacts of the contactor to the rest position.
The coil is
ergizes and
Feeding creates a
240VAC Activate the magnetic
switches field
Mechanical Open contacts

element attracts are closed and
contacts
open open
The hammer is attracted by cylinder head
State of the parts of a contactor with the coil energized.
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6
In this way, if a three-phase motor is powered through the power contacts of a contactor, it can be stopped
and started with a simple switch with low breaking power.
The single-pole switch located on the fourth floor is connected in series with the contactor coil, thus feeding it
from the electrical network.
The contactor allows the motor to be connected or disconnected from the power supply; the main “pole”
contacts are responsible for closing or opening the power circuit.
4.1.3- Auxiliary contact block

A block of auxiliary contacts can be added to most modern contactors using attachable chambers. These are
fixed by a quick connection system to the main body.
Auxiliary contact blocks can have different types of contacts, but the most common are open, closed and timed
contacts.
Different types of auxiliary contacts
Starting a three-phase motor using a contactor controlled by a switch.
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7
To assemble the auxiliary contact block, it is attached to the front part of the contactor, leaving these
mechanically linked to the main contactor.
Auxiliary contact Assembly of

block auxiliary block
on contactor
Auxiliary contact block coupling
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8
The auxiliary contact block is mechanically linked to the contactor

Countless controls are carried out with contactors, to establish operating, safety and signaling conditions.
Contact blocks are added.
These additional contacts can be mounted on some contactors, these blocks can be normal contacts or timed
contacts, the latter in three ranges from 0.1 to 3 seconds, from 0.1 to 30 seconds, and 10 to 180 seconds.
Timed Contact Blocks

This contact block begins its count when the contactor is activated, changing its contact state when the count
ends.
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4.2- Manual starters

Manual motor starters consist of an ON/OFF switch with a set of contacts for each phase and motor
overload protection. Since an electrical closing coil is not used, the starter contacts remain closed during a
power interruption. When power is restored, the engine restarts immediately. Manual motor starters are
available in single-pole, two-pole and three-pole designs:
4.2.1- Single or monopolar manual starter

Manual starters for fractional horsepower single-phase motors are found in a variety of residential,
commercial and industrial applications. Figure 8-9 shows a single-phase fractional horsepower manual
motor starter consisting of a manually operated ON/OFF switch with overload protection. When the switch
is moved to the on position, the motor is connected directly through the line in series with the start
contact and the thermal overload (OL) protection device. As more current flows through the circuit, the
overload temperature increases, at a predetermined temperature level the device acts to open the
contact. When an overload is detected, the starter lever automatically moves to the center position to
indicate that the contacts have opened due to an overload and the motor is no longer running. The initial
contacts cannot be closed again until the overload relay is manually reset. The starter is reset by moving
the handle to the full off position after waiting about two minutes for the heater to cool.
Figure 8-9 – Simple manual starter for 120V single-phase motor
4.2.2- Double or bipolar manual starter

Figure 8-10 shows a bipolar manual motor starter, overload protection is being sensed on one of the lines,
opening the circuit upon a fault to protect the motor windings. Control devices to control a line, such as
thermostats, float switches, and relays, are used to turn the motor on and off when automatic operation is
desired.
6
Figure 8-10 - Double or bipolar manual starter
4.2.3- Triple, three-pole or three-phase manual starter

The three-pole manual starter shown in Figure 8-11 provides three bimetallic blades for all three phases for
overload protection. This starter is operated by pressing a button on the starter housing cover which
mechanically operates the starter. When an overload relay trips, the starting mechanism unlocks, opening the
contacts to stop the motor. The contacts cannot be closed again until the starting mechanism has been reset
by pressing the stop button; First, however, the thermal unit needs time to cool down. These starters are
designed for starting small AC motors (10 hp or less) at voltages ranging from 120 to 600 V.
Three-phase manual starter

4.2.4- Disadvantages of manual starters
The power circuit contacts of manual motor starters are not affected by power failure, therefore they will
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1
remain in the closed position when the supply voltage fails. When the motor is running and the supply
voltage fails, the motor will automatically stop and restart when the supply voltage is restored, which may be
dangerous to the equipment operator. Additionally, manual starters must be mounted close to the motor
being controlled. Remote control operation is not possible as it would be with a magnetic starter or with the
use of contactors.
4.3- Magnetic starter

Magnetic motor starters allow you to control a motor from anywhere.
Main power
L1 L2 L3
Contact
„ Auxiliary NO
Coil
Overload NC
Contact heaters
reset T1 T2 T3 Load or
button consumption
Magnetic starter
The Figure below shows a typical three-phase magnetic starter. This shows the line terminals, load terminals,
motor starting coil, overload relays and auxiliary contact.
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2
Typical three-phase magnetic starter

When the starting coil is activated, the three main contacts and the holding contact close. If an overload
condition occurred, the normally closed OL relay contact would open. In addition to the power circuit, the
manufacturer provides some control circuit cables. In this case, the prewired control circuit wiring consists of
two connections to the starting coil. One side of the starting coil is connected at the factory to the overload
relay contact and the other side to the holding contact.
Magnetic motor control circuits are divided into two basic types: two-wire control circuit and three-wire
control circuit.
4.3.1- Two-wire control circuit

Two-wire control circuits are designed to start or stop a motor when a remote control device, such as a
thermostat or pressure switch, is activated or deactivated. The following Figure shows a typical two-wire
control circuit. Note that the circuit has only two wires leading from the control device to the magnetic
starter. The starter operates automatically in response to the status of the control device without the
assistance of an operator. When the contacts of the control device close, power is supplied to the starting
coil, causing it to become energized. As a result, the motor is connected to the line through
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of the power contacts. The starter coil is de-energized when the control device contacts are opened, shutting
down the engine.
Two-wire control circuit
4.3.2- Three-wire control circuit

The starter will disconnect when there is a voltage failure, but will not automatically recover when the
voltage returns. The three-wire control uses a momentary contact control device and latch circuit to provide
power failure protection. The following figure shows a typical three-wire control circuit. The operation of the
circuit can be summarized as follows:
Three-wire start-stop control circuit
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4
Three-wire control circuit

Explanation of a three-wire circuit for the start-stop of a three-phase motor using a magnetic starter:
• Three wires run from the START/STOP push button station to the starter.
• The circuit uses a normally closed stop button STOP (NC) connected in series with the parallel
combination consisting of a normally open start button START (NO) and a normally open holding
contact (M).
• When the momentary contact START button is closed, line voltage is applied to the starter coil M to
energize it.
• The three main M contacts close to apply voltage to the motor.
• Auxiliary contact M closes to establish a parallel circuit of the START button.
• When the start button is released, the starter coil remains activated by the contact
auxiliary M closed (also known as holding, feedback or memory contact) and the motor will continue
to run.
• When the momentary contact STOP button is opened, all voltage to the starting coil is lost. The main
contacts open together with the holding contact and the motor stops.
• If there is a loss of power, the starter cannot be re-energized unless line voltage returns and the
START button is pressed again.
Chapter 5- Protection devices

The protection of power and control circuits is based on two fundamental faults:
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5
Protection of the motor against short circuits. Bypass and power fuses and circuit breakers protect the
motor circuits against the very high current of a short circuit. Fuses and circuit breakers connected to the
motor circuits must be able to ignore the high initial starting current and allow the motor to develop its
torque during starting.
Overload protection. Overload devices are intended to protect motors, motor control apparatus, and motor
branch circuit conductors from excessive heating due to motor overloads and starting failures. Motor
overload can include conditions such as a motor operating at excessive load or a motor operating at low line
voltages or, in a three-phase motor, a phase loss. Motor overload devices are most often integrated into the
motor starter.
Types of protection elements
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5.1- Circuit breaker, breaker or automatic switch

The circuit breaker is a protection device that is based on the same operating principle as the fuse, but
with the advantage that it does not have to be replaced every time an overcurrent occurs.
Circuit breakers are classified into two groups depending on the type of protection they offer:
• Magnetic automatic switch: protects only against magnetic overcurrents (short circuits). Its use
is not very frequent in conventional electrical installations, although in industrial circuits that
supply electric motors it is usually used in combination with thermal relays.
• Magneto-thermal automatic switch: protects against thermal and magnetic overcurrents
(overloads and short circuits). This is the most used protection device in electrical installations.
In fact, in practice, when referring to an automatic switch, reference is made by default to the
magneto-thermal type. It is also possible to refer to this device as a circuit breaker.
This component consists of an internal spring that acts and disconnects a circuit when the intensity for
which it has been designed is exceeded.
The magnetic trip zone is based on an arc extinction chamber and an electromagnet that activates the
spring that controls the switch handle. The thermal trip zone is based on bimetallic sheets with the same
operating principle as thermal relays.
Breaker or Thermomagnetic Circuit Breaker (IEC Symbols)
Breaker or Thermomagnetic Circuit Breaker (NEMA Symbols)

When the device acts and disconnects the circuit, the breaker is said to have tripped. To reconnect the
circuit once the defect that caused the overcurrent has been corrected, simply operate the switch handle
again, an action known as reset.
Automatic switches must always have simultaneous omnipolar cutting, that is, they must be able to
disconnect all active conductors of the circuit they protect, phases and neutral, in the event of a defect.
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(This is not applicable in the case of power control switches, since their function is not protection, but
control.)
The intensity measurement, however, the device can be carried out on the phases and the neutral or only
on the phases. In the latter case, it is essential to respect the neutral conductor terminal when connecting
the wiring.
• .1.1- Types of magneto-thermal circuit breakers

Small automatic switches: they are used to protect small or medium power circuits, being the most
common within conventional electrical installations. In industrial installations they are also widely used for
the protection of switching, lighting and power circuits, as long as the power of the receivers does not
exceed 86.6 kW.
Small circuit breakers currently on the market can have the following nominal current values:
Small circuit breaker capacity

1A 2A 6A 10A 16A 20 A 25A
32A 40A 50A 63A 80A 100A 125A
The practical name of domestic circuit breakers is based on their nominal intensity and number of poles. For
example, a 16 A two-pole switch is called "2x 16A", a 40 A three-pole switch is called "3x40A", etc.
Single and double circuit breakers

Industrial circuit breakers: they are designed for high-power electrical circuits, where they can only be
manipulated by authorized personnel with appropriate technical knowledge. They are usually located in the
general areas of large facilities such as industrial warehouses, hospitals, workshops, sports stadiums, large
buildings, etc. It is also frequently used to power industrial machinery whose nominal intensity exceeds 125
A.
Industrial circuit breakers can be classified into two subgroups:
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8
Industrial molded case circuit breakers: designed for medium power circuits. Currently, molded
case switches are manufactured with intensities ranging between 25 and 3,200 A.
Molded Case Circuit Breakers

Open frame industrial automatic switches: designed for high-power machines or for the head of
general panels in large facilities. They are manufactured with nominal intensities that can reach
6,000 A.
Automatic low voltage power switch
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9
5.2- Overload or thermal relay

The thermal relay is a protection device for electrical installations designed to act against overload type
overcurrents. Its use is closely linked to the protection of circuits that supply motors and are adjusted so
that they do not trip during a motor start.
Thermal relay and

symbols
It should be noted that the thermal relays currently marketed, in addition to offering protection against
overloads, are capable of performing other functions such as:
Phase failure detection.

Protection against phase imbalance.
Automatic compensation at room temperature.
Element Symbol Identifier

Thermal relay for power circuit
NC thermal relay auxiliary contact
NO and NC auxiliary contacts of thermal relay
Thermal relay switched auxiliary contact
Thermal relay symbols (IEC)

In thermal relays, since they have a setting selector wheel, it is possible to select the intensity at which the
device will act within some ranges predefined by the manufacturer. To establish an adequate regulation
current, the motor power, its power factor and the overload level at which it can work must be taken into
account.
Overload relays have a trip indicator built into the unit to indicate to the operator that an overload has
occurred. Overload relays can have a manual or automatic RESET.
• A manual RESET requires operator intervention, such as pressing a button, to restart the engine.
• An auto RESET allows the engine to automatically restart, usually after a cool-down period, to wait
for the engine to cool.
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0
Power part (Input)
Thermal relay parts

After an overload relay has tripped, the cause of the overload must be investigated. Motor damage may
occur if repeated restarts are attempted without correcting the cause of the overload relay trip. The rated
current setting allows the relay to be set to the full load current shown on the motor nameplate and can be
set to the desired trip point.
Technicians must determine the origin of the overload and correct the fault that caused the relay to trip,
preventing an unfortunate disaster.
5.2.1- Operating principle

The fundamental element of a thermal overload relay is a bimetallic sheet, made up of the union of two
metals with different expansion coefficients (different thermal conductivity), with the upper part generally
being more sensitive to temperature changes.
When the current passing through the circuit is less than or equal to the nominal, the heat produced will be
dissipated without difficulty by both metals. However, at the moment in which a current slightly higher than
the nominal one begins to circulate (circuit overload), the bimetallic sheet will not be able to dissipate all the
heat and each of the metals will begin to expand unevenly, thus the sheet will begin to curve. When this
curvature reaches a certain point it will come into contact with
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1
a metallic element corresponding to the relay's operating circuit, opening or closing the auxiliary contacts.
States of the bimetallic sheet

Disconnection due to overload of a thermal relay always occurs in the switching circuit, through the use of a
normally closed (NC) auxiliary contact in series with the circuit. It is also common to use the normally open
(NO) contact of the thermal relay to visually indicate that the device has tripped.
Thermal relay working principle
The terminals of the auxiliary contacts of the motor overload protection relays are identified with numbers
95 and 96 for the normally closed contact and 97 and 98 for the normally open contact.
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2
Auxiliary contacts of the thermal relay

These devices, however, must always be accompanied in the electrical circuits by protection devices against
short-circuit type overcurrents, since in these cases, given that the defect intensity is very high but lasts a
short time, the bimetal of the thermal relay It does not have time to heat up and the thermal protection is
not sufficient to guarantee safety.
The overload relay is located between the motor and the contactor.
Contactor
(Switching element)
Thermal relay
(Protection
element) Engin
e
Power circuit Power circuit

(IEC) (NEMA)
The thermal relay is installed below the contactor
5.2.2- Classification
The bimetal heating process can be of two types:
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3
Direct: if the current passes entirely through the sheet. It is used in small power installations
(reduced nominal intensity).
Indirect: if the current circulates through a heating coil that surrounds the sheet or the reading is
done through intensity transformers. It is used in high-power installations, with very high intensities.
Another classification of thermal relays can be made based on the construction form and the type of
connection to the power circuit. Normally these protection devices have several metal bars at the top to be
attached directly upon contact. Other models are characterized by being independent, having connection
terminals to the power circuit both at the bottom and at the top.
Thermal relay with Thermal relay with

direct connection to indirect connection to
contactor contactor
Types of thermal relays
The circuit in the control must have a normally closed overload relay contact, connected in series with the
contactor coil. With a thermal overload relay, the same current that goes to the motor coils (causing the
motor to heat up) also passes through the thermal elements of the overload relays. The thermal element is
mechanically connected to an NC (OL) overload contact (See figure below). When excessive current flows
through the thermal element for a long enough period of time, the contact opens. This contact is connected
in series with the starter control coil. When the contact opens, the starting coil is de-energized. In turn, the
starter's main power contacts open to disconnect the motor from the line.
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4
Power and control circuit of a three-phase motor

To represent a force diagram for the direct starting of a three-phase motor (manufactured according to the
standards of the International Electrotechnical Commission) according to European standards, the following
diagram is used:
Force or power diagram for direct starting of a three-phase motor (IEC Standard)
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5
The thermal relay according to European IEC standards, has a normally closed contact with terminal marks
95 and 96, it also has a normally open contact 97 and 98 that in case of trip will close and can be used for a
pilot light or a alarm that indicates that the motor was tripped due to some overload.
Button on thermal relay,

to reset fault
Stop
Button
contactor auxiliary Run

contact button
Control diagram with

overload relay for IEC motor applications
Electronic overload relay
Unlike thermal overload relays that pass motor current through heating elements to provide an indirect
simulation of motor heating, an electronic overload relay measures motor current directly through a current
transformer.
It uses a current transformer signal, as illustrated in the Figure below, along with precision measurement
electronics to provide a more accurate indication of the thermal condition of the motor. Electronic circuits
calculate the average temperature inside the motor by monitoring its starting and running currents. When a
motor overload occurs, the control circuit operates to open the contacts of the NC overload relay.
Operating diagram of an electronic overload relay
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6
The following figure shows an electronic overload relay designed to be mounted in a two-component
starting assembly (contactor and overload relay).

A separate phase loss detection circuit built into the overload relay allows it to respond quickly to phase loss
conditions. The self-enclosed latching trip relay contains a set of isolated NC and NO contacts that provide
trip and reset functions for control circuits. Whenever a motor overload condition is detected, these
contacts change state and activate a control circuit that interrupts current flow to the motor.

The low power consumption of the electronic design minimizes temperature rise problems within control
cabinets.
5.4- Engine guard

The motor protector is a locally activated thermomagnetic switch that allows controlling and protecting
electric motors. The following functions are covered with a single device:
• Protection against short circuits.

• Protection against overloads.
• Protection against lack of phase.
• Start and stop.
• Signaling.
The main characteristics of motor protectors, like other magneto-thermal automatic switches, are the
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7
breaking capacity, the nominal current or gauge and the trip curve. Provides protection against motor
overloads and short circuits, as well as, in some cases, phase failure.
This can be installed to protect both three-phase and single-phase electric motors.
The motor protector has a switch (on-off), an overload relay and a magnetic trip perfectly combined with
each other. It should be mounted together with a contactor only when remote operation is required.
overload
Motor protector: parts and symbols (IEC)

A very important feature that differentiates it from the thermal magneto is the possibility of regulating the
nominal trip intensity due to overconsumption, thermal protection, in a similar way to a thermal relay. This
allows the trip current to be adjusted to the nominal current of the motor.
The motor protector meets the 4 requirements necessary for direct starting of a motor: such as sectioning,
short circuit protection, switching and overload protection.
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8
Control and protection elements of a motor required

As for the switch function, it can be operated by push buttons, or by rotary selector.
A motor switch can be controlled by buttons or rotary lever

The motor protector with built-in magneto-thermal protection has:
• The magnetic elements , which protect against short circuits, trip approximately 13 times the
current set on the motor protector. Internal coils create a magnetic field as the current passes, if the
current increases the field increases and the trip mechanism will operate.
• The thermal elements protect against overloads and are compensated for variations in ambient
temperature.
A motor protector simplifies and eliminates coordination problems, reducing equipment and wiring
dimensions. Additionally, they can be sensitive to phase failure (they trip if a line is missing).
By adding a minimum voltage release, the motor protector can be tripped in the event of a lack of voltage.
The user is thus protected against an untimely start of the machine when the power comes back on.
Normally it is possible to attach a block of auxiliary contacts to the motor protectors to protect the
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9
maneuver.
The NO contact normally open when arming the motor protection switch will close and the normally closed
NC contact will open. The NO contact is used to place it in series at the head of the control circuit, so that if
any motor breaker is tripped it will not be possible to start the machine, and the NC serves to power a
signaling LED that, if the motor breaker opens, tells us indicates that the motor and motor protector have
failed.
These auxiliary contact blocks can be used to add status signaling lamps or coordinate controls.
Auxiliary contact blocks for motor protectors
5.4.1- The magneto-thermal motor protector in direct start

The magneto-thermal motor protector in direct start is the only control and protection device between the
power source and the three-phase motor.
Although the motor protector can be used for direct starting, it is advisable to use it coordinated with other
components, contactors, position switches, push buttons, protecting and allowing the automatic circuits to
work.
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0
Direct start with magneto-thermal motor protector

In an installation with a magneto-thermal motor protector, it must be located next to the power source.
5.4.2- How to connect a motor protector

The motor breaker comes for a three-phase design, however it can be connected for a single-phase motor
as shown in the following diagram. Note that all the contacts of the motor breaker are used, this to extend
the useful life of the motor breaker each time it closes and opens. Since in this way the wear of the contacts
will be the same in all three.
Electrical diagram of motor protection connection for a three-phase motor and a single-phase motor
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1
5.4.3- Motor protector with contactor

A motor protector and a contactor can be coupled, and thus have remote control by start-stop buttons, since
auxiliary contacts can be added to the motor protector, we will use 4 blocks in our control, two in the power
supply, one block is used bipolar thermomagnetic protection (one protected pole and one cut pole), and two
normally open auxiliary contact blocks.
Force or power
circuit ______
____L1
Motor protector
1
(Short circuit 4— H
and overload
protection)
Contactor (Switching
element)
Three-phase
motor
Electrical diagram of motor protector control and a contactor
8
Chapter 6- Relays
6.1- Relays
The relay is an electromagnetic device. It works like a switch controlled by an electrical circuit in which, by
means of a coil and an electromagnet, a set of one or more contacts are activated that allow other
independent electrical circuits to be opened or closed.
The great advantage of electromagnetic relays is the complete electrical separation between the drive current,
which circulates through the coil of the electromagnet, and the circuits controlled by the contacts, which
means that high voltages or high powers can be handled with small voltages. of control. They also offer the
possibility of controlling a device remotely through the use of small control signals. In the case presented we
can see a group of relays in interface bases that are controlled by programmable digital modules that allow the
creation of timing and counter functions as if it were a mini PLC (Programmable Logic Device).
6.1.1- Functioning
The electromagnet rotates the armature vertically when powered, closing the contacts depending on whether
it is NO or NC (normally open or normally closed). If a voltage is applied to the coil, a magnetic field is
generated, which causes the contacts to make a connection. These contacts can be considered as the switch,
which allows current to flow between the two points that closed the circuit.
Operation of a relay
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3
A relay can be used to control a high voltage load circuit with a low voltage control circuit as illustrated in the
following circuit. This is possible because the coil and relay contacts are electrically isolated from each other.
The relay coil is energized by the low voltage source (12 V), while the contact interrupts the high voltage circuit
(480 V). Closing and opening the switch activates and deactivates the coil. This, in turn, closes and opens the
contacts to turn charging on and off.
Control of a 480V load with a 12V source
Control relays can be obtained in a variety of styles and types. Most have multiple sets of contacts, they are
constructed in such a way with contacts that can be normally open or closed.
Different models of relays
A DIN rail is a metal rail often used to mount electrical devices, such as relays, inside control panels. The main
advantage of a DIN rail mounting system is that it offers quick replacement and panel space saving solutions for
common relay control applications. That is why the relays are designed with bases to be mounted on a DIN rail:
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DIN Rail Mounted Relay
6.1.2- 8-pin and 11-pin relay connection

Relays designed to mount on eight- or eleven-pin bases are popular for many applications. These relays are
relatively inexpensive and replacement is quick and simple in the event of a failure. Since the relays are
mounted to a base, the wiring is connected to the base, not the relay. Replacement is a matter of removing the
faulty relay and plugging in a new one.
Commonly replaceable relays can be used. These have an 8-pin base, each pin indicating the following:
Relay connection or 8-pin relay

Note that the relay is powered from pins 7 and 2, the dependent relay coil can be built by the manufacturer for
a wide variety of voltages (12V, 24V, 120V, 240V).
• Normally closed contacts: these are separately on pins 1 and 4, for the second contact it would be 8
and 5.
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5
• Normally open contacts: these are separately on pins 1 and 3, for the second contact it would be 8
and 6.
Note that pins 1 and 8 are common for the NC and NO contacts of the timer, so this must be considered when
wiring.
Contacts of an 8-pin relay
In this example, in its rest state the contact CR1-2 is closed so the pilot light G will turn on. When you close
switch S, the coil of relay CR1 is energized, so contact CR1-1 closes, turning on pilot light R, while contact CR1-2
opens, turning off pilot light G.
Switch S closed - coil CR1 energized
Operation of relay contacts
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6
The following figure shows a diagram of an eleven-pin relay. The eleven pin relay contains three separate
common single point contacts and double contacts. Pins 1 and 4, 6 and 5, and 11 and 8 are normally closed
contacts. Pins 1 and 3, 6 and 7, and 11 and 9 are normally open contacts. The coil is connected to pins 2 and
10.
11 pin relay
Some relays may have a manual button, mechanically connected to the contact assembly, to move the
contacts to their activated position for testing purposes. Care must be taken when exercising this function, as
the circuit controlling the coil can be bypassed and loads can be energized or de-energized without warning.
Relay with test button
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7
Relays are available in a wide range of switching configurations. The following figure illustrates common relay
contact switching arrangements. Like switch contacts, relay contacts are classified by their number of poles,
throws and breaks.
• The number of poles indicates the number of completely isolated circuits that a relay contact can
switch. The unipolar contact can conduct current through only one circuit at a time, while a bipolar
contact can conduct current through two circuits simultaneously.
• The number of shots is the number of close contact positions per pole (single or double). Single throw
contact can control current in a single circuit, while double throw contact can control two circuits.
• The jump designates the number of points in a set of contacts where current will be interrupted
during contact opening. All relay contacts are constructed for single or double jump. Single break
contacts have lower current ratings because they break current at a single point.
Types of relay according to your contacts
Relay contacts often have two ratings: AC and DC. These ratings indicate how much power can be supported
through the contacts. One way to determine the maximum power rating of relay contacts is to multiply the
rated volts by the rated amps. This will give you the total watts a relay can handle. For example, a 5 A relay
rated at 125 VAC can also switch 2.5 A at 250 VAC. Likewise, a 5A relay rated at 24VDC can switch 2.5A at
48VDC, or even 10A at 12VDC.
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8
6.2- Solid state relays

Another type of relay found in many applications is the solid state relay. Unlike electromechanical relays, solid
state relays do not have actual coils or contacts. Instead, they use semiconductor-based switching devices,
such as bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, thyristors (SCR) or TRIACS.
Different designs of solid state relays

Solid state relays are used where they require:
High interruption speed.

Great service time. Total absence of arches. Eliminate noise.
All solid state relays are designed to operate in two separate sections: input and output. The input side
receives a voltage signal from the control circuit and the output side changes the load.
Input and output of solid state relays

The TRIAC is a bidirectional device, meaning it will allow current to flow through it in either direction, making
it ideal for handling alternating current loads.
8
AC In and AC Out: There are methods used to control when the TRIAC turns on or off. One method employs the
reed relay that controls the TRIAC gate. The relay can be controlled by a low voltage source. When energized,
the relay contact closes, supplying power to the TRIAC gate that connects the load to the line.
TRIAC control with Reed relay

Another common method to control the operation of a solid state relay is based on the use of optocouplers,
which are electronic devices with optical isolation between the input and output. Many PLCs use this method
to communicate with the output device. Optoisolation is achieved by using light from a light-emitting diode
(LED) to energize a phototransistor or phototriac. Arrows pointing away from the diode symbol indicate that it
emits light when energized. Arrows pointing toward the triac symbol indicate that it must receive light to turn
on. Optical isolation is very popular in electronic devices such as computers and PLCs because there are no
moving contacts to wear out and because the load side of the relay is electrically isolated from the control side.
This isolation prevents any electrical noise generated on the load side from being transferred to the control
side.
Solid State Relays with Optocoupled DC Input and AC Output: The following figure shows a simplified diagram
of an optically coupled solid state relay used to switch an AC load. The operation of the circuit can be
summarized as follows:
Internal diagram of solid state relay for controlling AC loads with optocoupling
A current flow is established through the LED connected to the input when conditions require the relay to be
activated
• The LED drives and illuminates the phototransistor.
• The phototransistor drives the triac turn-on and AC power to the load.
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0
• The output is isolated from the input by the simple arrangement of LED and phototransistor.
• Since a light beam is used as the control medium, no voltage spikes or electrical noise produced on the load
side of the relay can be transmitted to the control side of the relay.
Solid State Relays with Optocoupled DC Input and DC Output: Solid state relays intended for use with DC loads
have a power transistor instead of a triac connected to the load circuit as shown in the figure below.
Solid state relays with optocoupled DC input and DC output
The operation of the circuit can be summarized as follows:
• When the input voltage turns on the LED, the photodetector connected to the base of the transistor
turns on the transistor, allowing current to flow to the load.
• The LED section of the relay acts as the electromechanical relay coil and requires a DC voltage for
operation.
• The optocoupler transistor section inside the solid state relay is equivalent to the contacts in a relay.
• Because solid state relays have no moving parts, their switching response time is many times faster
than that of electromechanical relays. For this reason, when loads must be changed continuously and
quickly, the solid state relay is a good choice.
Most solid state relays have a variable input voltage range, such as 5VDC to 24VDC. This voltage range makes
the solid state relay compatible with a variety of electronic input devices. Output voltage ratings range from 5V
DC to 480V AC. Although most solid state relays are designed for a rated output current of less than 10 A, heat
sink mounted relays are capable of handling up to 40 A.
Most solid state relays are single pole devices, there are also multipole solid state relays. When multiple poles
are required, a multipole solid state module can be used.
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1
Three-phase multi-pole solid state relay

Another solution is to connect several solid state relay control circuits in parallel, as illustrated in the following
figure, to provide the equivalent function of a multipole electromagnetic relay. In this application, three single-
pole solid state relays are used to switch current to a three-phase load. The input section can receive a signal
from a variety of sources, such as device contacts or sensor signals. When the control circuit contact closes, all
three relays act to complete the current path to the load.
Connecting solid state relays to control multiple poles
The standard single-pole solid-state relay configuration works well with two-wire control; However, when it
becomes necessary to use it in a three-wire (Start and Stop) control scheme, the problem of the latch circuit
arises. An additional relay can be connected in parallel to the solid state relay to act as a holding contact.
Another solution is to use a DC control circuit with a thyristor (SCR) to block the load. The following figure
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2
shows a three-wire motor control circuit that uses a solid state relay and an SCR.
Circuit for three-wire control of solid state relay

• The SCR will not allow current to flow from the anode (A) to the cathode (K) until current is applied to
the gate (G).
• When the Start button is pressed, current flows through the gate, which triggers the anode-cathode
section of the SCR and the relay control circuit to conduct.
• The SCR remains latched after the Start button is released, and the circuit must open to stop the flow
of current from anode to cathode. This is accomplished by pressing the Stop button.
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3
Chapter 7- Timers
7.1- Timer or timer
It is an electronic device that allows actions (activation or deactivation) to be carried out after a time.
Electronic timers are the most used today. These are classified into two broad categories: analog and
digital. Different methods are used to control the lag period. Some use a resistor/capacitor (RC) charge
and discharge circuit to get the time base, while others use quartz clocks as the time base. These
electronic-based timers are much more precise than their dashboard counterparts and can control
timing functions ranging from a fraction of a second to hundreds of hours.
To maintain their timing operations they are constantly powered. Some are equipped with batteries or
internal memory to retain your settings during power failures. Electrically, it is made up of a coil and a set
of use contacts.
Depending on their operation, timers can be:
• ON-Delay
• To disconnection (OFF-Delay).
The timing functions of timers start when the coil is turned on or off.
Currently there are a wide variety of timer designs that will depend on the manufacturer. However, its
operation is the same, but you must pay attention to its connection as indicated by the manufacturer.
Different timer designs
7.2- Timer to connect or work (ON-DELAY)

When the coil is connected to power, the timing process begins. After the time set on the timer, the
contacts change position.
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4
ON-Delay timer symbols

In the following circuit, closing the switch S1 energizes the timer TR, after 5 seconds the TR contact
closes and turns on the lamp. When switch S1 is opened, the timer contact TR automatically returns to
its normally open state, turning off the lamp.
ON-Delay timer operating circuit
7.3- Timer for disconnection or rest (OFF-DELAY)

When the activation coil is connected to the power supply, the timer contacts act, returning to the rest
position after the set time has elapsed. If the coil is disconnected during the timing process, the behavior
is similar to the disconnection timer.
OFF-Delay timer symbols

In the following circuit, closing the switch S1 energizes the timer TR, and immediately closes the TR
contact and turns on the lamp. When switch S1 is opened, the timer contact TR starts counting. After 5
seconds, the timer contact TR automatically returns to its normally open state, turning off the lamp.
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5
Operating circuit of an OFF-Delay timer
IEC standard timer symbol table
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6
7.4- 8-pin timer connection

Commonly replaceable timers can be used. These have an 8-pin base, each pin indicating the
following:
8-pin timer connection

Note that the timer is powered from pins 7 and 2, the manufacturer can build the dependent timer coil
for a wide variety of voltages (12V, 24V, 120V, 240V).
• Normally closed contacts: these are separately on pins 1 and 4, for the second contact it
would be 8 and 5.
• Normally open contacts: these are separately on pins 1 and 3, for the second contact it would
be 8 and 6.
Note that pins 1 and 8 are common for the NC and NO contacts of the timer, so this must be
considered when wiring.
Contacts of an 8-pin timer
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7
OFF-Delay timer with 11-pin base with trigger button
When the coil is energized, the contacts immediately change position. When the coil is de-energized, the
contacts delay returning to their normal position. According to the pin table shown in Figure 7-20, pins 2 and
10 connect to the timer coil. To use this OFF-Delay timer, power must be connected to pins 2 and 10 at all
times. Cutting pins 5 and 6 together causes the timed contacts to change position immediately. When the
short circuit between pins 5 and 6 is removed, the timing sequence begins. At the end of the preset period
of time, the contacts will return to their normal position.
OFF-Delay timer with 11-pin base with trigger button
Multifunction timer
All electronic timers are similar, but there are usually differences in how they should be connected. The
connection diagram for the timer shown in the following figure. Note that this timer contains RESET, START
and GATE pins. Connecting pin 2 to pin 5 activates the GATE function, which interrupts or suspends the
operation of the internal clock. Connecting pin 2 to pin 6 activates the START function. Connecting pin 2 to
pin 5 activates the RESET function, which resets the internal clock to zero.
Multifunction timer
9
Pneumatic timers
Pneumatic or air timers operate by restricting air flow through an orifice to a rubber bellows or diaphragm. The
following figure illustrates the working principle of a simple bellows timer. If rod "A" pushes against the end of
the bellows, air leaves the bellows through the check valve when the bellows contracts. When the bellows
moves rearward, the TR contact changes from an open to a closed contact. When rod “A” separates from the
bellows, the spring attempts to return the bellows to its original position. However, before the bellows can
return to its original position, air must enter the bellows through the air inlet port. The speed at which air is
allowed to enter the bellows is controlled by the needle valve. When the bellows returns to its original
position, the TR contact returns to its normally open position.
Pneumatic timer operation
Pneumatic timer for contactor mounting
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9
Chapter 8- Automation circuits

basic
8.1- Types of circuits
Force circuits: force or power circuits are responsible for supplying electrical energy to the receivers of the
automatic system (generally rotating electrical machines).
Maneuver or control circuits: the maneuver circuits, or control circuits, are responsible for powering the
sensors, detectors, electromagnets, controls, pushbuttons, timers and other management and supervision
components of the installation. It is on the maneuver circuits where the operators interact with the process.
The wiring of the power circuits is independent of the wiring of the maneuver circuits, and both circuits are
interrelated through electrical components common to both, such as contactors, thermal relays and similar, as
will be studied in later units of the book.
8.2- Structure for installation of an electric motor
Structure for installation of an electric motor

1. Sectioning; “separate the power supply from the rest of the installation”. To intervene safely in the
installation of the machine (do not move components due to unexpected starts) and avoid shocks in
maintenance of electrical circuits by isolating the electrical supply.
2. Interruption; This closing or opening with load allows and performs the emergency stop function “only
in small engines”.
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0
3. Short circuit protection; detect and interrupt as quickly as possible any abnormal current > 10 In
(nominal current). The nominal current is understood to be that of the nameplate data, which is what
the motor was designed for.
4. Switching, establishing, cutting and eventually adjusting the value of the current absorbed by the
motor (for example in reduced voltage starts, by auto-transformer, star delta etc.)
5. Overload protection; detects and interrupts current increases up to 10In. Before the heating of the
engine and its drivers leads to deterioration.
In them, both the representation of the power circuit (for example, to start a three-phase motor), and the
control circuit (for powering the coil of a contactor through different types of sensors), have been made on the
same diagram.
This type of representation is called an assembly scheme.
Wiring circuit for controlling a three-phase motor

8.3- Force and command schemes
In industry, wired automations can be really complex and therefore, so can their diagrams. If these were
carried out through joint representation, the assembly and maintenance technician would have real difficulties
in understanding them.
For this reason, it is necessary to graphically separate the power circuit from the control or command circuit.
The power or force scheme represents the part of the circuit that powers the power receiver or receivers.
The control or command scheme represents, between the two power supply phases, the logical combination
of the contacts of the sensors used to govern the coils of the different control devices, such as contactors,
timers, auxiliary relays, etc.
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In the power diagram, the switches and general cut-off protections are represented at the top, close to the
power network lines. The receivers or motors at the bottom. And between both the power contactors.
Force and control diagram represented separately

In practice, the power circuit is made with a cable with a larger section than the control one, since it must be
calculated to withstand the current flow of the power receiver, in this case the motor. However, the control
wiring is carried out with a smaller section cable (1.5 mm2 red), since the consumption of the coils is not very
high.
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The control circuit power comes from the power circuit, as shown below:
start
The control circuit is powered by the power circuit
8.4- Connection and protection of the control circuit

The control circuit must have a protection element against short circuits. This can be the same one used in the
strength circuit, as shown in the previous circuit, or one exclusive to it.
These are some ways to protect the control circuit against overloads and short circuits:
• Through an independent monopolar magneto-thermal switch (1).
• Using a fuse (2).
thermomagnetic thermomagnetic switch

switch control contact
• Through an auxiliary contact mechanically coupled to the magneto-thermal force switch (3).
Control circuit protection types
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8.5- Two-wire control

It is a control in which only two wires connect to the pilot device used to energize the magnetic control. (which
may be a temperature switch or thermostat, a float switch, a limit switch, a pressure switch or other
maintained control device).
In the wiring and elementary diagrams, two wires connect the control device (which may be a temperature
switch or thermostat, a float switch, a limit switch, a pressure switch or other maintained control device) to the
coil. of the magnetic starter.
When the contacts of the control device are closed, they complete the circuit of the starter coil, causing it to
connect the motor to the line.
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Remote control with pressure switch
Wiring diagram
switch
Two-wire control
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This is a typical example of two-wire control, where a pressure switch controls the contactor of a compressor.
air.
8.6- Three-wire control

It derives its name from the three wires that must be connected to the pilot device.
A three-wire or three-wire control circuit uses momentary contacts on the “start-stop” push buttons and a
sustained circuit of auxiliary contacts wired in parallel with the “start” button to maintain the circuit. Pressing
the “start” button completes the circuit to the coil.
Control of electric motors with push button stations
The most commonly used method of starting and stopping an electric motor is with an electrical control with
push button start and stop stations.
3-wire control
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The three-wire control, which has a stop button and a start button, is simple, safe and effective.
Force and control diagram for the start-stop of a three-phase motor

Step by step explanation of a start stop
In the circuit shown below, no current can flow to the relay coil M because the START button is normally open
and the normally open contact M is open because it is controlled by the contactor coil M. .
Start-Stop at rest
When the START button is pressed, current flows through the contactor coil and normally closed overload
contact to the power supply.
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Start-Stop when pressing START

When current flows through the contactor coil M, the contacts connected in parallel to the START button close.
These contacts maintain circuit to coil M when the START button is released and returns to its open position.
Start-Stop Circuit Hold

The circuit continues to operate until the STOP button is pressed and the circuit to the coil is broken. When
current flow to the coil stops, contactor M is de-energized and contact M reopens. Because the START button is
now open and the M contact is open, there is no complete circuit in the contactor coil when the STOP button
returns to its normally closed position. If the contactor is to be reset, the START button must be pressed again
to provide a complete circuit to the relay coil.
Start-stop circuit stop
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8.6.1- The thermal relay in automation diagrams

The protection with the thermal relay is represented in the force diagram between the contactor and the
motor. The control diagram represents the phase closest to the one represented at the top and below the
protection device, if it exists.
The closed contact is placed in series with the circuit that powers the contactor coil. The open contact is
connected to a signaling device (for example, a lamp).
If the thermal relay detects overload or lack of a phase in the power circuit, the protection device trips. In this
situation, the closed auxiliary contact of the thermal relay opens, disconnecting the coil power circuit. If this
occurs, the KM1 contactor opens its contacts in the power circuit and the motor stops.
Starting a three-phase motor with start and stop buttons with thermal relay protection
In the same event, the open contact (98-97) of the thermal relay closes, powering the signaling lamp (F1),
which lights up indicating that the thermal relay has tripped.
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Fault signaling with thermal relay and pilot light
8.6.2- Diagrams of electrical control circuits with emergency stop button

The most commonly used method is for the emergency stop button to interrupt power to the control
components.
The emergency stop button (PBE) is the first and is connected in series so that when activated it interrupts the
current (in this case to the contactor coil).
The following figure shows a typical engine control circuit that includes an emergency stop button.
Emergency stop button connection

• The normally closed contacts of the emergency stop button will open when the button is pressed and
will remain open until manually reset.
• Because the emergency stop contacts are held open by the push-button operator mechanism, the
engine will not run if the start button is pressed.
• To restart the engine after the emergency stop button has been activated, you must first reset the
emergency stop button and then press the start button.
When the engine starts, we will have the option to stop using the STOP button and the emergency stop
button. The emergency stop button, being larger, allows us to locate it more easily in case of danger.
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The PBE push button, being mechanically interlocking when pressed, will keep the power line open once we
release it.
In this way we ensure that the motor stops being powered and does not have the possibility of starting if the
start push button is pressed by mistake.
8.7- Start-stop from multiple stations

By properly combining the connections between several pushbutton stations, indistinct control of the motor
can be achieved from any of them.
Engine control from three start-stop stations
If we want to add start buttons, these go in parallel.

In the case of the STOP buttons, they are connected in series. Once the pattern is understood we can control a
motor from different stations.
It is observed that the contacts of the START buttons are connected in parallel with each other, while those of
the STOP buttons are connected in series. This rule must always be followed, regardless of the number of
control stations. Also note that the auxiliary contact M is always connected in parallel with the contacts of the
START buttons. On the other hand, all the contacts of the STOP buttons must be connected in series with the
retaining coil of the contactor, so that in an emergency the motor can be stopped from any station.
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Control diagram with three start and stop stations
The following diagram is an example of wiring one, two and three start-stop stations.
Connecting push buttons from up to three locations
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8.8- Jog control
The magnetic contactors can also be operated with a third selector button, which is used when the
motor is only required to provide short-term service. By pressing said button, in effect, the motor starts,
but it only continues in service as long as the finger pressure is maintained on the first one; As soon as it
is released, the motor stops again.
JOG control circuit diagram using double contact button
When you press the double contact JOG button NC and NO, it immediately energizes coil M. When you
release it, coil M is de-energized, so only the JOG or the motor intermittency works while it is pressed.
To keep the engine starting, you must press the START button.
Other variants of the previous circuit would be to place the JOG button after the START or in series with
the M contact, as shown in the following figure.
JOG control circuit diagram using double contact button
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8.8.1- Jog control using control relay

In the following circuit, it is observed that pressing START energizes the control relay CR, remaining
retained by the CR contact in parallel with START. The CR contact is also closed in parallel with the JOG
button, which energizes the contactor coil M, causing the motor to start and remain held. To turn off
the system, simply press the STOP button. If you want momentary ignition, you can press the JOG
button, which will activate coil M only while JOG is pressed.
L1 L2
JOG control circuit diagram using control relay

8.8.2- Jog with selector
In this case the JOG button can be the same START button, but it depends on the position of the
selector. For example in the following diagram when the selector is to the left (position A1) the START
can function as JOG (that is, coil M is only energized momentarily while START is pressed), while when
the selector is to the right (position A2) this works as START to start the engine and is retained by the
auxiliary contact M.
Jog with selector
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8.9- March signaling

One method used is to connect the lamp in parallel with the “Contactor” coil of the electric motor
starter.
Signaling lamps associated with the contactor coil

Let us remember that the Contactor is an electromagnetic switch, which when its coil is powered closes
the main contacts “M” and the motor starts operating.
That is to say, the motor is running when the coil is powered, and in this case, when the contactor coil is
powered, the signal lamp is also powered.
The engine running signal lamp may also refer to the closing of a normally open auxiliary contact of the
engine contactor.
Start-stop of an engine signaling the start
Since the contactor is a link between control and power, in the area of logic analysis, the coil represents
an output.
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8.10- Stop signage

This pilot light is connected in series with a normally closed auxiliary contact of the contactor or starter.
When the starter is de-energized, the pilot light is on and when the starter is energized the auxiliary
contact opens and turns off the pilot light.
Start-stop of an engine signaling the stop

8.11- Test pilot light
Sometimes the pilot light is off and the operator is in doubt if it is the engine that is stopped or if it is the
pilot light bulb that is burned out. The circuit described below allows you to immediately test if the
problem is in the bulb, by pressing a button and closing the pilot light.
Three-wire control with the ability to check pilot light conditions

8.11.1- Failure signaling
The fault signaling lamps are associated with middle control elements, such as the overload relay and
the control relay.
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An “OL” overload relay has 2 auxiliary contacts, one normally open and one normally closed.
The normally open contact with manufacturer terminals 97 and 98 will close when the fault occurs and is used
to turn on the signaling lamp.
The normally closed contact with manufacturer terminals 95 and 96 is in series with the components in the line
that feeds the contactor coil so that when the relay “OL” changes state, the contactor “M” will not be able to
operate and therefore consequently neither does the engine.
Overload fault indicator lamp
When a motor is overworked, it is technically said to be “overloaded”, examples are: large material cutting
demands, movement of heavy parts, or mechanical problems, such as bearing wear, poorly aligned belts, among
others.
In overload conditions, the motor consumes extra current, the overload relay detects it and prevents
overheating of the motor, changing the states of the auxiliary contacts.
The warning requires maintenance intervention.
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8.12- Control of three wires fed into the secondary of a

control transformer.
In this case a step-down voltage transformer is used to provide the control circuit with a voltage lower than the
line voltage for safety reasons for the suppliers. Protection against overcurrent in the control circuit is done with
the help of a fuse.
Connection of control transformer fed from the power circuit
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8.13- Intermediate control through control relay

Unsafe conditions must be avoided, protected from unwanted starts, and provision must be made for the
operator to carry out an inspection before an accident occurs. The use of the “CR” control relay is a good
alternative. The control relay allows middle management, step-by-step permissions that ensure protective
conditions are obtained. If not, point out and prevent the operation of the equipment.
This signaling orders the operator to verify the working conditions (closed doors, presence of material, etc.), and
allow continuity with the work processes. Depending on the severity, the fault signaling may be accompanied by
flashing lights, flashes, rotating lights, buzzers or sirens.
The use of push buttons with a control relay, as a first step to control the electrical supply to the control
components, is a widely used method in automated systems.
Ignition control with emergency stop

In this case it is necessary that this control relay (CR) be powered, to allow the control of the installed automatic
systems to be put into operation.
Ignition control with signal lamps
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8.14- Reversing the direction of rotation of three-phase motors

To reverse the direction of rotation of a three-phase motor, two of the phases that feed it must be swapped.
By exchanging one of the phases or lines of the motor the rotation is changed
This maneuver, widely used in an industrial environment, can be carried out with a three-phase power inverter
switch or through an automation based on two contactors. In this case, in the power circuit, one of the
contactors applies the phases to the motor terminals in a certain order, for example: L1-L2 and L3, the other
does the same, but swapping two of them, for example , L2-L1-L3. Thus, when the three-phase power that
reaches the motor is received through a contactor, the motor rotates in one direction, and if it rotates in the
other direction, it rotates in the opposite direction.
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Force diagram for reversing the rotation of a three-phase motor using contactors (IEC Standard)
Under no circumstances can two contactors be activated at the same time, as a short circuit would occur. This
can be avoided:
• Using a set of two contactors that has a mechanical interlock.

• Designing the control circuit in such a way that if one contactor is activated, the other cannot do so and
vice versa.
8.14.1- Electrical interlock by auxiliary contact
An electrical interlock is an assurance of a state condition, placed in an electrical control, with the purpose of
preventing at least 2 conditions from occurring at the same time.
In a circuit of a three-phase motor with 2 directions of rotation, the logic indicates that it should not be
commanded to rotate in both directions of rotation at the same time, worse still, this generates one of the most
serious short circuits, joining the three live lines.
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Force diagram for reversing the rotation of a three-phase motor using contactors (NEMA Standard)
So, in the control for a motor with 2 directions of rotation, the right rotation contactor coil (forward) and the left
rotation contactor coil (reverse) should NEVER be energized at the same time.
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CONTROL CIRCUIT
Control diagram with auxiliary contact interlock

Auxiliary contact interlock is achieved by connecting a normally closed contact in series with the opposing coil.
In this way, when operating in the right direction, the auxiliary contact, F, which is in series with coil R, will open,
making it so that even by pressing the opposite rotation button the rotation change cannot be ordered.
It is necessary to stop (PRESS STOP BUTTON) and then command the turn in the opposite direction.
Connection of push buttons for forward, reverse and stop station
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8.14.2- Electrical interlock by push buttons
An electrical interlock is used to ensure that two conditions in a circuit do NOT operate at the same time, such as
commanding a three-phase electric motor to rotate in both directions.
OL
T2 / ENGINE
OL
OL
IF THE TWO
CONTACTORS COME IN
AT THE SAME TIME A
SHORT CIRCUIT WILL
OCCUR
Short circuit due to both contactors closing at the same time
Double action push buttons are manufactured for this purpose, they are made by placing a double contact block
on a single push button, with one normally closed contact plus one normally open contact.
Or individual contacts can be mounted, some brands accept up to 3 contact blocks per level with a maximum of
three levels (9 contacts)
Push Buttons with Contact Blocks

Interlocking by push buttons, plus interlocking by auxiliary contacts, is widely used, in this way the desired
degree of assurance is higher.
The NO contact (normally open) of these buttons is used to activate the contactor coil in a similar way to what
was seen in the previous control circuit. However, the NC contact (normally closed) is responsible for
deactivating the opposite contactor coil.
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forward
Stop reverse
reverse
forward
Push button
with
Two contacts
Control diagram with push button interlock

As in a double chamber push button, the closed contacts open before the open ones close, it is guaranteed that
the activation of one contactor is carried out when the other is deactivated
In this way, when ordering a change of rotation, the opening of the coil line is also ordered at the same time.
It should be noted that in this way a rapid change of direction of rotation is commanded, which creates a high
current demand, which is why this system is used in relatively small motors, despite this it is ideal in some
machine tools (lathes and milling machines). ).
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8.14.3- Mechanical interlock for contactors
This mechanical interlock is achieved with a device attached to the rotation reversal contactors, and does not
allow the contacts of both contactors to close at the same time.
When commanding a direction of rotation, and moving the contactor contacts, the “mechanical interlock”
device also moves; this device does not allow the second contactor to close. Although the second coil is also
powered.
Mechanical interlocking of contactors

Mechanical interlocks are specially manufactured according to the size, model and brand of contactors.
Power Contacts with Mechanical Interlock
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Control coils with mechanical interlock
Control diagram with interlocks by push buttons, by auxiliary contact and mechanical
8.15.3- Jogging in reversal circuit using control relay
The control circuit shown in the following figure allows the motor to be rotated in both directions of rotation,
whether the motor is rotating or not. Pressing the START-FWD button will energize coil F and contact F will close,
allowing current to pass to the relay CR, which will cause contact CR to close and the motor will keep rotating
due to the retention created by the feedback of the F and CR contacts. The same would happen but in the
opposite case with R, if START-REV were pressed. To achieve the JOG in any direction, simply press JOG-FWD for
one turn or JOG-REV for the other turn, this will cause the CR relay to be de-energized at the same time, and will
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energize the main coil F or R momentarily as long as they are held down. the JOG buttons.
JOG-FWD
JOG control circuit for rotation reversal
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8.16- Sequence control of three-phase motors with manual start

Sequence start controls allow us to order the start and stop of motors, an example may be that one motor
cannot be started if another is not running first.
One way to achieve this is by giving permissions through auxiliary contacts and ordering push buttons.
For a three conveyor belt feeding system, manual control is required for them to operate in sequence.
Sequential starting of motors for industrial conveyor belts

The following figure shows the force diagram of three three-phase motors. Note that each one has its
independent contactor and protection. The control circuit will be designed according to the required on or off
sequence.
Force diagram of three three-phase motors

Manual sequential start with cascade connection
The next circuit, START 1 must be pressed before power can be supplied to START 2. When motor contactor
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coil 1 is energized, the normally open auxiliary contact M1 closes, providing power to coil M1 and START 2.
Now the motor contactor coil 2 can be started by pressing START 2. Once motor 2 is activated, auxiliary
contact M2 closes, providing power to coil M2 and START 3. If the STOP button is pressed or if any overload
contact (OL1, OL2 and OL3) is opened, power to all contactors is interrupted.
Sequential cascade start
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Manual sequential start with contact-dependent connection

A second method of providing sequence control is shown in the following figure. Since the motor connections
are the same as in the previous circuit, only the control part of the schematic is shown. In this circuit, normally
open auxiliary contacts located on motor contactors M1 and M2 are used to ensure that all three motors start
in proper sequence. A normally open auxiliary contact M1 connected in series with the starting coil M2
prevents motor 2 from starting before motor 1, and a normally open auxiliary contact M2 connected in series
with the coil M3 prevents motor 3 from starting before engine 2. If the STOP button is pressed or if any
overload contact (OL1, OL2 and OL3) is opened, power to all contactors is interrupted.

The following figure shows a third circuit that is almost identical to the previous circuit. This circuit also
employs the use of normally open auxiliary contacts to prevent motor 2 from starting before motor 1, and
motor 3 cannot start before motor 2.

These normally open auxiliary contacts that control the startup sequence are often called dependent contacts
because they allow some action to take place. The main difference between the two circuits is that in the
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circuit shown in the first diagram, the STOP button interrupts power to all motor contactors. The second circuit
depends on the reopening of the normally open auxiliary contacts to stop motors 2 and 3.
Automatic sequential start with timers
Circuits that allow automatic starting of motors in sequence are common. There are several methods that can
be used to determine when to start engines in sequence. Some circuits detect motor current. When the
current of one motor drops to a predetermined level, it allows the next motor to start. Other circuits detect the
speed of one motor before allowing the next one to start.
One of the most common methods is time delay. The circuit shown below allows three motors to start in
sequence. Engine 1 starts immediately when the start button is pressed. Engine 2 starts a few seconds after
engine 1 starts, and engine 3 starts a few seconds after engine 2 starts. The timer coil TR1 is connected in
parallel with the start coil of M1. Because they are connected in parallel, they are energized at the same time.
After a delay of a few seconds, contact TR1 closes and energizes coils M2 and TR2. Motor 2 starts immediately,
but timed contact TR2 will delay closing for a few seconds.
After the delay period, starting coil M3 will be energized and engine 3 will start. When the STOP button is
pressed, all motors stop virtually at the same time.
Sequential start of three timed motors 1,2,3
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Although the above circuit logic is correct, most ladder diagrams do not show coils connected in parallel. The
following figure shows a modification of the circuit. In this circuit, the auxiliary contacts in the motor starters
are used to control the action of the time relays. Note that the logic of the circuit is identical to the previous
circuit.
Sequential start of three timed motors 1,2,3

Some circuit requirements may require that motors be turned off in sequence rather than turned on in
sequence. This circuit requires the use of OFF-Delay timers. Additionally, a control relay with four contacts is
needed. The circuit shown in the figure below allows the motors to start in sequence one to three when the
START button is pressed. Although they start in sequence, the action is so fast that it seems like they all start at
about the same time. However, when the STOP button is pressed, they stop in sequence from engine 3 to
engine 1, with a delay of the seconds set on the timers between each engine.
Engine 3 stops immediately. A few seconds later, motor 2 stops, and a few seconds after motor 2 stops, motor
1 stops. In the event that an overload occurs in any motor, all motors are stopped immediately.
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Sequential shutdown of three timed engines 3, 2, 1

Sequential start and shutdown of three engines
The addition of two timers allows the motors to be started in sequence 1 to 3 with a time delay between each
motor start, as well as to stop the motors in sequence 3 to 1 with a time delay between each motor stop. The
circuit shown in the following figure does this operation. When the START button is pressed, all CR contacts
close. Motor 1 starts immediately when contactor M1 is energized. Auxiliary contact M1 closes and activates
ignition ON-Delay timer TR3. After a few seconds, starter M2 activates and starts engine 2. The auxiliary
contact of M2 connected in series with the OFF-Delay timer TR1 closes, causing the timed contact TR1 to close
immediately. The second auxiliary contact of M2 connected in series with ON-Delay timer TR4 closes and starts
the timing process. After a few seconds, the timed contact TR4 closes and activates the starter coil M3, starting
engine 3. The auxiliary contact of M3 connected in series with the OFF-Delay timer TR2 closes and energizes
the timer. The timed contact TR2 closes immediately. All engines are running now.
When the STOP button is pressed, all CR contacts open immediately. This deactivates contactor M3, stops
motor 3 and deactivates OFF-Delay timer coil TR2. After a delay of a few seconds, timed contact TR2 opens and
de-energizes contactor M2. This causes motor 2 to stop, OFF-Delay timer TR1 to de-energize, and ON-Delay
timer TR4 to de-energize. Contact TR4 reopens immediately. After a delay of a few seconds, the timed contact
TR1 opens and de-energizes the starting coil M1. This causes motor 1 to stop and ON-Delay timer TR3 to de-
energize. Contact TR3 is immediately reopened and the circuit returns to its original de-energized state.
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Sequential start and shutdown of three engines
Chapter 9- Control Transformer

Control transformers are designed to step down the power circuit supply voltages to the control circuits. Most
commercial and industrial AC motors operate on three-phase AC supply systems in the range of 208 to 600 V.
However, the control systems for these motors generally operate at 120V or 240V. The main disadvantage in
control systems is that higher voltage levels can be much more lethal than 120V or 240V.
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industrial control transformer
9.1- control transformer

A control transformer is a device that works with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
It is powered by alternating current and supplies specific voltages to the control circuit
Construction of a control transformer
Its use is important in control equipment, especially for the safety of the operators, when you have motors that
work with 480 volts of three-phase alternating current, it is through a control transformer that we can operate
its control with 120 volts.
Whether a transformer reduces or raises the output voltage will depend on the number of turns in each
winding.
Although we identify the primary as the winding that is connected to the power supply and secondary as the
one that powers the load, it is always advisable to take measurements before connecting the load. Since by
accident we can invert the terminals and we would obtain the opposite effect.
We can use the same transformer as a reducer or as a booster.
The technical standards tell us that the terminals that go to the load (control equipment) are identified with
the letter “X”
There are also control transformers on the market for 2 voltages since, industrially, three-phase voltages of 240
and 480 volts are usually found in equipment within the same installation.
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Control transformers for 2 voltages

For high voltage the primary coils are connected in series, and for low voltage in parallel.
Some control transformers contain a multitap primary instead of two separate windings. The transformer in
this example is designed to step down voltages from 480, 277, 240, or 208 to 120.
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multitaps control transformer

There are contactors that, although they can control the power load for voltages of 230 or 400 V, their coils are
designed, for safety, to work at reduced voltages of 24 or 48 V, in alternating current or direct current. On
these occasions the control circuit must be connected to a voltage reduction transformer in the first case, and
to a power source in the second.
The control diagrams for starting the three-phase motor with a single-pole switch are:
Low voltage control circuit power
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Chapter 10- Actuators
An actuator, in the electrical sense, is any device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical movement.
An electromechanical relay is a type of actuator that mechanically switches electrical circuits. Relays play an
important role in many motor control systems. In addition to providing control logic by switching multiple
control circuits, they are also used to control low current pilot loads such as contactors and starting coils, pilot
lights, and audible alarms.
10.2- Soleonoid
A solenoid is a device that uses electrical energy to magnetically cause mechanical control action. A solenoid
consists of a coil, a core, and a plunger (or armature, as it is sometimes called). The following figure shows the
basic construction and operation of a solenoid. The coil and the frame form the fixed part. When the coil is
energized, it produces a magnetic field that attracts the plunger, pushing it toward the frame and thus creating
mechanical movement.
Solenoid: construction and operation

When the coil is de-energized, the plunger returns to its normal position through gravity or the assistance of
spring assemblies within the solenoid. The frame and plunger of an AC-operated solenoid are constructed of
laminated parts rather than a solid piece of iron to decrease losses from magnetic field-induced eddy currents.
Solenoids according to their movement are classified as: linear and rotary. The direction of movement,
whether rotary or linear, is based on the mechanical assembly within which the electromagnetic circuit is
enclosed. Rotary solenoids incorporate a mechanical design that converts linear motion into rotary motion.
Linear solenoids are generally classified as pulling (the electromagnetic path pushes a plunger into the solenoid
body) or pushing (the plunger shaft is pushed out of the frame housing).
The figure below illustrates common applications for linear and rotary solenoids. The linear solenoid
application shown is used in partial rejection processes where the electronic interface with a sensor produces a
trigger signal for the solenoid. In the rotary solenoid application, the solenoid is used on a sorting conveyor to
control a diverter gate.
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Solenoid Applications
10.3- Solenoid valve or solenoid valves
Solenoid valves are electromechanical devices that work by passing an electrical current through a solenoid,
thereby changing the state of the valve. Typically, there is a mechanical element, often a spring, that holds the
valve in its predetermined position. A solenoid valve is a combination of a solenoid coil operator and a valve,
which controls the flow of liquids, gases, steam and other media. When electrically energized, they open, close,
or direct flow.
The following figure illustrates the construction and operating principle of a typical fluid solenoid valve. The
valve body contains a hole in which a disc or plug is placed to restrict or allow flow. Flow through the orifice is
restricted or allowed depending on whether the solenoid coil is energized or de-energized. The spring returns
the valve to its original closed position when the current coil is de-energized. A valve should be installed with
the flow direction according to the arrow projected on the side of the valve body.
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Solenoid coil
de-energized
Solenoid coil
de-energized
Construction and principle of operation of a solenoid valve
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Solenoid valves are commonly used as part of the tank filling and emptying processes. The following
Figure shows the circuit for a tank filling and emptying operation. The operation of the control circuit can
be summarized as follows:
Circuit for a tank filling and emptying operation
Assuming the liquid level in the tank is below the empty level mark, momentarily pressing the
FILL button will activate the 1CR control relay.
Contacts 1CR 1 and 1CR 2 will close to activate coil 1CR and energize the normally closed “solenoid
A” valve to begin filling the tank.
As the tank fills, the normally open vacuum level sensor switch closes.
When the liquid reaches full level, the normally closed full level sensor switch opens to open the
circuit to relay coil 1CR and change valve “solenoid A” to its de-energized closed state.
Whenever the liquid level in the tank is above the empty level mark, momentarily pressing the
EMPTY button will activate the 2CR control relay.
Contacts 2CR 1 and 2CR 2 will close to activate coil 2CR and energize the normally closed “solenoid
B” valve to begin emptying the tank.
When the liquid reaches the vacuum level, the normally open vacuum level sensor switch opens
to open the circuit to the 2CR relay coil and change the “solenoid B” valve to its de-energized
closed state.
The STOP button can be pressed at any time to stop the process.
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Chapter 11- Starting electric

motors
Electric motors in general (both alternating and direct), at start-up must overcome the resistive torque
that exists on their shaft. This causes the current consumed at that moment to be very high, being
especially harmful to the machine and the circuit that powers it, becoming worse in high-power motors.
To avoid this overcurrent as much as possible, numerous configurations are used for starting. The use of
systems based on industrial automation allows this type of maneuvers to be optimized with great ease.
11.1- Direct start

This is the simplest starting mode in which the stator is coupled directly to the network. The engine relies
on its natural characteristics to start.
When energized, the motor acts as a transformer whose secondary, formed by the very weak rotor cage,
is short-circuited. The current induced in the rotor is important. The primary and secondary current are
practically proportional. Therefore, a significant current peak is obtained in the network:
1 boot = 5 to 8 l nominal.
The average starting torque is:
C start = 0.5 to 1.5 C nominal.

Despite the advantages it entails (simplicity of the equipment, high starting torque, fast starting, low
cost), it is only possible to use direct starting in the following cases:
• The motor power is weak compared to that of the network, to limit the disturbances caused by
the requested current,
• The driven machine does not require a progressive increase in speed and has a mechanical
device (for example, a reducer) that prevents abrupt starting, □ the starting torque must be high.
On the contrary, provided that:
• The voltage drop caused by the requested current may disturb the proper functioning of other
devices connected to the same line,
• the driven machine cannot tolerate mechanical shocks,
• the safety or comfort of users is compromised (for example, in the case of escalators),
It will be essential to resort to a trick to reduce the requested current or the starting torque. In these
cases, the most commonly used means is to start the motor under reduced voltage.
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% sync speed
Direct start current-speed curve
The variation of the supply voltage has the following consequences:
• The starting current varies proportionally to the supply voltage,

• The starting torque varies proportionally to the square of the supply voltage.
Example: If voltage is divided by √3, current is divided by approximately √3 and torque is divided by 3.
Direct starting of three-phase motor
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Direct start current-speed curve
11.2- Star-delta or star-delta starting

It is only possible to use this starting mode on motors in which the two ends of each of the three stator
windings return to the terminal board. On the other hand, the winding must be carried out in such a way
that the delta coupling corresponds to the network voltage: for example, in the case of a 380 V three-
phase network, it is necessary to use a motor wound at 380 V in delta and 660 V in star.
The principle consists of starting the motor by coupling the star windings to the mains voltage, which is
equivalent to dividing the nominal voltage of the star motor by √3 (in the previous example, the mains
voltage 380 V = 660 V / √3).
The peak current during starting is divided by 3:
Id = 1.5 to 2.6 In
A 380V/660V motor coupled in star at its rated voltage of 660V draws a current √3 times less than if delta
coupled at 380V. Since the star coupling is done at 380 V, the current is again divided by √3. Therefore, it
is divided by a total of 3.
The starting torque is also divided by 3, since it is proportional to the square of the supply voltage:
Cd = 0.2 to 0.5 Cn
The motor speed stabilizes when the motor torque and resisting torque are balanced, typically between
75 and 85% of the rated speed. At that moment, the windings are coupled in a triangle and the motor
performs according to its natural characteristics. A timer controls the transition from star coupling to
delta coupling. The closing of the delta contactor occurs with a delay of 30 to 50 milliseconds after the
opening of the star contactor, which prevents a short circuit between phases as both cannot be closed at
the same time.
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The current flowing through the windings is interrupted when the star contactor opens and is restored
when the delta contactor closes. The transition to delta coupling is accompanied by a transient current
spike, as brief as it is significant, due to the motor's emf.
Star-delta starting is suitable for machines whose resistive torque is weak or that start at no load.
Depending on the transient regime at the time of delta coupling, it may be necessary to use a variant
that limits transient phenomena when a certain power is exceeded:
• timing of 1 to 2 seconds at star-delta step. This measure makes it possible to reduce the emf
and, therefore, the transient current peak.
This variant can only be used on machines whose inertia is sufficient to avoid excessive deceleration
during timing.
• 3-stroke start: star-delta + resistance-delta.
The cut-off is maintained, but the resistance is put in series for approximately three seconds with the
windings delta-coupled. This measure reduces the transient current peak.
• star-delta + resistance-delta start without cutting.
The resistance is placed in series with the windings immediately before the opening of the star
contactor. This measure avoids any power outage and, therefore, the appearance of transient
phenomena.
Star-delta starting current-speed curve
1
The power circuit is made with three contactors. KM1 is the main one, KM2 the one that makes the
delta connection and KM3 the one that makes the star connection.
1st stage: at start-up, contactors KM1 and KM3 must be activated so that the terminal box is
connected in star.
2nd stage: contactor KM3 is deactivated, maintaining KM1, and activating KM2. In this way the
motor is permanently connected in a triangle.
Force diagram of star-delta starter with contactors (IEC)
This maneuver can be done manually or completely automatically with contactors.

In manual start, start is carried out with button S2 and stop with button S1. The transition from star to
triangle is carried out by the double contact pushbutton S3. When you press this button, coil KM3 (star)
is deactivated and coil KM2 (delta) is activated. In the power lines of both coils, there are separate
interlock contacts to prevent the star and delta contactors from being activated at the same time.
In this case the switching time is done manually.
By replacing the switching function of button S3 with the contacts (open and closed) of a timer (KT1),
the transition from star to delta is carried out automatically.
In the same way as in manual starting, start-up is carried out using button S2 and stopping using button
S1. When the KM1 (main) contactor activates, so does the timer (KT1). Once the set time has elapsed,
automatic switching between (KM3 and KM2) occurs.
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The series contact of the KM2 contactor with the KT1 coil allows the timer to be deactivated once it has
completed its mission.
Star-delta starting control diagram using timers (IEC)

In both circuits (manual and automatic) signaling lamps have been used to know the state of the engine
at the time of start. Additionally, if thermal relay F1 trips, lamp H4 lights up.
Lamps H1, H2 and H3 are optional and will be used to signal the status of the contactors.
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Star-delta starter force diagram with contactors (NEMA)
Control diagram for star-delta starting using timers (NEMA)
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11.3- Starting motors with split windings “part-winding”

This type of motor is equipped with a stator winding divided into two parallel windings with six or twelve
output terminals. It is equivalent to two “half motors” of equal power.
During starting, a single “half motor” is live-coupled at full voltage to the grid, approximately halving
both starting current and torque. However, the torque is greater than that which would be provided by
the star-delta starter of a cage motor of equal power.
At the end of the start, the second winding is coupled to the network. At that moment, the peak current
is weak and short-lived, since the motor has not been separated from the power supply network and its
slip has become weak. This system, little used in Europe, is very common in the North American market
(voltage of 230/460 V, ratio equal to 2).
For this type of starting, three-phase motors with 9 terminals are used, of which terminals T4, T5 and T6
are joined. Then the two groups of star windings are fed separately, through T1, T2 and T3 for the first
winding, and through T7, T8 and T9 for the second winding.
Split winding motor power circuit

The use of a timer will be necessary in the control, so that when the motor reaches between 75 and 80%
of its operating speed, the second winding is ordered to connect.
Control circuit for part-winding starting

This type of engine is very widespread in the American continent and not so much in Europe. However,
in certain industrial sectors, such as refrigeration, much of the machinery imported into our country
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from the US has this type of motor and it is necessary to know them for correct start-up.
The use of two independent windings requires 2 thermal relays, one for each motor half, this thermal
relay must be adjusted to:
I regulation = I nominal / 2
The same for the size of the contactors, the current used is Ie = In /2
Let us always remember that we see this type of start as 2 half motors.
Part-winding starter current-speed curve
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11.5- Stator starting by resistors

Another technique to reduce the voltage that reaches the stator at the time of connection to the motor
network, and in this way also reduce the current at start-up, consists of placing electrical elements in
series with the stator windings, so that a controlled voltage drop is obtained
The principle is to start the motor under reduced voltage by inserting resistors in series with the windings.
Once the speed is stabilized, the resistances are eliminated and the motor is coupled directly to the
network. Typically, a timer is used to control the operation.
The ohmic value of the resistor block can be found using the following formula:
v, R= 0.055 -
in
Where,
R is the resistance per phase (Ω),
Vn is the supply voltage (V),
In is the nominal current of the motor (A)
During the acceleration phase with the resistors, the voltage applied to the motor terminals is not
constant. It is equivalent to the network voltage minus the voltage drop that occurs in the starting
resistance.
The voltage drop is proportional to the current absorbed by the motor. Since the current decreases as the
motor accelerates, so does the resistance voltage drop. Therefore, the voltage applied to the motor
terminals is minimum at start-up and increases progressively.
Since the torque is proportional to the square of the motor terminal voltage, it increases more rapidly
than in the case of star-delta starting, in which the voltage remains unchanged for the duration of the star
coupling. This type of starting is therefore appropriate for machines whose resistive torque increases with
speed, for example fans.
Its disadvantage is that the current peak is relatively important during start-up. It would be possible to
reduce it by increasing the resistance value, but this measure would entail an additional voltage drop at
the motor terminals and, therefore, a considerable reduction in the starting torque.
On the contrary, the elimination of resistance at the end of starting is carried out without interrupting the
motor supply and, therefore, without transient phenomena.
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Force and control circuit for resistance starting

When you press START, contactor M comes in, feeding the resistor and the motor, after a time set in TR,
contactor R comes in, eliminating the resistance, since it shorts it. The start time also depends on the
timer setting itself, although it can be set between 7 and 12 seconds.
During starting by stator resistance, the current that the motor would have in direct starting (I AD ) is
reduced by approximately 30%, and the torque is reduced by half. It must be taken into account that
these values are indicative, since they depend on the block of connected resistors itself.
Autotransformer starting current-speed curve
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11.6- Starting using rotor resistors

Starting using rotor resistors is based on the same operating principle as starting using stator resistors,
only in this case the resistive blocks are connected in series with the armature windings.
Starting using rotor resistors is based on the same operating principle as starting using stator resistors,
only in this case the resistive blocks are connected in series with the armature windings.
Terminal box of a wound rotor motor
power resistors
Rotor resistance starting is generally carried out using one, two, three, four or five blocks of resistors,
which will be disconnected (short-circuited) from the circuit in a gradual and progressive manner. The
number of resistor blocks and their ohmic value is determined based on the torque/speed curve that is
desired to be obtained, given that, for a given torque, the speed will be lower as the resistance increases.
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Rotor resistor startup time sequence

During starting by stator resistances, the current that the motor would have in direct starting (I AD ) is
reduced by approximately 30%, although this depends on the connected ohmic load. The starting torque
obtained is usually proportional to the starting current, that is, if, for example, a starting current 2.5 times
higher than the nominal is obtained with a certain block of resistors, the starting torque will also be 2. .5
higher than the nominal torque.
The time it takes for the motor to reach the nominal operating speed also depends on the timer setting
itself, although it can be set between 7 and 15 seconds, depending on the number of steps.
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Current-speed curve of resistor rotor starting

Rotor starting is very flexible, as the number and appearance of torque, current and speed curves can be
easily adapted to the requirements of a process. However, wound rotor motors are much more expensive
and difficult to maintain, so this type of start is usually only used on machines that start under load or that
require a soft start.
Power and control circuit for rotor resistance starting
The start-up of this type of motor must be done in several times, to attenuate the current peak at start-
up.
In the power circuit, two or more resistance blocks are connected in series-star, with the rotor winding, as
shown in the following diagram. Thus, the start is done in three stages:
• 1st Stage: The stator winding is fed through KM1. In this situation KM2 and KM3 must be
unexcited, so that all the resistances are connected in star series to the rotor winding.
• 2nd Time: KM1 is maintained for the stator winding supply. KM2 is activated, thus short-circuiting
the farthest resistor block (R1).
• 3rd Time: KM1 and KM2 are kept powered and KM3 is activated to short circuit the last block of
resistors. In this situation the rotor remains connected in a short circuit.
The control circuit is based mainly on the automatic activation, using timers, of the contactors that
eliminate the rotor resistance blocks.
The control circuit is based mainly on the automatic activation, using timers, of the contactors that
eliminate the rotor resistance blocks.
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The H1 lamp signals the moment in which the motor starts without resistance in the rotor. And H2 signals
the trip of thermal relay F1.
Once KM3 has been activated, two of its closed contacts are responsible for disconnecting timer KT1 and
the KM2 coil since they do not need to be kept powered in the normal operation of the machine.
If desired, lamps can be added in parallel to the KM1 and KM2 coils to signal the engine start times.
Starting a wound-rotor motor by eliminating rotor resistances (IEC)
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Starting a wound rotor motor by elimination of rotor resistance (NEMA)
11.7- Autotransformer starting

The autotransformer is an electrical machine, similar to a power transformer, that only has one winding
for the input and output magnetic circuits.
The fundamental characteristic of this device is that the connection of the output terminals is adjustable
in various positions or sockets, so that the transformation ratio between the input voltage and the output
voltage, U1/U2, is variable.
During autotransformer starting, the motor is initially supplied at a lower voltage than that of the
network, and consequently, the current demanded at start-up also decreases. When the machine reaches
stability, the autotransformer is taken out of the circuit.
The boot process is carried out in three stages:
1. The autotransformer begins by coupling in star and then the motor is connected to the network
through a part of the autotransformer windings. The input voltage to the motor can be selected
depending on the autotransformer socket to which it is connected.
2. When the motor reaches equilibrium speed, the star connection of the autotransformer opens, so
that the top of the autotransformer winding is connected in series with the motor.
3. A few moments after the second stage, the auto transformer is short-circuited (it is left out of the
circuit) and the motor is directly coupled to the mains voltage.
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Either two or three autotransformers can be used in the power circuit.
Two methods for autotransformer starting
The starting current and torque using this type of starting vary in the same proportion as the input
voltage. Normally, in the first stage both the starting current and the starting torque are reduced between
40% and 80% of the value they would have in direct starting.
The start time, which depends on the programming of the timers, ranges between 7 and 12 seconds.
This starter is widely used in machines with high power or high inertia, mainly in motors with power
greater than 100 kW. It is a very effective method since there are no interruptions in voltage during the
change of stages and the torque/current relationship is very good. The main disadvantages are the high
economic cost of the equipment and the large amount of disturbances it generates.
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Power and control circuit for starting using a European circuit autotransformer
Power and control circuit for starting using an American circuit autotransformer
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11.8- Electronic start

Electronic starters are more sophisticated devices than those based on wired technology, and they allow
motor starts by controlling and regulating the intensity demanded by the machine.
They are adjustable equipment, small in size and adaptable to any work cycle. The intensity at motor
start can generally be regulated between 25% and 75% of that which it would have in direct start. The
motor torque will also be adjustable, between values ranging from 10% to 70% of the direct start torque.
It is the most progressive starting method that exists, with work times that can vary from 1 to 60
seconds.
As it is an electronic component, its main disadvantage is that it generates electromagnetic disturbances
in the networks where it is located (mainly harmonics), but thanks to the multiple advantages it offers,
its use is highly standardized in electrical machines of all types, such as pumps, compressors, fans,
conveyor belts, etc.
Electronic soft starters (Soft Starter)

The principle of operation of electronic starters basically involves an electronic component called a
thyristor. This component has the peculiarity that it only allows the electric current to pass in a single
direction (similar to what a diode does), but with the peculiarity that it has a specific connection, called a
gate, through which It is possible to regulate an angle within the sinusoidal voltage wave that will be able
to cut, "chopping" said wave.
If two thyristors are installed in a specific type of connection called antiparallel, the resulting set will be
able to divide the voltage wave in both directions of current passage.
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power thyristor
By cutting or chopping part of the voltage wave that reaches a motor during startup, its effective value
will be reduced, and consequently, as less voltage reaches the motor, the intensity at startup will also be
reduced.
Thyristor for connection in a three-phase motor

The great advantage of this device is that it can regulate the door entry angle progressively and gradually
throughout the operation of the engine, which is why electronic starters are also known as progressive
starters.
Input angle regulation in a thyristor

The basic functions that every electronic starting unit fulfills are the following:
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• Starter status indicator.

• Regulation of starting intensity.
• Machine switching (start/stop control).
However, today it is possible to find more sophisticated electronic starters that offer advanced functions
such as:
• Remote rearming.
• Battery charge indicatorengine.
• History and monitoring function.
• Protection against short circuits.
• Protection against overloads.
• Overtemperature protection.
• Automatic restart.
• Bypass function.
• Sectioning the machine from the power network.
soft starter programmer
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Below is the connection diagram of an electronic starter, with integrated machine switching functions,
which makes it possible to avoid having to have contactors to start and stop the motor. It should be
noted that the connection and power supply of this equipment depends on each manufacturer, so it is
necessary to consult the instruction manual in each case.
Connection of electronic starter for single-phase and three-phase motor
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11.9- Starting three-phase motors in single-phase networks

Three-phase squirrel cage motors can be connected in single-phase networks through a specific
connection called Steinmetz.
This system consists of feeding the motor only through two of its phases and placing a capacitor
between one of the powered phases and the phase that remains free. The capacitor performs the same
function as in alternating current motors, shifting the magnetic field out of phase to produce a torque on
the shaft that makes it rotate.
The method is applicable for both star connections and delta connections.
Connection of three-phase motor to single-phase network

Before applying this starting method, some preliminary considerations must be taken into account, since
the Steinmetz connection cannot be made on all types of motors:
It is only advisable to make this connection on small power motors, those that are less than 4 kW.
The power that the motor will develop will be 75% or 80% of what it would have connected to a three-
phase network.
The starting torque will decrease to 50-70% of that of the motor connected to a three-phase network.
The nominal voltage of the installed capacitor must be between 1.15 and 1.25 times the nominal voltage
of the single-phase network, with a minimum of 250 V. This is because it will be subject to certain surges.
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Starting Capacitor Calculation
c = 50XPX
The capacity of the capacitor can be calculated through the following formula:
22O 2 50
(v) F
Where:
C = capacitor capacity (µF)

P = motor shaft power (CV)
V = supply voltage (V)
f = mains frequency (Hz)
Once the result is found, the normalized capacitor value must be chosen immediately higher than those
that exist on the market. These are 4, 4.5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60,
65, 100 microfarads (µF) .
In a simplified way, and since generally the voltages to which the motor will be connected will be 230 or
400 V AC, the values of the capacitor for each kW of motor power can be summarized as 70µF for 230V
and 20 µF for 400V.
That is, in the most common case, if a three-phase motor is connected to a 230 V single-phase network,
the capacity of the capacitor must be 70 µF for each kW of the motor.
Three-phase motor starting with single-phase

network
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11.10- Starting single-phase motors with three-phase components

For the connection of single-phase motors, it must be taken into account that the vast majority of
contacts and thermal relays available in practice are of the three-phase type. The starting of single-phase
motors could be done by protecting the power circuit with a bipolar magneto-thermal automatic switch,
switching the system using a two-pole single-phase contactor, but the most common is to use three-
phase contactors associated with three-phase thermal relays.
In these cases, the motor connection must be carried out without leaving any terminal of the three-
phase switchgear equipment unconnected, especially in the case of the thermal relay, since all its poles
must receive current. To do this, it will be necessary for one of the active conductors, generally the
phase, to go through both the contact and the thermal relay in duplicate, as shown in the following
figure:
Connection of a single-phase or DC motor with a contactor and three-phase thermal

relay
This method, although it may not seem very appropriate, really increases the safety of the power circuit,
since the thermal relay makes two measurements on the same phase.
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Chapter 12- Electromechanical and

electronic sensors
Sensors can be classified into three large groups:
• Electromechanical sensors or switches: are those in which the physical variable closes a
contact through some mechanical system; these need to make contact with the physical
variable to be sensed. Examples of these are: pressure switches, liquid level float,
thermostat, limit switch, etc.
• Solid state sensors: are those that do not need to make contact with the physical variable to
be sensed. Examples of these are: inductive sensor, capacitive sensor, ultrasonic sensor, etc.
• Analog sensors: are those that convert a physical magnitude into a variable electrical signal.
Examples of these are: piezoelectric sensor, photoresistor, PTC thermistor, thermocouple,
etc.
12.1- Pressure switch
It is a device that closes or opens an electrical circuit depending on the pressure reading of a fluid, also
known as a pressure switch. The fluid exerts pressure on an internal piston, causing it to move until two
contacts join. When the pressure drops, a spring pushes the piston in the opposite direction and the contacts
separate.
A screw allows you to adjust the trigger sensitivity of the pressure switch by applying more or less force to
the piston through the spring. They usually have two independent settings: the on pressure and the off
pressure.
They should not be confused with pressure transducers (pressure gauges), while the latter deliver a variable
signal based on the pressure range, pressure switches deliver an on/off signal only. Pressure switches are
available that can detect pressure changes of less than 1 PSI (pound per square inch) or pressures over
15,000 PSI.
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Symbols of the contacts of a pressure switch under NEMA and IEC standards
In this System, when the pressure sensed by the pressure switch reaches its preset value, its contacts open,
so the energy in the contactor coil is lost, then turning off the compressor motor.
System ON/OFF switch l_1
Pressure
switch or
pressure
switch
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Compressor control with pressure switch
12.1.1- Pressure sensors
Pressure sensors are designed to produce a voltage or current output that depends on the amount of
pressure that is detected.
Piezoresistive pressure sensor : Piezoresistive sensors are very popular due to their small size,
reliability, and accuracy. These sensors are available in ranges from 0 to 1 psi and 0 to 30 PSI. The
sensing element is a diaphragm.
Differential pressure sensor : This particular sensor can be used for absolute sense, gauge, or
differential pressure. Units are available that can be used to detect the
empty. Sensors of this type can be obtained to detect pressure ranges from 0 to 1, 0 to 2, 0 to 5, 0 to
15, 0 to 30, and 0 to 15 (vacuum).
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12.2- Limit Switch, position switch or limit switch

Limit switches are devices used in control to detect the path of a moving part.
Limit switches
The following figure illustrates the use of a limit switch to detect the position of boxes on a conveyor line.
This particular limit switch uses a long metal bar that can move freely in any direction when struck by an
object.
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Its function is to detect the position of mechanical parts, physical contact is required and this movement
closes or opens its electrical contacts.
Their shape is very varied but basically they are made up of (1) Head or operator which is the part that
comes into mechanical contact, and (2) electrical contact.
Limit Switch Parts
Different types of limit switches depending on the type of operator
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NEMA Symbols (American)

Limit Switch Limit Switch IEC symbols (European)
Usually Usually
Open Closed
Normally Normally
Limit Switch NO Umit Switch NC Opened closed
Held closed Held Open
Symbols of the contacts of a limit switch under NEMA and IEC standards
The selection of the switch is determined mainly by the way it is going to work.
In the following diagram, there is a Limit Switch sensor with two contacts, the OFF lamp will light when the
limit switch is activated.
Operation of a limit switch
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Another type of limit switch often used in different types of control circuits is the micro limit switch or micro
switch. Microswitches are much smaller in size than the conventional limit switch, allowing them to be used in
small spaces that would never be accessible to the larger device. Another feature of the microswitch is that the
actuation plunger requires only a small amount of travel to cause the contacts to change position. The
microswitch shown in the image below has an activation plunger located on the top of the switch. This switch
requires the plunger to be depressed approximately 0.015 inches or 0.38 millimeters. Changing the contact
position with this small amount of movement is achieved by spring loading the contacts. A small amount of
movement against the spring causes the moving contact to break from one position to another.
Microswitch for limit switch
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12.2.1- Example of application of a direction of rotation inverter circuit
A three-phase motor moves a crane on a horizontal rail from left to right. To detect the ends of the travel, two
limit switch type position switches have been installed. Motor control is done using pushbuttons, and it is
necessary to go through a stop to reverse the direction of rotation.
Every time the motor reaches the limits of travel, the corresponding position switch is activated, stopping the
motor. In this situation, the engine can only be started in the opposite direction.
Represent the control diagram for reversing the direction of rotation with stopping using limit switches or limit
switches.
Control of rotation change of a motor with stop by limit switch

12.3- Flow switch
Flow switches are used to detect the movement of air or liquid through a conduit or pipe. Airflow switches are
often called paddle switches because the sensor mechanism resembles a paddle. The airflow switch is
constructed from a snap-action microswitch. A metal on the arm is connected to the micro switch. A thin piece
of metal or plastic is connected to the metal arm. When a large amount of air flow passes through the candle,
enough force is produced to cause the metal arm to operate the switch contacts.
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Symbols of the contacts of a flow switch under NEMA and IEC standards
12.3.1- Flow sensors
Flow switches are used to detect the flow of liquid through a pipe or air flowing through a conduit, however,
they cannot detect the amount of liquid or air flow. To detect the amount of liquid or air flow, a transducer is
the best option. A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another.
There are several types of flow sensors such as liquid flow sensors, electromagnetic flow sensors, orifice plate
flow sensors, Vortex flow sensors and air flow sensors.
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Industrial flow sensor
12.4- Temperature switch or thermostat

A thermostat is the component of a simple control system that opens or closes an electrical circuit based on
temperature.
Its simplest version consists of a metal sheet like the one used by air conditioning equipment to turn the
compressor on or off.
12.4.1- Bimetal temperature switch
It consists of two metal sheets joined together, with a different coefficient of thermal expansion. When the
temperature changes, the sheet automatically changes shape, acting on contacts that close an electrical circuit.
Bimetal thermostat
They can be normally open or normally closed, changing their state when the temperature reaches the level
for which they are prepared.
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Symbols of the contacts of a temperature switch under NEMA and IEC standards
12.4.2- Gas or bulb type temperature switch

It consists of a gas enclosed within a copper tube. When the temperature rises, the gas expands and pushes
the valve, which performs a certain function. To regulate it, the volume of the tube is modified, varying the
pressure.
The temperature element is designed so that a change in temperature produces a change in the internal
pressure of a filled thermal system (bulb filled with gas or air, or filled propeller), which is connected to the
actuating device by a small tube or pipe. A change in temperature causes a change in the volume of gas in the
bulb, which causes a movement of the bellows. The movement is transmitted by a plunger to the switch arm. A
moving contact is on the arm. A fixed contact can be placed so that the switch will open or close with a rise in
temperature. This allows the switch contacts to be set to close when the temperature drops to a
predetermined value and open when temperature rises exceed the desired value. The reverse action can be
obtained by a change in contact positions.
Bulb or gas type thermostat
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12.4.3- Manual or safety temperature switch
They are those that require human intervention to return to their initial state, such as safety thermostats that
perform a function in case the temperature reaches dangerous levels.
12.4.4- Electronic or digital temperature switch
Electronic thermostats are becoming more common due to their advantages.
• They can be free of moving parts and contacts that suffer deterioration.
• You can configure both a temperature and a threshold or a minimum time between activations.
• They can be easily integrated into a system with more functions such as a scheduler with other events.
• With a PID controller you can do more intelligent management.
Digital or electronic temperature switch
12.5- Electric float or level switch

Electric floats are used to control the level of liquids (water) in elevated tanks (tinacos) or cisterns, they order
the pump motor to stop or start.
electric float
Float switch contacts can be normally open or normally closed
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7
Symbols of the contacts of a liquid level switch under NEMA and IEC standards
Switching is possible with an internal ball (steel ball), which activates a lever that changes the contacts of a
microswitch according to the float altitude. The electrical characteristics are 127 volts ~, 60 Hz, 10 Ampere.
The electric floats have a 100% hermetic polypropylene body allowing it to float thanks to its flexible cable
(with 3 conductors) and can change altitude, adjusting its displacement by means of a counterweight.
If the float is down, the weight of the ball will activate the microswitch and the NO (Normally Open) contact
will close.
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12.6- Proximity or presence sensors

They allow objects to be detected without contact. Its operation is based on the triggering of an electronic
circuit, which generates an output signal whose behavior, from an electrical point of view, is similar to that of
an opening or closing electromechanical contact.
Proximity sensors are available in various sizes and configurations to meet different application requirements.
One of the most common configurations is the cylindrical type, which houses the sensor in a metal or polymer
cylinder with threads on the outside of the housing. The Figure below shows a cylinder type proximity switch
along with the symbols used to represent it. The threaded housing allows the sensor to easily fit into a
mounting frame.
Proximity sensor and symbols

There are numerous types of sensors on the market to measure all types of physical quantities. Only some of
them widely used in industrial automation will be studied here.
This type of sensors is also known as proximity detectors, since they detect the presence of objects without
contact when they are within their field of action or work area.
Proximity sensor to count the number of cans

Depending on the technology used for detection, they are classified as: Photoelectric, inductive, capacitive and
ultrasonic.
12.6.1- Photoelectric
A photoelectric sensor is an optical control device that works by detecting a beam of visible or invisible
(infrared) light and responding to a change in the intensity of the received light. Photoelectric sensors are made
up of two basic components: a transmitter (light source) and a receiver (sensor), as shown in the figure below.
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Photoelectric sensor
The light barrier is established between a transmitting cell and a receiving cell. They can be housed in the same
base or in separate bases.
The basic operation of a photoelectric sensor can be summarized as follows:
• The transmitter contains a light source, usually an LED along with an oscillator.
• The oscillator modulates or turns the LED on and off at a high speed.
• The transmitter sends this beam of modulated light to the receiver.
• The receiver decodes the light beam and switches the output device, which interacts with the
burden.
• The receiver is tuned to the modulation frequency of its emitter, and will only amplify the light signal
that pulses at the specific frequency.
• Most sensors allow adjustment of the amount of light that will cause the sensor output to change
state.
• The response time is related to the frequency of the light pulses. Response times can be important
when an application requires the detection of very small objects, objects moving at a high speed, or
both.
The scanning technique refers to the method used by photoelectric sensors to detect an object. According to
this, photoelectric sensors are classified as barrier, reflex or reflective and diffuse. Understanding the
differences between available photoelectric sensing techniques is important in determining which sensor will
work best in a specific application.
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Photoelectric barrier sensor
The emitter and receiver are located in different containers and need to be aligned precisely. They are used for
long distances (up to 300 m).
The operation of the system can be summarized as follows:
• The receiver is aligned with the transmitter beam to capture the maximum amount of light emitted by
the transmitter.
• The object to be detected placed in the path of the light beam blocks the light towards the receiver
and causes the output of the receiver to change state.
• Because the light beam travels in only one direction, scanning across the beam provides long-range
detection.
• This scanning technique is a more reliable method in areas of heavy dust, haze, and other types of
airborne contaminants that can scatter the beam and for monitoring large areas.
• Most often, a garage door opener has a beam photoelectric sensor mounted near the floor, across the
width of the door. For this application, the sensor detects that there is nothing in the path of the door
when it is closing.
Photoelectric barrier sensor for garage door
Reflex or reflective photoelectric sensor

In this the transmitter and the receiver are housed in the same room. This arrangement requires the use of a
separate reflector or reflective tape mounted in front of the sensor to return light to the receiver. This sensor is
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designed to respond to objects that interrupt the beam that is normally maintained between the transmitter
and receiver, as illustrated in the figure below. Unlike a continuous beam application, reflective sensors are
used for medium range applications (up to 15 m).
Reflective photoelectric sensor

Reflective sensors may not be able to detect bright targets because they tend to reflect light back to the
sensor. In this case, the sensor cannot differentiate between light reflected from the lens and that from the
reflector. To correct this problem, polarizing filters are used; these are placed in front of the lenses of the
emitter and receiver.
Photoelectric proximity or diffuse sensor
Its operation is similar to the reflex type, the reflective mirror is not necessary. The object to be detected itself
is responsible for reflecting the light beam. They are used for short distances (between 1 and 10 cm).
In a diffuse photoelectric sensor (also called proximity), the transmitter and receiver are housed in the same
package, but unlike the reflex sensor, they do not depend on any type of reflector to return the light signal to
the receiver. Instead, light from the transmitter hits the target and the receiver collects some of the diffuse
(scattered) light. When the receiver receives enough reflected light, the output will change state. Because only
a small amount of light will reach the receiver, its operating range is limited to a maximum of about 40 inches.
The sensitivity of the sensor can be set to simply detect an object or to detect a certain point on an object
which may be more reflective. This is often achieved by using various colors with different reflective properties.
object to be sensed
• Asg transmitted
“reflected light ”
Photoelectric proximity sensor
12.6.2- Inductive
Proximity sensors work on different principles, depending on the type of matter being detected. When an
application requires non-contact metal target detection, an inductive type proximity sensor is used. Inductive
proximity sensors are used to detect ferrous metals (containing iron) and non-ferrous metals (such as copper,
aluminum, and brass). Its field of action is very small, not exceeding 60 mm in the highest power models.
Inductive proximity sensors work on the electrical principle of inductance, where a fluctuating current induces
an electromotive force (emf) in a target object. The block diagram for an inductive proximity sensor is shown
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8
MK--AM.ANNNN
metal Oscillator Detector Exit
material
wM/ff ww"wwww
Inductive sensor
below.
Its operation can be summarized as follows:
• The oscillator circuit generates a high-frequency electromagnetic field that radiates from the end of the
sensor.
• When a metallic object enters the field, eddy currents are induced in the surface of the object.
• Eddy currents in the object absorb some of the radiated energy from the sensor, resulting in a loss of
energy and a change in strength of the oscillator.
• The sensor detection circuit monitors the strength of the oscillator and triggers a solid state output at a
specific level.
• Once the metal object leaves the detection area, the oscillator returns to its initial value.
The type of metal and size of the target are important factors that determine the effective detection range of
the sensor. Ferrous metals can be detected up to 2 inches away, while most non-ferrous metals require a
shorter distance, usually within an inch of the device. The point at which the proximity sensor recognizes an
incoming target is called the operating point. The point at which an outgoing target causes the device to return
to its normal state is called the release point. Most proximity sensors come equipped with an LED status
indicator to verify output switching action. The area between the operating and release points is known as the
hysteresis zone. Hysteresis is specified as a percentage of the nominal sensing range and is necessary to
prevent proximity sensors from vibrating when subjected to shock and vibration, slow-moving targets, or minor
disturbances such as electrical and temperature noise.
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hysteresis zone
Hysteresis zone of a sensor

12.6.3- Capacitive
Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to inductive proximity sensors. The main differences between the two
types are that capacitive proximity sensors produce an electrostatic field rather than an electromagnetic field
and are activated by metallic and non-metallic materials.
Capacitive sensors contain a high-frequency oscillator along with a detection surface formed by two metal
electrodes, see the following figure. When the target approaches the sensing surface, it enters the electrostatic
field of the electrodes and changes the capacitance of the oscillator. As a result, the oscillator circuit starts to
oscillate and changes the output state of the sensor when it reaches a certain amplitude. As the target moves
away from the sensor, the amplitude of the oscillator decreases and the sensor returns to its original state.
electrodes
sensor
electrostatic
field
Oscillator
waveform
Metallic and non-

metallic material Greater area
detection
Capacitive sensor operation
Capacitive proximity sensors will detect metallic objects, as well as non-metallic materials such as paper, glass,
liquids and fabric. They typically have a short detection range of about 1 inch, regardless of the type of material
detected. The higher the dielectric constant of a target, the easier it will be to detect the capacitive sensor. This
makes it possible to detect materials inside non-metallic containers.
As illustrated in the following figure, a capacitive sensor is used to detect the contents of a container. In this
example, the liquid has a much higher dielectric constant than the cardboard container, giving the sensor the
ability to see through the container and detect the liquid. In the process shown, detected empty containers are
automatically diverted through a cylinder.
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Capacitive sensor to detect the contents of a container
12.6.4- Ultrasonic
They detect objects of any type without physical contact. An ultrasonic sensor works by sending high-frequency
sound waves toward the target and measuring the time it takes for the pulses to bounce back. The time it takes
for this echo to return to the sensor is directly proportional to the distance or height of the object because
sound has a constant speed.
Ultrasonic detectors, also called sonar, allow the field of action to be manually adjusted between a minimum
and maximum distance. This makes them enormously versatile for many industrial applications.
There are digital output and analog output. The former behave like a contact (opening or closing) and the latter
are capable of accurately measuring the distance at which an object is in the detection field.
The following figure illustrates a practical application where the return echo signal is electronically converted
to a 4 to 20 mA output, which supplies a monitored flow to external control devices. The 4-20 mA represents
the measurement range of the sensor. The 4 mA set point is usually placed near the bottom of the empty tank,
or the greatest measuring distance from the sensor. The 20 mA set point is usually placed near the top of the
full tank, or the shortest measuring distance from the sensor. The sensor will proportionally generate a 4 mA
signal when the tank is empty and a 20 mA signal when the tank is full. Ultrasonic sensors can detect solids,
fluids, granular objects and textiles. Furthermore, they allow
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Sense liquid
level
Detection of
transparent objects
—4- to 20-mA
- Output (mA'
4 20
Output (mA)
Detection level
Ultrasound sensor operation

detection of different objects regardless of color and transparency and are therefore ideal for monitoring
transparent objects.
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12.7- Connection of proximity sensors

Most sensor applications operate at 24 VDC or 120 VAC. Figure 4-30 illustrates typical two-wire and three-wire
sensor connections. The three-wire DC proximity sensor (Figure 4-30a) has the positive and negative line wires
connected directly to it. When the sensor is activated, the circuit will connect the signal wire to the positive
side of the line if it operates normally open. If operating normally closed, the circuit will disconnect the signal
wire from the positive side of the line.
12.7.1- Two-wire connection
Figure 4-30b illustrates a typical two-wire proximity sensor connection intended to be connected in series with
the load. They are manufactured for AC or DC supply voltages. In the off state, enough current must flow
through the circuit to keep the sensor active. This off-state current is called leakage current and can typically
vary from 1 to 2 mA. When the switch is operated, it will conduct normal charging circuit current. Please note
that sensors are basically pilot devices for loads such as starters, contactors and solenoids, and should not be
used to directly operate a motor.
Two-wire sensor connection
The load can be a contactor coil or an industrial relay of voltage and current type identical to that of the
detector itself.
12.7.2- Three wire connection

These sensors have three wires. Two of them are for power supply (brown for positive and blue for negative)
from an auxiliary direct current source and the remaining one for output to the load (black cable for normally
open and white for a normally closed contact).
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Depending on the type of switching, three-wire sensors can be PNP and NPN. In the former the output is
positive and in the latter the output is negative. It is important to keep this in mind, since the load is connected
differently in each of them.
Three-wire NPN and PNP sensor connection diagram
Three-wire NPN and PNP sensor connection diagram
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9
Chapter 13- Speed control

electric motors
Since the speed of an alternating current motor, whether three-phase or single-phase, depends only on the
frequency of the network and the pairs of stator poles, the speed variation in this type of machines was very
limited until the appearance on the market of electronic frequency emptyers.
The classic speed regulation in this type of motors consists of using several groups of internal windings, or a
single group of coils divided by intermediate terminals. In fact, until the electronics revolution, direct current
motors have been the most used for applications that required regulation of the working speed.
A large part of the processes and motors used in industrial facilities operate at variable speeds. Currently,
speed regulation in alternating current rotating machines is achieved by one of these methods:
1. Hardwired logic, among which the two-speed motors and the Dahlander motor stand out.
2. Digital logic, with electronic frequency converters.
13.1- Three-phase two-speed induction motor

The stator of a squirrel cage induction motor can be designed so that the motor can operate at two different
speeds. These motors are often used in drill presses, fans and pumps. One way to obtain two speeds is to wind
the stator with two different windings of, for example, 4 and 6 poles. The problem is that only one winding
operates at a time and therefore only half of the copper inserted in the slots is used.
Each group of coils, therefore, will have a different speed, which must be specified by the manufacturer.
Depending on the speed you want to choose, the windings corresponding to one or another group of coils will
be fed.
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In figure below, note that the motor can be started at any speed. However, the stop button must be pressed to
transfer from high speed to low speed. The starter shown in the figure is provided with a mechanical interlock
between contactors L and H. Obviously, it is not possible to feed both groups of motor coils simultaneously,
since this would almost certainly cause irreversible damage to the machine. To prevent this from happening
accidentally, the maneuvers between contactors must be interlocked.
Power and control scheme for two-speed three-phase motor

The following figure illustrates the latching of a button by using combination buttons. The figure also
demonstrates that a transfer can be made at any speed without touching the stop button. However,
continuous rapid speed transfers can activate overload relays. To avoid this, the control scheme can be fitted
with time delay relays which will provide a time lag between speed changes.
Interlocking diagram with push button and transfer at any speed without stopping
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13.1.1- Dahlander type three-phase induction motor or consequential poles
A three-phase motor in Dahlander connection has the special characteristic of being able to work at two
different nominal speeds with a single group of coils. This is achieved by dividing each of the windings in half
and removing three terminals from that intermediate point, which is equivalent to dividing the poles in half.
With half the number of poles, the motor will rotate at twice the speed, so the two speeds of the Dahlander
motor will always be twice as fast as the other.
The synchronous speeds obtained are generally 2:1 ratio (3600/1800 r/min, 1200/600 r/min, etc.). Creating
consequent poles produces the lowest speed.
Figure 14.8 shows the stator connections of a 2-speed, 4-pole/8-pole three-phase motor. Six conductors,
numbered 1 through 6, exit the stator winding. For high speed connection, power is applied to terminals 1-2-3
and 4-5-6 are opened. The resulting delta connection produces 4 poles per phase that have two N and two S
poles (Fig. 14.8a). Note that the four poles are connected in series.
Dahlander type three-phase induction motor or consequential poles

a. High speed connection of a three-phase stator, producing 4 poles.
b. Low speed connection of the same motor, which produces 8 poles.
The low speed connection is made by shorting terminals 1-2-3 and applying power to 4-5-6. The resulting
double Y connection again produces 4 poles per phase, but now they all have the same polarity.
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Connection for low and high speed
A schematic diagram of such a circuit is shown in the figure below. The circuit allows the motor speed to be
changed without pressing the stop button. According to the chart in Figure 32-5 (A), terminals T4, T5 and T6
must be connected together for low speed operation. Two contactors will be used when low speed is selected.
The contactors will be identified as S1 and S2. The high speed contactor will be identified as F. A separate
overload relay is required for each speed because the full load current for each speed will be different. Pilot
lamps were added to the circuit to indicate engine speed. An amber lamp will indicate slow speed and a green
lamp will indicate fast speed.
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Speed control
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13.3- frequency converters

The speed of a three-phase induction motor can be controlled by changing the number of stator poles per
phase, as is the case with consequential pole motors, or by changing the frequency of the applied voltage.
Both methods produce a change in the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field.
Since the speed of an alternating current motor depends directly on the frequency, variable speed systems and
drives have always been associated with direct current motors, since their control is simpler, leaving current
motors relegated. alternates to constant speed jobs and applications.
The synchronization speed of three-phase asynchronous motors is proportional to the frequency of the supply
current and inversely proportional to the number of pairs of poles that make up the stator.
12Of
n =-------
Q
Where:
n = timing speed in RPM
f = frequency in Hz p = number of poles
The chart shown in the table below indicates that when the frequency is changed, there is a corresponding
change in the synchronous speed.
Number of Synchronous speed in RPM

poles
60HZ 50HZ 40HZ 30HZ 20HZ 10HZ
2 3,600 3,000 2,400 1,800 1,200 600
4 1,800 1,500 1,200 900 600 300
6 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200
8 900 750 600 450 300 150
Table of motor speeds as a function of frequency
These data do not mean that it is possible to increase the speed of an asynchronous motor by feeding it at a
higher frequency than expected, even if the voltage is adapted. It is advisable to check if its mechanical and
electrical design allows it.
Taking slip into account, the load rotation speeds of asynchronous motors are slightly lower than the
synchronization speeds given in the table.
The appearance at an industrial level of power electronic components, however, has now led to the
manufacture of equipment capable of controlling the speed of alternating current machines, modifying the
input frequency to the motor. This fact, together with the difficult and expensive maintenance associated with
direct current motors, has led to the fact that currently most of the processes and applications that require
speed variations are governed by electronic frequency converters (also called frequency converters) associated
with to motors powered by alternating current.
A variable frequency drive (VFD), a controller and an operator interface. This controls speed and other
functions generally of three-phase motors, but some types of single-phase motors can be used. Motors
designed for fixed-speed main voltage operation are often used, but certain improvements to standard motor
designs offer greater reliability.
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A simplified diagram of a VFD controller is shown in the following figure.
Parts of a drive or variable frequency drive (VFD)
The three main sections of the controller are as follows:
• Rectifier: Rectifies the incoming three-phase AC signal to a DC direct current signal.

• DC filter (also known as DC link or DC bus): Provides a smooth, rectified DC voltage.
• Inverter: Turns the DC on and off so quickly that the motor receives a pulsating voltage similar to AC.
The switching speed is controlled to vary the frequency of the simulated AC applied to the motor.
13.3.1- Operating principle
The operating principle of most electronic variable speed drives for single-phase and three-phase AC motors is
based on the so-called pulse width modulation (PWM) technique, through which the input frequency to the
motor is modified.
Drives that use IGBTs generally use diodes, not SCRs, to rectify the AC voltage into DC. The three-phase
rectifier supplies a constant DC voltage to the transistors. The output voltage to the motor is controlled by
pulse width modulation (PWM).
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Circuit of a frequency converter

PWM is achieved by turning the transistor on and off several times during each half cycle, see the graph below.
The output voltage is an average of the maximum or peak voltage and the amount of time the transistor is on
or off. Assume
Pulse width modulation is achieved by turning the voltage on and off several times during each medium
cycle.
Assume that 480 volt three-phase AC is rectified to DC and filtered. The DC voltage applied to the IGBTs is
approximately 630 volts. The output voltage to the motor is controlled by the switching speed of the
transistors. Assume the transistor is on for 10 microseconds and off for 20 microseconds. In this example, the
transistor is on for one-third of the time and off for two-thirds of the time. The voltage applied to the motor is
210 volts (630/3). The speed at which IGBTs can operate allows pulse width modulation to produce a step
wave that is very similar to a standard sine wave, see next figure.
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The speed of IGBTs can produce a step wave that is similar to a sine wave.
13.3.2- Programming of frequency converters
Variable speed drives have a set of parameters that is more or less extensive depending on the model.
Its programming can be done in various ways:
• From a small operation panel that incorporates the drive

• Using an external programming terminal that is purchased separately and allows advanced
programming
• from a personal computer through a specific connection cable and parameterization software.
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Variable frequency drive programming panel

These are some of the characteristic parameters that can be adjusted and programmed in a frequency
converter:
• Factory settings: sets all drive parameters to factory values.

• Acceleration ramp: it is the time in seconds that is used for the motor to reach the pre-programmed
speed.
• Deceleration ramp: it is the time in seconds that is used for a motor to reduce its speed until it stops
or reaches another pre-programmed speed.
• Maximum Speed: Fastest speed at which you want the motor to rotate
• Minimum speed: Slowest speed at which you want the motor to rotate.
• Pre-selected speeds: set of speeds that are programmed by the operator and that are chosen through
the logic inputs or through some communication bus.
• JOG : impulse motor operation. It needs its own preselected speed and an associated logic input to
connect a button or switch.
Frequency converters, in addition to being able to regulate the speed of the motors, generally have other
integrated functions to control these machines:
• Electronic starter function.

• Control and variation of acceleration.
• Control and speed variation.
• Motor braking or deceleration function.
• Regulation of starting intensity.
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• Engine torque control.

• Machine switching (start/stop control).
• Remote rearming.
• Engine load indicator.
• History and monitoring function.
• Protection against short circuits and overloads.
• Sectioning of the power network.
The main disadvantage of frequency converters with respect to speed variation methods based on hardwired
logic is their high price, the need for programming and the fact that they generate harmonics and disturbances
to the network during operation. However, the advantages they offer are numerous, such as:
• Simple speed control.

• Minimum maintenance cost.
• Energy savings by being able to define when the machine stops working or when it reduces speed.
• Improved quality in processes by being able to perform smooth starts and braking.
Frequency inverters have their main applications in machines and conveyor belts, fans, pumps, lifting devices,
mechanical presses, compressors and a long etcetera.
The connection of this type of device, as occurred in the case of electronic starters, depends on the model and
manufacturer, so it will be necessary to consult the characteristics sheet of the drainer in each case.
1 Graphic display
2 MODE button (1): If [SPEED

REFERENCE] (rEF-) is displayed, it
allows you to go to the [SETTINGS]
menu (SEt-). If not, it allows you to go
5 Navigation keys:
to the [SPEED REFERENCE] (rEF-)
menu.
6 ENT button
Allows you to save the current value, or
3 ESC button Allows you to enter the menu or the selected
exit a menu or parameter or parameter
end the displayed value to
return to the previous value
in memory
7 STOP button
Allows you to stop the motor and do
a reset
4 RUN button
Start execution if the
function is configured
engine rotation
Basic functions of a frequency converter configuration panel
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13.3.3- Connection of the speed variator
There are different construction types of frequency converters on the market, although from the point of view
of their operation they are all very similar. In the following figure, you can see a model of frequency converter.
In this model you can distinguish the connection point, both for the three-phase power supply (at the top of
the equipment) and for other types of connections in the rest of the connection terminals (bottom of the
equipment). Other control elements can also be distinguished on the front (potentiometer, pushbuttons, and a
V/I selector), as well as the display itself for displaying the parameters and status of the equipment.
Variable frequency drive, or the acronym AFD

From the connection point of view, the variable speed drives have three well differentiated modules:
• Power part.
• Command part.
• Speed command.
The power part is connected from the electrical network, passing through the variator and then to the motor.
There are drives for connection to the single-phase network and connection to the three-phase network. In
both cases, the motor is always three-phase.
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Variable frequency drive power wiring

Protect the drive and power input wiring from short circuits and thermal overload. Perform
protection according to the following guidelines.
Protect the power circuit input of the frequency converter with a magneto-thermal circuit
breaker.
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It is advisable to have a contactor between the protection device and the frequency converter. This will be
controlled with an external control circuit and will allow the inverter power supply network to be cut off.
The control part has logic inputs to connect switch and push-button type sensors. It is used to start and stop
the motor, reverse the direction of rotation, JOG mode, etc. The reference signal for these inputs is made from
the positive voltage terminal provided by the drive itself. These inputs are programmable and may have
different uses depending on the application.
Connection of control elements to the frequency converter

The speed setpoint is given through a three-terminal analog input, to which a rotary potentiometer is
connected. The value in kΩ of said potentiometer is assigned by the manufacturer.
Thus, the basic connection to start a motor using a variable speed drive is as follows.
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Chapter 14- Braking of electric
motors
The most common method of stopping a motor is to remove the supply voltage and allow the motor and load
to stop. However, in some applications, the motor must be stopped more quickly or held in position by some
type of braking device. Electric braking uses the motor windings to produce retarding torque. The kinetic
energy of the rotor and load are dissipated as heat in the rotor bars of the motor.
In certain industrial processes, however, it may be necessary to control the braking of a motor, either in a
controlled gradual manner or immediately by blocking. For these applications it will be necessary to have
automated braking systems.
In industrial automation installations, the most used motor braking systems are countercurrent braking, direct
current injection braking and electromechanical braking. These braking systems can be governed by
automation based on wired logic or by electronic systems such as frequency dumpers. Their most important
characteristics are defined below.
14.1- Counterflow braking
To make the rotor stop very quickly, countercurrent braking is used. For this purpose, the motor is switched so
that it tends to rotate in the Opposite direction. The inverter circuit is used in three-phase motors. So that the
motor does not continue rotating in the opposite direction, it can be disconnected, for example, by means of a
rotation frequency sensor for a zero speed.
The direction of rotation of DC motors can be reversed by switching the armature winding.
When the machines are braked, they are subjected to great thermal stress, since the current they consume is
very intense.
There is a variant of this method called smoothed countercurrent braking, and it consists of adding a group of
stator resistances to reduce the sudden effects produced by the reversal. This is the most used method in
practice, since normal countercurrent braking can cause damage to the machine.
2
Automated electrical
Electric Motor installations
Control
Normal engine operation is carried out by connecting KM1. When this is deactivated, the motor is
disconnected from the electrical network and KM2 automatically enters. In this situation, the motor is
powered through the resistors, braking it immediately.
To prevent the motor from running in the opposite direction, the operation of KM2 must be controlled by a
timer.
Countercurrent motor braking smoothed by hardwired logic
14.2- DC injection braking

DC injection braking is a braking method in which direct current is applied to the stationary windings of an AC
motor after the applied AC voltage is removed. The injected DC voltage creates a magnetic field in the motor
stator winding that does not change polarity. In turn, this constant magnetic field in the stator creates a
magnetic field in the rotor. Since the stator's magnetic field does not change polarity, it will attempt to stop
the rotor when the magnetic fields are aligned (N to S and S to N). The current value should be approximately
1.3 times the rated operating current.
In wired logic automation, the direct current source is usually obtained by connecting specific equipment
(composed of a rectifier and a transformer) to two of the three motor power supply phases through two
groups of contactors.
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The circuit in the figure below is an example of how DC injection braking can be applied to a three-phase AC
induction motor.
DC injection motor braking using hardwired logic
• The DC injection voltage is obtained from the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit, which changes the line
voltage from AC to DC.
• Pressing the START button activates the start coil M and the off delay timer coil TR.
• The normally open auxiliary contact M1 closes to maintain current to the starting coil and the normally
closed auxiliary contact M2 opens to open the current path to the braking coil B.
2
• The normally open trip delay timer contact TR remains closed at all times while the engine is running.
• When the STOP button is pressed, the start coil M and the off delay timer coil TR are deactivated.
• The braking coil B is activated via the closed contact TR.
• All B contacts close to apply DC braking power to two phases of the motor winding.
motor stator.
• Coil B is de-energized after the timer contact timeout. The timing contact is set to remain closed until the
engine comes to a complete stop.
• A transformer with threaded windings is used in this circuit to adjust the amount of braking torque applied
to the motor.
• The motor starter (M) and braking contactor (B) are mechanically and electrically interlocked so that the
AC and DC supplies are not connected to the motor at the same time.
The main advantage that this method offers with respect to countercurrent braking is that it is not necessary
to control that the motor restarts in the opposite direction. Furthermore, with current electronic drives and
starters, this braking possibility is offered by default.
14.3- Electromechanical braking

Electromechanical braking is a system applicable to small and medium power motors, which consists of
temporarily powering an electrobrake that will stop the motor shaft by friction through a shoe, spring, drum or
disc.
When this system is applied through hardwired logic, the power and maneuver circuits are similar to those of a
direct start. In a rest or stopped state, the electrobrake blocks the motor shaft and when the main contactor is
activated, the motor is powered and the electrobrake is removed.
Electrobrake
This system consists of temporarily powering an electromechanical system, which brakes the motor shaft by
friction of a shoe with the shaft, in a similar way to what is done in automobiles.
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In the power circuit, when the motor is powered by the main contactor (KM1), the electromagnet system of
the electrobrake is also powered. In this situation, the shoe is removed from the motor shaft, thus preventing
braking. If the motor is disconnected via the power contactor, so is the electromagnet of the braking system.
Therefore, the shoe, using a spring, returns to its rest position, blocking the shaft by friction.
Electromechanical brakes
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Chapter 15- Electrical

automation panels or cabinets
Electrical panels are practically metal frames that are used to protect all the command and control
components of any electrical system, whether from a basic circuit in a home to the components of a more
complex one such as that of an industrial machine.
We can find and classify different types of boards either by their application or by their content.
15.1- Types of electrical panels

15.1.1- Distribution board (TD)
These are responsible for distributing the electric current to different points in the system. Within this type we
can find three different ones:
• Main distribution: they are those that connect directly to the power line and have a master or main
switch capable of cutting off all power supply.
• Secondary distribution: These are branches of the main board and are responsible for controlling
small parts of the system.
Types of electrical panels
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1
15.1.2- Motor Control Center (CCM)

This board is characterized by having as its main components contactors, relays and all types of components
that are used to control electric motors.
Types of Engine Control Center
15.1.3- Lighting and load centers

They are used to distribute small electrical charges such as contacts and lighting.
Lighting panel and load centers
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1
15.2- electrical control panel

They are panels where the safety devices and control mechanisms of an electrical installation are located.
These contain control and protection elements such as contactors, thermal relays, circuit breakers, motor
protectors. The control and signaling devices such as pilot lights, pushbuttons and selectors are placed on the
front part.
These come in different sizes depending on the application to be made.
electrical control panel
Electrical control board
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1
15.3- Construction aspects

Among the elements that the electrical control panels are made up of are:
15.3.1- Doors
The door is the front part where the control and signaling devices such as pilot lights, buttons and selectors
are placed. All doors can be fitted with a lock.
Door with signaling, measuring and control elements

Plates
The plates are installed at the bottom of the panel and control and protection components are mounted on it.
These can be designed in a smooth or perforated way.
The smooth plate must be machined, opening its holes to mount the rails.
smooth plate
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1
Perforated plate. Perforated plate. This does not require mechanical work, it facilitates quick assembly of the
electrical components, with accessories called clip nuts.
perforated plate
15.3.4- Rail or DIN rail

A DIN rail is a standard type metal rail (steel or aluminum) widely used for mounting electrical elements and
industrial control equipment. This type of mounting rail was originally standardized by the German National
Standards Organization (DIN). There are different standardized sections, but the most used is the 35 mm top
hat section.
These can be manufactured smooth or perforated. The perforated ones are the most used, since they
eliminate the machining to be fixed to the plate.
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1
Din rail
DIN rails are fixed on the electrical panel plate, either riveted or screwed.
15.4- Wiring and connection elements

The wiring and connection elements allow the electrical connection to be made between the electrical devices
inside the panel and those located outside.
15.4.1- Terminal strip or terminal blocks
This links two cables, from a connection point. Screws are used to fix the cable. These are built for different
gauges of wires.
Terminal blocks
To prevent a short circuit from one point of the terminal to the other, they are isolated from each other,
because they are made of a plastic material. To improve the aesthetics and prevent the terminals from moving,
some fixing stops are screwed on the side of the terminal strip or terminal strip.
Side stop to fix ovens
Stops for terminal blocks

To standardize the color code, the blue terminal is used for the neutral and the green-yellow terminal for the
grounding conductor.
2
To facilitate installation in the electrical control panel, the terminal blocks are designed to be mounted on a
DIN rail.
•k
Control part
terminals
Power terminals or
power supply network
Power and control terminals
It uses terminals of two different sizes, the largest ones for the force or power circuit and the smallest ones for
the control circuit.
15.4.2- Terminal marking
To facilitate assembly and maintenance operations, each terminal or strip must be identified on the plan and
in the table.
In order to identify each point of the terminal, labels are used that can be stuck to the top of the terminal.
These are identified by number. The number refers to the point of the circuit according to the electrical
diagram.
The terminal block of the panel is generally identified with “X1”, and a panel can have various terminal blocks,
for example, the distribution circuit terminal block, the switching terminal block, the signal terminal block,
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1
Roni Dominguez Electric Motor Control
etc., thus we will have terminal blocks X1, X2 , X3.
The numbering of the labels may be correlative for each terminal, or correlative for each circuit, the latter
being more practical for the installer.
Terminal block identification with labels

The panel connection terminals will be identified with, “N- L1- L2- L3”. The Neutral N conductor terminal will
be located in the same orientation that it occupies in the installed devices, so that we will mark, “N- L1- L2-
L3”, or “L1- L2- L3- N”. It will keep the same orientation in the output circuits.
15.4.3- Cable marking

This consists of identifying the cable number according to the electrical diagram reference. This facilitates easy
detection of the elements of the electrical circuit and saves time in correcting a fault.
Signage can be done using letters and numbers or in combination. The elements used for marking can be:
Identification rings: These are made of plastic and are inserted into the cable, remaining clamped. The color
of the numbers corresponds to the color code of the resistors.
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7
Identification rings
Wraparound Labels Self-laminating or repositionable wraparound labels are a temporary or permanent
solution that provides fade and abrasion resistance.
Cable labeling with wraparound labels

To obtain the label it can be facilitated with a portable printer.
2
Portable printer for panel and cable identification labels

There are heat-shrinkable models that shrink, hugging the cable, once heat has been applied to them.
15.4.4- Cable termination
The conductors found in the panel, in addition to being identified by labels, must have a good termination to
avoid disconnections or false contacts.
15.4.5- Tip terminal for electrical control cables
To improve the electrical and aesthetic connection between the cables and the control components, the
cables are prepared with terminals at the tip.
Tip terminals for electrical control cables
The installation of the terminal. It allows to guarantee an equipotential union of all the wires of the cable,
avoids false contacts, obtains a more secure connection, insulates connections avoiding short circuits.
Once installed, the connection is safer due to the vibration movements due to the operation of machine
components.
2
There are three types of tip terminal:
• Tip terminal Without insulator

• Tip terminal With insulator
• Double conductor tip terminal
15.4.6- Quick connect systems

Combs
Designed to simplify and speed up wiring, the power busbars are made of copper bars with a conduction
capacity of up to 90A. Which guarantees a quick connection without the need for wiring.
electric comb
15.4.7- Direct insertion distribution terminals

When wiring the terminals, screws are not required. For installation, only insert the conductor directly into the
terminal hole, ensuring that there is one for each point of the terminal block.
Direct insertion distribution terminals
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15.5- Wiring fixation

15.5.1- gutters
These are used as a means of channeling electrical cables that do not exceed. These are fixed to the bottom of
the plate. To facilitate the distribution of cables to the different components, they have slots on their side.
These are fixed with rivets or screws.
gutters
15.5.2- Cable gland or gland connector

This is used to pass electrical cables through the control panels. Protecting the electrical panel from entering
dust, dirt or moisture from the outside. It also guarantees mechanical and electrical protection to the cables
since the cables are secured, avoiding the risk of disconnection and also obtaining watertightness.
neoprene cable gland
Parts of the stuffing box
They are made of molded plastic, brass, aluminum and stainless steel.
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2
Installation of cable gland in electrical register
Commercial sizes of Nema 3 general purpose plastic (polyamide) connectors are manufactured in the following
thread sizes.
Use of stuffing box in electric pump
When selecting a gland connector it is also important to take into account the environment (temperature,
humidity, etc.) to which they are exposed since they may be submerged in water.
15.5.3- Flanges or tigh rack

These are used to organize electrical wiring and give its organization greater aesthetics.
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2
Wiring organization of pushbuttons and pilot lights
15.5.4- Spirals
They are tubular plastic tapes that allow the creation of hoses by coiling in a spiral shape.
They are used in automation panels to give freedom of movement to doors or doors.
Installation of plastic spirals for wiring organization
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2
15.6- Elements for air conditioning
The appearance of new power electronic components with great heat dissipation make temperature
management a necessity, which must be taken into account when installing electrical panels.
Electrical cabinets withstand high working temperatures and require air conditioning systems that reduce the
heat generated. Depending on the dimensions of the electrical panel, its placement and the ambient
temperature generated.
Good thermal management in electrical panels guarantees correct maintenance and durability of all the
electronic components that make up the installation of an electrical panel.
15.6.1- Natural air conditioning
In this air conditioning method, no active elements are used to extract heat from the panel. For this, for
example, the panel is built with certain slots so that there is a continuous circulation of air from the outside.
Cabinets with slots for natural air conditioning
15.6.2- Forced air conditioning
For panels that generate higher temperatures. Fans are installed, so the air flow is increased.
Forced air conditioning using fans
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4
15.7- Steps for assembling the electrical cabinet

Reading and interpretation of the project's electrical plan
The electrical diagram will determine the components that will be used on the board. As well as the number of
points to use terminal blocks.
Distribution of components in electrical panel
All protection devices such as: circuit breakers, fuses are placed at the top. The control transformer or power
supply is also placed if necessary.
The contactors with their respective thermal relay are placed in the central part, followed by timers and
necessary relays. Finally, the main power supply terminals and the control terminals are located (for
connecting pushbuttons, lights, sensors, etc.).
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2
Distribution of components in electrical panel.

The terminal board of a panel can be found located in various places, generally at the bottom, but also at the
top, in side modules, and arranged in various ways.
Whether the terminal block is at the top or bottom of the box, we will place the label, placing our visibility on
the right side of the box.
If the terminal block is located at the top, we will place the label on the use of the terminal.
If the terminal block is located at the bottom, we will place the label on the terminal board connection.
For a more professional distribution of the components you can use e-Plan or Autocad-Electrical.
Mounting of rail and channels on cover

Once the distribution of the components is known, the channel and DIN rail to be used must be measured.
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6
Measure the channel and DIN rail to be used

Then the channels and DIN rail are cut either with a saw or a polisher with a cutting disc.
Slotted gutter cutting

Then the channels and DIN rail are assembled on the cover using a riveter or perjuring it with a drill and screws
to fix them.
Slotted Channel and DIN Rail Mounting

Assembly and wiring of components
All materials and electrical components, terminal cables, and tools (terminal press, screwdrivers, clamps,
pliers...), panels, doors, plates, cables, devices, etc. must be available.
All components are distributed on the DIN rail.
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2
Distribution of components on the DIN rail.

In wiring, the rule is to use the green-yellow wire as ground. The other control conductors can be chosen (red,
white, black...).
Electrical terminal assembly

A terminal punching machine is used to crimp the terminals.
Terminal crimping with punching machine
The cables are identified according to the numbering referenced in the electrical plan of the project.
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8
Cable identification with identification rings

Properly label each of the terminals.
Terminal labeling
Finally, all the connection of the electrical components is done.
Finished electrical control panel
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2
15.8- Terminal block and cable numbering

The first step is to place wire numbers on the schematic. The wire numbers are added only to the control
circuit, see next figure. The power side of the circuit is not numbered.
The components of the circuit are shown in the following figure. Components located within the dashed lines
are located inside the control cabinet. Note that the wire numbers corresponding to the schematic in the figure
above have been added to the circuit components.
control cabinet
Circuit components
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0
One method of connecting this circuit is the point-to-point method. Components are connected from one point
to another depending on the proximity of one component to another. This method generally results in savings
on wire. Some of the connections are made inside the cabinet, and others must be made outside of it.
Connections made inside the cabinet are shown with dashed lines, and those outside the cabinet are made
with solid lines. When making connections, wire numbers should be placed on the wire at any termination
point. This goes a long way in troubleshooting the circuit. Each component must also be labeled with a tag to
identify the component. The point-to-point connection of this circuit is shown in the following figure. Note that
the notation is used to identify the wire number.
electrical panel wiring

A second method for installing control systems is shown in the following figure. This method involves the use of
terminal blocks to link the electrical panel with the control components (buttons, selector and sensors). The
terminal block is located inside a cabinet that contains other control components. As with the point-to-point
system, cables must still be numbered at any termination point, and components must be labeled for easy
identification. The main difference between the two methods is that the cables from the different components
are brought to the terminal strip or terminal block and the connection is made at that location. Note that some
of the wiring is still done point-to-point inside the electrical panel. While connecting components to a terminal
strip typically involves the use of a larger amount of wire, it may be the least expensive method when circuit
troubleshooting is necessary. If the electrician needs to know if the normally open switch on the FS1 float
switch is open or closed, he can test it from the terminal strip without having to find FS1, remove the cover,
2
3
L1L2L3
control cabinet
SUN
STOP RUN
E 03 [157 E00006100E10051015151050[ 960 Q0E109

üidiüübiidHddHicMiiiiiM Eit Eitl [rltEitid
2Hu
9
FS2
Terminal block
and check the condition of the contacts. numbering
Chapter 16- Automatic transfer systems
They are a set of devices whose function is to transfer energy from two different points with the same
frequency and voltage characteristics to power the same load center. Transfer switches are classified as:
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2
16.1- Manual transfer switches
They are those in which the energy transfer operation is carried out entirely with the intervention of the
operator.
In some systems this type of transfer is carried out with the use of two thermomagnetic switches (breaker) or
with the use of a double throw switch, the latter is the most used since there is no possibility of energy shock as
could occur due to the use of two breakers from two different points and also offers great security when
making the transfer.
When this type of switches is used, it is recommended that the transfer be carried out with the load
disconnected to avoid the production of an electric arc that could cause damage to the operator or the
equipment itself.
Figure number 48 shows the manual transfer switch.
16.2- Automatic transfer systems
In this type of switches, the transfer of energy is carried out without the intervention of the operator.
The devices that make up an automatic transfer system are the following:
16.2.1- Force devices
Which are composed of normal contactors (CN) and emergency contactors (CE) for those transfer switches that
operate with current less than or equal to 400 amperes or normal breaker (BN) and emergency breaker (BE) for
those switches that operate with current greater than 400 amperes, these breakers for automatic operation
2
3
require the installation of a servomotor that makes it change position. Figure 49 shows these devices
schematically.
16.2.2- The control devices of an automatic transfer switch:

LN and EN pilot
lights
Switch Selector
CE and CN CONTROL CONTROL Phase monitor

NORMAL CDE EMERGENCY
force
contactors Control relay
RN and RE
Timers
These are the ones that automatically execute both the switching on and off of the plant as well as the transfer
and retransfer of energy to the load centers. Within the control devices of an automatic transfer switch we
have:
a) Control relays : These are devices that have the mission of controlling the energization or de-
energization of the switch force devices, in an automatic transfer switch it consists of two control
relays, one for the normal side (RN) and another for the emergency (RE) side.
b) Emergency timer (TDES) : This is an OFF delay timer that controls the plant power-on time delay after
normal system power has failed.
c) Retransfer timer (TDEN) : This is an ON delay timer that is responsible for controlling the time delay of
transition from the emergency system to the normal system when the power of the normal system is
restored.
d) Transfer timer (TDNE) : This is an ON delay timer responsible for controlling the delay in the time the
load passes to the emergency plant when the normal system power fails.
e) Plant Shutdown Timer (TDEC): As its name indicates, it is the timer that is responsible for controlling
the delay in shutting down the emergency plant after the normal system has taken the load.
f) Phase sensor or monitor: This is a device that is responsible for monitoring the voltage of the normal
system lines to detect any variation in it that exceeds the established limits by sending a signal that
takes the normal system out of service and puts the system into operation. emergency system. In the
following monitor, the phases or lines are fed by 3, 4 and 5. If there is a phase failure, or reversal,
contact 1-2 opens and contact 1-8 closes, this signal is used to activate the transfer from normal to
emergency.
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4
g) Other auxiliary devices: these are a set of devices that allow control of the systems either through
signaling or manual control within these we can mention the pilot lights indicating that the system is in
service (LN normal light and LE emergency light) , the SP test switch and the transfer cut-off switch.
Some automatic transfer system control circuits are presented below as an example.
2
3
232
Three-phase + N network inverter control circuit
power circuit
Replace
-KM1
-02 \
Single Phase Power

Circuit
-
KA1T
-KM1 7
KM2 :5
Utilization
16.4- Detection and troubleshooting of automatic transfer switches
Breakdowns or failures that occur in automatic transfer systems can be located by analyzing and following
different stages that make up the control circuit because these breakdowns are generally due to failures of a
protection device or the failure to correctly close some contact. auxiliary devices such as an auxiliary relay
contact, a timer contact or in some circumstances a coil that has failed, therefore it is necessary to carry out a
rigorous check of these devices, always concentrating on the characteristic of the failure that has occurred.
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3
presented. For example:
A type of breakdown that occurs very frequently is that the power of the normal system fails and the
emergency plant starts but it does not take the load, that is, it does not perform the retransfer.
In this case you must proceed as follows:
1. Check if there is voltage in the lines that feed the control circuit from the emergency side to the input
of the fuse and if there is voltage, check the conditions of the fuse or protection breaker.
2. If the fuse is good, proceed to check if the normally closed contact of the relay (RN) that serves as
electrical interlock with the emergency side is closed and if it is closed, measure the voltage at the coil
terminals of the emergency relay (RE). ) and if there is voltage, the next step is to check the state of the
coil, which may be open
3. If there is no voltage at the terminals of the relay coil (RE), the TDNE timer must be checked by
verifying the voltage at the terminals of its coil. If there is no voltage, it is very likely that the normally
closed contact of the relay (RE) has become stuck. opened or is shod, therefore it must be verified.
4. If there is voltage at the terminals of the TDNE timer coil, then check to see if it is counting or delaying
time so that its contacts change position.
5. If TDNE is counting correctly and the contacts change position, then the relay coil (RE) is energized and
all relay contacts must change position.
6. If the relay coil (RE) is energized and in the contact coil (CE) in the case of a transfer switch made with
contacts, or in the motor terminals (ME) in the case of a transfer made with a breaker, there is no
voltage, it is very It is likely that the contact of the relay (RE) that carries the signal is not closing, but if
it closes, the normally closed contact of the contact or normal breaker that serves as electrical interlock
and is in series with the contactor coil is checked. (CE) or with the motor terminals (NE).
7. Finally, if these contacts are closed and voltage reaches the contact coil (CE) or the motor terminals, it
is very likely that the contactor coil (CE) or motor coil (ME) is defective (open), that there is a false
contact. or an open line, therefore it is recommended to retighten the screws of the strips and
terminals, as well as measure continuity between the cables that reach each of the verified terminals.
The above is just an example of how to locate a fault or breakdown in an automatic transfer switch control
circuit. It is up to you to follow the procedure that takes the least time to locate the fault, but you must keep in
mind that it is always It is necessary to use the equipment control plane and a test instrument and meter.
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8
Chapter 17- Control with electronic

devices
Electronic systems and controls have gained wide acceptance in the motor control industry; Consequently, it has
become essential to be familiar with power electronic devices. This chapter presents an overview of diodes,
transistors and thyristors.
17.1- Diodes
Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow on the diode symbol
shows the direction in which current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of the vacuum tube or valve and at
first diodes were actually called valves.
The PN junction diode, shown in the figure below, is the most basic of semiconductor devices. This diode is formed by
a doping process, which creates P-type and N-type semiconductor materials in the same component. An N-type
semiconductor material has electrons (represented as negative charges) as current carriers, while P-type has holes
(represented as positive charges) as current carriers. N-type and P-type materials exchange charges at the junction of
the two materials, creating a thin depletion region that acts as an insulator. The diode leads are identified as the
anode lead (connected to the P-type material) and the cathode lead (connected to the N-type material).
Forward bias (Vi > 0): In this case, the diode allows the current to pass without restriction. The output and input
voltages are very similar, the current intensity can be calculated using Ohm's law.
Reverse bias (Vi < 0): In this case, the diode does not conduct, leaving the circuit open. No current flows through the
circuit, and there is no voltage drop in the load resistance RL, this means that all the input voltage will be at the ends
of the diode.
2
3
Unlike low power diodes, these are characterized by being able to withstand a high intensity with a small voltage drop
in the conduction state and in the reverse direction, they must be able to withstand a strong negative anode voltage
with a small voltage drop. leaks.
1600V 100A Power Diode

Protection diode for relays
Signal diodes are also used to protect transistors and integrated circuits from the brief high voltage produced when a
relay coil is disconnected. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected “backwards” on the relay coil.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which drops suddenly when current stops flowing
through it. This sudden drop in the magnetic field induces a brief but high voltage on the coil, which is very likely to
damage transistors and integrated circuits.
Protection diode for relays

The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a short current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic
field fades quickly. This prevents the induced voltage from becoming high enough to cause any damage to the
devices.
17.2- Rectifiers
Electrical rectifiers are the circuits responsible for converting alternating current into direct current. The most
common are those built with diodes or thyristors, although there are others that are for special cases and some that
are no longer used.
17.2.1- Half wave rectifiers
The following figure schematically represents a half-wave rectifier in which a diode is placed between the source and
the load. When the source voltage is positive, the direction of the current is favorable and circulation through the
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0
circuit occurs.
When the polarity of the source changes, in this case, the diode does not conduct, leaving the circuit open. There is
no current through the circuit, and there is no voltage drop in the load resistance RL, this means that all the input
voltage will be at the ends of the diode:
The advantage of the half-wave rectifier circuit is its simplicity, but it suffers from two defects: 1) it does not allow all
the available energy to be used, since the negative half-cycles are wasted; 2) in the typical case in which the source is
the secondary of a transformer, magnetization of the core tends to occur because the magnetic field is unidirectional.
This magnetization means that magnetic saturation is reached with lower current values, producing deformations in
the wave.
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4
17.2.2- Bridge Type Full Wave Rectifiers

The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as illustrated below:
Bridge Type Full Wave Rectifiers

When the input cycle is positive, diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and conduct current in the direction shown. A
voltage is developed across the load RL similar to the input positive half cycle. During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are
reverse biased.

When the input half cycle is negative, diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and conduct current in the same direction
through the load RL as during the positive half cycle. During the negative half cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse biased. As
a result of this action, a full-wave rectified output voltage appears across RL.
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2
Bridge Rectifier Integrated Circuit Models

17.2.3- Midpoint Full Wave Rectifiers
A drawback of bridge-type rectifiers is that there is no common voltage reference (circuit ground) between the source
and the load, resulting in both floating relative to each other. One way to solve this is to use two push-pull sources
instead of one, and place a half-wave rectifier in each of them. Push-pull sources are achieved with a transformer
whose secondary is divided into two halves, taking the midpoint as the common ground.
Midpoint Full Wave Rectifiers

This uses two diodes connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transformer. In these, both diodes cannot be
found simultaneously in direct or reverse, since the potential differences to which they are subjected are of opposite
sign; Therefore one will be polarized inversely and the other directly polarized. The input voltage (Vi) is, in this case,
the average of the secondary voltage of the transformer.
The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the center tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary
voltage appears between the center tap and each end of the secondary winding.
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4
Positive input voltage
Diode 1 is forward biased (conducts), while diode 2 is reverse biased (does not conduct). The output voltage is equal
to the input voltage. Note: diodes in the forward position conduct high currents, in the reverse position high voltages.
Negative input voltage
Diode 2 is forward biased (conducts), while diode 1 is reverse biased (nonconducting). The output voltage is equal to
the input voltage but of opposite sign. Diode 1 must withstand the maximum secondary voltage inversely.
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4
17.2.4- Principle of capacitive filtering

During the first quarter cycle the voltage on the capacitor increases until it reaches the peak value of the signal.
Capacitive filtering
Principle of capacitive filtering
• When the input voltage begins to drop, the diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through the resistor RL.
• This continues to occur until the input voltage reaches the voltage value to which the capacitor is charged.
• The download is so slow that it can be considered linear.
The result is a signal with a ripple voltage. The signal has more or less ripple depending on the value of the capacitor.
2
4
Capacitive filtering output signal
17.2.5- Three-phase rectifiers
Three-phase rectification arises from the need to power a load with high consumption with DC. With single-phase
rectifiers, relatively low ripple factors are obtained with the addition of filter capacitors. When this load consumes
higher power values, the single-phase system with capacitor filters has the disadvantage of requiring capacity values
of several tens of thousands of microfarads. This drawback is solved by using a three-phase power system that, as we
will see, does not need capacitor filters, since its own characteristic applied to a rectifier system leads to a reduction
in the ripple factor, and can also handle higher potentials in the burden.
17.2.6- Three-phase half-wave rectifier
The circuit in the figure below shows a rectifier system that is powered by a three-phase source. At the ends of each
source, three diodes are connected, which can be joined by their anodes or cathodes (rectification in positive half-
cycles or negative half-cycles).
Three-phase half-wave rectifier
The diodes are connected through the load to the neutral line of the three-phase source, so that each of the three has
the voltage between phase and neutral applied to its ends through the load. Since the currents and voltages present
in the circuit are 120º out of phase, each diode will conduct 120º from the
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6
instant in which the voltage applied to its anode is more positive with respect to the cathode than that of the
remaining diodes. Diode D1 will conduct from 30º to 150º, diode D2 will conduct from 150º to 270º and diode D3
from 250º to 30º,
as represented in the following graph.
Waveform in a three-phase half-wave rectifier
17.2.7- Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier

The operation of the three-phase full-wave rectifier is based on the alternative conduction of each diode with the
anode at the most positive potential and the other two on the opposite branches. That is, a diode that maintains its
anode positive will first conduct 60º with the diode of the next phase (whose cathode is negative) and another 60º
with the remaining diode of the other phase according to the sequence A, B, C.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier
2
4
Period
Input 180° 360% 540- Time
waveform
VAB VAC Vec VBA VAC VCB VAB VAC Vec VBA
Vo
c
Output waveform
° 300 900 150' 210= 270' 330“ 39tf 450' 510 to 570'
Time
’*60’^
Waveform in a three-phase full-wave rectifier
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Integrated Circuit Model
17.3- Zener diode
When the reverse voltage applied to a PN junction diode exceeds a certain value called the breakdown voltage, the
reverse current increases very rapidly while the voltage across the diode remains almost constant. Diodes generically
called Zener diodes work specifically in this area.
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8
The most common application of the zener diode is to use it in circuits where it is necessary to maintain a constant
voltage value, corresponding to the breakdown voltage of the diode.
For operation as a breakdown diode or simply a zener, its polarization is reversed. If we polarize it forward, its
behavior is similar to that of a normal rectifier diode, with a forward voltage similar to that of a normal rectifier diode.
Regulator with Zener Diode
The Zener diode regulator circuit shown in the following Figure produces a relatively constant voltage on the load RL.
They are generally used in applications for low load currents. The circuit has a simple operation. If the diode is
polarized in the breakdown region, it maintains a practically constant voltage between its terminals, maintaining the
same voltage on the load, even if the voltage applied to the input varies. As the input voltage varies, assuming a
constant load, the current IZ through the diode varies.
Regulator circuit with Zener diode

Two consecutive zener diodes can suppress harmful voltage transients on an AC line. A metal oxide varistor (MOV)
surge suppressor works in the same way as back-to-back zener diodes. The circuit in the figure below is used to
suppress AC voltage transients. The varistor module shown is designed to easily mount directly across the coil
terminals of contactors and starters with 120V or 240V AC coils.
Power supply
2
4
AC Voltage Transient Suppression

• Each zener diode acts as an open circuit until the reverse zener voltage across it exceeds its nominal value.
• Any higher voltage spike instantly causes the zener diode to act as a short circuit that prevents this voltage
from the rest of the circuit.
• It is recommended that you locate the suppression device as close to the charging device as possible.
17.4- Transistor
A transistor is a component that basically has two functions:
• It passes or cuts electrical signals based on a small command signal.

• It works as a signal amplifier element.
The transistor is a component that bases its operation, like the diode, on the P and N semiconductor crystals,
although to be more exact, it uses three and not two. Depending on the combinations that we can achieve, we have
two basic configurations: PNP and NPN, depending on how we place the crystals.
Crystals united in transistor

• NPN transistor: in this case a P crystal is located between two N crystals. They are the most common.
• NPN transistor: in this case a P crystal is located between two N crystals. They are the most common.
In each of these crystals a metallic contact is made, which gives rise to three terminals:
• Emitter (E): It is responsible for providing charge carriers.
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0
• Collector (C): Responsible for collecting cargo carriers.

• Base (B): Controls the flow of current through the transistor. It is the middle glass.
Types of BJT Transistors
Transistor bias
Transistor polarization is understood as the appropriate connections that must be made with direct current so that it
can function correctly.
If two batteries are connected to the transistor as seen in the figure, that is, with the PN junction of the base-emitter
directly polarized and the PN junction of the base-collector reverse polarized. Whenever the base-emitter voltage
exceeds 0.7 V, we will say that the transistor is polarized, that is, it works correctly, allowing current to pass through
the collector, energizing the Rc load (LED, Relay...).
Transistor bias
17.4.1- Transistor as switch
When a transistor is used as a switch, it only has two operating states, on and off. Bipolar transistors cannot directly
switch AC loads and are generally not a good choice for switching higher voltages or currents. In these cases, a relay is
2
5
often used in conjunction with a low-power transistor. The transistor changes current to the relay coil while the coil
contacts change current to the load. The circuit shown in the figure below illustrates how a BJT is used to control an
AC load.
Transistor as switch

• A low power transistor is used to change the current in the relay coil.
• With the presence sensor open, no base or collector current flows, so the transistor is off. The relay coil will
be deactivated and the relay will not activate the load.
• When the transistor is off, the collector current is zero, the voltage drop across the collector and emitter is 12
V, and the voltage across the relay coil is 0 V.
• The proximity sensor, upon closing, sets up a small base current that drives the collector all the way to the
point where it is said to be saturated, as no more current can pass.
• The relay coil is energized and its normally open contacts close to turn on the load.
• When the transistor is in the on state, the collector current is at its maximum value and the
voltage across the collector and emitter drops to almost zero while across the relay coil rises to about 12 V.
• The diode parallel to the relay coil prevents the voltage induced at shutdown from being high enough to
damage the transistor.
17.5- Field Effect Transistors

Field effect transistors are known in short as FET (Field Effect Transistor) and among them we can distinguish two
main types:
• Junction Field Effect Transistor : JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor : MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor)
First of all, the main difference between the two lies in the fact that the BJT transistor is a current-controlled device,
while the FET transistors are voltage-controlled devices. In both cases, the output circuit current is controlled by a
parameter of the input circuit, in one case the current level and in the other the applied voltage level.
In FET transistors, an electric field is created that controls the width of the conduction path of the output circuit
without direct contact between the controlled quantity (current) and the controlling quantity (voltage).
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2
In an analogous way to how in bipolar transistors there are two types NPN and PNP, in field effect transistors there
are N-channel and P-channel FETs.
An important difference between both types of transistors is that while BJT transistors are bipolar, that is, both types
of carriers (electrons and holes) intervene in the current, FET transistors are unipolar, in which the conduction level It
will depend only on a single type of carrier: the electrons in the n-channel carriers and the holes in the p-channel
carriers.
17.5.1- Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFET)
We can classify JFETs into two large groups:
• n-channel JFET
• p-channel JFET
The following figure shows the basic construction of a channel n JEFT. We can see how most of the structure is made
of lightly doped n-type material forming a channel with ohmic contacts at both ends (Drain and Source terminals).
This channel is inserted between two p+-type gate regions (heavily doped p-type material) with two ohmic contacts
that constitute the gate terminals. In some cases both gate terminals are accessible (double gate JFET) although the
most common is that both terminals are shorted having a single gate terminal (three terminal device).
In the absence of applied potential, the two pn junctions that appear are unpolarized. The result is an emptying
region or depletion zone (region lacking free carriers) similar to what was seen when analyzing the pn junction in the
diode in the absence of polarization.
Basic structure of No. channel JFET.

• D = Drain: (From the English Drain). It is the terminal through which the device carriers exit (the electrons in
the n-channel JFET and the holes in the p-channel JFET)
• S = Source: (From English Source). It is the terminal through which the carriers enter.
• G = Door: (From the English Gate). It is the terminal through which the carrier current is controlled.
through the channel.
As previously mentioned, these are, in any case, devices with three terminals whose symbols are represented in the
following figure:
AUTOMATED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS Motor Control Electrical................................................1
Electric Motor Control.....................................................................................................................................2
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5
Chapter 1- Introduction to automated electrical installations....................................................................11

1.1- Terms in automated installations.................................................................................................11
1.2- Elements of an automated installation.........................................................................................12
1.2.1- Operational elements............................................................................................................12
1.2.2- Actuators or actuators...........................................................................................................12
1.2.3- Sensors or sensors................................................................................................................13
1.2.4- Control element....................................................................................................................13
1.3- Development of industrial automation........................................................................................13
1.4- Structure and components of automation installations................................................................16
1.7- Industrial automation...................................................................................................................17
Chapter 2- Connection of electric motors..................................................................................................18
2.1.1- Classification of electric motors...........................................................................................18
2.1.2- How to connect a dual-voltage split-phase single-phase motor...........................................19
2.1.3- How to change the direction of rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor......................21
2.1.4- Color-coded NEMA terminal marking.................................................................................21
2.2- Three-phase 6-terminal electric motors.......................................................................................22
2.3- Three-phase 9-terminal electric motors.......................................................................................25
2.4- 12-terminal three-phase electric motors......................................................................................28
2.4.1- Terminal identification.........................................................................................................29
2.5- Induction motors with wound rotor.............................................................................................30
2.6- DC motors....................................................................................................................................30
Chapter 3- Command and signaling elements............................................................................................33
3.1- Electromechanical sensors...........................................................................................................33
3.4- Pushbuttons..................................................................................................................................34
3.2- Selector switches.........................................................................................................................37
Rotary electric selector...........................................................................................................................37
CONTACT BLOCKS.............................................................................................................................40
3.5- Emergency stop button................................................................................................................41
3.6- Signal lamps.................................................................................................................................43
3.6.4- Push button with pilot light..................................................................................................47
3.6.5- Beacons and signaling columns...........................................................................................50
3.7- radio modules...............................................................................................................................51
Chapter 4- Contactors, manual and magnetic starters................................................................................53
4.1- contactor......................................................................................................................................53
electromagnetic contactor...................................................................................................................53
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4
4.1.1- Contactor Parts.....................................................................................................................54

4.1.2- Contactor operation..............................................................................................................55
4.1.3- Auxiliary contact block........................................................................................................57
4.2- Manual starters.............................................................................................................................60
4.2.1- Single or monopolar manual starter.....................................................................................60
4.2.2- Double or bipolar manual starter..........................................................................................60
4.2.3- Triple, three-pole or three-phase manual starter..................................................................61
4.2.4- Disadvantages of manual starters.........................................................................................61
4.3- Magnetic starter...........................................................................................................................62
4.3.1- Two-wire control circuit.......................................................................................................63
4.3.2- Three-wire control circuit.....................................................................................................64
Chapter 5- Protection devices.....................................................................................................................65
5.1- Circuit breaker, breaker or automatic switch...............................................................................67
• .1.1- Types of magneto-thermal circuit breakers.........................................................................68
5.2- Overload or thermal relay............................................................................................................70
5.2.1- Operating principle...............................................................................................................71
5.4- Engine guard................................................................................................................................77
5.4.1- The magneto-thermal motor protector in direct start...........................................................80
5.4.2- How to connect a motor protector........................................................................................81
5.4.3- Motor protector with contactor.............................................................................................82
Chapter 6- Relays.......................................................................................................................................83
6.1- Relays..........................................................................................................................................83
6.1.1- Functioning...........................................................................................................................83
6.1.2- 8-pin and 11-pin relay connection........................................................................................85
6.2- Solid state relays..........................................................................................................................89
Chapter 7- Timers.......................................................................................................................................94
7.1- Timer or timer..............................................................................................................................94
7.2- Timer to connect or work (ON-DELAY)....................................................................................94
7.3- Timer for disconnection or rest (OFF-DELAY)..........................................................................95
7.4- 8-pin timer connection.................................................................................................................97
Multifunction timer.............................................................................................................................98
Pneumatic timers.................................................................................................................................99
Chapter 8- Automation circuits................................................................................................................100
basic..........................................................................................................................................................100
8.1- Types of circuits........................................................................................................................100
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5
8.2- Structure for installation of an electric motor............................................................................100

8.3- Force and command schemes....................................................................................................101
8.4- Connection and protection of the control circuit.......................................................................103
8.5- Two-wire control.......................................................................................................................104
8.6- Three-wire control.....................................................................................................................105
8.6.1- The thermal relay in automation diagrams.........................................................................108
8.6.2- Diagrams of electrical control circuits with emergency stop button..................................109
8.7- Start-stop from multiple stations...............................................................................................110
8.8- Jog control.................................................................................................................................112
8.8.1- Jog control using control relay...........................................................................................113
8.8.2- Jog with selector.................................................................................................................113
8.9- March signaling.........................................................................................................................114
8.10- Stop signage...........................................................................................................................115
8.11- Test pilot light........................................................................................................................115
8.11.1-...................................................................................................................................................115
Failure signaling................................................................................................................................115
8.12- Control of three wires fed into the secondary of a.................................................................117
control transformer...............................................................................................................................117
8.13- Intermediate control through control relay............................................................................118
8.14- Reversing the direction of rotation of three-phase motors.....................................................119
8.14.1- Electrical interlock by auxiliary contact............................................................................120
8.14.2- Electrical interlock by push buttons...................................................................................123
8.14.3- Mechanical interlock for contactors...................................................................................125
8.15.3- Jogging in reversal circuit using control relay...................................................................126
8.16- Sequence control of three-phase motors with manual start...................................................128
Chapter 9- Control Transformer...............................................................................................................134
9.1- control transformer....................................................................................................................135
Chapter 10- Actuators..............................................................................................................................137
10.2- Soleonoid...............................................................................................................................138
10.3- Solenoid valve or solenoid valves..........................................................................................139
Chapter 11- Starting electric motors........................................................................................................142
11.1- Direct start..............................................................................................................................142
1 boot = 5 to 8 l nominal...............................................................................................................142
C start = 0.5 to 1.5 C nominal...........................................................................................................142
11.2- Star-delta or star-delta starting...............................................................................................144
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6
Id = 1.5 to 2.6 In................................................................................................................................144

Cd = 0.2 to 0.5 Cn.............................................................................................................................144
11.3- Starting motors with split windings “part-winding”..............................................................149
11.5- Stator starting by resistors......................................................................................................151
v, R= 0.055 -......................................................................................................................................151
in...........................................................................................................................................................151
11.6- Starting using rotor resistors..................................................................................................153
11.7- Autotransformer starting........................................................................................................157
11.8- Electronic start.......................................................................................................................160
11.9- Starting three-phase motors in single-phase networks................................................................164
(v) F.....................................................................................................................................................165
11.10- Starting single-phase motors with three-phase components.....................................................166
Chapter 12- Electromechanical and electronic sensors............................................................................167
12.1- Pressure switch.......................................................................................................................167
12.1.1- Pressure sensors.................................................................................................................169
12.2- Limit Switch, position switch or limit switch........................................................................170
Limit switches...................................................................................................................................170
12.2.1- Example of application of a direction of rotation inverter circuit......................................174
12.3- Flow switch............................................................................................................................174
12.3.1- Flow sensors.......................................................................................................................175
12.4- Temperature switch or thermostat..........................................................................................176
12.4.1- Bimetal temperature switch...............................................................................................176
12.4.2- Gas or bulb type temperature switch..................................................................................177
12.4.3- Manual or safety temperature switch.................................................................................177
12.4.4- Electronic or digital temperature switch............................................................................178
12.5- Electric float or level switch..................................................................................................178
12.6- Proximity or presence sensors................................................................................................180
12.7- Connection of proximity sensors...........................................................................................188
12.7.1- Two-wire connection.........................................................................................................188
12.7.2- Three wire connection........................................................................................................188
Chapter 13- Speed control........................................................................................................................190
electric motors..........................................................................................................................................190
13.1- Three-phase two-speed induction motor................................................................................190
13.1.1- Dahlander type three-phase induction motor or consequential poles................................192
13.3- frequency converters..............................................................................................................195
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5
13.3.1- Operating principle............................................................................................................196

13.3.2- Programming of frequency converters...............................................................................198
13.3.3- Connection of the speed variator.......................................................................................201
Chapter 14- Braking of electric motors....................................................................................................204
14.1- Counterflow braking..............................................................................................................204
14.2- DC injection braking..............................................................................................................205
14.3- Electromechanical braking.....................................................................................................207
Chapter 15- Electrical automation panels or cabinets..............................................................................209
15.1- Types of electrical panels.......................................................................................................209
15.2- electrical control panel...........................................................................................................211
15.3- Construction aspects..............................................................................................................212
15.4- Wiring and connection elements............................................................................................214
15.4.1- Terminal strip or terminal blocks.......................................................................................214
15.4.2- Terminal marking...............................................................................................................215
15.4.3- Cable marking....................................................................................................................216
15.4.4- Cable termination...............................................................................................................218
15.4.5- Tip terminal for electrical control cables...........................................................................218
15.4.6- Quick connect systems.......................................................................................................219
15.4.7- Direct insertion distribution terminals...............................................................................219
15.5- Wiring fixation.......................................................................................................................220
15.5.2- Cable gland or gland connector.........................................................................................220
15.5.3- Flanges or tigh rack............................................................................................................221
15.6- Elements for air conditioning.................................................................................................223
15.6.1- Natural air conditioning.....................................................................................................223
15.6.2- Forced air conditioning......................................................................................................223
15.7- Steps for assembling the electrical cabinet............................................................................224
15.8- Terminal block and cable numbering.....................................................................................229
Chapter 16- Automatic transfer systems..................................................................................................232
16.1- Manual transfer switches.......................................................................................................232
16.2- Automatic transfer systems....................................................................................................233
16.2.1- Force devices......................................................................................................................233
16.4- Detection and troubleshooting of automatic transfer switches..............................................237
Chapter 17- Control with electronic devices............................................................................................239
17.1- Diodes....................................................................................................................................239
17.2- Rectifiers................................................................................................................................240
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17.3- Zener diode............................................................................................................................248

17.4- Transistor...............................................................................................................................250
17.5- Field Effect Transistors..........................................................................................................252
17.5.2- IGBT Transistor.................................................................................................................265
17.6- Thyristors.....................................................................................................................................266
17.6.1- SCR....................................................................................................................................267
17.6.2- TRIAC................................................................................................................................269
Chapter 18- Maintenance and repair of automated electrical installations..............................................272
18.2- Maintenance of starters, contactors and magnetic relays.......................................................276
18.2.1- Causes of breakdowns........................................................................................................277
18.3- Maintenance of auxiliary devices of control circuits.............................................................277
18.4- Detection and location of faults in control circuits................................................................278
18.5- Contactor breakdowns............................................................................................................278
Contacts do not close when pressing the start button.......................................................................278
The contactor does not remain powered after releasing the start button..........................................279
The contactor does not open when the stop button is pressed..........................................................279
The engine does not start despite the starter coil being energized....................................................280
The contactor once closed produces a lot of noise............................................................................280
In contactors with permanent contact control, thermostat, float, etc., connect and disconnect at
intervals.............................................................................................................................................280
Main contacts get too hot..................................................................................................................280
Premature contact wear.....................................................................................................................281
Contact welding................................................................................................................................281
Excessive heating of the coil (more than 80º C over an ambient temperature of 35º C) It may be due
to:......................................................................................................................................................281
Coil breakage due to mechanical causes...........................................................................................282
The magnetic circuit does not perform the attraction correctly........................................................282
Deficiency in disconnection..............................................................................................................282
18.6- Strategy for locating faults in control circuits.............................................................................282
6.1.1- Failure analysis...................................................................................................................283
18.9- Examples of fault diagnosis in automation circuits...............................................................285
Appendices...........................................................................................................................................288
A- Electrical controls symbols (American ANSI and NEMA standards)............................................288
B- Electrical controls symbols (European IEC standard).....................................................................290
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5
Channel n channel p
As we can see, the difference in the symbol between both types lies in the direction of the arrow on the gate terminal
(G). In the n-channel JFET the gate terminal is represented with an arrow entering the device, while in the p-channel
JFET it is outgoing. Remember that the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of current flow if the
corresponding pn junction were forward polarized.
For most typical operation, n-channel transistors are biased by applying a positive drain-source voltage (VDS) and a
negative gate-source voltage (VGS). In this way, the current will flow in the direction from drain to source. In the case
of the p-channel JFET, the VDS voltage to be applied must be negative and the VGS voltage positive, in this way the
Channel p negative
positive negative positive negative

positive (incoming) (outgoing)
current will flow in the direction of the source towards the drain.
JFET Biasing
17.5.1- MOSFET
These are known as Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs).
Let's see that there are two types of MOSFET transistors.
• Accumulation or enrichment MOSFETs

• Depletion MOSFET
Accumulation MOSFET
As we can see in the following figure in which the basic structure for an n-channel MOSFET is represented, we start
from an area of p-type semiconductor material in which two n+-type areas appear with metallic contacts at the drain
and source terminals. The red area represented corresponds to a layer of insulating material, in this case silicon oxide.
Therefore, if we look at the gate terminal, we see how we have a metallic zone (corresponding to the ohmic contact),
an oxide zone and a semiconductor zone. It is precisely because of this structure that the Metal – Oxide –
Semiconductor (MOS) device gets its name. In addition, this device would have a fourth terminal, the Substrate (SS)
terminal, although this is usually connected to the source.
We must note a fundamental characteristic of this device and that is that the gate is electrically isolated from the
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0
device, that is, there is no electrical connection between the gate and the substrate.
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6
Basic structure of the No. 1 channel accumulation MOSFET.
Accumulation MOSFET Symbols
Note two significant aspects of the symbol, firstly that the gate terminal has no connection with the rest of the
terminals, since as we have seen previously, it is electrically isolated from the rest of the device. Secondly, the drain
and source terminals are joined through a dashed line, this line refers to the channel that is going to be formed and
that we will see later. Again, the arrow indicates the direction in which the current would flow if the pn junction were
forward biased.
For most typical operation, the accumulation MOSFET transistors are biased as shown in the Figure below:
26
2
channel
p
positive negative
positive positive positive
(incoming) negative (outgoing)
Accumulation MOSFET Biasing
N-channel stack MOSFET transistors are biased by applying a positive drain-source voltage (VDS) and a positive gate-
source voltage (VGS). In this way, the current will flow in the direction from drain to source. In the case of the p-
channel accumulation MOSFET, the VDS voltage to be applied must be negative and the VGS voltage negative, in this
way the current will flow in the direction of the source towards the drain.
The following figure shows a build-up MOSFET used as part of an OFF-Delay timer circuit. Because the gate current
flow is negligible, a wide range of time delay periods is possible, from minutes to hours.
OFF-Delay timer circuit

• With the switch initially open, a voltage is applied between the Drain and the Source, but no voltage is applied
between the Gate and the Source. Therefore, no current flows through the MOSFET and the relay coil will be off.
• Closing the switch applies a positive voltage to the Gate, which activates the MOSFET on conduction to energize
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6
the relay coil and change the state of its contacts.

• At the same time, the capacitor is charged to 12 V DC.
• The circuit remains in this state with the relay coil activated as long as the switch remains closed.
• When the switch is opened, the timing action begins.
• The positive gate circuit is opened to the 12 V supply.
• The stored positive charge of the capacitor keeps the MOSFET on.
• The capacitor begins to discharge its stored energy through R1 and R2 while maintaining a positive voltage across
the Gate.
• The MOSFET and relay coil continue to conduct a current for as long as it takes the capacitor to discharge.
• The discharge rate, and therefore the shutdown delay time period, is adjusted by varying the resistance of R2.
Increasing the resistance will decrease the download speed and increase the time period. Decreasing resistance
will have the opposite effect.
Depletion MOSFET
As we can see in the following Figure, the basic structure for a deplexion MOSFET is similar to the case of the
deplexion, with the important difference that in this case we have an initial channel made in the device
manufacturing process.
Operation of the channel n. depletion MOSFET.
In this case, if we apply a voltage VGS > 0, more electrons will be attracted to the gate area and more holes will be
repelled from said area, so the channel will widen. Therefore, the effect we have is the same as in the case of the
accumulation MOSFET, that is, for VGS values > 0 the depletion MOSFET has an accumulation behavior. If, on the
other hand, we give VGS values < 0, the effect will be the opposite,
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4
decreasing the width of the channel. In short, we once again have an effect of modulating the width of a channel as a
function of an applied voltage VGS. However, if we continue to decrease the VGS value there may come a time when
the channel disappears completely, this will happen when VGS decreases below a VGSoff value.
p-channel depletion MOSFET

Deplexion MOSFET symbols.
17.5.2- IGBT Transistor
The IGBT transistor (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a semiconductor with combined characteristics of MOSFET
and BJT transistors, that is: it has the ability to be excited like a MOSFET while having the current conduction
properties of a BJT. Therefore, they are capable of handling high blocking voltages, conducting quite high currents and
being easily controlled by voltage.
IGBT Transistor
In the blocking state the voltage V GS is zero. By applying a voltage V GS on the gate the IGBT transistor begins to
conduct, the current I D is greater the greater the voltage applied to the gate (G) as long as the drain (E) is positively
polarized in front of the source (C ). If this is not the case, we will be in the negative V DS region and the transistor will
work in the cut-off zone. It will not conduct any current.
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6
IBGTs were invented recently, but their evolution has been rapid because they have been shown to have a very low
conduction resistance and a high switching speed (the transition from the conduction state to the blocking state can
be considered to be about two microseconds). , and the frequency can be in the range of 50KHz), in addition to a high
breakdown voltage. IGBTs are manufactured from a voltage of 1400V and a current of 300A, to a voltage of 600V and
a current of 50A.
Voltage control makes the IGBT faster than the BJT, but slower than the Mosfet. The energy applied to the gate that
activates the device is small with a current of the order of nanoamperes, this small power necessary to switch the
device means that it can be controlled by integrated circuits.
The following Figure illustrates how IGBTs are used in a variable frequency drive. A variable frequency drive controls
the speed of the AC motor by varying the frequency supplied to the motor. Additionally, the drive also regulates the
output voltage in proportion to the output frequency to provide a relatively constant ratio of voltage to frequency
(V/Hz), as required by the characteristics of the AC motor to produce adequate torque. The six IGBTs are capable of
controlling very high switching speeds and may be required to change the voltage to the motor thousands of times
per second.
Circuit of a frequency converter with IGBTs

• The input section of the drive is the rectifier. It contains six diodes, arranged in an electrical bridge. Diodes
convert three-phase alternating current into direct current.
• The next section is the DC bus.
• The inductor (L) and capacitor (C) work together to filter out any AC components from the DC waveform. The
smoother the DC waveform, the cleaner the drive output waveform.
• The DC bus powers the inverter, the final section of the drive. As the name implies, this section inverts the DC
voltage back to AC. But it does so at a variable voltage and frequency output.
• The control circuits involved coordinate the switching of the IGBT devices, usually through a logic control board
that dictates the firing of the power components in the proper sequence.
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17.6- Thyristors
A thyristor is a semiconductor with a four-layer (pyn) configuration with external connections in three or two of its
layers. An example of thyristors are the SCR, TRIAC and DIAC among others [7]; Its structure resembles an
arrangement of a PNP transistor with an NPN as shown in Figure. 2
The basic thyristor is a 4-layer device with two terminals: anode and cathode. It is built with four semiconductor
layers that form a pnpn structure. The device acts as a switch and remains off until the forward voltage reaches a
certain value; then it turns on and drives. Conduction continues until the current is reduced below a specific value.
Although the 4-layer diode is rarely used in new designs, the principles form the basis of other thyristors mentioned
below.
17.6.1- SCR
The SCR is a thyristor, which is located in different projects in electrical applications and power electronics.
Performing the function of a voltage-governed key switch, which works in lamp and relay control systems, switching
at a high frequency in motors and industrial machines.
It is made up of four PNPN layers and has three terminals: The anode (A), the cathode (K) and the gate (G).
The SCR, also known as a silicon controlled diode, is an active thyristor component, governed by voltage from the
control gate (G), so that it triggers the device and goes into operation; to be applied in a multiple switched manner in
lighting control systems, relays, motors and industrial machines among others.
SCR
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We can say that it is a one-way switch that closes with a gate current pulse (trigger) and opens when the current
passes through zero.
power SCR
The schematic of an SCR switching circuit operating from a DC source is shown in the following figure.
SCR operation in a DC circuit
• The anode is connected so that it is positive with respect to the cathode.

• The normally open pushbutton PB1 applies a current-limited positive voltage to the SCR gate, which drives the
anode (A) to cathode (K) circuit into conduction and turns on the lamp.
• Once the SCR is on, it stays on, even after the gate voltage has been removed. The only way to turn off the SCR is
to reduce the anode cathode current to zero by removing the source voltage from the anode circuit.
• Momentarily pressing the PB2 button opens the anode to cathode circuit to turn off the lamp.
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• It is important to note that the anode to cathode circuit will light in only one direction. This occurs only when the
anode is biased positive with respect to the cathode and a positive voltage is applied to the gate.
The schematic of an SCR switching circuit operating from an AC source is shown in the following figure. Because the
SCR is a rectifier, it can only conduct half of the AC input waveform. The maximum output delivered to the load,
therefore, is 50 percent; Its shape is that of a half-wave pulsating DC wave.
SCR operation in an AC circuit
• The anode-cathode circuit can only be turned on during the half cycle when the anode is positive.
• With the PB button open, no current flows to the gate, so the anode-cathode circuit
remains off.
• When you press the button it closes, the gate cathode and anode-cathode circuits are bypassed. This
produces a pulsating half-wave direct current through the lamp load.
• When the button is released, the anode-cathode current is automatically turned off when the AC voltage
drops to zero in the sine wave.
Waveform of an SCR in AC
17.6.2- TRIAC
The triac (alternating current triode) is a three-terminal component derived from the thyristor, which can be
considered electrically as two thyristors in antiparallel. It presents, however, two fundamental advantages over this
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equivalent circuit:
• The control circuit is much simpler as there is only one control electrode.
• It can switch to the conductive state regardless of the polarity of the voltage applied to the
control terminal.
As occurred in the thyristor, the transition from the blocking state to the conducting state is only carried out by
applying a current pulse to the control electrode; and the transition from the conductive state to the blocking state is
produced by applying a reverse polarity voltage, or by decreasing the current below the maintenance value IH, the
latter being the most used case.
Its basic structure, symbol and characteristic curve appear below.
It has blocking leakage and a conduction voltage drop practically equal to that of a thyristor and the fact that it enters
conduction, if the breakdown voltage is exceeded in any direction, makes it immune to destruction due to
overvoltage.
They are manufactured for intensities from a few amperes to about 200 A effective and from 400 to 1,000 V repetitive
peak voltage.
The TRIAC can be activated in conduction by a positive or negative voltage applied to its Gate. Once activated, the
device continues to conduct until the current through it drops below a certain threshold value, such as at the end of a
half cycle of alternating current (AC) power current. This makes the TRIAC very convenient for switching AC loads. The
TRIAC is a nearly ideal component for controlling AC power loads with a high duty cycle (on/off). The use of a TRIAC
completely eliminates the contact, bounce and wear associated with conventional electromechanical relays. The
schematic of a TRIAC switching circuit is shown in the figure below. The maximum output is obtained by using both
half waves of the AC input voltage.
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Charge control circuit with a TRIAC
The circuit provides rapid turn-on (anywhere in the half cycle) of AC loads. When the switch is closed, a small
control current will activate the conduction of the TRIAC. Resistor R1 is provided to limit the gate current to a
small control current value.
When the switch is opened, the TRIAC turns off when the AC supply voltage and holding current drop to zero, or
reverse polarity.
In this way, large currents can be controlled even with a small switch, because the switch will have to handle only
the small control current needed to turn on the TRIAC.
17.6.3- DIAC
The DIAC (Diode for Alternating Current) is a two-connection double semiconductor device. It is a self-triggering
bidirectional diode that conducts current only after its alternative trigger voltage has been exceeded, and as long as
the circulating current is not less than the triple value of volts characteristic for that device. The behavior is variable
for both directions of the current. Most DIACs have a variable double trigger voltage of around 30V.
DIAC
DIACs are a name for thyristor, and are typically used to auto-complete the varied firing rate of a triac, another type
of thyristor.
It is a semiconductor device with at least two terminals, anode 1 and anode 2. It acts as a semicircular bidirectional
switch key which is activated when the voltage between its variable terminals reaches the burning or actuated
voltage, said voltage can be between 20 and 36 volts depending on the power of the manufacturing process.
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Typically, lamp dimmers are manufactured with a TRIAC as a power control device. A light dimmer works by
essentially cutting off some of the AC voltage. This allows only part of the waveform to pass into the lamp. The
brightness of the lamp is determined by the power transferred to it, so the more the waveform is cut, the more it
dims. A simplified incandescent lamp dimming circuit using the TRIAC/DIAC is shown in the figure below.
AC Source
Dimmer or light attenuator circuit
• With the potentiometer at its lowest value (minimum resistance), the capacitor will charge rapidly at the
beginning of each half cycle of the AC voltage.
• When the voltage across the capacitor reaches the breakdown voltage of the diac, the capacitor voltage
discharges through the gate of the TRIAC.
• Therefore, the TRIAC conducts quickly in each half cycle and remains at the end of each half cycle.
• As a result, current will flow through the lamp for most of each half cycle and produce maximum lamp
brightness.
• If the resistance of the variable resistor increases, the time required to charge the capacitor to the
breakdown voltage of the diac increases.
• This causes the triac to fire later in each half cycle. Therefore, the amount of time that current flows through
the lamp is reduced and less light is emitted.
• The DIAC prevents any gate current until the driving voltage has reached a certain repeatable level in either
direction.
Chapter 18- Maintenance and repair of

automated electrical installations
One of the essential conditions or rules in any maintenance system is to be careful when carrying out
inspections and maintenance work. The lack of common sense and negligence in not taking into account the
precautions and safety rules are two impermissible factors during the execution of these tasks, since they
could lead to harm or damage to both the equipment or systems and the personnel carrying out the work. .
18.1- General procedure for the maintenance of control systems A good maintenance
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system has as its main requirement the establishment of a periodic and organized inspection plan, since this
would prevent equipment breakdowns and, as a consequence, unforeseen stoppages.
A good periodic inspection should not only include electrical devices, but also the parts of the machine or
equipment, as well as observing the wear and deterioration of its parts, which will allow planning for their
replacement before a breakdown occurs.
One of the main causes of breakdowns in control devices is the presence of:
- Humidity
- Fat
- Dust
- Oil
Therefore these must be removed periodically so that the systems can function correctly without the
possibility of unforeseen shutdowns.
Whenever possible, dust should be removed using trowel or wool, but this is not always effective in
removing oil, grease and moisture, which are removed with special removers (dielectric degreasers), which
are used for such purposes.
On some occasions, these contaminants, mainly dust, can be removed by blowing the parts of the control
system with a jet of dry air at very low pressure, taking care not to loosen the cables and cause subsequent
breakdowns.
Due caution must also be taken that when blowing the air jet on the equipment and
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devices are not going to fall into the eyes of those who carry out this removal and cleaning operation, so it
is recommended to use safety glasses.
After the cleaning and removal operation has been completed with half a jet of air, it is advisable to spray
the control devices with a moisture remover and finally touch up or retighten all the screws where there are
connections to electrical cables, as well as possible splices with connectors and plugs.
Application of contact cleaner to contactor
A periodic inspection should include checking the temperature of the equipment, since the continuity of any
of these abnormal causes can result in deterioration of the equipment and could lead to stoppages or
breakdowns.
Use of thermal imaging camera to detect overheated points in the circuit
During the periodic inspection, it should be checked that all connections are tight, since looseness and false
contacts in electrical connections are potential causes of stoppages and breakdowns, or malfunction of
equipment.
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Retightening the screws of the protection and control devices (circuit breakers and contactors).
Warning: Remember to work without power.
A good periodic inspection of the control systems must prevent short circuits and contact with ground or
grounding in the equipment, therefore the insulation conditions in the equipment must always be checked,
through the use of a megger.
Installation Mega
Use of megger to measure the insulation resistance of the potential (red) with respect to ground (green).
Warning: This test is done without electrical power from the circuit. If the Megger indicates 0 ohms, it
means that the conductor under test has a fault, that is, it may have contact with the grounding conductor,
or with any pipe or metal cabinet that is grounded and if it is energize could cause a short circuit. Therefore,
this conductor must be checked or replaced before conducting electrical power.
Anyone who is responsible for maintaining a system must take into account that:
- You must become familiar with this equipment, for which you must try to know mechanically and
electrically in order to be able to detect possible causes of failures and breakdowns.
- You must be a good observer so that when passing close to the equipment you can detect causes of
possible failures such as abnormal noises and temperatures, among other things.
In general sense, a good maintenance procedure for equipment and control systems can be summarized as
follows:
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- Verify voltage and current levels to detect voltage or current imbalance; overvoltages or
undervoltages.
- Periodically inspect equipment
- Keep equipment free of dust, moisture and grease from devices and motors, as well as checking for
strange noises
- Check for loose connections
18.2- Maintenance of starters, contactors and magnetic relays
The contacts of these devices are one of the main causes of breakdown, therefore they must be inspected
with some frequency to determine the state of deterioration in which they are, either due to pitting caused
by the electric arc that is formed during closure or opening of the same or due to their misalignment.
If the contacts are pitted, it is necessary to grind or file them gently using fine-grain emery paper, but being
careful not to tear off too much material from the contact surface or deform it, as this would cause there to
be not enough pressure on them and therefore Therefore, its closure would be inadequate, resulting in
subsequent deterioration.
Pitted contactor contacts. Maintenance consists of light grinding of its

contacts.
When the contacts are made of copper, generally because of the electric arc produced by closing and
opening, layers of copper oxide are created, which becomes an insulator that must be eliminated.
If the contacts are made of silver alloy, it is not recommended that they be ground or filed unless the pitting
they present is very pronounced.
In addition to inspecting the pitting and misalignment of the contacts, it is very important to check the
tension or pressure of their springs, since a lack of spring pressure would cause excessive arcs and
consequently pitting in said contacts.
During the inspection you should check if there are excessive noises in the contactors and starters since
excessive magnetic noises can be caused by dirt, and rust between the parts that make up the magnetic
core, another cause of noise can be due to a broken coil or shadow pole or in poor condition.
Other parts that must be periodically inspected in the magnetic starters are the overload lifts, since as these
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work very little they can accumulate dirt, dust and corrosion, which must be eliminated during the
inspection.
These must also be subjected to the trip action, checking at the same time that their contacts, which are
mechanically operated, change position. Additionally, if appropriate test equipment is available, the relays
must be subjected to the action of a high current to determine if their trip range is within that specified by
the manufacturer.
18.2.1- Causes of breakdowns
One of the main causes of breakdowns in these devices is especially due to incorrect seating or closing of
their contacts, therefore the person responsible for maintenance must have the data provided by the
manufacturer about the correct separation or distance between their contacts when they are open, since a
separation greater than the correct one will not allow the contacts to close properly when the device is
energized, which can cause arcing or flashing of the same as well as heating in the device (contactor or
magnetic starter.)
Another cause of failure is due to a burned coil. A coil can burn when the air gap in the device is greater
than that provided by the manufacturer, which will cause the coil to demand a current that this coil is
capable of withstanding. and therefore it burns.
A coil can also burn out when it has been subjected to a voltage different from its nominal operating
voltage. A coil subjected to a voltage higher than its nominal voltage, the current that will flow through it
will be excessively high and it will burn. But if the applied voltage is lower than its operating voltage, its
magnetic circuit will not close completely and its air gap will be larger than the one provided, which will
cause the coil to demand a high current and burn out.
In contactors and magnetic starters, mechanical failures may also occur that can lead to malfunctions.
Among these failures we can mention breakage of the mobile armature, damage to the shock absorber
springs, broken cable, etc., these failures can be detected during the inspection. .
18.3- Maintenance of auxiliary devices of control circuits

Maintenance of the auxiliary devices or pilots of the control circuits, such as: pressure switches, float,
temperature switches, limit switches, etc., basically consists of checking the change in the position of their
contacts and checking of the conditions of the drive mechanisms of said contacts, this verification can be
carried out through periodic inspection and if necessary, its operation is not correct, then it is repaired or
replaced.
Other auxiliary devices that require exhaustive inspection are timers or timed relays, in which it must be
verified whether the preset time delay is being carried out and if it is actually being carried out, it must be
verified that after counting or time delay its contacts change. of position.
If the timer does not count or if the contacts do not change position, either of the two faults requires that it
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be replaced.
There are other auxiliary devices such as pushbuttons, selector switches, lights, indicators, whose
maintenance consists of checking and visual inspection to verify their operating status and proceed with
corrective action if warranted.
18.4- Detection and location of faults in control circuits

To detect and locate faults in control circuits, it is necessary to be clear about the function of the circuit and
the operation of each of the devices that make it up. In addition, good experience is required since this
helps reduce the time for detecting, locating and correcting faults.
The efficiency and safety of detecting and locating a fault lies in locating the section of control circuit that
contains the faulty device and then accurately determining the faulty device, to see verified. This can be
achieved by logically analyzing the circuit and not by trying different points in the circuit or randomly testing
the components of the system.
A good electrical controls technician is not one who can perfectly wire or cable a control system following a
diagram or circuit plan, but rather one who, when starting up the operation, if it does not work as planned,
can determine the cause. which the system did not work.
Because there is a great diversity of types and brands of devices that intervene in the control circuits, a
general guideline is presented below to be able to detect and locate breakdowns or defects based on the
symptoms that the circuit presents:
18.5- Contactor breakdowns

There are various faults that can appear in contactors. The larger these are, the more power they can
withstand and spare parts are normally available for;
- Main contacts.
- Auxiliary contacts.
- Coils.
- Various mechanical elements, springs, stems, etc.
Smaller size contactors usually have a replacement coil, although in many cases the entire contactor is
changed, although all of this will depend on the industry in question and the corrective, preventive and
predictive maintenance plan that exists.
Contacts do not close when pressing the start button
It may be due to:
1. Retention coil interrupted. To verify this, simply connect a test lamp to the coil terminals. If when
you press the start button the lamp comes on and the coil does not energize, the coil is interrupted.
2. The contacts of the start button are dirty or do not close the circuit.
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3. The stop button contacts are dirty or do not close properly. If more than one pushbutton station is
used for the same contactor, said pushbutton will be checked on each of them separately. If the
stations have direct-reverse-stop buttons with electrical and mechanical interconnection, it will be
necessary to verify all contacts.
4. The terminal connection is loose or the terminals are loose.
5. Overload relay contacts open.
6. Insufficient voltage in the network.
7. The holding coil has short circuits.
8. There is some mechanical defect. Solutions:
1. Check the connection diagrams, check the voltage that reaches the coil.
2. Check the interior mechanical parts.
3. Replace coil with another.
4. Reset thermal relay and find out the cause of the trip.
The contactor does not remain powered after releasing the start button
It may be due to:
1. Breaking some connection.
2. The retaining contact does not close properly because it is dirty, loose or worn
3. The pushbutton station is incorrectly connected to the contactor.
4. In direct current contactors; high consumption of the limiting resistor.
5. In direct current contactors; limiting resistance interrupted.
Solutions:
1. Review connection diagrams and correctly connect faulty connections.
2. Check the condition of the auxiliary contact and change if necessary.
3. Loosen the traction spring of the mobile equipment, check resistance and replace if necessary.
4. Replace limiting resistor.
The contactor does not open when the stop button is pressed
It may be due to:
Incorrect connection.
1. Push button failure.
2. Mechanically seized contactor.
3. Main soldier contacts.
4. Crossed cables in the control circuit.
Solutions:
1. Check connection diagrams and correct defects.
Change button.
2. Check the internal parts of the contactor, the mobile equipment, and that no part is in an abnormal
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position.
3. Study the possibility of short circuits or voltage drops and change the contacts if necessary.
4. Follow connection diagrams until you find the crossed cables and connect correctly.
The engine does not start despite the starter coil being energized
It may be due to:
1. Interruption in the heating elements of the overload relays or poor connection thereof.
2. The main contacts do not close well, because they are worn (most likely causes), dirty or burned.
3. The connection of the terminals is broken, loose or dirty.
4. Any connection cable is broken or loose.
5. Interruption in resistors or transformers
6. The core of the retention coil has its movement obstructed and therefore cannot close the main
contacts.
7. Any mechanical defect such as seized parts, poorly lubricated joints, springs with little tension, etc.
The contactor once closed produces a lot of noise
It may be due to:
1. Voltage above or below nominal values in the coil.

2. In DC contactors: excessively high limiting resistance.
3. Inadequate connections.
4. Dirt or obstacle in the contactor air gap preventing complete closure of the contactor.
5. In AC contactors: broken shadow coil.
6. Electromagnet attraction surface in poor condition due to roughness, deformities, worn or crushed.
7. Internal mechanical parts in abnormal condition.
Solutions:
1. Check line voltage and ensure that the nominal voltage reaches the coil.
2. Either reduce the value of the limiting resistor or replace it.
3. Review schematics and connect correctly.
4. Sand the polar surfaces with 00 sandpaper, never file.
5. Change shadow coil.
6. Clean the polar surfaces, check that the electromagnet springs are correct, grind the polar surfaces
while maintaining the air gap distance.
7. Check the free play of all moving parts.
In contactors with permanent contact control, thermostat, float, etc., connect and disconnect at
intervals
It may be due to:
1. Thermal relay not locked. Solution:
1. Correct the relay blocking.
Main contacts get too hot

It may be due to:
2. Oxidation of the contact surfaces, either due to oxidizing environments or due to few contactor
operations.
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3. Prolonged overload.
4. Insufficient pressure in the contacts.
5. Loose contact points.
Solutions:
1. If the contacts are copper, apply 00 sandpaper or, failing that, what is recommended by the
manufacturer. If the contacts are silver, they should NOT be sanded.
2. First of all, check if the contactor is prepared to withstand these loads, if not, replace it with
another one of the appropriate size.
3. Restore proper pressure and replace worn contacts.
4. Tighten loose contacts and clean.
Premature contact wear

It may be due to:
1. Interruption with high currents.

2. The contacts have been sanded many times.
Solution:
1. Mount special contacts that can withstand these high currents, replace the contactor with one of
suitable caliber.
2. Replace worn contacts. Do not sand the silver contacts.
Contact welding
It may be due to:
1. Abnormal current spike in the connection, greater than 12 times the nominal current of the
contactor.
2. Fast impulse operation.
Solutions:
1. Reduce the abnormal tip, if it is not possible to change the contactor caliber.
2. Replace the contactor with another suitable for the service category.
Excessive heating of the coil (more than 80º C over an ambient temperature of 35º C) It may be due
to:
1. Temperature higher than 35º C.
2. Coil designed for intermittent service and used for continuous service.
3. Winding with short circuit turns.
4. Surge.
5. Dirty polar surfaces.
6. Excessive air gap, greater than 0.5 mm in intermittent service and 0.2 mm in continuous service.
Solutions:
1. Either use some means of ventilation where the contactor is located or install it in another less
hot place.
2. Replace the coil with one suitable for continuous service.
3. Replace the coil.
4. Measure the voltage and check that it does not exceed 10% of the nominal voltage of the coil. If
the overvoltage cannot be corrected, change the coil for one with a higher voltage.
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5. Clean the polar surfaces.

6. Either rectify the polar surfaces or change the entire magnetic circuit.
Coil breakage due to mechanical causes

It may be due to:
1. Vibrations in the magnetic circuit.
2. The coil is not properly housed in the core. Solutions:
1. Change coil and adjust magnetic circuit.
2. Change coil, placing it correctly in the core.
The magnetic circuit does not perform the attraction correctly

It may be due to:
1. Coil supply undervoltage.
2. Coil interrupted.
3. Excessive opening of the magnetic circuit.
4. Mechanical frictions between pieces.
Solutions:
1. Check power circuit.
2. Change the coil and investigate the cause.
3. Correct circuit opening.
Deficiency in disconnection
It may be due to:
1. Possible sticky substances on the polar surfaces.
2. Incorrect contactor position.
3. Lack of de-energization, defective stop button.
4. Weak or defective tension spring. Solutions:
1. Clean the polar surfaces.
2. Install contactor as indicated by the manufacturer.
3. Check maneuver circuit.
4. Tighten the spring, if it is not recoverable, replace it with a new one.
When you press the start button a fuse blows
Possible causes:
1. Some contact at the table.
2. Holding coil with short circuits.
3. Coil contacts shorted.
18.6- Strategy for locating faults in control circuits

Strategies for fault location in control circuits and ladder logic circuits.
1. It is important to have drawings of the control circuits, their interconnection and lockouts during the
process of troubleshooting the control circuits. To locate faults in a machine or equipment, it is good to
have the “Operation and Maintenance Manual”, which is normally provided by manufacturers, as well as
instructions for troubleshooting, if available.
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2. During the fault location process, “The block of blocking diagrams” and the “control sequences” notebook
of the equipment must be available.
3. Drawings and details of the power circuit of the equipment or machine, control devices, contactors,
timers, counters, safety and protective devices, etc. are required to determine the root cause of failures.
4. Appropriate test and measurement instruments must be available to test the power and control circuits
of the equipment, or the machine must be available.
5. Disconnect the main power (switch in OFF position) to the equipment or machine and put the control
power in the ON (In) position, to prevent any mishap or accident while the fault is located in the control
circuits due to the sudden start of the equipment. .
6. As control circuits are different from equipment to equipment and from machine to machine, it is not
possible to formulate a simple and common strategy for troubleshooting control circuits; However, typical
engineering practices and examples, as well as practical procedures should be applied for troubleshooting
control circuits.
6.1.1- Failure analysis
Suppose that a new system has been wired but when tested it does not work as expected, in this case
before starting to experiment and waste time you should proceed as follows:
- The first step is to analyze the circuit to determine if it was designed to perform its intended
functions.
- The second step is to check each section of the system in an orderly manner (Power supply,
power circuit, control circuit...) until you locate the part that does not work as expected. After
the section of the circuit that is not working correctly has been located, the splices and
connections and the operation of its components are verified to determine the cause of the
failure. As can be seen, this procedure requires knowledge of circuit analysis and the operation of
its devices, to determine whether they work or do not work correctly.
Now suppose that we try to determine a breakdown in a control system that was previously functioning
correctly.
In this case, one should not think that there are erroneous connections, since the circuit was originally
working well, therefore:
- The first step to follow to locate the fault that has occurred is to study the existing circuit and the
operation of the equipment controlled by it.
- The second step is to request the help of the system operator since no one like him knows how
the equipment works, therefore you have to follow the machine cycles until you locate the point
that is not working, and then verify which devices are connected to it. this point or section of the
circuit, to determine which device(s) are defective. Suppose that in this section there is a
contactor or relay and other devices that are activated in this section of the control, therefore it
must be checked that the devices are receiving their operating voltage, if not, check if there is an
open fuse or protection. shot.
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If the voltage is correct and the contactor or relay does not close, the coil circuit must be disconnected
to check the voltage with a multimeter, for which the terminals that power the contactor coil are
connected to the test leads of the multimeter if there are any. voltage, it is likely that the problem is in
the coil, then we proceed to measure the resistance of the coil winding, a coil in good condition
indicates a low resistance value, a shorted coil indicates a zero resistance value, and a coil Open does
not indicate measurement value on the multimeter.
If the coil shows signs that it is short-circuited or open, then it must be replaced. If the coil and the
conductors that feed it are in good condition then it is very likely that some contact of a pilot device
(pressure switch, limit switch, float, etc.) in series with the coil is staying open and therefore the coil is
not energized, therefore it is necessary to locate the pilot device whose contact is remaining open to
subject the mechanism that acts said contact to a mechanical test and if it does not work well it is very
likely that there lies the reason. of the breakdown, so it is repaired or replaced.
This procedure to detect and locate faults in control circuits is based on technical experience and on the
consideration that control circuits are essentially made up of two things: contacts that close and open,
the circuit and coils that operate these contacts. If the contacts close and open the circuit well, the
voltage should reach the coils well. If this is the case, the problem lies in the coil, but if the coil does not
energize, the problem must be in one of the open cables that feed the coil. in contacts that do not seal
well or sulfated or oxidized contacts.
All technicians who need to locate and detect faults in a control system must always use a good
measuring instrument and have the skills to use it.
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18.9- Examples of fault diagnosis in automation circuits

Example 1. The contactor activates but the engine does not start or starts with difficulty
What can be ruled out:
• That the fault is in the control circuit, since the contactor coil is activated.
• That there is no voltage in the circuit power supply.
Where to look:
• Since the control circuit works, the fault must be located in the power circuit. How to proceed:
• With the contactor activated and using a multimeter with the selector in the alternating current voltage
measurement position, it is checked if there is voltage between the three output phases of the different devices
that intervene in the power circuit. In the one that does not obtain tension and if in the previous one, it is very
possible that it is the element that has the problem. What can go wrong:
• One or more contacts of the switchgear that intervenes in the power circuit.
• Some of the power circuit cables.
Example 2. When you press the gear button, the contactor does not activate

• The fault is in the power
circuit, since the control that
powers the contactor
coil does not work. It is
not ruled out that there
was also a problem in
this circuit, but that
would be another type
of failure (the one in
example 1).
Where to look:
• Through the wiring,
auxiliary contacts and
elements of the control
circuit.
• In the control circuit
power supply.
How to proceed:
• One of the test leads is
firmly connected to
contact A2 of the
contactor coil and with
the other, touch, upstream,
each of the terminals that
intervene in the power supply of
this circuit (A1, 14 of KM1 , 14
from S2, 22 from S1, etc). If one of
them gives voltage, the failure is Measuring points
in the element located below it in
the diagram.
What can go wrong:
• Any contact or wires involved in activating the contactor coil.
2
8
• The protection device used for the control circuit.
Follow the voltage in the control circuit

Example 3: The contactor is only activated while the start button is pressed. When this is "released", the
contactor is deactivated
• The fault is in the power circuit . Where to look:
• Since the coil is powered when the button is pressed, it seems clear that the problem is in the feedback circuit.
That is, in the auxiliary contact 13-14 of KM1 and the cables that connect it.
How to proceed:
• With the power disconnected, it is manually checked to see if any of the contact wires have become loose or
have a poor connection.
• If the connection of the cables is correct, and still with the power disconnected, the selector is switched to the
ohms position and the continuity of the contact is checked.
What can go wrong:
• The cables that connect the auxiliary contact with the button.
• The feedback contact itself that is dirty, damaged or blocked.
28
6
Check continuity in circuit
2
8
Appendices
A- Electrical controls symbols (American ANSI and NEMA standards)
Three-phase Emergency mushroom
—/— /
power switch. head button
to__either
,> Circuit breaker or - EITHER- Contactor or relay coil

breakers
297 Magnetic circuit NO NC Control contacts

breaker -4
22) thermal circuit NOTC NCTO Timer contacts on

breaker °p °T ° connection (ON DELAY)
NO NC Pressure switch NOTO NCTC Timer contacts on

Op9 °v° disconnection (OFF
DELAY)
NO NC Liquid level switch L1L2L3 contactor power

5 either contacts
n2
NO. NC Temperature 8&} thermal relay

O—--^Q switch
NO. NC Limit switch single phase motor

Os0 O-°
OR
NO NC Flow switch • Three-phase motor

0-0 °E°
28
8
Roni Dominguez Electric Motor Control
NO NC foot switch - Autotransformer
o—oo—lo
K Two position Transformer
Uw
J.
Al
selector switch
0 0 A2
K Three position -LI- Fuse

J.L.
selector switch
oo A1
oo A2
NO. NO button Alarm

1□ 0
NC pushbutton Meter (indicate initial

NC
n 1 or -(vm)- letter of meter)
□ 1 □ oo Pilot light
NO/NC double EITHER
button
—R — o ! either Push button with Mechanical link
or or
pilot light between push button
or selector contacts
Control line (Fine)

Line of force
(Thick)
EITHER Terminal
28
9
B- Electrical controls symbols (European IEC standard)

Alternating current uv Single-phase
(AC) alternating
(M \1~) current motor
— Current UVW Engine

continuous (CC) three phase
induction
( MY
\ 3- )
device that oops Engine

operates on AC or three-phase
DC with rotor
((M) winding
\3~))
zxY
Line of U1 VI W i Engine
current three-phase
(M
continuous (CC) 6 terminal
induction
\3-)
U2 V2 W2
11------------ Line of _ m——( Engine of

N -------- alternating current current
single phase to 2 continue with
thread (CA) _(M_ independent
excitement
L1 --- Line of +- Engine of

IP alternating current current
N ------------- single phase to 3 continue with
thread (AC) serial excitation
29
0
1.1 - Three-phase 3-wire

alternating current
9 ? +(M)- DC motor with
parallel
line (AC) excitation
L1 Three-phase 4-wire Drivers

L2 - alternating current that cross
line (AC) without contact
N
Single-wire Drivers crossing
-* representation of 2
conductors
contact
—#------ Single-wire R ohmic resistance

representation of 3
conductors
—#4—— Single-wire grounding

representation of 3
phases and neutral —1-
Insulation defect Single-phase
* (electric current)
(0) transformer
Normally open (NO) Bipolar switch
N
contact
Normally closed Three-pole
r
1
contact (NC) power switch
Switchable contact Three-pole
W
set (NO and NC) disconnector
2
9
111w
Three-position Three-pole
switchable selector circuit breaker
Normally open — c mJ Three-pole
to pushbutton (NO)
- KM1
ou s+ co
NNN
contactor
Normally closed Thermal relay
-7 push button (NC) -LL (Overload)
Push button with Fuse

+ two NO contacts
Push button with NO Three-phase line
6+ and NC contact
H| 1
fuses with
neutral
Key operated push Three-pole

button disconnector
1-3 — c in
-o{44 o + with fuses
co
N Three-phase motor guard
b 1 1—1
-AND
autotransformer
H 1 1—
1Q
1Yo
V—
2/T1 J ¡
H—
F—
4/2
Auxiliary relay Timing contacts r
J
7 A2A1
ON DELAY
4
1
NO . । NC
29
2
F contactor and • Timing contacts r

-KM1 • NO . NO OFF DELAY
3
ON DELAY timer -I -I NO and NC
< C •) overload
-KA1 [X] | -F1 HN contacts
oy I < CD co
• IC
OFF DELAY timer Solenoid valve

k,
-KAI -KA1 •-X
™i 9
2
9

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Demo Control To Res Electrico SJ LP

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AUTOMATED ELECTRICAL

Industrial electrical automation systems

Electric Motor Control

JOHN PARDO 2023

Chapter 1- Introduction to automated

• Industrial automated installations.

1.1- Terms in automated installations

1.2- Elements of an automated installation

1.2.1- Operational elements

1.2.2- Actuators or actuators

1.2.3- Sensors or sensors

1.3- Development of industrial automation

competitiveness of the processes.

manual control Digital logic and

Fig 1. 1 - Evolution of industrial automation

Control panel using wiring logic based on relay control.

Eaton Programmable Relay

1. Electrical network. Three-phase energy supply that can come from:

Structure of an automated installation

1.7- Industrial automation

• Reduce the necessary labor.

Chapter 2- Connection of electric

2.1.1- Classification of electric motors

2.1.2- How to connect a dual-voltage split-phase single-phase motor.

Single-phase split-phase motor with 2 running or working windings

Low voltage connections

At 110 volts the running windings are connected in parallel.

2.1.3- How to change the direction of rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor.

Connections for changing the rotation of a single-phase split-phase motor

2.1.4- Color-coded NEMA terminal marking

SPLIT PHASE MOTOR TERMINAL COLOR

T1 = Blue T5 = Black P1 = Not assigned

T4 = Yellow T8 = Network (red)

2.2- Three-phase 6-terminal electric motors

Internal winding configuration

They have a terminal board housed inside the connection box.

Three-phase motor Internal configuration of 6-terminal

Sheets to make Jumper

Symmetrical terminal connection system

NEMA standard 6-terminal three-phase motor connection

2.3- Three-phase 9-terminal electric motors

Terminals of a 9-point three-phase motor

2.4- 12-terminal three-phase electric motors

12-terminal three-phase motor

2.4.1- Terminal identification

System to identify terminals in star connection

2.5- Induction motors with wound rotor

Terminal box of a wound rotor motor.

Connection of adjustable resistance to wound rotor motor

current, into mechanical energy.

Serial DC motor connection

The series engine is such that:

Parallel or shunt DC motor connection

2.6.3- Compound Engine

Connection of compound or compound DC motor

Chapter 3- Command and

3.1- Electromechanical sensors

Types of electromechanical sensors

Parts of a control device

Element Symbol Identifier

Push button with normally open contact (run

Pushbutton with normally closed contact (stop

Double chamber push button with open contact

Push button labels