Asian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (2014) 84–89

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Asian Journal of Psychiatry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ajp

A socio-cognitive inquiry of excessive mobile phone use

Sara Pourrazavi a, Hamid Allahverdipour b,*, Mohammad Asghari Jafarabadi c,
Hossein Matlabi a
a
Department of Health Education & Promotion, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
b
Clinical Psychiatry Research Center, Department of Health Education & Promotion, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
c
Medical Education Research Center, Faculty of Health, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Objectives: The study examined the predictive ability of selected demographic and socio-psychological
Received 22 January 2014 characteristics in explaining excessive mobile phone use (EMPU) behavior and problematic use in a
Received in revised form 16 February 2014 sample of university students on the basis of the social cognitive theory.
Accepted 22 February 2014
Methods: The sample consisted of 476 randomly selected university students in Tabriz, Iran. The study
was cross-sectional in nature. A researcher-designed questionnaire was used for the purpose of data
Keywords: collection. No causal inferences were drawn due to non-experimental nature of the study.
Excessive mobile phone use
Results: It was found that having boyfriend/girlfriend increases the likelihood of EMPU while self-
Mobile phone problematic use
Social cognitive theory
efficacy to avoid EMPU decreases it. Self-efficacy to avoid EMPU, self-regulation, observational learning,
self-control, and attitude toward EMPU were predictors of mobile phone problematic use. The results
provided a proper fit for a conceptual model of reciprocal determinism.
Conclusion: Although social cognitive constructs may predict mobile phone problematic use, they are
not useful in predicting the behavior of EMPU.
ß 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Mobile phones have become one of the most influential
technologies in people’s life and for the past several years, have
played an influential role in everyday communication (Park, 2005).
Currently, mobile phones are known as an important part of
adolescents’ life (Walsh and White, 2006) and have rapidly become
popular among the younger generations (Hakoama and Hakoyama,
2011). Nowadays, mobile phone not only is known as a
communication tool (Park, 2005; Hakoama and Hakoyama,
2011) but also has found various functions in the psychological
and social aspects (Babran and Akhavan Tabatabaei, 2011). In
addition, mobile phone use has succeeded to change the social
networks and may alter methods of human’s interaction (Walsh
and White, 2006).
According to the 2010 World Health Organization report, there
were approximately 5 billion mobile phone users in world (Riemer,
2011). The increasing rate of the users has been instrumental in
encouraging researchers to investigate the social (Hakoama and
Hakoyama, 2011) and psychological (Bianchi and Phillips, 2005;
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 914 314 7363; fax: +98 411 334 4731.
E-mail address: allahverdipourh@tbzmed.ac.ir (H. Allahverdipour).
Walsh and White, 2006; Walsh et al., 2008, 2010) effects of this
phenomenon. Although there are a few psycho-sociological studies
on negative consequences of excessive mobile phone use (EMPU)
among the youth, scientific studies highlight the advantages of
mobile phone use such as facilitating social inclusion (Mathews,
2004), creating and developing social networks (Walsh and White,
2006), feelings of safety in emergency conditions among females
(Walsh et al., 2008), sense of freedom among adolescences (Walsh
and White, 2007), improving relationship between parents and
children (Mathews, 2004) and contributing to the success of
treatment and management programs (Free et al., 2011; Aggarwal,
2012; Goodarzi and Ebrahimzadeh, 2014).
The negative physical and biological consequences of the EMPU
cannot be ignored. Headache, sleep disorders, loneliness, reduced
social interaction, anxiety, increased likelihood of driving acci-
dents, low academic performance, occupational and legal issues,
and financial problems have been reported as negative effects of
the EMPU (Söderqvist et al., 2008; James and Drennan, 2005; Park,
2005; James and Drennan, 2005; McEvoy et al., 2005).
Numerous studies have reported overuse of (Bianchi and
Phillips, 2005; Walsh and White, 2007) and dependency on (Walsh
and White, 2006; Hakoama and Hakoyama, 2011) mobile phone
among the youth. Peele (1985) considered excessive use of a
behavior as being addictive in nature. It is well known that

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2014.02.009
1876-2018/ß 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 S. Pourrazavi et al. / Asian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (2014) 84–89
addictive behaviors are associated with unhealthy lifestyles and
are considered as problematic behavior (Toda et al., 2006). A large
number of people have expressed dependency on their mobile
phones (Walsh and White, 2006) as it has become a life necessity
(Ahmed and Fiaz Qazi, 2011). In relation to mobile phone
addiction, adolescents tend to become uncomfortable and angry
if and when their access to mobile phone is limited (Lee, 2002), and
demonstrate compulsiveness in carrying the device at all times
(Hooper and Zhou, 2007). Additionally, there are people who check
their mobile phones continuously and think about them a lot even
when they do not use the device (Walsh et al., 2008).
There are several studies which focused on the behavior of
mobile phone use (LaRose et al., 2001; Walsh and White, 2006,
2007; Peters et al., 2006; Peters, 2007). The research findings
suggest that perceived self-efficacy (Peters et al., 2006; Wang et al.,
2006), outcome expectation (Peters, 2007), and self-regulation
(LaRose et al., 2001) are the major social cognitive theory (SCT)
constructs that are associated with media consumption. The SCT is
an interpersonal model which can be useful to understand factors
that affect the behavior and produce extensive perspectives of
health issues (McAlister et al., 2008). It succeeds in explaining new
technology such as internet (LaRose et al., 2001) and mobile phone
General Packet Radio Service, GPRS (Peters et al., 2006). According
to the theory, a large part of human learning process is achieved
through observing others’ behavior. Bandura (1986) stated that
observing the behavior of others as an external motivation, and
expected outcomes and self-efficacy as internal motivation, can
affect intention and adoption of behavior. Wang et al. (2006)
reported that perceived self-efficacy is directly related to intention
to mobile phone use as well as being a strong predictor of the
Internet use (Peters et al., 2006). Likewise, LaRose et al. (2001)
demonstrated that outcome expectation raises internet use.
Finally, self-regulated mechanism explains how people control
their behavior (McAlister et al., 2008) and insufficient self-
regulation is related to habitual behavior which predicts addictive
behavior (LaRose et al., 2001).
Mobile phone use has become a norm and value in youth’s life
(Walsh and White, 2006); consequently, the EMPU could lead to
new problematic phenomenon in societies that have been studied
less in developing countries. In accordance with the above-
mentioned background, the purpose of the present study was
threefold: (1) to assess the relation between the EMPU and
problematic use; (2) to investigate the usefulness of the SCT
constructs in the prediction of the EMPU and problematic use; and
(3) to investigate the interaction of psychological and environ-
mental factors, and the EMPU.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
The cross-sectional study was predictive in nature. It was
conducted in Tabriz, Iran in March and April 2013. A 2-stage
random sampling was employed. First, out of the nine universities
in Tabriz, four were selected at random. Second, random samples
of 513 students were invited to participate in the study and those
who completed the questionnaire correctly and returned it to the
research team about 476 (285 females and 190 males) were
included in the study. The students ranged in age from 18 to 33
years: 18–20 (38.5%), 21–25 (49.3%), and 26 and higher (12.2%).
The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the
research team’s university. Participation in the study was
voluntary and all participants signed a consent form before taking
part in the study. A panel of 10 experts in health psychology, health
education and promotion, and adolescent health approved the
content validity of the measures. The questionnaire was
85
pilot-tested with 50 college students, similar to study participants,
to assess its reliability and utility.
3. Measures
3.1. Demographics
The background data collected in the study were age, gender,
marital status (single or married), educational status (highest
degree), residency status (native or non-native), residency location
(independent living or living with parent), occupational status (full
time, part time, or unemployed), history of smoking (yes or no),
alcohol use (yes or no), having boyfriend or girlfriend (yes or no).
3.2. Mobile phone usage
The total number of (1) calls received, (2) calls made, (3) text
messages received, (4) text messages sent, and (5) times checked
the device was used to measure the variable of interest. Walsh et al.
(2008) considered the use of over 25 times a day as high. In our
study, the median use was 75, which was used to divide the sample
into normal (less than 75) and extreme (greater than 75) users of
the mobile phone.
3.3. Social cognitive theory constructs
The SCT constructs included self-efficacy against excessive
mobile phone use (EMPU), which was measured by a 6-item rating
scale; examples of the items: ‘‘I can spend my free times without
mobile phone’’ and ‘‘I can’t turn off my mobile phone when I sleep.’’
The second construct was outcome expectations, which was
measured by the modified version of the 18-item Outcome
Expectation Scale, OES (Peters, 2007); examples of the items:
‘‘To keep my family and friends up-to-date’’ and ‘‘Because it’s a
pleasant activity.’’ The third construct was the self-regulation of
behavior, which was measured by a 6-item rating scale; example of
the items: ‘‘I’ve been trying to reduce my sent SMS during 1
month’’. A 7-point Likert-type scaling (1 = strongly disagree,
7 = strongly agree) was used to measure the constructs. Reliability
coefficients for normal use self-efficacy scale (a = 0.65), outcome
expectations (a = 0.83), and self regulation of behavior (a = 0.77),
attested to the internal consistency of the scale scores. Addition-
ally, observational learning was measured by a 4-item rating scale
(a = 0.69), using a 5-point Likert type scaling (1 = very low, 5 = very
much).
3.4. Reciprocal determinism
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to examine
the interaction among individual factors (attitude toward EMPU
and outcome expectation), environmental factors (residency
location and having boy/girlfriend), and behavior of EMPU.
3.5. Attitude toward EMPU
A 4-item rating scale was used to gauge student attitudes
toward the EMPU; examples ‘‘I believe that excessive use of cell
phone can lead to mobile addiction.’’ A 7-point Likert-type scaling
(1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) was used. The reliability
coefficient for the scale was 0.71. Higher scores on the scale
indicated more positive attitudes.
3.6. Self-control
An 11-item instrument (Allahverdipour et al., 2006) was used to
measure the construct, using a 5-point Likert-type scaling
86 S. Pourrazavi et al. / Asian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (2014) 84–89

(1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The reliability coeffi- Table 1

Demographic characteristics of mobile phone users (n = 476).
cient for the scale is reported to be 0.80.
Normal use Over use Results
3.7. Mobile phone problematic use (n = 374) n (%) (n = 128) n (%)

Age
A modified version of the MPPUS scale (Bianchi and Phillips, 18–20 136 (40) 43 (34.1)
2005), which included 19 items, was used to assess the symptoms 21–25 157 (46.2) 73 (57.9) X2: 0.001, p = 0.99
26–45 47 (13.8) 10 (7.9)
of problematic use and mobile phone addiction. An example of the
Sex
item: ‘‘The time I spend on the mobile phone has increased over the Male 123 (35.4) 67 (52.3) X2: 11.12, p < 0.001
last 12 months.’’ A 10-point Likert type scaling (1 = not true at all, Female 224 (64.6) 61 (47.7)
10 = extremely true) was employed. The scale’s reliability coeffi- Marital status
Married 56 (11.8) 22 (17.2) X2: 0.07, p = 0.78
cient was 0.91, suggesting a high level of internal consistency and
Unmarried 291 (83.9) 106 (82.8)
that items are homogenous and related to the construct of interest. Educational level
Undergraduate 313 (90.2) 119 (93.7) X2: 1.41, p= 0.277
3.8. Statistical analysis Postgraduate 34 (9.8) 8 (19)
Residency status
Native 247 (71.2) 97 (75.8) X2: 0.99, p= 0.32
The Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) and Mplus
Nonnative 100 (28.8) 31 (24.2)
were used for the purpose of data analysis. The level of significance Residency location
was set, a priori, at .05. Descriptive statistics were used to Independent living 159 (45.8) 53 (41.4)
summarize and organize the data. The Chi-square test was used to Living with parent 188 (54.2) 75 (58.6) X2: 0.74, p =0.40
Job status
analyze the qualitative variables. Multiple linear regression was
Full time 22 (6.3) 11 (8.6)
applied to detect relationship among mobile phone problematic Part time 34 (9.8) 24 (18.8) X2: 8.27, p = 0.016
use, EMPU, SCT constructs (self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and Un-employed 291 (83.9) 93 (27.7)
self-regulation), attitude, and self-control. To examine the Smoking 42 (12.1) 40 (31.2) X2: 23.99, p < 0.001
relationship between demographic variables and SCT concepts, Alcohol use 18 (5.2) 23 (18) X2: 19.37, p < 0.001
Having boyfriend/ 40 (11.5) 85 (66/4) X2: 1.452, p < 0.001
attitude toward EMPU, and self-control of EMPU, a series of simple
girlfriend
and logistic regression was performed. The demographic variables
which were statistically significant at the univariate level as well as
the SCT constructs, attitude toward EMPU, and self-control were multivariate analysis and only age (21–25 years) and having
included in multivariate analysis of the data to determine the best boyfriend/girlfriend were statistically significant at the .05 level.
predictors. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with maximum Results are summarized in Table 3.
likelihood estimation was used to test the hypothesized model of As can be seen in Table 4, logistic regression results for self-
reciprocal determinism, using the Mplus software. The model fit efficacy, using unadjusted odds ratios, showed that outcome
indices that were used included the x2 estimate with degrees of expectation, self-regulation of behavior, attitude toward EMPU,
freedom given and the root mean squared error of approximation and self-control were statistically significant predictors of EMPU.
(RMSEA) as absolute fit indices. Specifically, self-efficacy, self-regulation of behavior, and self-
control reduced the odds for EMPU 17.0%, 7.0%, and 8.0%,
4. Results respectively. Outcome expectation increased the odds by 4.0%.
Multivariate analysis of the statistically significant predictors
The sample consisted of 374 normal and 128 over users of the showed that self-efficacy was the only statistically significant
mobile phone. The majority of the EMPU respondents were male, predictor of EMPU and reduced the odds by 14.0%.
52.3% (67/128). The employment status was: 8.6% (11/128) full- Concerning reciprocal determinism of environment, behavior,
time, 18.8% (24/128) part-time, and 27.7% (93/128) unemployed. and individuals, conceptual model results obtained from testing
Approximately, 66.4% (85/128) of the participants who used the the goodness of fit causal structure of the hypothesized model
mobile phone extremely had boyfriend/girlfriend, 18% (23/128) (Fig. 1) showed that the model fit the data well (x2 = 0.91, n = 479,
had history of alcohol drinking, and 31.2% (40/128) smoked either df = 3, p = 0.82, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.03, RMSEA = 0.00 (CI: 0.00, 0.05);
once or more. The Chi-square test of independence showed that x2/df (0.30) was statistically significant.
the associations between mobile phone use and demographic
variables of gender, job status, boyfriend/girlfriend status, smoking
use, and alcohol use were statistically significant. Results are 5. Discussion
summarized in Table 1.
As it shown in Table 2, liner regression results showed that self- The study’s findings supported the predictive ability of some
efficacy, self-regulation of behavior, attitude toward EMPU, self- demographic and socio-psychological characteristics on EMPU and
control, and EMPU were statistically significant predictors of mobile
phone problematic use and accounted for 40% of the variation. Table 2
Summary of linear regression analysis of self-efficacy, outcome expectation,
The logistic regression of demographic characteristics showed attitude toward EMPU, self-control, self-regulation, and EMPU as predictors of
that age (21–25 years), gender, job status (i.e., employed part- mobile phone problematic use (n = 476).
time), smoking, alcohol use, and having boyfriend/girlfriend were
Variables B SE b t p
statistically significantly predictor of EMPU at the .05 level.
Specifically, on the basis of unadjusted odds ratios, students in the Self-efficacy to avoid EMPU 1.79 0.25 0.34 7.26 <0.001
Outcome expectation 0.16 0.10 0.06 1.49 0.136
age-group of 21–25 years had 2.18 times more odds of EMPU than
Observational learning 1.80 0.45 0.15 3.97 <0.001
did older students; males had 2.00 times more odds of EMPU than Self-regulation 0.42 0.20 0.09 2.10 0.036
did females; and those who were smokers, alcohol users, and had Self-control 0.87 0.24 0.15 3.62 <0.001
boyfriend/girlfriend had, respectively, 3.30, 4.00, and 15.17 times Attitude toward EMPU 1.51 0.27 0.20 5.49 <0.001
more odds of EMPU than did the comparison groups. The EMPU 0.04 0.02 0.09 2.21 0.03

statistically significant variables were examined employing Dependent variables: mobile phone problematic use; R2 = .40.
 S. Pourrazavi et al. / Asian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (2014) 84–89 87

Table 3
Demographic characteristics as predictors of EMPU: summary of logistic regression results.

Variables Un-Adjusted Adjusted

OR Lower Upper p-Value OR Lower Upper p-Value

Age
18–20 1.49 0.69 3.19 0.309 – – – –
21–25 2.18 1.05 4.57 0.038 3.56 1.34 9.48 0.011
26–45 Referent – – – Referent – – –
Sex
Male 2.00 1.33 3.02 0.001 1.51 0.85 2.67 0.16
Female Referent – – – Referent – – –
Marital status
Married 1.08 0.63 1.85 0.78 – – – –
Unmarried Referent – – – – – – –
Educational level
Undergraduate 1.62 0.73 3.59 0.24 – – – –
Postgraduate Referent – – – – – – –
Residency status
Native 1.27 0.79 2.02 0.32 – – – –
Nonnative Referent – – – – – – –
Residency location
Independent living 0.84 0.55 1.26 0.39 – – – –
Living with parent Referent – – – – – – –
Job status
Full time employed 1.56 0.73 3.35 0.25 – – – –
Part time employed 2.21 1.25 3.91 0.007 1.43 0.65 3.11 0.37
Un-employed Referent – – – Referent – – –
Smoking
Yes 3.30 2.01 5.41 <0.001 1.65 0.80 3.42 0.178
No Referent – – – Referent – – –
Alcohol use
Yes 4.00 2.08 7.70 <0.001 1.32 0.50 3.498 0.57
No Referent – – – Referent – – –
Having a boy/girlfriend
Yes 15.17 9.27 24.84 <0.001 14.62 8.50 25.14 <0.001
No Referent – – – Referent – – –

OR: odds ratio.

Lower: lower bound for 95% C.I. for OR.
Upper: upper bound for 95% C.I. for OR.
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test showed an acceptable model fit (Chi-square = 7.88, p = 0.445). A total of 55% of subjects were correctly classified.

Table 4
Social cognitive theory constructs, attitude toward EMPU, and self-control as predictors of EMPU.

Variables Un-Adjusted Adjusted

OR Lower Upper p-Value OR Lower Upper p-Value

Self-efficacy to avoid EMPU 0.83 0.80 0.87 <0.001 0.86 0.82 0.91 <0.001
Outcome expectation 1.04 1.03 1.06 <0.001 1.00 0.98 1.02 0.82
Observational learning 1.05 0.99 1.12 0.114 1.01 0.93 1.10 0.78
Self-regulation 0.93 0.90 0.95 <0.001 0.98 0.94 1.01 0.22
Self-control 0.92 0.89 0.95 <0.001 0.99 0.95 1.03 0.70
Attitude EMPU 1.01 0.97 1.05 0.65 1.03 0.98 1.09 0.20

OR: odds ratio.

Lower: Lower Bound for 95% C.I. for OR.
Upper: Upper Bound for 95% C.I. for OR.
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test showed an acceptable model fit (Chi-square = 7.44, p = 0.490). A total of 48% of subjects were correctly classified.

problematic use among university students. Specifically, self-
efficacy to avoid EMPU decreased the chance of EMPU and
problematic use; EMPU, self-control, attitude toward EMPU,
observational learning, and self-regulation were the main pre-
dictors of mobile phone problematic use.
Findings indicated that how EMPU and problematic use are
common among university students. American Psychiatric Associ-
ation (2008) suggested that the behavior of excessive use is one of
the main symptoms of non-drug addictions (Block, 2008). On the
other hand, Cassidy (2006) represented mobile phone use as a
positive addiction that can make a person stronger (Glasser, 1985).
However, positive addictions may develop or shift into negative
addictions if disadvantages overcome the benefits (Orford, 2001).
Naderi and Haghshenas (2009) found a relationship between
EMPU and impulsivity that can be instrumental in dependence-
related disorders. Thus, EMPU can lead to problematic use and
addiction to similar devices. However, internet addiction and its
related disorders as well as mobile phone excessive use are not
discussed in the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)
and it seems relevant to include this type of addiction and
excessive use of mobiles in the DSM-5.
We found that self-efficacy to avoid EMPU as one of the
constructs of SCT had protective role against EMPU and problematic
use. Bandura (1995) believed people with high self-efficacy expect
to acquire successes because of their efforts. Moreover, perceived
self-efficacy with respect to individual’s goals and outcomes
expectation may influence the start, cessation, and prevention of
addictive behaviors (Marlatt et al., 1995). Additionally, DiClemente
88 S. Pourrazavi et al. / Asian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (2014) 84–89
Fig. 1. Conceptual model for reciprocal determinism.
et al. (1995) asserted that individuals with high self-efficacy believe
that they have the ability to deal with the problematic conditions
and improve normal mobile phone use.
Generally, individuals learn and acquire some behaviors
through observing behavior of people who are important as well
as via their social environment (Bandura, 1986). Concerning
observational learning, we found that mobile phone problematic
use among students is related to observational learning. In an
attempt to be accepted as a group member and as a result of peer
pressure, adolescents may mimic the high risk behaviors of other
group members (Kobus, 2003). In our study, self-regulation of
behavior, a SCT construct, was one of the predictors of mobile
phone problematic use, which is achieved by reducing the short-
term negative consequences (Karoly, 1993). People tend to observe
and judge positive and negative consequences of their behavior.
Positive outcomes, internal motivation (e.g., feeling good for
normal use of mobile phone), and external motivation (e.g.,
academic achievement) are effective factors in regulating a
reasonable level of mobile phone use, while insufficient self-
regulation skills lead to engage one in the deviance behavior as
well as problematic use and mobile addiction (LaRose et al., 2001).
It seems people perceive mobile phone use as a normal and
enjoyable activity that may result in developing positive attitude
toward its use. Consistent with our findings that showed a
correlation between positive attitude toward mobile phone and
EMPU, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) proposed that if participants
perceived more importance for behavior, they would have a positive
attitude toward the behavior. Positive beliefs increase the worth of
behavior in individual’s mind which in turn increases the likelihood
of performing the behavior. Furthermore, Walsh and White (2007)
found positive attitude as one of the predictors of EMPU.
The findings of the current study indicated that respondents
who had boyfriend/girlfriend had more chance for EMPU. Although
having a boyfriend/girlfriend is a norm in most countries, in some
of the Islamic countries such as Iran, this type of relationship is not
accepted by families and the society in accordance with the norms
and Islamic rules. In such situations, youth are unable to meet
together and consequently communicate via mobile phone
because of feeling of loneliness. Bahirayi et al. (2006) found
loneliness is a common phenomenon among students in Iran and
Naderi and Haghshenas (2009) suggested an association between
loneliness and EMPU, which are consistent with our findings that
showed a relation between having boyfriend/girlfriend and EMPU.
Reciprocal determinism which postulates rationales behind
some behaviors’ occurrence in social context was one of the
evaluated concepts. As shown in Fig. 1, the reciprocal determinism is
pivotal in the interaction between EMPU, attitude toward EMPU, and
living place as well as social environment. Individuals’ beliefs about
EMPU which come from outcomes of mobile phone use forms
attitudes and consequently the interaction between attitude and
behavior indicate reciprocal effect of these two constructs on each
other. Mobile phones in many parts of the world are used not only as
a general communication media but as a specific route to create and
maintain affectional relationships (Ben-Ze’ev, 2005) with certain
others especially in communities where due to existent cultural
values people of opposite sexes could not talk freely with each other
about their affections in public places. Findings of current study
indicated that females tend to spend plenty of their times in talking
with their friends and boyfriends in particular to improve mutual
understandings and therefore quality of the relationship with their
intimates. Thus, with fulfillment of the anticipated outcome (e.g.,
better mutual understandings), the study participants were more
willing to adopt or continue the behavior, but conversely, with
failure in achieving the foreseen outcome they were resistant to
continue or adopt the behavior. Findings of several studies indicated
that students who were living far from their families use mobile
phone frequently to communicate with their parents or family
members (Walsh et al., 2009). Independent living allows youth to
use mobile phone easily and without restrictions for instance due to
parents’ monitoring (Srivastava, 2005). All these findings reflect
reciprocal determinism that highlights the interaction between
individual, environmental, and behavioral factors.
Extension and mobile phone’s high penetration into the lives of
people, from children to elderly, have become an important tool for
research because, nowadays, mobile phone is not only a simple
means of communication (Park, 2005; Hakoama and Hakoyama,
2011) but has become a necessity (Walsh and White, 2006; Ahmed
and Fiaz Qazi, 2011). In addition, the mobile phone’s capabilities
have increased in popularity and affected EMPU and the problems
associated with it (Yang et al., 2010). Therefore, it is useful to
explore the factors that influence such behaviors in an attempt to
design and implement effective interventions aimed at moderating
the behaviors.
6. Conclusions
The study demonstrated that EMPU and problematic use were
prevalent among Iranian university students. Furthermore, social
cognitive theory predicts psychological variable of mobile phone
problematic use better than does the direct behavior of EMPU. In
addition to cognitive factors which influence EMPU and environ-
ment, environmental factors may also affect cognitive factors and
the behavior interactively. There are some debates regarding the
application of the SCT. Bandura (1986) perceived the SCT as a very
broad and ambitious theory to provide explanations for virtually all
human phenomena which would make it difficult to explain the
human behavior. McAlister et al. (2008) stated that the SCT has not
been evaluated comprehensively in the same way that other health
behavior theories have been tested. The SCT’s best known concept,
self-efficacy, has been frequently validated in numerous studies and
in our study was the main construct of SCT that predicted EMPU.
Finally, because of Iran’s cultural context, many girls and boys prefer
to use the mobile phone to communicate with their friends instead
of meeting in person which highlights the role of the construct of
reciprocal determinism for explaining human behavior.
 S. Pourrazavi et al. / Asian Journal of Psychiatry 10 (2014) 84–89
6.1. Limitations
The limitations of the study must be acknowledged. First, the
data were cross-sectional and relied heavily on recollection of past
events; thus, no causal inferences among the EMPU and SCT
variables could be made. Second, because of the role and influence
of cultural factors, results cannot be generalized to other
populations and we recommend the replication of the study with
different groups of people in order to increase the external validity
of the findings. Third, the rapid progressing in the technology of
mobile phone industry from normal and feature phone to smart
phones limit the applicability of current data in the future. Finally,
although quantitative studies provide useful information, the
findings are not sufficient for an in-depth understanding of the
EMPU; thus, conducting qualitative inquiries is recommended.
Conflicts of interest
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are
responsible for the content and writing of the article.
Authors’ contributions
All authors read and approved the final manuscript. S.P and H.A.
conceived the study and participated in the design, data collection
and data analysis as well as preparation of the manuscript. M.A.
participated in data analysis and manuscript preparation. M.M.
conceived participated in data collection.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Kamiar Kouzekanani for his
editorial suggestions and the Tabriz University of Medical Sciences
for financial support. The authors would like to acknowledge all
participants of the study.
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