Part - Iv 5 Mark Questions & Answers: Victory

12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Since ‘k’ is much more greater than ‘G’, the 3. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS electrostatic force is always greater than axial line.
1. Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its various gravitational force for smaller size objects Electric field due to dipole on its axial line :
aspects.  Electrostatic force between two point charges
Coulomb’s law : depends on the nature of the medium in which
two charges are kept at rest.
 Depending upon the nature of the charges, it may
either be attractive or repulsive
 Consider two point charges 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 separated  If the charges are in motion, another force called  Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole
by a distance ′𝒓′ Lorentz force come in to play in addition with moment be 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 and its direction be along
 According to Coulomb law, the force on the point Coulomb force. − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 .
charge 𝒒𝟐 exerted by 𝒒𝟏 is  Electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law. (i.e)  Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 ⃗ ⃗ point ‘O’ on its axial line.
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒌 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 𝑭𝟐𝟏 = − 𝑭𝟏𝟐
𝒓𝟐 2. Define electric field. Explain its various aspects.  Electric field at C due to +𝒒
 where, k → constant Electric field : 𝟏 𝒒
𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 → unit vector directed from 𝒒𝟏 to 𝒒𝟐 ⃗𝑬+ = ̂
𝒑
 The electric field at the point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 − 𝒂)𝟐
Important aspects :  Electric field at C due to −𝒒
from the point charge ‘q’ is the force experienced
 Coulomb law states that the electrostatic force is by a unit charge and is given by 𝟏 𝒒
1) directly proportional to the product of the ⃗−= −
𝑬 ̂
𝒑
⃗⃗⃗𝑭 𝟏 𝒒 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂)𝟐
magnitude of two point charges ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 = = 𝒓̂
𝒒𝒐 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟐  Since +𝒒 is located closer to pont ‘C’ than −𝒒 ,
2) inversely proportional to the square of the
Important aspects : ⃗+> 𝑬
𝑬 ⃗−
distance between them
 The force always lie along the line joining the two  If ‘q’ is positive, the electric field points away and  By superposition principle, the total electric field
charges. if ‘q’ is negative the electric field points towards at ‘C’ due to dipole is,
𝟏 the source charge. ⃗ ⃗
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸+ + 𝐸− ⃗
 In S.I units, 𝒌 = = 𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵 𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐
𝟒 𝝅𝜺𝟎 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
 Here is the permittivity of free space or vacuum 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝̂ − 𝑝̂
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
and its value is 1 1 1
𝟏  The force experienced by the test charge 𝒒𝒐 placed 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ − ] 𝑝̂
𝜺𝟎 = = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟐 𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟐
𝑪 𝑵 𝒎 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝟒 𝝅𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
in electric field 𝐸 is , 𝑭 = 𝒒𝒐 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗
1 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
 The magnitude of electrostatic force between two  The electric field is independent of test charge 𝒒𝒐 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ ] 𝑝̂
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
charges each of 1 C separated by a distance of 1 m and it depends only on souce charge 𝒒
is 𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵 1 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + 2 𝑟 𝑎 − 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 + 2 𝑟 𝑎
 Electric field is a vector quantity. So it has unique 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ ] 𝑝̂
 The Coulomb law in vacuum and in medium are, direction and magnitude at every point. 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 〈(𝑟 − 𝑎)(𝑟 + 𝑎)〉2
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐  Since electric field is inversely proportional to the 1 4𝑟𝑎
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 & ⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ 2 ] 𝑝̂
𝟒 𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝟐 𝟒 𝝅𝜺 𝒓 𝟐 distance, as distance increases the field decreases. 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 〈𝑟 − 𝑎 2 〉2
where, 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 −→ permittivity of the medium  The test charge is made sufficiently small such  Here the direction of total electric field is the
Thus the relative permittivity of the given medium that it will not modify the electric field of the dipole moment ⃗⃗⃗𝒑.
𝜀
is defined as , 𝜀𝑟 = . For air or vacuum, 𝜀𝑟 = 1 source charge.  If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 , then neglecting 𝑎2 . We get
𝜀𝑜
 For continuous and finite size charge 1 4𝑟𝑎 1 4𝑎
and for all other media 𝜀𝑟 > 1 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ 4 ] 𝑝̂ = 𝑞 [ 3 ] 𝑝̂
distributions, integration techniques must bt used 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟
 Coulomb’s law has same structure as Newton’s law
 There are two kinds of electric field. They are 𝟏 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒑
of gravitation. (i.e) ⃗ 𝒕𝒐𝒕 =
𝑬 [ 𝑞 2𝑎 𝑝̂ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 ]
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚1 𝑚2 (1) Uniform or constant field 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟑
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑘 2 & 𝐹𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺 (2) Non uniform field
𝑟 𝑟2
 Here 𝑘 = 9 𝑋 10 𝑁 𝑚2 𝐶 −2 and
9
1 𝐺 = 6.626 𝑋 10−11 𝑁 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2
2
4. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its  If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 then neglecting 𝑎  Apply cosine law in  AOP
equatorial line. 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗𝒑 r22 = r 2 + a2 − 2 r a cos (180 − θ)
⃗𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕 = − [ 𝑞 2𝑎 𝑝̂ = 𝑝 𝑝̂ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 ]
Electric field due to dipole on its equatorial line : 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟑 a2 2 a
r22 = r 2 [1 + 2 + cos θ]
5. Derive an expression for electro static potential r r
due to electric dipole. 𝑎2
If 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟 then neglecting 2
Electrostatic potential due to dipole : 𝑟
2 2
2a
r2 = r [1 + cos θ]
r
1
2a 2
r2 = r [1 + cos θ]
r
1
−
1 1 2a 2
= [1 + cos θ]
r2 r r
 Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole 1 1 a
moment be 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 and its direction be along = [1 − cos θ] – − − − (3)
r2 r r
− 𝒒 to + 𝒒 .  Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
 Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid moment be 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 and its direction be along 1 1 𝑎 1 𝑎
point ‘O’ on its equatorial plane. − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 𝑉 = 𝑞 { [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃] − [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]}
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
 Electric field at C due to +𝒒 (along BC)  Let ‘P’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid
𝟏 𝒒 1 𝑞 𝑎 𝑎
⃗ +| = point ‘O’ 𝑉 = [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]
| 𝑬 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂𝟐 )
𝟐  Let ∠𝑃𝑂𝐴 = 𝜃, 𝐵𝑃 = 𝑟1 and 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑟2
1 𝑞 2𝑎 1 2𝑞𝑎
 Electric field at C due to −𝒒 (along CA)  Electric potential at P due to +𝒒 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝟏 𝒒 1 q 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
| 𝑬⃗ −| = V1 = 𝟏 𝒑
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂𝟐 )
𝟐 4 πε0 r1 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 [𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎]
𝟒𝝅𝝐 𝒓 𝟐
 Here | 𝑬 ⃗ +| = | 𝑬 ⃗ −|  Electric potential at P due to −𝒒 𝟎
1 q 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒑 . 𝒓̂
 Resolve 𝑬 ⃗ + and 𝑬 ⃗ − in to two components. V2 = − (𝒐𝒓) 𝑽 = [𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝 . 𝑟̂ ]
4 πε0 r2 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
 Here the perpendicular components | 𝑬 ⃗ + | 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
 Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is  Here 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along OP
and | 𝑬 ⃗ − | 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 are equal and opposite will cancel 1 1 1
each other V = V1 + 𝑉2 = q [ − ] − − − (1)
4 πε0 r1 r2
 But the horizontal components | 𝑬 ⃗ + | 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 and case -1 : If  = 0° ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠  = 1 then,
 Apply cosine law in  BOP
⃗ − | 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 are equal and in same direction (−𝒑
| 𝑬 ̂) r12 = r 2 + a2 − 2 r a cos θ 𝟏 𝒑
2 𝑽 =
will added up to give total electric field. Hence a 2 a 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟎 𝒓
𝟐
r12 = r 2 [1 + 2 − cos θ] Case -2 If  = 180° ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠  = −1 then,
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = | 𝐸⃗+ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (−𝑝̂ ) + | 𝐸⃗− | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (−𝑝̂ ) r r :
𝑎2 𝟏 𝒑
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 | 𝐸⃗+ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑝̂  If 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟 then neglecting 2 𝑽 =−
1 𝑞 𝑟 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 [ ] cos 𝜃 𝑝̂ 2 a
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2 2
r1 = r [1 − 2
cos θ] Case -3 : If  = 90°; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0 then,
r 𝑽 = 𝟎
1 2𝑞 𝑎 1
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − [ ] 1 𝑝̂ 2d 2
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) (𝑟 2
2 2
r1 = r [1 − cos θ]
+ 𝑎 2 )2 r
1 2𝑞𝑎 1
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 3 𝑝̂ 1 1 2a −
2
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 = [1 − cos θ]
+ 𝑎 2 )2 r1 r r
1 𝑝 𝑝̂ 1 ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 1 1 a
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 3 = − 3 = [1 + cos θ] – − − − (2)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 r1 r r
2 + 𝑎 2 )2 + 𝑎2 )2
6. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an 7. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an  Here ̂𝒏 → unit vector perpendicular to the plane
infinitely long charged wire. charged infinite plane sheet. sheet outwards.
Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire : Electric field due to charged infinite plane sheet :  If 𝜎 > 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points perpendicular outward
 Consider an infinitely (𝑛̂) from the plane sheet and if 𝜎 < 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
long straight wire of points perpendicular inward (− 𝑛̂)
uniform linear charge 8. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an
density ‘’ uniformly charged spherical shell.
 Let ‘P’ be a point at a Electric field due to charged spherical shell :
distance ‘r’ from the  Consider an uniformly charged spherical shell of
wire. Let ‘E’ be the radius ‘R’ and charge ‘Q’
electric field at ‘P’ 1) At a point outside the shell (𝒓 > 𝑹) :
 Consider a cylindrical
Gaussian surface of  Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface
length ‘L’ and radius charge density ‘𝜎’
‘r’  Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet.
 The electric flux through the top surface, Let ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Φ𝑡𝑜𝑝 = ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0  Here the direction of electric field is
perpendicularly outward from the sheet.
 The electric flux through the bottom surface,  Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length
Φ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0 ‘2r’ and area of cross section ‘A’  Let P be the point outside the shell at a distance ‘r’
 The electric flux through plane surface ‘P’ from its centre.
 The electric flux through the curved surface,
Φ𝑃 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴  Here electric field points radially outwards if Q >0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝐴
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 and radially inward if Q < 0.
 The electric flux through plane surface ‘P’  Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝐿
𝚽 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0  = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 which encloses the total charge ‘Q’
 Then the total electric flux through the Gaussian 𝑷 
surface,  ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are along radially outwards, we
Since 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝐴
 The electric flux through the curved surface,
Φ𝐸 = Φ𝑡𝑜𝑝 + Φ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 have 𝜃 = 0 
𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 (𝟐 𝝅 𝒓 𝑳) Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0  The electric flux through the Gaussian surface,
 By Gauss law,  The total electric flux through through the Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
𝑄𝑖𝑛 Gaussian surface,
Φ𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 Φ𝐸 = Φ𝑃 + 𝚽𝑷 + Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 ∮ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑬 (𝟒 𝝅 𝒓𝟐 )
𝜆𝐿
𝐸 (2 𝜋 𝑟 𝐿) = 𝚽𝑬 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 + 0 = 2 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝐴  By Gauss law,
𝜀𝑜 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝝀 𝚽𝑬 = 𝟐 𝑬 𝑨 Φ𝐸 =
𝑬 =  By Gauss law, 𝜀𝑜
𝟐 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝑄
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 ) =2
 In Vector notation, Φ𝐸 =
𝝀 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂ 𝜎𝐴 𝟏 𝑸
𝟐 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 2EA= 𝑬 = 𝟐
𝜀𝑜 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒐 𝒓
 Here ̂𝒓 → unit vector perpendicular to the curved
𝝈  In vector notation,
surface outwards. 𝐄 = 𝟏 𝑸
𝟐 𝜺𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 = 𝒓̂
 If 𝜆 > 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points perpendicular outward 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒓 𝟐
 In vector notation, 𝒐
(𝑟̂ ) from the wire and if 𝜆 < 0 , then 𝐸 points ⃗⃗⃗ 𝝈
⃗⃗⃗  Here ̂𝒓 → unit vector acting radiallyh outward
perpendicular inward (− 𝑟̂ ) 𝑬 = 𝒏
̂
3 𝟐 𝜺𝒐 from the spherical surface.
2) At a point on the surface of the shell (𝒓 = 𝑹):  If a test charge ‘𝑞𝑜 ’ is placed on the Gaussian Property - 1 : The electric field is zero everywhere
 If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell, surface, by Coulomb law the force acting it is, inside the conductor. This is tre regardless of
then = 𝑹 . Then the electric field, 1 𝑄 𝑞𝑜 whether the conductor is solid or hollow.
𝟏 𝑸 |⃗⃗⃗𝐹 | =
⃗⃗⃗ = 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2  The electric field is not zero inside the metal, then
𝑬 𝒓̂
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒐 𝑹𝟐  By definition, the electric field, there will be a force on the mobile charge carriers
3) At a point inside the shell (𝒓 < 𝑹) ∶ |⃗⃗⃗𝐹 | 1 𝑄 due to this electric field.
|⃗⃗⃗𝐸 | = = − − − −(1)  As a result, there will be a net motion of the
𝑞𝑜 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
mobile charges, which contradicts the conductors
 Since the area element 𝑑𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is along the electric
being in electrostatic equilibrium.
⃗
field 𝐸 , we have 𝜃 = 0. Hence the electric flux  Thus the electric field is zero every where inside
through the Gaussian surface is, the conductor.
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴 Property - 2 : Theer is no net charge inside the
conductors. The charges must reside only on the
 Let ‘P’ be the point inside the charged shell at a  Here ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 4 𝜋 𝑟 2 → area of Gaussian sphere surface of the conductors.
distance ‘r’ from its centre.  Put in equation (1)  Form Gauss’s law, this implies that there is no net
 Consider the spherical Gaussian surface of radius 1 𝑄 charge inside the conductor. Even if some charge
Φ𝐸 = 𝑋 4 𝜋 𝑟2
‘r’ 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 is introduced inside the conductor, it immediately
 Since there is no charge inside the Gaussian 𝑸 reaches the surface of the conductor.
∴ 𝚽𝑬 =
surface, Q = 0 𝜺𝒐 Property - 3 : The electric field outside the
 Then from Gauss law,  This is known as Gauss law. conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
𝑄 Result : 𝝈
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖𝑛
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 conductor and has a magnitude of , where 𝝈 is
𝜀𝑜  The total electric flux through the closed surface 𝜺𝒐
𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) = 0 depends only on the charges enclosed by the the surface charge density at that point
𝑬 = 𝟎 surface and independent of charges outside the  If the electric field has components parallel to the
 Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged surface. surface of the conductor, then free electrons on
spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.  The total electric flux is independent of the the surface of the conductor would experience
9. Obtain Gauss law from Coulomb’s law. location of charges inside the closed surface and acceleration. This means that the conductor is not
Gauss law from Coulomb’s law : shape on the closed surface. in equilibrium.
 Gauss law is another form of Coulomb law and  Therefore at electrostactic equilibrium, the
also applicable to charges in motion. electric field must be perpendicular to the surface
10. Discuss the various properties of conductors in of the conductor.
electrostatic equilibrium.  For cylindrical Gaussian surface, the total electric
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium : flux is 𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 𝑨 and the total charge inside the
 An electrical conductor has a large number of surface is 𝑸 = 𝝈 𝑨
mobile charges which are free to move in the  By Gauss law,
material. 𝑄
Φ𝐸 =
 The resultant motion is zero and it implies that the 𝜀𝑜
conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium. σA
∴ EA =
 Consider a charged particle of charge ‘+q’  Thus at electrostatic equilibrium, there is no net 𝜀𝑜
𝛔
 Draw a Gaussian spherical surface of radius ‘r’ current in the conductor. (or) 𝐄 =
around this charge.  A conductor at electrostatic equilibrium has the 𝜺𝒐
 Due to symmentry, the electric field ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 at all the following properties.  In vector notation,
𝛔
points on the spherical surface have same ⃗⃗⃗𝐄 = 𝐧̂
𝜺𝒐
magnitude and radially outward in direction.
4
Property - 4 : The electrostatic potential has the  Thus positive charges are induced on one side and  Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐶 > 𝐶𝑜 .
same value on the surface and inside of the negative charges are induced on the other side of  Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the
conductor. the slab. capacitance.
 The conductor has no parallel electric component  So the dielectric in the external field is equivalent  We have, 𝑪𝒐 = 𝟎
𝜺 𝑨
𝒅
on the surface which means that charges can be to two oppositely charged sheets with the surface 𝜺 𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨
moved on the surface without doing any work. charge densities . These charges are called bound ∴ 𝑪 = =
𝒅 𝒅
 This is possible only if the electrostatic potential is charges. Where, 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺 → permitivity of the dielectric medium
constant at all points on the surface and there is  They are not free to move like free electrons in  The energy stored in the capacitor without
no potential difference between any two points on conductor. dielectric,
the surface. 12. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a 1 𝑄𝑜2
 Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, parallel plate capacitor when the capacitor is 𝑈𝑜 =
the potential is the same as the surface of the disconnected from the battery. 2 𝐶𝑜
conductor. Effect of dielectrics when the capacitor is  After the dielectric is inserted,
 Thus at electro static equilibrium, the conductor is disconnected from the battery : 𝟏 𝑸𝒐𝟐 𝟏 𝑸𝒐𝟐 𝑼𝒐
𝑼= = =
always at equipotential. 𝟐 𝑪 𝟐 𝜺𝒓 𝑪𝒐 𝜺𝒓
11. Explain dielectrics in detail and how an electric  Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑈 < 𝑈𝑜
field is induced inside a dielectric.  There is a decrease in energy because, when the
Electric field induced inside a dielectric : dielectric is inserted, the capacitor spend some
energy to pulling the dielectric slab inside.
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor. 13. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a
 Area of each plates =A parallel plate capacitor when the battery remains
Distance between the plates =𝑑 connected to the capacitor.
Voltage of battery = 𝑉𝑜 Effect of dielectrics when the battery remains
Total charge on the capacitor = 𝑄𝑜 connected to the capacitor:
 So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
𝑄𝑜
𝐶𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜
 When an external electric field is applied on a  The battery is then disconnected from the
conductor, the charges are aligned in such a way capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between
that an internal electric field is created which  Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
the plates. This decreases the electric field.
cancels the external electric field.  Area of each plates =A
 Electric field without dielectric = 𝐸𝑜
 But in dielectric, which has no free electrons, the Distance between the plates =𝑑
Electric field with dielectric = E
external electric field only realigns the charges so Voltage of battery = 𝑉𝑜
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant = 𝜀𝑟
that an internal electric field is produced. 𝐸𝑜 Total charge on the capacitor = 𝑄𝑜
 The magnitude of the internal electric field is ∴ 𝐸=  So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
𝜀𝑟 𝑄𝑜
smaller than that of external electric field.
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐸 < 𝐸𝑜 𝐶𝑜 =
 Therefore the net electric field inside the dielectric 𝑉𝑜
 Hence electrostatic potential between the plates is
field is not zero, but is parallel to an external
reduced and at the same time the charge 𝑄𝑜  Dielectric is inserted between the plates and the
electric field with magnitude less than that of the battery is remains in connected with the capacitor.
remains constant.
external electric field. 𝐸𝑜 𝑉𝑜  So the charges stored in the capacitor is increased.
 For example, let a rectangular dielectric slab is 𝑉=𝐸𝑑= 𝑑=  Total charge without dielectric = 𝑄𝑜
𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟
placed between two oppositely charged plates. Total charge with dielectric = 𝑄
 Then the capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric,
 The uniform electric field between the plates acts 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜 Relative permittivity (dielectric constat) = 𝜀𝑟
as the external electric field 𝐸⃗ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 which polarizes 𝐶= =
𝑉𝑜
= 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜 ∴ 𝑸 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑸𝒐
𝑉 [ ] 𝑉𝑜
the dielectric slab. 𝜀𝑟  Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑄 < 𝑄𝑜
5
 Here the potential difference between the plates  Let 𝐶𝑆 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor 15. Explain in detail how charges are distributed in a
remains constant. But the charges increases and in series connection, then conductor and the principle behind the lightning
the new capacitance will be 𝑄 conductor.
𝑄 𝜀𝑟 𝑄𝑜 𝑉= − − − − − (2)
𝐶𝑆 Distribution of charges in a conductor :
𝐶= = = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜  From (1) and (2) , we have
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐶 > 𝐶𝑜 𝑄 1 1 1
= 𝑄 [ + + ]
 Hence capacitance increases with the insertion of 𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
dielectric slab. 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝜺 𝑨 = + +
 We know that, 𝑪𝒐 = 𝟎 𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝒅
𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨  Thus the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of  Consider two conducting spheres ‘A’ and ‘B’ of
∴ 𝑪 = = capacitors connected in series is equal to the sum
𝒅 𝒅 radii 𝒓𝟏 and 𝒓𝟐 . Let 𝒓𝟏 > 𝒓𝟐
Where, 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺 → permitivity of the dielectric medium of the inverses of each capacitance.  Let the two spheres are connected by a thin
 The energy stored in the capacitor without  This equivalent capacitance 𝑪𝑺 is always less than conducting wire.
dielectric, the smallest individual capacitance in the series  If a charge ‘Q’ is given to either A or B, this charge
1 Capacitors in parallel : is redistributed in both the spheres until their
𝑈𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑉2
2 𝑜 𝑜 potential becomes same.
 After the dielectric is inserted,  Now they are uniformly charged and attain
𝟏 𝟏 electrostatic equilibrium.
𝑼= 𝑪 𝑽𝒐𝟐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑪𝒐 𝑽𝒐𝟐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑼𝒐
𝟐 𝟐  At this stage, let the surface charge densities of
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑈 > 𝑈𝑜 A and B are 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 respectively, then
 So there is increase in energy when the dielectric Charge residing on suface of A = 𝑞1 = 𝜎1 4 𝜋 𝑟12
is inserted Charge residing on suface of B = 𝑞2 = 𝜎2 4 𝜋 𝑟22
14. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance,  Consider three capacitors of capacitance  Then the total charge ; Q = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2
when capacitors are connected in series and in 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 connected in parallel with a battery  There is no net charge inside the conductors.
parallel. of voltage V .In parallel connection,  Electrostic potential on the surface of A and B is
Capacitors in series : 1) Each capacitor has same potential difference (V) 1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
2) But charges on each capacitor will be different 𝑉𝐴 = & 𝑉𝐵 =
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟1 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2
 Let 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 be the charge on 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3  Under elecrostic equilibrium. 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
respectively, then 1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 ∴ =
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟1 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉] 𝑞1 𝑞2
 Consider three capacitors of capacitance 𝑄 = 𝑉 [𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 ] − − − − − (1) =
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 connected in series with a battery of  Let 𝐶𝑃 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor 𝜎1 4 𝜋 𝑟12
𝜎2 4 𝜋 𝑟22
voltage V . In series connection, in parallel connection, then =
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 − − − − − (2) 𝑟1 𝑟2
1) Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q)
 From (1) and (2), 𝜎 𝑟
1 1 = 𝜎 𝑟
2 2
2) But potential difference across each capacitor
will be different. 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑉 [𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 ] (𝑜𝑟) 𝝈 𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑  Thus the surface charge density is inversely
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 respectively, then  Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors proportional to the radius of the sphere.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the  Hence for smaller radius , the charge density will
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 individual capacitances. be larger and vice versa
𝑉= + + [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉]
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3  The equivalent capacitance 𝑪𝑷 in a parallel
1 1 1 connection is always greater than the largest
𝑉= 𝑄 [ + + ] − − − − − (1)
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 individual capacitance.
6
Principle of lightning conductor (Action of point) : Construction : Applications :
 Action of point is the principle behind the  It consists of large hollow spherical conductor ‘A’  The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff
lightning conductor. fixed on the insulating stand. generator is used to accelerate positive ions
 We know that smaller the radius of curvature, the  Pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the centre of the sphere (protons and deuterons) for nuclear
larger is the charge density. and another pulley ‘C’ is fixed at the bottom. disintegrations and other applications.
 If the conductor has sharp end which has larger  A belt made up of insulating material like silk or
curvature (smaller radius), it has a large charge rubber runs over the pulleys.
accumulation.  The pulley ‘C’ is driven continuously by the
 As a result, the electric field near this edge is very electric motor.
high and it ionizes the surrounding air.  Two comb shaped metallic conductor D and E are
 The positive ions are repelled at the sharp edge fixed near the pulleys.
and negative ions are attracted towards the  The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a positive potential
sharper edge. of 104 𝑉 by a power supply.
 This reduces the total charge of the conductor  The upper comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side
near the sharp edge. This is called action of points of the hollow metal sphere.
or corona discharge. Working :
16. Explain in detail the construction and working of  Due to the high electgric field near comb ‘D’, air
Van de Graff generator. between the belt and comb ‘D’ gets ionized.
Van de Gralff generator :  The positive charges are pushed towards the belt
and negative charges are attracted towards the
comb ‘D’
 The positive charges stick to the belt and move up.
 When the positive charges reach the comb ‘E’ a
large amount of negative and positive charges are
induced on either side of comb ‘E’ due to
electrostatic induction.
 As a result. the positive charges are pushed away
from the comb ‘E’ and they reach the outer surface
of the sphere.
 These positive charges are distributed uniformly
on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
 At the same time, the negative charges neutralize
the positive charges in the belt due to corona
discharge before it passes over the pulley.
 When the belt descends, it has almost no net
charge.
 This process continues until the outer surface
 It is designed by Robert Van de Graff. produces the potential difference of the order of
107 𝑉 which is the limiting value.
 It produce large electro static potential difference
of about 107 𝑉  Beyond this, the charges starts leaking to the
Principle : surroundings due to ionization of air.
 Electro static induction  It is prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas
filled steel chamber at very high pressure.
 Action of points
7
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its  Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS microscopic form and discuss its limitation. be non - ohmic. These materials have more
ANSWERS
1. Describe the microscopic model of current and Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law : complex (non- linear) relationships between
obtain general form of Ohm’s law. voltage and current.
Microscopic model of current and Ohm’ law : 3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and
parallel resistor network.
Resistor in series :
 Consider a segment of wire of length ‘𝑙’ and area of
 Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴 cross section ‘𝐴’.
Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛  When a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across
Applied electric field along leftwads = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 the wire, a net electric field is created in the wire
Drift velocity of the electrons = 𝒗𝒅 which constitutes the current.
Charge of the electron = 𝒆  If we assume the electric field is uniform in the
 If ‘𝑑𝑥 ′ be the distance travelled by the electron in entire length, the potential difference is given by,  When two or more resistors are connected end to
time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then 𝑉 end, they are said to be in series.
𝑉=𝐸𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐸=
𝑑𝑥 𝑙  Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors
𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡  From the microscopic form of Ohm’s law,
𝑑𝑡 connected in series.
 The number of electrons available in the volume 𝑽
𝑱= 𝝈𝑬= 𝝈  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛 𝒍 this combination.
 Then the total charge in this volume element is,  By definition, the current density is  In Series connection,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 𝐈
𝑱= (i) Current through each resistor will be same (I)
 By definition, the current is given by 𝑨 (ii) But potential difference across different
𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒  Hence, resistor will be different.
𝐼= = I 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜎  Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across
 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅 𝐴 𝑙 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law
𝑙
Current density (𝑱⃗) : ∴ 𝑉=I [ ] 𝑉1 = 𝐼 𝑅1
𝜎𝐴
 Current density (J) is defined as the current per 𝑽 = 𝐈𝑹 𝑉2 = 𝐼 𝑅2
unit area of cross section of the conductor. 𝒍 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅3
𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 Where,
𝝈𝑨
= 𝑅 → Resistance of the conductor  Total potential difference,
𝐽= =  This is called macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝐼 𝑅3
𝑱 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝒗𝒅 𝑽 = 𝑰 [𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ] − − − − (𝟏)
 Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟐  Let 𝑹𝑺 be the equivalent resistance in series
 In vector notation, connection, then
⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 𝑽 = 𝑰 𝑹𝑺 − − − − (2)
𝒆𝝉 𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉  From equation(1) and (2), we have,
⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 [− ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬] = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ]
𝒎 𝒎
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉 ∴ 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
 where, = 𝝈 → conductivity Limittations:  When resistances are connected in series, the
𝒎
∴ ⃗𝑱⃗ = − 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬  From Ohm’s law, the graph between current versus equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
voltage is straight line with a slope equal to the resistances.
 But conventionally, we take the dirction of current
inverse of resistance (R) of the conductor.
density as the direction of electric field. So the  The equivalent resistance in series connection will
above equation becomes,  Materials for which the current against voltage be greater than each individual resistance.
⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ graph is a straight line through the origin are said
𝑬
to obey Ohm’s law and their behavior is said to be
8  This is called microscopic form of Ohm’s law. Ohmic.
Resistors in parallel : 4. Explain the determination of the internal 5. Explain Kirchoff’s law.
resistance of a cell using voltmeter. Kirchoff first law (current law) :
Internal resistance of a cell :  It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any
junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0).
Explanation :
 It is a statement of
conservation of
electric charge.
 When two or more resistors are connected across  Thus all charges
the same potential difference, they are said to be that enter a given
in parallel. junction in a circuit
 Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors must leave that
connected in parallel.  A real battery is made of electrodes and junction.
electrolyte.  Current entering the junction is taken as positive
 Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
this combination.  There is resistance to the flow of charges within and current leaving the junction is taken as
the battery and this resistance is called internal negative.
 In parallel connection,
(i) Potential difference across each resistance resistance (r)  Applying this law at junction ‘A’
 The emf of the cell is measured by connecting 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
will be the same (V)
high resistance voltmeter across it without (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5
(ii) But current flows through different resistors
will be different. connecting the external resistance R Kirchoff second law (voltage law) :
 Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 be the currents flow through  This circuit may be considered as open, the  It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum
𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law voltmeter reading gives the emf (𝜀) of the cell. of the products of the current and reistance of
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉  Then external resistance is included in the circuit each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf
𝐼1 = ; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 = and current ‘I’ is established in the circuit. included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝜺)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 This circuit is then considered as close, the Explanation :
 Hence the total current will be,
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 voltmeter reading gives the potential difference
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + + (V) across ‘R’
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑉
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏  By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 (or) 𝐼 =
𝑰= 𝑽 [ + + ] − − − − (𝟏) 𝑅
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑  Due to internal resistance of the cell, the
 Let 𝑹𝑷 be the equivalent resistance in parallel voltmeter reads the value “V” which is less than
connection, then, the emf 𝜉
𝑽  It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir) has
𝑰= − − − − (2) dropped across the internal resistance ‘r’. Hence
𝑹𝑷
 From equation (1) and (2), 𝑉 = 𝜀−𝐼𝑟 − − − − (2)  It is a statement of conservation of energy for an
𝑉 1 1 1 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼𝑟= 𝜀−𝑉 isolated system.
=𝑉 [ + + ] 𝜺−𝑽 𝜺−𝑽  The product ‘IR’ is taken as positive when we
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 ∴ 𝒓= = [ ]𝑹
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑰 𝑽 proceed along the direction of current and taken
∴ = + +  Since 𝜉 , V and R are known, internal resistance as negative when we proceed opposite to the
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
‘r’ and total current ‘I’ can be determined. direction of current.
 When resistances are connected in parallel, the
 The power delivered to the circuit is,  Simillarly, the emf is considered as positive, when
reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝜀 = 𝐼 ( 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑟) = 𝐼 (𝐼 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑟) we proceed from negative to positive terminal of
sum of the reciprocal of the values of resistance of
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 + 𝑰𝟐 𝒓 the cell and as negative, when we proceed from
the individual resistor.
where , 𝐼 2 𝑅 → power deliverd to R positive to negative terminal of the cell.
 The equivalent resistance in parallel connection
𝐼 2 𝑟 → power deliverd to 𝑟
9 will be lesser than each individual resistance.
6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in  Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)  The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance
Wheatstone’s bridge. 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0 R and S of the Wheatstone’s bridge. Then
Wheatstone’s bridge : 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) − 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) = 0 𝑃 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴𝐽
∴ 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) − − − − (8) = = 
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝐽𝐵
 Divide equation (8) by (7) Where 𝑅 → resistance per unit length
𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) 𝑷 𝑨𝑱 𝒍𝟏
= = = − − − −(𝟏)
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑸 𝑱𝑩 𝒍𝟐
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆 𝑄 𝑆 𝒍𝟏
= (𝑜𝑟) 1+ =1+ (𝒐𝒓) 𝑷= 𝑸 − − − −(𝟐)
𝑃 𝑅 𝑃 𝑅 𝒍𝟐
𝑄 𝑆 𝑷 𝑹
= (𝑜𝑟) = − − (𝟗)  Due to imperfect contace of wire at its ends, some
𝑃 𝑅 𝑸 𝑺 resistance might be introduced at the contact.
7. Explain the determination of unknown resistance These are called end resistances.
using meterbridge.  By interchange P and Q,tThis error can be
Meterbridge: eliminated, and the average value of P is found.
 Let 𝑙 be the length and r be the radius of wire, its
specific resistance (resistivity) is given be.
𝑷𝑨 𝑷 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝝆= = − − − −(𝟑)
𝒍 𝒍
8. How the emf of two cells are compared using
potentiometer?
 An important application of Kirchoff’s laws is the
Comparision of emf of two cells :
Wheatstone’s bridge.
 It is used to compare resistances and also helps in
determining the unknown resistance in the
electrical network
 The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R, S
connected as shown.
 A galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between B and D
 A battery ‘𝜀 ′ is connected between A and C  Metrebridge is another form of Wheatstone’s
 Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , 𝐼4 currents through various branches bridge
and 𝐼𝐺 be the current through the galvanometer.  It consists of uniform manganin wire AB of 1m
 Applying Kirchoff’s current law at B and D, length.
𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − − (1)  This wire is stretched along a metre scale between
𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − − (2) two copper strips C and D
 Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA,  E is another copper strip mounted with two gaps  Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 − − − − (3) G1 and G2 (Bt) and a key (K) in series. This is the primary
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼4 𝑆
 An unknown resistance P is connected in G1 and circuit.
=0 − − − − (4)
standard resistance connected in G2  The end C is connected to central terminal M of
 At balanced condition, the potential at B and D are
 A jockey J is connected from E through a DPDT switch and another central terminal N is
same, and hence the galvanometer shows zero galvanometer G and high resistance HR. connected to jockey through a galvanometer G
deflection. So 𝑰𝑮 = 𝟎
 A Lechlanche cell 𝜀 and key K is connected across and high reistance HR. This is the secondary
 Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3) the bridge wire. circuit.
𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − − − − (5)
 The position of jockey is adjusted so that the  The cell whose emf 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 to be compared are
𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 − − − − (6)
galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point connected to 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 of DPDT switch.
10 𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 − − − − (7)
be ‘J’
 Initially the cell of emf 𝜀1 is included in the  The current flows through R and cell is,
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙1 is 𝜀
𝐼=
found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection. 𝑅+𝑟
 Simillarly the cell of emf 𝜀2 is included in the  Hence potential difference across R
𝜀
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙2 is 𝑉 =𝐼𝑅= 𝑅
found. 𝑅+𝑟
 For this potential difference, again the balancing
 Let ‘r’ be the resistance per unit length and ‘I’ be
point J is found out and the balancing length
the primary current, then by the principle
CJ = 𝑙2 is measured.
𝜀1 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 − − − − (1)
𝜀2 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 − − − − (2)  By the principle,
𝜀
 Divide equantion (1) by (2), 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙2 − − − −(2)
𝑅+𝑟
𝜀1 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1
=  Divide equation (1) by (2)
𝜀2 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 𝜀 𝑙1
𝜺𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝜀 =
= − − − −(𝟑) ( 𝑅) 𝑙2
𝜺𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝑅+𝑟
9. Explain the method of measurement of internal 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1
=
resistance of a cell using potentio meter. 𝑅 𝑙2
Internal resistance by potentiometer : 𝑟 𝑙1
1+ =
 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery 𝑅 𝑙2
(Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This is the primary 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙2
= −1=
circuit. 𝑅 𝑙2 𝑙2
 The cell 𝜀 whose internal resistance ‘r’ to be 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
measured is connected to the secondary circuit. 𝒓=𝑹 [ ] − − − (𝟑)
𝒍𝟐
 A resistance box R and a key K2 is connected  By substituting 𝑅, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 in equation (3) the
across the cell 𝜀 internal resistance of the cell can be measured.
 Here the internal reistance is not constant, and it
increased with increase of external resistance R.
 With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found

out and balancing length CJ = 𝑙1 is measured.
 By the principle,
𝜀 ∝ 𝑙1 − − − −(1)
 A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is
11 closed.
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 The angle between magnetic meridian at a point
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS and geographical meridian is called the magnetic
1.ANSWERS
Discuss Earth’s magnetic field in detail. declination (D).
Earth’s magnetic field :  The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic
field wih the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)
at that point.
 The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the
horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is
called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic
field (BH)
 Let BH be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point
on the surface of the Earth, then
Horizontal component ; 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸 cos 𝐼 − − − (1)
Vertical component : 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸 s𝑖𝑛 𝐼 − − − (2)
 A freely suspended magnet comes to rest (2) 𝐵𝑉
approximately along the geographical north - south ⟹ tan 𝐼 =
(1) 𝐵𝐻
direction. (i) At magnetic equator :
 To explain this, William Gilbert proposed that,  At magnetic equator, 𝐼 = 0°, then
Earth itself like a gigantic powerful magnet, but this 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸
theory was not accepted. 𝐵𝑉 = 0
 Gover suggested that the Earth’s magnetic field is (ii) At magnetic poles :
due to hot rays coming out from the Sun.  At magnetic poles, 𝐼 = 90° , then
 So many theories have been proposed, but none of 𝐵𝐻 = 0
the theory completely explains the cause for the 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸
Earth’s magnetism. 2. Calculate the magnetic induction at a point on the
 The north pole of magnetic compass needle is axial line of a bar magnet.
attracted towards the magnetic south pole of the ⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 ) :
Magnetic field at axial line ( 𝐵
Earth which is near the geographic north pole.
 Simillarly the south pole of magnetic compass
needle is attracted towards the magnetic north
pole of the Earth which is near the the geographic
south pole.
 The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s
magnetic field is called Geomagnetism (or)
Terrestrial magnetism.
 The Earth spins about an axis called geographic
axis and vertical line passing through the  Consider a bar magnet ‘NS’ of moment 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙
geographic axis is called geographic meridian,  Let C be the point on its axis at a distance ‘r’ from
and a great circle perpendicular to Earth’s centre ‘O’
geographic axis is called geographic equator.  Let unit north pole (𝑞𝑚𝐶 = 1 𝐴 𝑚) is placed at ‘C’
 The straight line which connects magnetic poles of
 The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole
Earthis known as magnetic axis and the vertical lise
(i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to north pole
passing throuth magnetic axis is called magnetic
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 𝜇 𝑞𝑚
meridian and a great circle perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 = 𝑁 = 𝑜 𝑖̂ − − − − (1)
12 Earth’s magnetic axis is called magnetic equator. 𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2
 The attractive force experienced by unit north pole  Let C be the point on its equatorial line at a distance 4. What is tangent law? Discuss in detail. Explain the
(i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to south pole ‘r’ from centre ‘O’ principle, construction and working of tangent
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 𝜇 𝑞𝑚  Let unit north pole (𝑞𝑚𝐶 = 1 𝐴 𝑚) is placed at ‘C’ galvanometer.
⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑆 = 𝑆 = − 𝑜 𝑖̂ − − − − (2) Tangent Galvanometer :
𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2  The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole
(i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to north pole  It is a device used to measure very small currents.
 Then total magnetic field at ‘C’ is
𝐹𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚  It is a moving magnet type galvanometer.
⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑆
𝐵 𝐵𝑁 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝐶) − − − − (1)
𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 𝑟 !𝟐  Its working is based on tangent law.
𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
= 𝑖̂ + [− 𝑖̂ ]  The attractive force experienced by unit north pole Tangent law :
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙) 2 4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2  When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely
𝜇𝑜 1 1 (i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to south pole
= 𝑞𝑚 [ − ] 𝑖̂ 𝐹𝑆 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2 𝐵𝑆 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑆) − − − − (2) magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction
𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 𝑟 !𝟐
𝜇𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 of the resultant of the two fields.
= 𝑞𝑚 [ ] 𝑖̂  Here, 𝑩𝑵 = 𝑩𝑺
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2  Let B be the magnetic field produced by passing
 Resolve these two magnetic fields into their
𝜇𝑜 𝑟2 + 𝑙2 + 2 𝑟 𝑙 − 𝑟2 − 𝑙2 + 2 𝑟 𝑙 current through the coil of tangent galvanometer
components. Hence
= 𝑞𝑚 [ ] 𝑖̂ and BH be the horizontal component of Earth’s
4𝜋 {(𝑟 − 𝑙) (𝑟 + 𝑙)}2 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 = − 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
magnetic field.
𝜇𝑜 4𝑟𝑙 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑆 = − 𝐵𝑆 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
= 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑖̂  Under the action of two magnetic fields, the needle
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙 2 )2  Then the total magnetic field at ‘C’ is comes to rest at an angle  with 𝐵𝐻 , such that
𝜇𝑜 2 𝑟 (𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙) ⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 + 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗𝑺 𝑩 = 𝑩𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
= 𝑖̂
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 = − 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ Construction :
𝜇 2 𝑟 𝑝𝑚 − 𝐵𝑺 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂  It consists of copper coil wound on a non-magnetic
⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑜
𝐵 𝑖̂ − − − − (3)
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 ⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑺 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂
𝐵 circular frame.
 where 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙 = 𝑝𝑚 → magnetic dipole moment ⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 2 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂  It is fixed vertically on a horizontal turn table
𝐵 [∵ 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑺 ]
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 ≈ 𝑟 4 . So 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 providing with three levelling screws.
𝜇 2 𝑟 𝑝𝑚 = − 2 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂  At centre, a compass box is placed which consists
𝐵⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑜 𝑖̂ 4 𝜋 𝑟 !𝟐
4𝜋 𝑟4 𝜇 2 𝑞𝑚 of a small magnetic needle which is pivoted at its
𝜇 2 𝑝𝑚 ⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜
𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − − − (3) centre.
𝐵⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑜 𝑖̂ [𝑝𝑚 𝑖̂ = 𝑝𝑚 ] 4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙2)
4 𝜋 𝑟3  A thin aluminium pointer is attached to the
𝝁 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒑𝒎  But in ∆ 𝑁𝑂𝐶,
⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 = 𝒐
𝑩 − − − − (𝟒) magnetic needle normally and moves over circular
𝑂𝑁 𝑙 𝑙
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑 cos 𝜃 = = != scale.
1
3. Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the 𝐶𝑁 𝑟 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )2  The circular scale is divided in to four quadrants
equatorial line of a bar magnet.  Then equation (3) becomes, and graduated in degrees.
Magnetic field at equatorial line ( 𝑩 ⃗⃗ 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂 ): 𝜇 𝑞𝑚 𝑙  In order to avoid parallax error in measurement, a
⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 2 𝑜
𝐵 1 𝑖̂
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 ) (𝑟 2 mirror is placed below the aluminium pointer.
+ 𝑙 2 )2  Here the centre of magnetic needle will exactly
𝜇 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙
⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜
𝐵 3 𝑖̂
coincide with the centre of the circular coil.
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2  The coil has three sections of 2, 5 and 50 turns
+ 𝑙 2 )2
𝜇 𝑝𝑚 which are different thickness and are used to
⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜
𝐵 3 𝑖̂
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 measuring currents of different strengths.
+ 𝑙 2 )2
Theory :
 where 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙 = 𝑝𝑚 → magnetic dipole moment
3  When no current is passed through the coil, the
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )2 ≈ 𝑟 3 . So small magnetic needle lies along horizontal
𝜇 𝑝 component of Earth’s magnetic field
𝐵⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜 𝑚 𝑖̂ [𝑝𝑚 𝑖̂ = 𝑝𝑚 ]
4 𝜋 𝑟3  When current pass through the coil, it produces
 Consider a bar magnet ‘NS’ of moment 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙 𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒑 magnetic field in direction perpendicular to the
⃗⃗ 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 = − 𝒐 𝒎
𝑩 − − − −(𝟒)
13 𝟒 𝝅 𝒓𝟑 plane of the coil.
 Now there are two fields, which are acting mutually  Let a ferro magnetic material (iron) is magnetized 6. Deduce the relation for magnetic induction at a
perpendicular to each other. slowly by a magnetizing field 𝐻 ⃗ point due to an infinitely long straight conductor
They are ⃗
 The magnetic induction 𝐵 is increases from point A carrying current.
(i) The magnetic field ‘B’ and attains saturated level at C. This is shown by Magnetic field due to long straight current carrying
due to current in the coil the path AC conductor :
(ii) Horizontal component of  The maximum point up to which the material cn be
Earth’s magnetic field magnetized by applying the magnetizing field is
‘BH’ called Saturation magnetization.
 Thus the magnetic needle deflects through an angle  If magnetizing field is now reduced, the magnetic
‘’. By tangent law, induction also decreases but in different path CA.
B = Bh tan θ − − − − − − − − (1)  When magnetizing field is zero, the magnetic
 When current ‘I’ passing through a circular coil of induction is not zero and it has positive value. (i.e.)
radius ‘R’ having ‘N’ turns, the magnitude of some magnetism is left in the material even when
magnetic field at the centre is, H=0.
μo N I  The ability of the material to retain the magnetism
B = − − − − − − − − (2)
2R in them even magnetizing field vanishes is called
 Put equation (2) in (1) remanence or retentivity.
μo N I
= BH tan θ  To remove the remance, the magnetizing field is
2R gradually increased in the reverse direction, so that
μo N 𝐼
𝐁𝐇 = ( ) − − − (3) the magnetic induction decreases along DE and
2 R tan 𝜃 becomes zero at ‘E’
 Also the current is ,
𝟐 𝐑 𝐁𝑯  The magnitude of the reverse magnetizing field for  Consider a long straight wire YYI carrying a current I
𝐈 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐊 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 − −(4) which the residual magnetism of the material  Let P be a point at a distance ‘a’ from ‘O’
𝛍𝐨 𝐍 vanishes is called its coercivity.  Consider an element of length ‘𝑑𝑙’ of the wire at a
 where, ⃗ in the reverse direction, the
𝟐 𝐑 𝐁𝑯  Further increase of 𝐻 distance ‘𝑙’ from point ‘O’
K= 𝛍𝐨 𝐍
−→ Reduction factor of TG mangetic indiuction increases along EF until it  Let ⃗⃗𝑟 be the vector joining the element ‘𝑑𝑙’ with
5. Define Hysterisis. Explain it with help of diagram. reaches saturation at F in the reverese direction. the point ‘P’ and ‘𝜃’ be the angle between ⃗⃗𝑟 and
Hysterisis :  If magnetizing field is decreased and then ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
 Hysterisis means ‘lagging behind’ increased with direction reversed, the magnetic  Then the magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the element is,
 The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction induction traces the path FGKC. 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 = 𝒏
̂ − − − −(1)
⃗ ), behind the magnetizing field ( 𝐻
(𝐵 ⃗ ) is called  This closed curve ACDEFGKC is called hysteresis 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
hysteresis. loop and it represents a cycle of magnetization.  where, 𝒏 ̂ → points into the page
 In the entire cycle, the magnetic induction ‘B’ lags AC AC
Hysterisis loop :  In ABC, sin θ = =
AB dl
behind the magnetizing field ‘H’.
AC = dl sin θ − − − − − − − (2)
 This phenomenon is called hysteresis
Hysterisis Loss :  In ACP
 Due to hysterisis there is a loss of energy in the AC = r dφ − − − − − − − −(3)
form of heat and It is found that the energy lost per  From equation (2) and (3)
unit volume of the material when it is carried dl sin θ = r dφ − − − − − − − (4)
through one cycle of magnetization is equal to the  Put this in eqation (1)
μ0 I r dφ μ0 I dφ
area of the hysteresis loop. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂ − − − (5)
4π r 2 4π r
 Thus the loss of energy for a complete cycle is,
 In OAP
∆𝑬 = ∮ ⃗𝑯 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 a a
cos φ = (or) r = − − − (6)
r cos φ
14
 Put this in equation (5)  Here, 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be resolved in to two componenets.  Let an electron moves in circular motion around
μ0 I dφ μ0 I ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ the nucleus. The circulating electron in a loop is like
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 = 𝑛̂ = cos φ 𝑛̂ (i) 𝑑𝐵 cos ϕ − horizontal component (Y - axis)
a
4 π ( ⁄cos φ) 4π a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ sin ϕ − vertical component (Z - axis) current in a circular loop.
(ii) 𝑑𝐵
 The total magnetic field at ‘P’ due to conductor YYI  The magnetic dipole moment due to current
 Here horizontal components of each element
φ2 φ2
μ0 I cancel each other. carrying circular loop is, ⃗⃗⃗𝝁𝑳 = 𝑰 ⃗𝑨
⃗
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ cos φ 𝑛̂  In magnitude, 𝝁𝑳 = 𝑰 𝑨 − − − − − − (𝟏)
−φ1 −φ1 4 π a  But vertical components alone contribute to total
magnetic field at the point ‘P’  If T is thetime period of an electron, the current due
μ I 𝑒
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 0 ⌊sin φ⌋φ −φ1 𝑛
2
̂ to revolving electron is, 𝐼 = −
4π a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 sin ϕ 𝑘̂
⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐵
B 𝑇
μ I where ‘- e’  charge of an electron.
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 0 ⌊sin φ1 + sin φ2 ⌋ 𝑛̂ − − − − (7) 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
4π a ⃗ =
B ∫ 2 sin ϕ 𝑘̂ − − − − − (1)  If ‘R’ be the radius and ‘𝑣’ be the velocity of electron
 For infinitely long conductor, φ1 = φ2 = 90° 4𝜋 𝑟 in the circular orbit, then
μ I  Also from ∆𝐶𝑂𝑃, 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑅
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 0 [ 2 ] 𝑛̂ 𝑇= =
4π a 𝑅 𝑅 𝜔 𝑣
𝛍𝟎 𝐈 sin ϕ = = 1
⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝒏
̂ 𝑟  Then equation (1) becomes,
(𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 )2 𝑒 𝑒
𝟐𝛑 𝐚 𝝁𝑳 = − 𝐴 = − 𝜋 𝑅2
7. Obtain a relation for the magnetic induction at a  But from equation (1) 2𝜋𝑅
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑅 𝑇 [ ]
point along the axis of a circular coil carrying ⃗ = 𝑜 ∫
B ̂ 𝑣
1 𝑘
current. 4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑧 ) 2
2 2
(𝑅 + 𝑧 2 )2 where, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2 → area of the circular orbit
Magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil : 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑅 𝒆𝒗𝑹
⃗ =
B ̂ ∴ 𝝁𝑳 = − − − − − (2)
 Consider a 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 𝟐
circular coil of radius 4 𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑧 )
2 2 2  By definition, angular momentum of the electron
‘R’ carrying a current ‘I’  where, ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 2 𝜋 𝑅 → total length of the coil. about ‘O’ is ⃗⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗𝑅 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗𝑝
in anticlock wise 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑅  In magnitude, angular momentum is given by,
⃗ =
B 3
[2 𝜋 𝑅] 𝑘̂
direction. 𝐿 =𝑅𝑝=𝑚𝑣𝑅 − − − − (3)
4 𝜋 (𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 )2
 Let ‘P’ be the 𝝁 𝒐 𝑰 𝑹𝟐  Dividing equation (2) by (3),
⃗ =
𝐁 ̂ 𝜇𝐿 𝑒𝑣𝑅 𝑒
point on the axis at a 𝟑 𝒌 = − =−
distance ‘z’ from 𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒛 )𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝐿 2𝑚𝑣𝑅 2𝑚
centre ‘O’  If the circular coil contains ‘N’ turns, then  In vector notation,
𝒆
 Consider two 𝝁 𝒐 𝑵 𝑰 𝑹𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝝁𝑳 = − ⃗
𝑳 − − − − (4)
⃗ =
𝐁 ̂
diametrically opposite 𝟑 𝒌 𝟐𝒎
𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒛 )𝟐
𝟐 𝟐  Here negative sign indicates that the magnetic
line elements of the
 The magnetic field at the centre of the coil is, dipole moment and angular momentum are in
coil of each of length
𝛍 𝐍𝐈 opposite direction. In magnitude,
⃗⃗⃗ at C and D.
𝑑𝑙 ⃗ = 𝟎
𝐁 ̂
𝒌 (𝒛 = 𝟎) 𝜇𝐿 𝑒
𝟐𝐑 = = 8.78 𝑋 1010 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Let ⃗⃗𝑟 be the vector joining the current element 8. Compute the magnetic dipole moment of revolving 𝐿 2𝑚
(𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 ) at C to the point ‘P’ electron. And hence define bohr magneton.  This constant is called gyro-magnetic ratio.
 From Pythogorous theorem, Magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron :  According to Bohr quantization rule, angular
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑟 = √𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 momentum of an electron is,
and ∠ 𝐶𝑂𝑃 = ∠𝐷𝑂𝑃 = ϕ ℎ
𝐿=𝑛ℏ=𝑛
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnetic field at 2𝜋
‘P’ due to the current elements 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 are,  where, ℎ → Plank’s constant (ℎ = 6.63 𝑋 10−34 𝐽 𝑠)
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝑛 → Positive integer (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … . ..)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜
𝑑𝐵 𝑒 𝑒 ℎ
4𝜋 𝑟2 ∴ 𝜇𝐿 = 𝐿= 𝑛
 Their magnitudes are same and it is given by, 2𝑚 2 𝑚 2𝜋
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝒆𝒉
15 𝑑𝐵 = [ ∵ 𝜃 = 90°] 𝝁𝑳 = 𝒏 − − − − (𝟓)
4 𝜋 𝑟2 𝟒𝝅𝒎
 The minimum magnetic moment can be obtained 10. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to long N
B = μ0 I − − − − (4)
by substituting 𝑛 = 1 current carrying solenoid. 𝐿
𝒆𝒉 Mangnetic field due to current carrying solenoid :  Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then
(𝝁𝑳 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝝁𝑩 = = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝑨 𝒎𝟐 𝐍
𝟒𝝅𝒎 = 𝒏 . Hence,
𝑳
 The minimum value of magnetic moment of 𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝐈
revolving electron is called Bohr magneton (𝝁𝑩 ) 𝐁 = = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧 𝐈 − − − − (5)
𝑳
9. Using Ampere’s law, obtain an expression for  Since ‘n’ and μ0 are constants, for fixed current ‘I’
magnetic field due to the current carrying wire of the magnetic field ‘B’ inside the solenoid is also
infinite length. constant.
Magnetic field due to current carrying straight wire 11. Obtain the magnetic fields at various points on the
using Ampere’s law : toroid.
Toroid :
 A solenoid is bent in such a way
 Consider a solenoid of length ‘L’ having ‘N’ turns. its ends are joined together to
 To calculate the magnetic field at any point inside form a closed ring shape is
the solenoid, consider an Amperian loop ‘abcd’ called toroid.
 From Ampere circuital law,
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜 − − − − − (1)
 The LHS of equation (1) can be written as
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
 Consider a straight conductor of infinite length 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
carrying current ‘I’  Here,
 Imagine an Amperian circular loop at a distance ‘r’ b
𝑏 𝑏
from the centre of the conductor. ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = B ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = B 𝒉

⃗ . d𝒍
∫ B
 From Ampere’s circuital law, a
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 c
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 90° = 0
∫ ⃗B. d𝒍
 Here ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is the line element along the tangent to the b Open space interior to the toroid (P) :
𝑏
⃗⃗⃗ is
⃗ and 𝑑𝑙 d  To calculate the magnetic field 𝐵𝑃 at ‘P’, consider
Amperian loop. So the angle between 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . d𝒍
∫ B [∵ B = 0] an Amperian loop (1) of radius 𝒓𝟏
zero (𝜃 = 0°). Thus, c
𝑐
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 1 is
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 a
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 90° = 0
⃗ . d𝒍
∫B ⃗ 𝑃 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜
 Due to symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic d
𝑏  Since the loop 1 encloses no current, 𝐼𝑜 = 0, then
field is uniform over the Amperian loop and hence,  Here ab = h . If we take large loop such that it is
⃗ 𝑃 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 equal to length of the solenoid, we have
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮B dl = B 𝑳 − − − − − − − (2) ∴ ⃗⃗ 𝑷 = 𝟎
𝑩
 For circular loop, ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2 𝜋 𝑟
Open space exterior to the toroid (Q):
𝐵 (2 𝜋 𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼  Let ‘I’ be the current passing through the solenoid
𝝁𝒐 𝑰  To calculate magnetic field 𝑩𝑸 at ‘Q’ construct
𝑩= of ‘N’ turns, then
Amperian loop (3) of radius 𝒓𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒓 I0 = N I − − − − − − − − (3)
 In vector notation,  Then Amperian circuital law for loop 3 is
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
𝝁 𝑰 B 𝐿 = μ0 N I ⃗ 𝑄 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜
⃗⃗ = 𝒐 𝒏
𝑩 ̂
𝟐𝝅𝒓
16
 Since in each turn of the toroid loop, current  Hence charged particle moves in a circular orbit  It is a device used to accelerate the charged
coming out of the plane of paper is cancelled by the and the necessary centripetal force is provided by particles to gain large kinetic energy. It is also
current going into plane of the paper. Thus 𝐼𝑜 = 0 Lorentz force. (i.e.) called as high energy accelerator.
⃗ 𝑄 . ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑚 𝑣2  It is invented by Lawrence and Livingston.
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 𝐵𝑞𝑣=
𝑟 Principle :
∴ ⃗⃗ 𝑸 = 𝟎
𝑩  The radius of the circular path is,  When a charged particle moves normal to the
𝑚𝑣 𝑝 magnetic field, it experience magnetic Lorentz
Inside the toroid (S) : 𝑟= = − − − − (1)
 To calculate magnetic field 𝑩𝑺 at ‘S’ construct 𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑞 force.
Amperian loop (2) of radius 𝒓𝟐 where, 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑝 → linear momentum Construction :
 The length of the loop 2 ; 𝐿2 = 2 𝜋 𝑟2  Let ‘T’ be the time period, then
and the loop encloses the current ; 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑁 𝐼 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚𝑣
𝑇= =
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 2 is 𝑣 𝑣𝐵𝑞
𝟐𝝅𝒎
⃗ 𝑆 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑻= − − − − (2)
𝑩𝒒
It is called cyclotron time period.
𝐵𝑆 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼
 Let ‘f’ be the frequency, then
𝐵𝑆 (2𝜋𝑟2 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼 𝟏 𝑩𝒒
𝝁𝒐 𝑵 𝑰 𝒇= = − − − − (𝟑)
𝑩𝑺 = 𝑻 𝟐𝝅𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐  In terms of angular frequency,
 Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then 𝑩𝒒
𝐍
𝝎=𝟐𝝅𝒇= − − − − (4)
= 𝒏. Hence 𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 It is called cyclotron frequency or gyro-frequency.
𝑩𝑺 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧 𝐈  From equantion (2), (3) and (4), we infer that time
12. Obtain the expression for force on a moving charge period (T), frequency (f) and angular frequency
in a magnetic field. ( 𝝎 ) depends only on specific charge, but not
Force on moving charge in a magnetic field : velocity or the radius of the circular path.  It consists two semi circular metal containers
Special cases : called Dees.
 If a charged particle moves in uniform magnetic  The Dees are enclosed in an evacuated chamber
field, such that its velocity is not perpendicular to and it is kept in a region of uniform magnetic field
the magnetic field, then its velocity is resolved into acts normal to the plane of the Dees.
two components.  The two Dees are kept separated with a gap and the
 One component is parallel to the fjeld and the other source ‘S’ of charged particles to be accelerated is
component is perpendicular to the field. placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees.
 Here parallel component remains unchanged and  Dees are connected to high frequency alternating
the perpendicular component keeps on changing potential difference.
 Consider a charged particle of charge ‘q’ having due to Lorentz force. Working :
mass ‘m’ enters perpendicular to uniform magnetic  Hence the path of the paricle is not circle, it is helix  Let the positive ions are ejected from source ‘S’
field ‘B’ with velocity 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ around the field.  It is accelerated towards a Dee-1 which has
 So this charged particle experience Lorentz force negative potential at that instant.
which acts perpendicular to both 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ and it is  Since the magnetic field is normal to the plane of
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞 (𝑣 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵 ) the Dees, the ion undergoes circular path.
 Since Lorentz force alone acts on the particle, the  After one semi-circular path in Dee-1, the ion
magnitude of this force is reaches the gap between Dees.
𝐹 =𝐵𝑞𝑣 [𝜃 = 90°] 13. Describe the principle, construction and working of  At this time the polarities of the Dees are reversed,
Cylotron. so that the ion is now accelerated towards Dee-2
17 Cylotron : with a greater velocity.
 For this circular motion, the centripetal force of the  Consider a small segment of wire of length ‘𝑑𝑙’  Consider two straight parallel current carrying
charged particle is provided by Lorentz force, then  The free electorns drift opposite to the direction of conductors ‘A’ and ‘B’ separated by a distance ‘r’
𝑚 𝑣2 current with drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 kept in air.
=𝐵𝑞𝑣  The relation between current and drift velocity is,  Let I1 and I2 be the currents passing through the
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 𝐼 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑣𝑑 − − − − − (1) A and B in same direction (z-direction)
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞  If the wire is kept in a magnetic field, then average  The net magnetic field due to I1 at a distance ‘r’
∴ 𝒓 ∝𝒗 force experienced by the electron in the wire is 𝜇 𝐼 𝜇 𝐼
⃗ 1 = 𝑜 1 (− 𝑖̂) = − 𝑜 1 𝑖̂
𝐵
 Thus the increase in velocity increases the radius of 𝐹 = − 𝑒 (𝑣𝑑 𝑋 𝐵 ⃗) 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
the circular path. Hence the particle undergoes  Let ‘n’ be the number of free electrons per unit  Here 𝐵 ⃗ 1 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and
spiral path of increasing radius. volume, then the total number of electrons in the inwards.
 Once it reaches near the edge, it is taken out with help small element of volume (𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑙) is 𝑁 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑙  Then Lorentz force acts on the length element 𝑑𝑙 in
of deflector plate and allowed to hit the target T  Hence Lorentz force on the small element, conductor ‘B’ carrying current I2 due to this
 The important condition in cyclotron is the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑙 (𝑣𝑑 𝑋 𝐵 ⃗ ) − − − (1) magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗1
𝑑𝐹
resonance condition. (i.e.) the frequency ‘𝑓’ of the 𝜇 𝐼
 Here length 𝑑𝑙 is along the length of the wire and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵⃗ 1 = − 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝑘̂ 𝑋 𝑜 1 𝑖̂
charged particle must be equal to the frequency of 2𝜋𝑟
hence the current element is
the electrical oscillator ‘𝑓𝑜𝑠𝑐 ’ . Hence 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑩𝒒 I ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑑𝑙 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = − ̂
(𝑘 𝑋 𝑖̂)
𝒇𝒐𝒔𝒄 =  Put this in equation (1), 2𝜋𝑟
𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝜇 𝐼 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵⃗ − − − (2) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑜 1 2
𝑑𝐹 𝑗̂
 The time period of oscillation is , 2𝜋𝑟
𝟐𝝅𝒎  Therefore, the force in a straight current carrying  By Flemming’s left hand rule, this force acts left
𝑻=
𝑩𝒒 conductor of length ‘𝒍’ placed in a uniform magnetic wards. The force per unit length of the conductor B
 The kinetic energy of the charged particle is, field ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝟏 𝑩𝟐 𝒒𝟐 𝒓𝟐 ⃗𝑭 = 𝐈 𝒍 𝑿 𝑩 ⃗⃗ − − − (3) = − 𝒋̂ − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝟐 𝟐𝒎  In magnitude,  Simillarly, net magnetic field due to 𝐼2 at a distance
Limitations of cyclotron : 𝑭 = 𝑩 𝐈 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − − − (4) ‘r’ is
(i) the speed of the ion is limited Special cases : 𝜇 𝐼
⃗ 2 = 𝑜 2 𝑖̂
𝐵
(ii) electron cannot be accelerated (i) If the current carrying conductor placed along the 2𝜋𝑟
(iii) uncharged paricles cannot be accelerated. direction of magnetic field, then  = 0°  Here 𝐵 ⃗ 2 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and
14. Obtain an expression for the force on a current ∴ 𝑭=𝟎 outwards.
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. (ii) If the current carrying conductor is placed  Then Lorentz force acts on the length element 𝑑𝑙 in
Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic perpendicular to the magnetic field, then  = 90° conductor ‘A’ carrying current I1 due to this
field : ∴ 𝑭 = 𝑩 𝐈 𝒍 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗2
15. Obtain a force between two long parallel current 𝜇 𝐼
carrying conductors. Hence define ampere. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵⃗ 2 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 𝑘̂ 𝑋 𝑜 2 𝑖̂
2𝜋𝑟
Force between two parallel conductors carrying 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
current : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = ̂
(𝑘 𝑋 𝑖̂)
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑗̂
2𝜋𝑟
 By Flemming’s left hand rule, this force acts right
wards. The force per unit length of the conductor A
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
magnetic field, the force experienced by the wire is = 𝒋̂ − − − − − (𝟐)
𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
equal to the sum of Lorentz forces on the individual  Thus the force experienced by two parallel current
chage carriers in the wire. carrying conductors is attractive if they carry
 Let a current ‘I’ flows through a conductor of lengh current in same direction.
18 ‘L’ and area of cross-section ‘A’
 On the other hand, the force experienced by two  Since the forces FQR and FSP are equal, opposite and Special cases:
parallel current carrying conductors is repulsive if collinear, they cancel each other. a) When θ = 90°or the plane of the loop is parallel to the
they carry current in opposite direction.  But the forces FPQ and FRS, which are equal in magnetic field, the torque on the current loop is
Definition of ampere : magnitude and opposite in direction, are not acting
maximum. 𝛕 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝐍 𝐁 𝐈 𝐀
 One ampere is defined as that current when it is along same straight line. Therefore, FPQ and FRS
b) When θ = 0°/180° or the plane of the loop is
passed through each of two infinitely long parallel constitute a couple which exerts a torque on the
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the torque on
conductors kept a a distance of one metre apart in loop.
the current loop is zero.
vacuum causes each conductor experience a force
17. Describe the principle, construction and working of
of 2 𝑋 10−7 newton per meter length of conductor.
moving coil galvanometer.
16. Deduce an expression for torque on a current loop
Moving coil galvanometer :
placed in uniform magneitic field ⃗𝑩 ⃗.
 It is a device which is used to indicate the flow of
Torque on a current loop : current.
 Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS kept in Principle :
uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 with its plane parallel to  When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform
the field magnetic field it experiences a torque.
 Let 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑎 → Length of the loop  The magnitude of torque acting on the arm PQ Construction :
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏 → Breadth of the loop about AB is  It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated
 Let 𝒏 ̂ be the unit vector normal to the plane of the 𝑏 𝑏 thin copper wire.
current loop. τ𝑃𝑄 = FPQ [ sin 𝜃] = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃]  A cylindrical soft-iron core is placed
2 2
It points in the direction of AB symmentrically inside the coil.
 The magnitude of torque acting on the arm RS  This rectangular coil is suspended freely between
about AB is two pole pieces of a horse-shoe magnet by means of
𝑏 𝑏 phosphor - bronze wire.
τ𝑅𝑆 = FRS [ sin 𝜃] = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃]  Lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring
2 2
It points in the direction of AB which is also made up of phosphor bronze.
 The total torque acting on the entire loop about an  A small plane mirror is attached on the suspension
axis AB is given by wire to measure the deflection of the coil with help
𝑏 𝑏 of lamp and scale arrangement.
𝛕 = τ𝑃𝑄 + τ𝑅𝑆 = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃] + 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃]  In order to pass electric current through the
 Let the loop is divided in to four sections PQ, QR, RS 2 2
and SP. The Lorentz force on each loop can be 𝛕 = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 galvanometer, the suspension strip W and the
calculated as follows. where, 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝐴 → area of the rectangular loop spring S are connectee to terminals.
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑃𝑄  𝛕 is along the direction of AB Working :
F𝑃𝑄 = B I (PQ) sin 90° = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚  In vector form, ⃗⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝑰⃗⃗⃗𝑨 𝑿 𝑩 ⃗⃗
From right hand cork screw rule, its direction is  In terms of magnetic dipole moment,
vertically upwards. ⃗ 𝒎𝑿𝑩
⃗⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝒑 ⃗⃗
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑄𝑅 where, 𝒑 ⃗ 𝒎 = 𝑰⃗⃗⃗𝑨
F𝑄𝑅 = B I (QR) sin( 90 − ) = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉  The tendency of the torque is to rotate the loop so as
Its direction is along the loop downwards to align its normal vector with the direction of the
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑅𝑆 magnetic field.
F𝑅𝑆 = B I (RS) sin 90° = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚  If there are N turns in the rectangular loop, then the
From right hand cork screw rule, its direction is  Consider a single turn of rectangular coil PQRS of
torque is given by
vertically downwards. length 𝑙 and breadth 𝑏, such that
𝛕 = 𝐍 𝐁 𝐈 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑆𝑃 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑙 ; 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏
F𝑆𝑃 = B I (SP) sin( 90 − ) = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉  Let ‘I’ be the electric current flowing through the
19 Its direction is along the loop upwards rectangular coil
 The horse-shoe type magnet has hemi-spherical
magnetic poles which produces a radial magnetic
field.
 Due to this radial field, the sides QR and SP are
always parallel to the magnetic field ‘B’ and
experience no force.
 But the sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular
to the magnetic field ‘B’ and experience force and
due to ths torque is produced.
 For single turn, the deflecting couple is,
𝜏𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝐹 𝑏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 𝑏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝐴
 For coil with N turns, we get
𝝉𝒅𝒆𝒇 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑰 𝑨 − − − − (1)
 Due to this deflecting torque, the coil get twisted
and restoring torque is developed.
 The magnitude of restoring torque is proportional
to amount of twist and it is given by
𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔 = 𝑲 𝜽 − − − − (2)
where 𝐾 → restoring couple per unit twist (or)
torsional constant
 At equilibrium, 𝝉𝒅𝒆𝒇 = 𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝑁𝐵𝐼𝐴= 𝐾𝜃
𝑲
𝑰= 𝜽 = 𝑮 𝜽 − − − (𝟑)
𝑵𝑩𝑨
𝑲
where, 𝐺 = → galvanometer constant (or)
𝑵𝑩𝑨
current reduction factor
20
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Electro magnetic damping : 𝑑 𝑑
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ∈= − (𝑁Φ𝐵 ) = − (𝑁 Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡)
 The armature of the galvanometer coil is wound 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1.ANSWERS
Explain the applications of eddy currents (or) on a soft irom cylinder. = − 𝑁 Φ𝑚 (− sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝜔
Focault currents.  Once the armature is deflected, the relative motion ∈ = 𝑵 𝚽𝒎 𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (1)
Induction stove : between the soft irom cylinder and the radial  When 𝜃 = 90°, then the induced emf becomes
 It is used to cook food quickly and safely with less magnetic field induces eddy current in the maximum and it is given by,
consumption. Below the cooking zone, there is a cylinder. ∈𝒎 = 𝑵 𝚽𝒎 𝝎 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑨 𝝎 − − − − − (2)
tightly woind coil of insulated wire.  The damping force due to the flow of eddy current  Therefore the value of induced emf at that instant
 A suitable cooking pan is placing over the cooking brings the armature to rest immediately and the is then given by,
zone. galvanometer shows a steady deflection. ∈ = ∈𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (3)
 When the stove is switched on, an AC flowing in  This is called electromagnetic damping.  Thus the induced emf varies as sine function of the
the coil produces high frequency alternating 2. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a time angle and this is called sinusoidal emf or
magnetic field which induces very strong eddy magnetic field over one rotation induces an alternating emf.
currents in the cooking pan. alternating emf of one cycle.  If this alternating voltage is given to a closed
 The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of Induction of emf by changing relative orientation circuit, a sinusoidally varying current flows in it.
heat due to Joule heating which is used to cook the of the coil with the magnetic field : This current is called alternating current an is
food. given by,
Eddy current brake : 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (4)
 This types of brakes are generally used in high  where, 𝑰𝒎 → peak value of induced current
speed trains and roller coasters. 3. Elaborate the standard construction details of AC
 Strong electromagnets are fixed just above the generator.
rails.To stop the train, electromagnets are swiched AC generator - construction :
on. The magnetic field of these magnets induces  AC generator (alternator) is an energy conversion
eddy currents in the rails which oppose the device. It converts mechanical energy used to
movement of the train. This is eddy current linear rotate the coil or field magnet in to electrical
brake. energy.
 In some cases, the circular disc connected in train  It works on the principle of electromagnetic
is made to rotate in between the pole of a induction.
electromagnet. When there is a relative motion  It consists of two major parts stator and rotor.
between the disc and the magnet, eddy currents  In commercial alternators, the armature winding
are induced in the disc which stop the train. Ths is is mounted on stator and the field magnet on rotor
eddy current circular brake. Stator : It has three components
Eddy current testing : (i) Stator core (Armature) :
 It is one of the non - destructive testing methods to  Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’ turns kept in a  It is made up of iron or steel alloy.
find defects like surface craks, air bubbles present uniform magnetic field ‘B’  It is a hollo cylinder and is laminated to
in a specimen.  The coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction with an minimize eddy current loss.
 A coil of insulated wire is given an alternating angular velocity ‘𝜔’ about an axis.  The slots are cut on inner surface of the core
electric current, so that it produces an alternating  Initially let the plane of the coil be perpendicular to accommodate armature windings.
magnetic field. to the field (𝜃 = 0) and the flux linked with the (ii) Armature windings :
 When this coil is brought near the test surface, coil has its maximum value. (i.e.) Φ𝑚 = 𝐵 𝐴  It the coil wound on slots provided in the
eddy current is induced in it, and the presence of  In time ‘t’, let the coil be rotated through an angle armature core. One or more than one coil may
defects caused the change in phase and amplitude 𝜃 (= 𝜔𝑡), then the total flux linked is be employed, depending on the type of
of the eddy current. 𝑁 Φ𝐵 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑁 Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 alternator.
 Thus the defects present in the specimen are  According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced at
21 identified. that instant is,
Rotar :
 It consists magnetic field windings
 The magnetic poles are magnetized bhy DC source
 The ends of field windings are connected to a pair
of slip rings, attached to a common shaft about
which rotor rotates. Slip rings rotate along with
rotor.
 To maintain connection between the DC source
and field windings, two brushed are used which
continuously slide over the slip rings Construction :
4. Explain the working of a single - phase AC  It has 6 slots, cut in its inner rim. Each slot is 60
generator with necessary diagram. away from one another. six armature conductors
Single phase AC generator : are mounted in these slots.
 In a single phase AC generator, the armature  The conductors 1 - 4, 2 - 5 and 3 - 6 are joined in
conductors are connected in series so as to form a  Let the magnetic field rotate in clock-wise series to form coils 1, 2 and 3
single circuit which generates a single-phase direction.  So these coils are rectangular in shape and are
alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase  When the field magnet rotates through 90, the 120 apart from one another.
alternator. magnetic field becomes parallel to PQRS. The Working :
induced emf’s across PQ and RS would become
maximum. According to Flemming’s right hand
rule, the direction of induced emf for PQ is
downwards and for RS is upwards. Therefore the
current flows along PQRS. The point A in the graph
represents this maximum emf.
 When field magnet rotates 180, the field is again
perpendicular to PQRS and the induced emf
becomes zero. This is represented by point B
 When field magnet rotates 270, the field is again
Principle : parallel to PQRS, the induced emf is maximum but
 Electro magnetic induction the direction is reversed. Thus the current flows
Construction : along SRQP. This is represented by point C.
 Consider a stator core consisting of 2 slots in  On completion of 360, the induced emf becomes
which 2 armature conductor PQ and RS are zero and it is represented by the point D.  The initial position of the field magnet is
mounted to form single - turn rectangular loop  From the graph, it is clear that, when field magnet horizontal and field direction is perpendicular to
PQRS completes one rotation, the emf induced in PQRS is the plane of the coil - 1.
 Rotor has 2 salient poles with field windings which alternating in nature.  When it rotated from that position in clock-wise
can be magnetized by means of DC source. 5. How are the three different emfs generated in a direction, alternating emf ‘∈1 ’ in coil - 1 begins a
Working : three-phase AC generator? Show the graphical cycle from origin ‘O’
 The loop PQRS is stationary and is perpendicular representation of these three emfs.  When it rotated through 120, alternating emf ‘∈2 ’
to the plane of the paper. Three phase AC generator : in coil - 2 statrs at point ‘A’
 Assume the initial position of the field magnet is  If the AC generator consists three separate coils,  When it rotated through 240, alternating emf ‘∈3 ’
horizontal. At that instant, the direction of which would give three separate emfs, then it is in coil - 3 statrs at point ‘B’
magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the called three-phase generators.  Thus these emfs produced in the three phase AC
loop PQRS. The induced emf is zero. It is generator have 120 phase difference between one
represented by origin ‘O’ in the graph another.
22
6. Explain the principle , construction and working of  The emf induced in the primary coil ‘∈𝑃 ’ is almost
transformer. equal and opposite to the applied voltage ‘𝑉𝑃 ’ and
Transformer : is given by,
 It is a stationary device used to transform 𝑑Φ𝐵
𝑉𝑃 = ∈𝑃 = − 𝑁𝑃 − − − − (1)
electrical power from one circuit to another 𝑑𝑡
without changing its frequency.  The frequency of alternating magnetic flux is same
 It is done with either increasing or decreasing the as the frequency of applied voltage. Therefore
applied alternationg voltage with corresponding induced in secondary will also have same  The applied alternating voltage is given by,
decrease or increase of current in the circuit. frequency as that of applied voltage, 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − (1)
 If the transformer converts an alternating current  The emf induced in the secondary coil ‘∈𝑆 ’ is,  Let ‘𝑖’ be the current in the circuit at that instant.
with low voltage in to an alternating current with 𝑑Φ𝐵  Hence the voltage developed across R, L and C
𝑉𝑆 = ∈𝑆 = − 𝑁𝑆 − − − − (2)
high voltage, it is called step-up transformer. 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑅 ( 𝑉𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖)
 If the transformer converts an alternating current  Dividing equation (1) by (2), 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑖 𝑋𝐿 (𝑉𝐿 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑦 )
𝜋
with high voltage in to an alternating current with 𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝜋

2
= − − − − (3) 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖 𝑋𝐶 (𝑉𝐶 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑦 )
low voltage, it is called step-down transformer. 𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷 2
Principle : Where, K  transformation ratio  The phasor diagram is drawn by representing
 Mutual induction between two coils.  For an ideal transformer, current along 𝑂𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑉𝑅 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Construction : input power = output power ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
and 𝑉𝐶 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐶
𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆
𝑽𝑺 𝒊𝑷
= − − − − (4)
𝑽𝑷 𝒊𝑺
 From equation (3) and (4), we have
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑷
= = =𝑲 − − − − (5)
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑺
(i) If K > 1 (or) 𝑵𝑺 > 𝑵𝑷 , then 𝑽𝑺 > 𝑽𝑷 and 𝒊𝑺 < 𝒊𝑷
This is step up transformer in which voltage
increased and the corresponding current is
 It consists of two coils of high mutual inductance decreased.
wound over the same transformer core made up of (ii) If K < 1 (or) 𝑵𝑺 < 𝑵𝑷 , then 𝑽𝑺 < 𝑽𝑷 and 𝒊𝑺 > 𝒊𝑷
silicone steel. This is step down transformer in which voltage
 To avoid eddy current loss, the core is generally decreased and the corresponding current is
laminated  If 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 , then the net voltage drop across LC
increased.
 The alternating voltage is applied across primary combination is (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ) which is represented by
Efficiency of a transformer :
coil (P), and the output is taken across secondary ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
 The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as
coil (S) the ratio of the useful output power to the input  By parallogram law, the diagonal ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐸 gives the
 The assemnbled core and coils are kept in a power. resultant voltage ‘𝑣’
container which is filled with suitable medium for 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
better insulation and cooling purpose. 𝜂= 𝑋 100 % ∴ 𝑣 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ) 2
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Working : 7. Derive an expression for phase angle between the 𝑣 = √𝑖 2 𝑅2 + (𝑖 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖 𝑋𝐶 ) 2
 The alternating voltage given to the primary coil, applied voltage and current in a series RLC circuit. 𝑣 = 𝑖√ 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2
set up an alternating magnetic flux in the Series RLC circuit : 𝑣
laminated core. (𝑜𝑟) 𝑖= − − − (4)
 Consider a circuit containing a resistor of √ 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2
2
 As the result of flux change, emf is induced in both resistance ‘R’, a inductor of inductance ‘L’ and a 𝒗
primary and secondary coils. capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected across an (𝑜𝑟) 𝒊= − − − (𝟓)
𝒁
23 alternating voltage source.
 Where, 𝒁 = √ 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 ) 𝟐 is called Stage -1 : Stage - 6 :
impedance of the circuit, which refers to the  Consider the capacitor is fully charged with  This state of the circuit is similar to the initial state
effective opposition to the circuit current by the maximum charge 𝑄𝑚 . So that the energy stored in but the difference is that the capacitor is charged
series RLC circuit. 𝑄𝑚2 in opposite direction. So it will starts discharge
the capacitor is maximum (i.e.) 𝑈𝐸 =
 From the phasor diagram, the phase angle 2𝐶 through inductor in anti-clockwise direction.
 As there is no current in the inductor, 𝑈𝐵 = 0  The total energy is the sum of the the electrical
between ‘𝑣’ and ‘𝑖’ is found out by
𝑽𝑳 − 𝑽𝑪 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪  Therefore the total energy is wholly electrical. and magnetic energies.
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 = = − − − (𝟔) Stage - 2 : Stage - 7 :
𝑽𝑹 𝑹
 The capacitor now begins to discharge through the  The processes are repeated in opposite direction
Special cases :
inductor that establishes current ‘𝑖’ clockwise and finally the circuit returns to the initial state.
(i) When 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆.
It means that 𝒗 leads 𝒊 by 𝜙. direction.  Thus when the circuit goes through these stages,
(𝒊. 𝒆. ) 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓)  This current produces a magnetic field around the an alternating current flows in the circuit.
This circuit is inductive. inductor and energy stored in the inductor which  As this process is repeated again and again, the
𝐿 𝑖2
(ii) When 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆. is given by 𝑈𝐵 = electrical oscillations of definte frequency are
2 generated. These are known as LC oscillations.
It means that 𝒗 lags behind 𝒊 by 𝜙.  As the charge in the capacitor decreases, the
(𝒊. 𝒆. ) 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓) 9. Compare the electromagnetic oscillations of LC
energy stored in it also decreases and is given by
This circuit is capacitive circuit with the mechanical oscillations of block-
𝑞2
(iii) When 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐. It 𝑈𝐸 = 2𝐶
spring system to find the expression for angular
means that 𝒗 inphase with 𝒊  Thus the total energy is the sum of electrical and frequency of LC oscillatiors mathematically.
(𝒊. 𝒆. ) 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 magnetic energies. Analogies between LC oscillations and simple
This circuit is resistive Stage - 3 : harmonic oscillations :
8. What are called LC oscillations? Explain the  When the charge in the capacitor becomes zero, its Electromagnetic
Mechanical oscilations
generation of LC oscilations. energy becomes zero (i.e.) 𝑈𝐸 = 0 oscilations
LC oscillations :  In this stage maximum current (𝐼𝑚 ) flows through This circuit consists This circuit consists spring
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a inductor and its energy becomes maximum. (i.e.) inductor and capacitor and block
pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of 𝐿𝐼2 Charge ‘q’ Displacement ‘𝑥’
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth 𝑈𝐵 = 2𝑚 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
Current 𝑖 = Velocity 𝑣 =
between the magnetic field of the inductor and the  Thus the total energy is wholly magnetic. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
electric field of the capacitor. Stage - 4 : Inductance ‘L’ Mass ‘m’

1
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite  Eventhough the charge in the capacitor is zero, the Reciprocal if capacitance Force constant ‘𝑘’
𝐶
frequency are generated. These oscillations are current will continue to flow in the same direction. 1 1 1
Electrical energy = [ ] 𝑞 2
Potential energy = 𝑘𝑥 2
called LC oscillations.  Since the current flow is in decreasing magnitude, 2 𝐶 2
1 1
Generation of LC oscillations : the capacitor begins to charge in the opposite Magnetic energy = 𝐿𝑖 2 Kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a direction. Electro magnetic energy Mechanical energy
pure inductor of  Thus a part of the energy is transferred from the 1 1 1 1 1
= [ ] 𝑞 2 + 𝐿𝑖 2 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
inductance L and a inductor back to the capacitor. The total energy is 2 𝐶 2 2 2
capacitor of capacitance the sum of the electrical and magnetic energies. Angular frequency of LC oscillations :
C, the energy oscillates Stage - 5 :  We know that the angular frequency of
back and forth between  When the current in the circuit reduces to zero, 𝒌
mechanical oscilations, 𝝎 = √
the magnetic field of the the capacitor becomes fully charged in the 𝒎
𝟏
inductor and the electric opposite direction.  From the above table, 𝒌 → & 𝒎 →𝑳
𝑪
field of the capacitor.  Thus the energy stored in the capacitor becomes  Thus the angular frequency of LC oscillations is,
 Thus the electrical maximum and the energy stored in the inductor is 𝟏
oscillations of definite frequency are generated. zero. 𝝎=
These oscillations are called LC oscillations. √𝑳 𝑪
24  So the total energy is wholly electrical.
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Equation - 3 :  To understand how the changing electric field
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  This is Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic produces magnetic field, let us consider the
1. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form. induction. situation of charging a parallel plate capacitor.
Maxwel equations - Integral form :  This law relates electric field with the changing
 Electrodynamics can be summarized into four magnetic flux.
basic equations, known as Maxwell’s equations.  This equation implies that, the line integral of the
 Maxwell’s equations completely explain the electric field around any closed path is equal to the
behaviour of charges, currents and properties of rate of change of magnetic flux through the closed
electric and magnetic fields. path bounded by the surface.
 This equation ensures the existence of  Mathematically it is expressed as,  The electric current passing through the wire is
electromagnetic waves. 𝒅𝚽𝑩 the conduction current ‘𝐼𝐶 ’
∮𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 − − − − (3)
Eqution - 1 : 𝒅𝒕  This current generates magnetic field around the
 It is nothing but Gauss’s law Here, 𝑬 ⃗ → electric field wire connected across the capacitor.
 It relates the net electric flu to net electric charge Equation - 4 :  To calculate the magnetic field at a point ‘P’ near
enclosed in a surface.  It is modified Ampere’s circuital law and also the wire, let us consider an amperian loop which
 Mathematically, Gauss law is expressed as, called as Ampere - Maxwell’s law. encloses the surface 𝑆1 . Thus from Ampere
𝑸  This law relates the magnetic field around any circuital law,
∮𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
⃗ . 𝒅𝑨 − − − − (1)
𝜺𝒐 closed path toe the conduction current and ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 − − − − (1)
 Here, 𝑬 ⃗ → electric field displacement current through that path.
𝑆1
𝑸𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 → charge enclosed  Mathematically,  Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon
 This equation is true for both discreate or ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 ) shaped surface 𝑆2 , then the boundaries of two
continuous distribution of charges surfaces are same but shape of the enclosing
 It also indicates that the electric field lines start 𝑑
(𝑜𝑟) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ surfaces are different.
from positive change and terminate at negative 𝑑𝑡  Ampere’s law does not depend on shape of the
charge. Here, 𝑩⃗⃗ → magnetic field
enclosing surface and hence the integrals will give
 The electric field lines do not form a continuous  It implies that both conduction and displacement the same answer.
closed path (i.e.) isolated positive or negative current produces magnetic field  But there is no current in between the plates of
charges can exist. 2. Explain the modification of Ampere’s circuital law. the capacitor, the magnetic field on the surface is
Equation - 2 : Maxwell’s corrections to Ampere’s circuital law : zero. So the magnetic field at ‘P’ is zero. Hence
 It has no name. But this law os similar to Gauss law  According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
in electrostatics. Hence this law can be called as induction, the change in magnetic field produces ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 − − − − (2)
Gauss’s law in magnetism. an electric field. Mathematically 𝑆2
 According to this law, the surface integral of 𝜕 𝜕  Here there is an inconsistency between equation
⃗⃗⃗ = −
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 Φ =− ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
magnetic field over a closed surface is zero. 𝜕𝑡 𝐵 𝜕𝑡 (1) and (2). Maxwell resolved this inconsistency
 Mathematically, this law can be expressed as,  It implies that the electric field 𝐸⃗ is induced along as follows.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑨 a closed loop by the changing magnetic flux Φ𝐵 in  Due to external source, the capacitor gets charged
∮𝑩 − − − − (2)
the region encircled by the loop. up because of current flowing through the
Here, 𝑩⃗⃗ → magnetic field  The converse of this statement, that is change in capacitor. This produces an increasing electric
 This equation implies that the magnetic field lines electric flux produces magnetic field is explained field between the capacitor plates.
form a continuous closed path. (i.e.) no isolated by Maxwell.  This time varying electric field (or flux) existing
magnetic monopole exists 𝜕 𝜕 between the plates of the capacitor also produces
∮𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − Φ =− ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝐸 𝜕𝑡 a current known as displacement current.
 This is known as Maxwell’s law of induction.  From Gauss ‘s law,
𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸 𝐴 =
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
25 𝜀𝑜
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 The change in electric flux is, 4. Explain in detail the emission spectra. 5. Explain in detail the absorption spectra.
𝑑Φ𝐵 1 𝑑𝑞 1 Emission spectra : Absorption spectra :
= = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑  The lighe from self luminous source gives  When light is allowed to pass through an
𝒅𝚽𝑩 emission spectrum. absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained
∴ 𝑰𝒅 = 𝜺𝒐  Each source has its own characteristic emission is known as absorption spectrum.
𝒅𝒕
Where,
𝑑𝑞
= 𝑰𝒅 → Displacement current spectrum.  It is characteristic of the absorbing substance.
𝑑𝑡
 The emission spectrum can be divided in to three  Absorption spectrum is classified into three types;
 The displacement current can be defined as the
types ; (i) Continuous absorption spectrum :
current which comes in to play in the region in
(i) Continuous emission spectra :  When the light is passed through a
which the electric field and the electric flux are
changing with time.  Incandescent solids, liquids gives medium, it is dispersed by the prism, we
continuous spectra. get continuous absorption spectrum.
 So Maxwell modified Ampere’s law as
 It consists of wavelengths containing all  For instance, when we pass white light
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝒅 ) − − − (3) the visible colours ranging from violet to through a blue glass plate, it absorbs
red. every thing except blue. This is an
 Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑑 → total current (e.g.) Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, example for continuous absorption
3. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves. incandescent filament lamp, etc spectrum.
Properties of electromagnetic waves : (ii) Line emission spectra : (ii) Line absorption spectrum :
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by any  Light from excited atoms gives line  When light from incandescent lamp is
accelerated charge. spectrum. They are also known as passed through cold gas, the spectrum
 They do not require any medium for propagation. discontinuous spectra. obtained through the dispersion due to
So electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical  The line spectr are sharp lines of definite the prism is line absorption spectrum.
wave. wavelengths or frequencies.  For example, when light from carbon arc
 They are transverse in nature, (i.e) the oscillating  It is different for different elements is made to pass through sodium vapour, a
electric field vector, oscillation magnetic field (e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, continuous spectrum of carbon arc with
vector and direction of propagation are mutually etc two dark lines in the yellow rigion of
perpendicular to each other. (iii) Band emission spectra : sodium vapour is obtained.
 They travel with speed of light in vacuum or free  The light from excited molecules gives
space and it is given by, band spectrum. (iii) Band absorption spectrum :
𝟏  It consists of several number of very  When the white light is passed through
𝒄= = 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 closely spaced spectral lines which the iodine vapour, dark bands on
√ 𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝟎
overlapped together forming specific continuous bright background is
 In a medium with permittivity ‘𝜀’ and permeability obtained. This is known as band
coloured bands.
‘𝜇’, the speed of electromagnetic wave is less than absorption spectra.
 This spectrum has a sharp edge at one
speed in free space or vacuum. (i.e.) 𝒗 < 𝒄
end and fades out at the other end.  It is also obtained when white light is
Hence, refractive index of the medium is,
𝒄  Band spectrum is the characteristic of the passed through diluted solution of blood
𝝁 = = √ 𝜺𝒓 𝝁𝒓 molecule. or chlorophyll or through certain
𝒗
 They are not deflected by electric or magnetic (e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia solutions of organic and inorganic
field. gas in the discharge tube, etc compounds.
 They show interference, diffraction and
polarization.
 Like other waves, electromagnetic waves also
carry energy, linear momentum and angular
momentum.
26
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 6 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
𝑣 𝑣  The light passing through one cut in the wheel get
5 - Mark Question & Answer (𝑜𝑟) = −1
𝑢 𝑓 reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance ‘d’
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for  Dividing both sides by 𝑣 (about 8 km) from the toothed wheel.
lateral magnification. 1 1 1  If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected
= −
Mirror equation : 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 light from the mirror would again pass through
 The equation which gives the relation between 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 the same cut and reach the observer through G.
+ = − − − − − (𝟒)
object distance (𝑢), image distance (𝑣) and focal 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇 Working :
length (𝑓) is of spherical mirror is called mirror  This is called mirror equation. It is also valid for  The angular speed of the rotation of the toothed
equation. convex mirror. wheel was increased until light passing through
Lateral magnification: one cut would completely be blocked by the
 It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image adjacent tooth. Let that angular speed be 𝜔
(ℎ1 ) to the height of the object (h)..  The total distance traveled by the light from the
 From eqn (1) toothed wheel to the mirror and back to the wheel
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 is ‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
=  Then the speed of light in air,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 2𝑑
− ℎ1 −𝑣 𝑣=
= 𝑡
ℎ −𝑢  But the angular speed is,
 Let an object AB is placed on the principle axis of a  Hence magnification, 𝜃
concave mirror beyond the centre of curvature ‘C’ 𝒉𝟏 𝒗 𝜔=
 The real and inverted image 𝐴1 𝐵1 is formed 𝒎= =− − − − − (𝟓) 𝑡
𝒉 𝒖  Here 𝜃 is the angle between the tooth and the slot
between C and F  Using eqn (4)
 By the laws of reflection, which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that
𝒉𝟏 𝒇−𝒗 𝒇 time ‘t’ . Then,
angle of incidence (𝑖) = angle of reflection (𝑟) 𝒎= = = − − (𝟔)
𝒉 𝒇 𝒇 − 𝒖 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
∠𝐵𝑃𝐴 = ∠𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 𝜃=
2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ + 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠
 From figure, ∆ 𝐵𝑃𝐴 and ∆ 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 are similar
of light. 2𝜋 𝜋
triangles. So 𝜃= =
Fizeau’s method : 2𝑁 𝑁
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1
= − − − − − (1)  Hence angular speed,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜋
1 1
 Also ∆ 𝐷𝑃𝐹 and ∆ 𝐵 𝐴 𝐹 are similar triangles. So ( ) 𝜋
𝜔= 𝑁 =
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑡 𝑁𝑡
= [𝑃𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵] 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑡 =
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑁𝜔
= − − − − − (2)  Therefore the speed of light in air,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
 From eqn (1) and (2), 2𝑑 2𝑑
𝑣= = 𝜋
𝑃𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑡 ( )
= 𝑁𝜔
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹 𝟐𝒅𝑵𝝎
𝑃𝐴1 𝑃𝐴1 − 𝑃𝐹 𝒗=
= − − − − (3) 𝝅
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹  The speed of light in air was determined as,
 By applying sign conventions, 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝑃𝐴 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐴1 = −𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓  The light from the source S was first allowed to
−𝑣 − 𝑣 − ( −𝑓) fall on a partially silvered glass plate G kept at an
= angle of 45 to the vertical.
−𝑢 −𝑓
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓  The light then allowed to pass through a rotating
(𝑜𝑟) = toothed-wheel with N -teeth and N -cuts.
𝑢 𝑓  The speed of rotation of the wheel could be varied
27 through an external mechanism.
3. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or) 4. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and sin 𝑖𝑎 1
=
Snell’s window. numerical aperture of optical fibe. √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3
Radius of Snell’s window : Acceptance angle :
 Light is seem from a point ‘A’ at a depth ‘d’  To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core- √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝑖𝑎 = = √
 Applying Snell’s law in product form at point ‘B, cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the 𝑛3 𝑛32
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑛2 sin 90° light should be incident at a certain angle at the
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑛2 ene of the optical fibre while entering in to it. This 𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝑛2 𝒊𝒂 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 [√ ]
(𝑜𝑟) sin 𝑖𝐶 = − − − (1) angle is called acceptance angle. 𝒏𝟑𝟐
𝑛1
 If the outer medium is air, then 𝑛3 = 1 . The
acceptance angle becomes,
𝒊𝒂 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (√𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )
 Light can have any angle of incidence from zero to
𝒊𝒂 with the normal at the end of the optical fibre
forming a conical shape called acceptance cone.
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,  The term (𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 ) is called numerical aperture
𝐶𝐵 𝑅  Applying Snell’s law at point ‘A’, (NA) of optical fibre
sin 𝑖𝐶 = = − − − (2) sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1
𝐴𝐵 √𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 = − − − − − (1) 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒂 = √𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
sin 𝑟𝑎 𝑛3
 Compare eqn (1) and (2)
𝑅 𝑛2  To have total internal reflection inside optical 5. Derive the equation for lateal displacement of light
= fibre, the anle of incidentce at the core-cladding passing through a glass slab.
√𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 interface at B should be atleast critical angle (𝑖𝐶 ) Refraction through a glass slab :
𝑅2 𝑛2 2  Appliying Snell’s law at point ‘B’
(𝑜𝑟) = ( )
𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 𝑛2
2
𝑅 + 𝑑 2
𝑛1 2 =
(𝑜𝑟) = ( ) sin 90° 𝑛1
𝑅 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
(𝑜𝑟) sin 𝑖𝐶 = − − − − − (2)
𝑑2 𝑛1 2 𝑛1
1+ 2 = ( )  From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 , 𝑖𝐶 = 90° − 𝑟𝑎
𝑅 𝑛2
𝑑2 𝑛1 2 𝑛12  Then eqn (2) becomes,
= ( ) − 1 = −1 𝑛2
𝑅2 𝑛2 𝑛22 sin(90° − 𝑟𝑎 ) =
𝑛1
𝑑2 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛2
= (𝑜𝑟) cos 𝑟𝑎 =
𝑅2 𝑛22 𝑛1
2
𝑅 𝑛22
(𝑜𝑟) = 2 𝑛2 2  Thickness of glass slab = t
𝑑 2 𝑛1 − 𝑛22 ∴ s𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎 = √1 − cos 2 𝑟𝑎 = √1 − ( ) Refractive index of glass = n
𝑛22 𝑛1
𝑅2 = 𝑑 2 [ 2 ]  The perpendicular distance ‘CE’between refracted
𝑛1 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ray and incident ray at C gives the lateral
s𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎 = √ 2 = displacement (L).
𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝑛1 𝑛1
∴ 𝑹=𝒅√  𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐵𝐶𝐸 ,
𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐  Put this in eqn (1), 𝐿
sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) =
 If the rarer medium outsideis air, then 𝑛2 = 1 and = 𝐵𝐶
let 𝑛1 = 𝑛 , then √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3 𝐿
𝟏 ( ) 𝐵𝐶 =
𝑛1 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝑹=𝒅 [ ]
28 √𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐵𝐶𝐹,  Put the values of 𝑖 and 𝑟 in eqn (1)  Hence
𝑡 𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 − 𝛾) 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
cos 𝑟 = − = − − − (1)
𝐵𝐶 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛1 𝛽 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛2 𝛾 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑅1
𝑡 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛1 𝛽  For refracting surface ②, the light goes from
𝐵𝐶 =
cos 𝑟 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 𝛽 𝑛2 𝑡𝑜 1 . Hence
 Hence,  Put 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 , we have 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝐿 𝑡 − 1 = − − − (2)
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅2
= 𝑛1 [ ] + 𝑛2 [ ] = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ ]
sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) cos 𝑟 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶  Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒊 − 𝒓) 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑳 =𝒕 [ ] (𝑜𝑟) + = 1
− + − 1 = +
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Using Cartesian sign convension, we get 𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
 Therfore lateral displacement depends on, − = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ − ]
(1) thickness of the glass slab 𝑃𝑂 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐼 = +𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐶 = +𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 1 1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 1 1
(2) angle of incidence ∴ + = − = [ − ]
6. Derive equation for refraction at single spherical − 𝑢 𝑣 𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
surface. (𝒐𝒓) − = − − − (2) 𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 − = ( − 𝟏) [ − ] − − − (𝟐)
Refraction at single spherical surface :  Here rarer medium is air and hence 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 and 𝒗 𝒖 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
let the refractive index of second medium be  If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at
𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 . Therefore the forcus of the lens. Thus, for 𝑢 = ∞ , 𝑣 = 𝑓
𝒏 𝟏 𝒏− 𝟏 Then equation becomes,
− = − − − (𝟑) 1 1 𝑛2 1 1
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 − = ( − 1) [ − ]
7. Obtain Lens maker formula and metion its 𝑓 ∞ 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
significance. 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
= ( − 𝟏) [ − ] − − − (𝟑)
Lens maker’s formula : 𝒇 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
 A thin lens of refractive index 𝑛2 is placed in a  Here first medium is air and hence 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 and
medium of refractive index 𝑛1 let the refractive index of second medium be
 Let 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 be radii of curvature of two 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 . Therefore
 Refractive index of rarer medium = 𝑛1 spherical surfaces ① and ② respectively 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Refractive index of spherical medium = 𝑛2 = (𝒏 − 𝟏) [ − ] − −(𝟒)
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Centre of curvature of spherical surface = 𝐶  The above equation is called lens maker’s
Point object in rarer medium = 𝑂 formula.
Point image formed in denser medium = 𝐼  By comparing eqn (2) and (3)
 Apply Snell’s law of product form at the point N 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 − = − − − − − − (𝟓)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
 Since the angles are small, we have,
 This equation is known as lens equation..
sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 k‰W« sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑟
8. Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its
∴ 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 − − − − (1)
magnification.
 𝐿𝑒𝑡, ∠𝑁𝑂𝑃 = 𝛼, ∠𝑁𝐶𝑃 = 𝛽, ∠𝑁𝐼𝑃 = 𝛾, then
 Let P be pole of the lens and O be the Point object. Magnification of thin lens :
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛼 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛼 =  Here 𝐼1 be the image to be formed due the
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 refracton at the surface ① and 𝐼 be the final image
tan 𝛽 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛽=
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 obtanined due the refracton at the surface ②
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁  We know that, equation for single spherical surface
tan 𝛾 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼 − =
 From figure , 𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾 (or) 𝑟 = 𝛽 − 𝛾  For refracting surface ①, the light goes from
29 𝑛1 𝑡𝑜 𝑛2 .
1
 Let an object 𝑂𝑂 is placed on the principal axis  Let us consider two lenses ① and ② of focal  The angle between two refraction faces is called
with its height perpendicular to the principal axis. lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed co-axially in contact with angle of the prism ‘A’
 The ray 𝑂1 𝑃 passing through the pole of the lens each other.
goes undeviated.  Let the object is placed at ‘O’ beyond the principal
 But the ray parallel to principal axis, after focus of ① on the principal axis.
refraction it passes through secondary focus ‘F’  It forms an image at 𝐼1
 At the point of intersection of these two rays, an  This image 𝐼1 acts as an object for lens ② and
inverted, real image 𝐼𝐼1 is formed. hence the final image is formed at ‘I’
 Height of object ; 𝑂𝑂1 = ℎ  Writing the lens equation for lens ①
Height of image ; 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝒉𝟏 1 1 1
− = − − − − (1)
 The lateral magnification (m) is defined as the 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑓1
ration of the heiht of the image to that of the  Writing the lens equation for lens ②
object. 1 1 1
− 1= − − − − (2)
𝐼𝐼1 𝑣 𝑣 𝑓2
𝑚= − − − − (1)  Adding equation (1) and (2)  Here, ‘PQ’ be incident ray, ‘QR’ be refracted ray
𝑂𝑂1
1 1
 ∆𝑃𝑂𝑂 and ∆𝑃𝐼𝐼 are similar triangles . So , 1 1 1 1 1 1 and ‘RS’ be emergent ray.
1
− + − 1 = +  The angle between incident ray and emergent ray
𝐼𝐼1 𝑃𝐼 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑓1 𝑓2
= 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 is called angle of deviation (d)
𝑂𝑂1 𝑃𝑂 − = + − − − (𝟑)  Let QN and RN be the normal drawn at the points
 Using Cartesian sign convension, 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
Q and R
−𝒉𝟏 𝑣  If this combination acts as a single lens of focal
𝑚= = lenth ‘F’, then, ,  The incident and emergent ray meet at a point M
𝒉 −𝑢  From figure, ∠ 𝑀𝑄𝑅 = 𝑑1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑟1
𝒉𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒎= = − − − − (𝟐) − = − − − (𝟒) and ∠ 𝑀𝑅𝑄 = 𝑑2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑟2
𝒉 𝒖 𝒗 𝒖 𝑭  Then total angle of deviation,
 The magnification is negative for real image and  Compare eqn (3) and (4)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
positive for virtural image. = + − − − (𝟓) 𝑑 = (𝑖1 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑖2 − 𝑟2 )
 Thus for convex lens, the magnification is 𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) − − − (1)
negative, and for concave lens, the magnification is  For any number of lenses,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏  In the quadrilateral AQNR, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝑅 = 90° .
positive.
= + + + +⋯ Hence
 Combining the lens equation and magnification 𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑 𝒇𝟒
𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
equation, we get  Let 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 , 𝑷𝟑 , 𝑷𝟒 … be the power of each lens,
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐴 = 180° − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 − − − (2)
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 then the net power of the lens combination,
𝒎= =  In QNR,
𝒉 𝒇+ 𝒖 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + 𝑷𝟒 + ⋯
 Let 𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 , 𝒎𝟑 , 𝒎𝟒 … be the magnification of 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 − 𝒗 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 180° − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 − − − (3)
(𝒐𝒓) 𝒎= = each lens, then the net magnification of the lens
𝒉 𝒇  From eqn (2) and (3)
combination,
9. Derive the equation for effective forcal length for 𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 − − − − (4)
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟏 𝑋 𝒎𝟐 𝑋 𝒎𝟑 𝑋 𝒎𝟒 𝑋 …
lenses in contact.  Put eqn (4) in eqn (1),
10. Derive the equation for angle of deviation
Focal length of lenses in contact : 𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨 − − − −(5)
produced by af prism and thus obtain the equation
for refractive index of material of the prism.  Thus the angle of deviation depends on,
Angle of deviation (d) : (1) the angle of incidence (𝑖1 )
 Let ‘ABC’ be the section of triangular prism. (2) the angle of the prism (A)
 Here face ‘BC’ is grounded and it is called base of (3) the material of the prism (n)
the prism. (4) the wavelength of the light ()
 The other two faces ‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are polished
30 which are called refracting faces.
Angle of minimum deviation (D) : 11. What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for 𝐴+𝛿
[ ] 𝐴+𝛿
 A graph is plotted between the angle of incidence dispersive power of a medium. 2
n= =
along x-axis and angle of deviation along y-axis. Dispersion : 𝐴 𝐴
[ ]
 From the graph, as angle of incidence increases,  Splitting of white light into its constituent colours 2
is called dispersion. n𝐴 = 𝐴+𝛿
the angle of deviation decreases, reaches a
 The coloured band obtained due to dispersion is (or) 𝛿 = n 𝐴 − 𝐴
minimum value and then continues to increase.
called spectrum. ∴ 𝜹 = (𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (2)
Dispersive power :  Thus, angle of deviation for violet and red light,
𝜹𝑽 = (𝐧𝑽 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (3)
𝜹𝑹 = (𝐧𝑹 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (4)
 The angular dispersion is given by,
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 = (n𝑉 − 1) 𝐴 − (n𝑅 − 1) 𝐴
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 = n𝑉 𝐴 − A − n𝑉 𝐴 + A
𝜹𝑽 − 𝜹𝑹 = (𝐧𝑽 − 𝐧𝑹 ) 𝑨 − − − − − (5)
 Let 𝜹 be the angle of deviation for mean ray
(yellow) and n be the corresponding refractive
 The minimum value of angled of deviation is index, then
called angle of minimum deviation (D). 𝜹 = (𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (6)
 At minimum deviation,  Dispersive power (𝝎) is the ability of the material  By definition, dispersive power
(1) 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 of the prism to cause dispersion. 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜹𝑽 − 𝜹𝑹
𝜔= =
(2) 𝑟1 = 𝑟2  It is defined as the ration of the angular 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜹
dispersion for the extreme colours to the (n𝑉 − n𝑅 ) 𝐴
(3) Refracted ray ‘QR’ is parallel to the base ‘BC’ 𝜔=
of the prism. deviation for any mean colour. (n − 1) 𝐴
Refractive index of the material of the prism (n) :  Let A be the angle of prism and D be the angle of (𝐧𝑽 − 𝐧𝑹 )
𝝎= − − − − − − − (𝟕)
 At angle of minimum deviation, minimum deviation, then the refractive index of (𝐧 − 𝟏)
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖 the material of the prism is  Dispersive power is a dimensionless quantity. It
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟 𝐴+𝐷 has no unit. It is always positive.
sin [ ]
 Put this in equations (4) and (5) n= 2
𝐴
𝐴= 𝑟+ 𝑟 =2𝑟 sin [ ]
2
𝑨  If the angle of the prism is small in the order of
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒓= − − − − − − (6)
𝟐 10 then it is called small angle prism. In this
and 𝐷 = (𝑖 + 𝑖) − 𝐴 = 2 𝑖 − 𝐴 prism, the angle of deviation also become small.
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑖 = 𝐴 + 𝐷  Let A be the angle of prism and 𝛿 be the angle of
𝑨+𝑫
𝒊= − − − − − − (7) minimum deviation, then the refractive index
𝟐 𝐴+𝛿
 Then by Snell’s law , sin [ ]
2
sin 𝑖 n= − − − − (1)
n= 𝐴
sin 𝑟 sin [ ]
2
𝑨+𝑫  Since A and 𝛿 are small, we may write,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 [ ]
𝐧= 𝟐 − − − − (𝟖) 𝐴+𝛿 𝐴+𝛿
𝑨 sin [ ] ≈ [ ]
𝐬𝐢𝐧 [ ] 2 2
𝟐 𝐴 𝐴
sin [ ] ≈ [ ]
2 2
 Put this in eqn (1),
31
2. Prove laws of refraction using Huygen’ principle. 3. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to
5 - Mark Question & Answer Laws of refraction - Proof : interference of light.
1. Prove laws of reflection using Huygens principle. Resultant intensity due to interference :
Laws of reflection - Proof :
 Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the two light waves meeting at a

point ‘P’
 𝑋𝑌 − Reflecting surface  Let XY be the refracting surface .  At any instant ‘t’, the displacement equations,
 𝐴𝐵 −Incident plane wavefront.  The incident wavefront AB is in rarer medium (1) 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − (1)
 The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular  The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) − − − − (2)
to this incident wavefront. to this incident wavefront. where, 𝜙  phase difference between them
 Initially the point ‘A’ reaches reflecting surface.  Initially the point ‘A’ reaches refracting surface.  Then the resultant displacement,
 Then the successive points between AB reaches  Then the successive points between AB reaches 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
the surface. the surface. 𝑦 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
 Finally, by the time B reaches 𝐵1 , the point A  Finally, by the time B reaches 𝐵1 , the point A  By solving this, we get,
would have reached 𝐴1 would have reached 𝐴1 in the other medium. 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊 𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽) − − − − (3)
 This is applicable to all the points on the  This is applicable to all the points on the
wavefront AB. Thus the reflected wavefront 𝐴1 𝐵1 wavefront AB. Thus the refracted wavefront 𝐴1 𝐵1  where, 𝐴 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 and
emanates as a plane wavefront. emanates as a plane wavefront. 𝑎2 sin 𝜙
 The line from 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1 perpendiculars to 𝐴1 𝐵1  The line from 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1 perpendiculars to 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜙
represent reflected rays. represent refracted rays. (1) When , 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … …. .the resultant
 .As the reflection happens in the same medium,  Let 𝑣1 be the speed of light in medium (1) and 𝑣2 amplitude becomes maximum
the speed of light is same before and after be the speed of light in medium (2). Here 𝑣1 > 𝑣2
 The time taken for the ray to travel from B to 𝐵1 is 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
reflection. Hence, 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐵𝐵1
same as the time taken for the ray to travel from (2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …. the resultant
Law (1) :
 The incident rays, the reflected rays and the A reaches 𝐴1 . So 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝑡 and 𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑣1 𝑡 amplitude becomes minimum
normal are in the same plane. 𝐵𝐵1 𝑣1 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √(𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
Law (2) : ∴ 1
= − − − − − (1)  The intensity of light is directly proportional to
𝐴𝐴 𝑣2
 Angle of incidence, Law (1) : the square of the amplitude.
∠𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐿 = 90° − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵1  The incident rays, refracted rays and the normal 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
 Angle of reflection, are in the same plane. 𝐼 ∝ 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2 𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝜙
∠𝑟 = ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝑀1 = 90° − ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝐴1 = ∠𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴 Law (2) : 𝑰 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − − − (𝟒)
 In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐵1 and ∆𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐴,  Angle of incidence, (1) When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … …. .the resultant
∠𝐵 = ∠𝐴1 = 90° ∠𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐿 = 90° − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵1 intensity becomes maximum. This is called
𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐵𝐵1 and  Angle of refraction, constructive interference.
hypotenuse 𝐴𝐵1 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 ∠𝑟 = ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝑀1 = 90° − ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝐴1 = ∠𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
 Thus the two triangles are congruent. (i.e)  From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐵1 and ∆𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐴 , 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 − − − (𝟓)
∠𝐵𝐴𝐵1 = ∠𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴 (
𝐵𝐵1
) (
𝑐
) (2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …. the resultant
∴ ∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓 sin 𝑖 𝐴𝐵1 𝐵𝐵1 𝑣1 𝑛1 𝑛2
= = = = = intensity becomes minimum. This is called
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣2 𝑐
𝑛1
 Hence laws of reflection are proved. ( 1) ( )
𝑛2 destructive interference.
𝐴𝐵
 In product form, 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 ∝ (𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
32 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 − − − (𝟔)
Special case :  When screen is placed at a distance of about 1 m 5. Obtain the equation for band width in young’s
 If 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂 , then resultant amplitude, from double slit, equally spaced alternate bright double slit method.
𝐴 = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 and dark fringes are appears on the screen. These Theory :
are called interference fringes.
𝐴 = √2 𝑎2 + 2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
 At the point ‘O’ on the screen, the waves from
𝐴 = √2 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 travels equal distances and arrive
𝜙 in-phase. Due to constructive interference, bright
𝐴 = √2 𝑎2 [2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )] fringe is formed at point ‘O’ . This is called central
2
bright fringe.
𝝓  When one of the slit is covered, then the fringes
𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) − − − − − (𝟕)
𝟐 disappear and there is uniform illumination
 If 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝑶 , then the resultant intensity, observed on the screen. This clearly shows that
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 the fringes are due to interference e.
𝜙 Path difference (𝜹) :
𝐼 ∝ 4 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2
𝟐
𝝓
𝑰 = 𝟒 𝑰𝑶 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) − − − − − (8)
𝟐  Let distance between 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 =𝑑
When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … …., 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒 𝑰𝑶 Distance of the screen from double slit =𝐷
and 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …., 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎 Wavelength of coherent light wave =
 Thus the phase difference (𝜙) between the two  Hence path difference between the light waves
waves decides the intensity of light at the point, from 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 to the point ‘P’ is
where the two waves meet. 𝒚
𝜹= 𝒅
4. Explain Young’s double slit experimental set up 𝑫
and obtain equation for path difference. Condition for bright fringe (maxima) :
Young’ s double slit experiment :  For constructive interference, the path difference
 Let distance between 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 =𝑑 will be,
Distance of the screen from double slit =𝐷 𝜹= 𝒏𝝀 [ 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … ]
Wavelength of coherent light wave = 𝑦
𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆
 Hence path difference between the light waves 𝐷
from 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 to the point ‘P’ is  Thus the distance of the n th brigt fringe from ‘O’ is
𝛿 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑀 𝑫
𝒚𝒏 = 𝒏 𝝀 − − − − − (3)
 From the figure, ∠𝑂𝐶𝑃 = ∠𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑀 = 𝜃 𝒅
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑀 Condition for dark fringe (minima) :
𝑆2 𝑀 𝛿  For destructive interference, the path difference
sin 𝜃 = = will be,
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑑
∴ 𝛿 = sin 𝜃 . 𝑑 𝝀
 Thomas Young used an opaque screen with two 𝜹 = (𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟏) [ 𝑛 = 1, 2, … ]
small openings called double slit 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 kept  Here 𝜃 is small. Hence, sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 𝟐
𝑦 𝜆
equidistance from a source ‘S’ 𝛿= 𝜃. 𝑑 − − − − − (1) 𝑑 = (2 𝑛 − 1)
 The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they  Also, in ∆𝑂𝐶𝑃, 𝐷 2
 Thus the distance of the n th darkt fringe from ‘O’ is
are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm. 𝑂𝑃 𝑦
𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = = 𝑫 𝝀
 As 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are equidistant from ‘S’, the light 𝑂𝐶 𝐷 𝒚𝒏 = (𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟏) − − − − − (4)
waves from ‘S’ reach 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 in phase.  Put this in eqn (1) 𝒅 𝟐
 So 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 act as coherent sources which are the 𝒚
𝜹= 𝒅 − − − − − (2) Band width (𝜷)
requirement of obtaining interference pattern. 𝑫
 Point ‘P’ may be apper either bright or dark  The band width is defined as the distance between
 The wavefronts from 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 get superposed on any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
33 the otherside of the double slit. depending on the path differendce.
 The distance between (n+1) th and nthconsecutive Interference due to reflected light :  Let 𝑦 be the distance of of point ‘P’ from ‘O’
bright fringes from ‘O’ is  When light travelling in a rarer medium and  The lines joining ‘P’ to the different points on the
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 getting reflected by a denser medium, undergoes a slit can be treated as parallel lines, making and
𝐷 𝐷 phase change of  . Hence an additional path angle 𝜃 with the normal ‘CO’
𝛽= (𝑛 + 1) 𝜆 − 𝑛𝜆 𝝀  All the parallel waves from different points on the
𝑑 𝑑 difference of is introduced.
𝑫 𝟐 slits get interfere at ‘P’ to give resultant intensity.
𝜷= 𝝀 − − − − − − − (𝟓)  Again for normal incidence (𝑖 = 0), the points ‘A’ Condition for minima :
𝒅
 Simillarly the distance between (n+1)th and nth and ‘C’ are very close to each other.  To explain minimum intensity, divide the slit
consecutive dark fringes from ‘O’ is  The extra distance travelled by the wave coming in to even number of parts.
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 out from ‘C’ is (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) (1) Condition for P to be first minimum :
𝐷 𝜆 𝐷 𝜆  Hence the path difference between the waves  Let us divide the slit AB in to two half’s each of
𝛽= [2(𝑛 + 1) − 1] − ( 2𝑛 − 1 ) reflected at ‘A’ and ‘C’ is 𝑎
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 width
𝑫 𝛿 = 𝜇 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) = 𝜇 (𝑑 + 𝑑) = 2 𝜇 𝑑 2
𝜷= 𝝀 − − − − − − − (𝟔) 𝜆  The various points on the slit which are
𝒅  Since additional path difference is introduced 𝑎
2 separated by the same width ( ) called
 Eqn (5) and (6) shows that the bright and dark due to reflection at A, the the total path difference, 2
fringes are of same width equally spaced on either 𝝀 corresponding points
side of central bright fringe 𝜹 =𝟐𝝁𝒅 + − − − (4)  The path difference of light waves from
𝟐
6. Obtain the equations for constructive and (1) The condition for constructive interference in different corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
destructive interference for transmitted and 𝑎
reflected ray is,, 𝛿 = sin 𝜃
reflected waves in thin films. 𝛿 =𝑛𝜆 2
Interference in thin films :  The condition for ‘P’ to be first minimum,
𝜆
(𝑜𝑟) 2𝜇𝑑 + =𝑛𝜆 𝑎 𝜆
2 sin 𝜃 =
𝝀 2 2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝟐 𝝁 𝒅 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) − − − (𝟓) (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝝀
𝟐 (2) Condition for P to be second minimum :
(2) The condition for destructive interference in
 Let us divide the slit AB in to four equal parts
reflected ray is, 𝑎
𝜆 of width
4
𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)  Here various corresponding points on the slit
2
𝜆 𝜆 which are separated by the same width ( )
𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝜇 𝑑 + = (2𝑛 + 1) 4
2 2  The path difference of light waves from
(𝑜𝑟) 𝟐𝝁𝒅 = 𝒏𝝀 − − − (6)
different corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
7. Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain the 𝑎
condition for nth minimum. 𝛿 = sin 𝜃
4
 Consider a thin film of transparent material of Diffraction at single slit :  The condition for ‘P’ to be second minimum,
refractive index ‘’ and thickness ‘t’ 𝑎 𝜆
 A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at sin 𝜃 =
4 4
an angle ‘𝑖’ (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟐 𝝀
 At upper surface, the light wave is divided in to (3) Condition for P to be nth minimum :
two parts. One part is reflected and other part is  Let us divide the slit AB in to 2n equal parts
refracted. of width
𝑎
 The refracted part which enters in to the film, 2𝑛
again gets divided at the lower surface in two  The condition for ‘P’ to be nth minimum,
 Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a 𝑎 𝜆
parts. One is transmitted and the other is reflected sin 𝜃 =
back in to the film. single slit AB. The centre of the slit is C 2𝑛 2
 A straight line through ‘C’ perpendicular to the (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏 𝝀
 Here interference is produced by both the
34 reflected and transmitted light. plane of slit meets the centre of the screen at ‘O’
Condition for maxima : The path difference (𝛿) between the diffracted
  The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated by a
 To explain maximum intensity, divide the slit in to waves from one pair of corresponding points is, monochromatic light, whose wavelength to be
odd number of parts. 𝛿 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 determined.
 For first maximum, the slit is divided in to three  The point ‘P’ will be bright, when  The telescope is brought in line with collimator to
𝑎
equal parts each of width ( ). Hence 𝛿=𝑚𝜆 [𝑚 = 0,1,2,3 … ] view the direct image of the slit.
3
 Hence,  The given transmission grating is then mounted
𝑎 𝜆 𝝀
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟑 (𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎 𝝀 − − − − (1) on the prism table with its plane perpendicular to
3 2 𝟐 where 𝑚  order of diffraction the incident beam of light coming from collimator.
 For secod maximum, the slit is divided in to five
𝑎 (1) Condition for zero order maximum :  The telsescope is turn to one side until the first
equal parts each of width ( ). Hence  When, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 0, then, 𝜃 = 0 ; 𝑚 = 0 order diffraction image of the slit coincides with
5
𝑎 𝜆 𝝀 It is zero order diffraction or central the vertical cross wire of the eye piece.
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟓
5 2 𝟐 maximum  The reading of the position of the telescope is
 In general, for nth first maximum, the slit is divided (2) Condition for first order maximum : noted.
𝑎  Similarly the first order diffraction image on the
in to (2n+1) equal parts each of width ( ).  When, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆, then, 𝜃 = 𝜃1 ; 𝑚 = 1
2𝑛+1
It is first order diffraction other side is made to coincide with vertical cross
Hence
𝑎 𝜆 𝝀 (3) Condition for second order maximum : wire and corresponding reading is noted.
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)  When,(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 2𝜆, then,𝜃 = 𝜃 ; 𝑚 = 2  The difference between two positions gives 2 𝜃
2𝑛 + 1 2 𝟐 2 2
 Half of its value gives 𝜃, the diffraction angle for
8. Discuss the diffraction at a grating and obtain the It is second order diffraction
(4) Condition for higher order maxima : first order maximum.
condition for m maximum.
th
(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆  The wavelength of light is calculated from,
Diffraction in grating :
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 If ‘N’ be the number of rulings drawn per unit 𝝀=
width (1 m), then , 𝑁 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝑏 = 1 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑵𝒎
𝑁 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 1 10. Discuss the experiment to determine the
1 wavelength of different colours using diffraction
𝑎+𝑏 = grating.
𝑁
1 Determination of wavelength of different colours :
∴ sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆  White light is a composite light which contains all
𝑁
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑵 𝒎 𝝀 − − − − − (𝟐) wavlengths from violet to red in visible region.
9. Discuss the experiment to determine the  When white light is used, the diffraction pattern
wavelength of monochromatic light using consists of a white central maximum and on both
diffraction grating. sides continuous coloured diffraction patterns are
Experiment to determine wavelength of light : formed.
 Let ‘AB’ represent the plane transmission grating.
 It has number of slits of equal width (𝑎) and equal
number of opaque rulings of equal width (𝑏)
 Lte a plane wavefornt of monochromatic light of
wavelength ‘ 𝜆 ’ be incident normally on the
grating.
 As the slit size is comparable to that of
wavelength, the incident light diffracts at the
grating.
 Using convex lens, the diffracted waves are  The wavelength of a spectral line can be very
focused on the screen. accurately determined with help of a diffraction
 Consider a point ‘P’ on the screen, at an angle ‘𝜃 ‘ grating and a spectrometer.
with the normal drawn from the centre of the  Let all the preliminary adjustments are made on
35 grating to the screen. the spectrometer.
 The central maximum is white as all the colours Simple microscope - Normal focussing :
meet here constructively with no phase difference.
 It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from
violet to red on either side of central maximum.
 By measuring the angle (𝜽) at which these colours
appear for various order (m) of diffraction, the
wavelength of different colours could be
calculated using the formula,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝀=  Here the image is formed at infinity.
𝑵𝒎
where, 𝑵  number of rulings drawn per unit  So we will not get direct practical relation for
width of grating magnification. Hence we can practically use the
angular magnification.  The final image is inverted with respect to the
11. Discuss about simple microscope and obtain the original object.
equations for magnification for near point  The angular magnification is defined as the ratio
of angle (𝜃𝑖 ) subtended by the image with aided Magnification (m) :
focusing and normal focusing.  From the ray diagram, the linear magnification
Simple microscope - Near point focussing : eye to the angle (𝜃𝑂 ) subtended by the object with
unaided eye. That is, due to the objective is,
𝜃𝑂 ℎ1 𝐿
𝑚= − − − − − − (1) 𝑚 𝑜 = = − − − − − (1)
𝜃𝑖 ℎ 𝑓𝑜
 For unaided eye, Here ‘L’ is the distance between the first focal
ℎ point of the eye piece to the second focal point of
tan 𝜃𝑂 ≈ 𝜃𝑂 = the objective. This is called the tube length.
𝐷
 For aided eye,  The magnification of the eyepiece,
ℎ 𝐷
tan 𝜃𝑖 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑚𝑒 = 1 + − − − − − (2)
𝑓 𝑓𝑒
 Thus eqn (1) becomes,  The total magnification ‘m’ in near point focusing ,
ℎ 𝑳 𝑫
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying lens of 𝜃𝑂 ( ) 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒆 = [ ] [𝟏 + ]
small focal length. 𝑚= = 𝐷 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
𝜃𝑖 ℎ  If the final image is formed at infinity (normal
 In near point focusing, object distance ‘u’ is less ( )
𝑓 focusing), the magnification if eye piece is,
than ‘f’ 𝑫 𝐷
 The image is formed at near point or least distance 𝒎= 𝑚𝑒 = − − − − − (3)
𝒇 𝑓𝑒
‘D’ of distinct vision. 12. Explain about compound microscope and obtain
 The magnification ‘m’ is given by,  The total magnification ‘m’ in normal focusing is,
𝑣 the equation for magnification. 𝑳 𝑫
𝑚= Compound microscope : 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒆 = [ ] [ ]
𝑢 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
 Using lens equation,  The lens near the object is called the objective, 13. Obtain the equation for resolving power of
𝑣 forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the microscope.
𝑚 =1− object.
𝑓 Resolving power of microscope:
  This serves as the object for the second lens which  A microscope is used to see the details of the
𝑣 is the eyepiece. object under observation.
𝑚 =1−  Eye piece serves as a simple microscope that
𝑓  Good microscope should not only magnify the
 Substitute, 𝑣 = −𝐷 produces finally an enlarged and virtual image. object but also resolve the two points on an object
𝑫  The first inverted image formed by the objective is which are separated by the smallest distance dmin.
𝒎= 𝟏+ to be adjusted close to, but within the focal plane
𝒇  Actually, dmin is the resolution and its reciprocal is
of the eyepiece, so that the final image is formed the resolving power.
36 nearly at infinity or at the near point.
14. Discuss about astronomical telescope. 15. Mention different parts of spectrometer and
Astronomical telescope : explain the preliminary adjustments.
 An astronomical telescope is used to get the Spectrometer :
magnification of distant astronomical objects like  The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to
stars, planets … analise the spectra of different sources of light, to
 The image formed by this will be inverted. measure the wavelength of different colours and
to measure the refractive indices of materials of
prisms.
 The spatial resolution (radius of central  It basically consists of three parts namely
maximum) is (i) collimator (ii) prism table and (iii) telescope.
1.22 𝜆 𝑓 (1) Collimator:
𝑟𝑜 =
𝑎  The collimator is used for producing parallel
 In microscope, the object distance is just more than beam of light.
the focal length f and the image is formed at v as  It has a convex lens and a vertical slit of
shown in the Figure. Hence,.
1.22 𝜆 𝑣 adjustable width which faces the source.
𝑟𝑜 =  The position of slit can be adjusted so that it is
𝑎
 Here, in the place of focal length f we have the kept at the focus of the lens.
image distance v. If the difference between the two  The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base.
points on the object to be resolved is dmin, then the  It has an objective of long focal length and a much (2) Prism table:
magnification m is, larger aperture than eye piece.
 The prism table is used for mounting the
𝑟𝑜  Light from a distant object enters the objective
𝑚= prism, grating etc. It consists of two circular
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 and a real image is formed in the tube at its second
focal point. discs provided with three levelling screws.
𝑟𝑜 1.22 𝜆 𝑣 1.22 𝜆 𝑣
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝑣  The eye piece magnifies this image producing a  It can be rotated and its position can be read
𝑚 𝑚𝑎 ( )𝑎
𝑢 final inverted image. from two verniers V1 and V2 .
1.22 𝜆 𝑢 1.22 𝜆 𝑓 Magnification (m) :  The prism table can be fixed at any desired
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = [∵ 𝑢 ≈ 𝑓]
𝑎 𝑎  The magnification ‘m’ is the ratio of the angle 𝛽 height.
𝑎
 On the object side, 2 tan 𝛽 ≈ 2 sin 𝛽 = subtended at the eye by the final image to the (3) Telescope :
𝑓
1.22 𝜆 angle 𝛼 which the object subtends at the lens or  The telescope is an astronomical type.
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = the eye.
2 sin 𝛽  It consists of an eyepiece provided with cross
𝛽
 To further reduce the value of dmin the optical path 𝑚= wires at one end and an objective at its other
of the light is increased by immersing the 𝛼
 From figure, end.
objective of the microscope into a bath containing ℎ  The distance between the objective and the
oil of refractive index n. [ ]
𝑓 eyepiece can be adjusted so that the telescope
1.22 𝜆 𝑚= 𝑒
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ forms a clear image at the cross wires.
2 𝑛 sin 𝛽 [ ]
𝑓𝑜  The telescope is attached to a circular scale
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective. 𝒇𝒐
The term n sin β is called numerical aperture 𝒎 = and both can be rotated together.
𝒇𝒆
(NA). Hence,  The telescope and prism table are provided
 The length of the telescope is approximately,
𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝝀 𝑳 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆 with radial screws for fixing them at a
𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐 (𝑵𝑨) desired position and tangential screws for
 Then the resolving power of microscope is, fine adjustments.
𝟏 𝟐 (𝑵𝑨)
𝑹𝑴 = =
37 𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝝀
Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer  The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall Refractive index (𝝁) of the prism :
(1) Adjustment of the eyepiece: The telescope is on the two faces AB and AC.  The refractive index of the material of the prism is
turned towards an illuminated surface and the  The telescope is rotated to the position 𝑇1 until calculated using the formula,
the image of the slit formed by the reflection at the 𝑨+𝑫
eyepiece is moved to and fro until the cross wires 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
face AB coincides with the vertical cross wire of 𝝁= 𝟐
are clearly seen. 𝑨
the telescope. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
(2) Adjustment of the telescope: The telescope is  The corresponding vernier readings are noted. 𝟐
adjusted to receive parallel rays by focusing it to a  The telescope is then rotated to the position
distant object to get a clear image on the cross 𝑇2 where the image of the slit formed by the
wire. reflection at the face AC coincides with the vertical
(3) Adjustment of the collimator : The telescope is cross wire of the telescope. The corresponding
brought in line with the collimator. The distance vernier readings are again noted.
between the illuminated slit and the lens of the  The difference between these two readings gives
the angle rotated by the telescope, which is twice
collimator is adjusted until a clear image of the slit
the angle of the prism.
is seen at the cross wire.  Half of this value gives the angle of the prism (A)
(4) Levelling of the prism table : The prism table is (2) Angle of minimum deviation (D) :
brought to the horizontal level by adjusting the
levelling screws and it is ensured by using sprit
level.
16. Explain the experimental determination of
material of the prism using spectrometer.
Determination of refractive index :
 The preliminary adjustments of the telescope,
collimator and the prism table of the spectrometer
are made.
 The refractive index () of the prism is  The prism is placed on the prism table, so that the
determined by knowing the angle of the prism (A) light from the collimator falls on a refracting face
and the angle of minimum deviation (D) and the refracted image is observed through the
(1) Angle of the prism (A) : telescope.
 The prism table is now rotated, so that the angle of
deviation decreases.
 A stage comes when the image stops for a moment
and if we rotate the prism table further in the
same direction, the image is seen to recede and
the angle of deviation increases.
 The vertical cross wire of telescope is made to
coincide with the image of the slit, where it turns
back. This gives the minimum deviation position.
 The vernier readings corresponding to this
position is noted.
 Now the prism is removed and the telescope is
 The prism is placed on the prism table with its turned to receive the direct ray and the vernier
refracting edge facing the collimator. readings are again noted.
 The slit is illuminated by a sodium light.  The difference between the two readings gives the
38 angle of minimum deviation (D)
 Thus free eletrons get sufficient kinetic energy
5 Marks Questions and Answers and emitted from the surface. This type is
1. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain called seconday emission.
briefly various methods of electron emission. (e.g.) photo multiplier tube
Electron emission : 2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz,
 The liberation of electrons from any surface of a Hallwachs and Lenard.
substance is called electron emission. Hertz experiment :
 Heinrich Hertz successfully generating and
 The minimum energy needed to liberate the
detecting the existence of electromagnetic waves.
electorns from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal.  He used high voltage induction coil to cause a
spark discharge between two metallic spheres.
 Depending upon the energy source, the electron
emission is classified as four types which are  When spark is formed, the charges will oscillate
explained below. back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
(1) Thermionic emission : waves are produced.
 When a metal is heated to a high temperature,  To detect this electromagnetic waves, a copper
the free electrons on the surface get sufficient wire bent in the shape of a circle is used as
energy in the form of heat, so that they are detector.
emitted from the metallic surface. This type of Hallwachs’s experiment :
emission is known as thermionic emission.  In Hertz experiment, in order to improve the
 The intensity of the thermionic emission visibility of the spark, it is exposed to ultra violet
depends on the metal used and its rays which makes the spark as more vigorous.
temperature.  Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed that the strange
(e.g.) electron microscopes, X-ray tubes behaviour of the spark is due to the photo electric
(2) Field emission : emission under the action of ultra violet light.
 When a very strong electric field is applied  In Hallwachs experiment, a clean circular plate of
across the metal, this strong field pulls the zinc is mounted in insulating stand and is attached
free electrons and helps to overcome the to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire.
surface barrier of the metal. This type of
emission of electron is called field emission.
(e.g.) Field emission display
(3) Photo electric emission :
 When an electromagnetic radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on the surface
of the metal, the energy is transferred from
the radiation to free electrons.
 Hence the free electrons gets sufficient energy
to cross the surface barrier and this type is  When uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by
called photo electric emission. ultraviolet light, it becomes positively charged and
(e.g.) photo electric cells, phot diodes the leaves are open as shown in figure (a)
(4) Secondary emission :  If negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
 When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes ultraviolet light, the leaves will close as the charges
the surface of the metal, the kinetic energy is leaked away quickly as shown in figure (b)
transferred to the free electrons on the metal  If positively charged plate is exposed to uv-light, it
surface. becomes more positive and the leaves are open
39 further as shown in figure (c)
 From these observations, it was concluded that  S is the source of electromagnetic wave of  Let the frequency and intensity of the incident
negatively charged electrons were emitted from frequency ‘𝜈’ and intensity ‘I’ light are kept constant.
the zinc plate under the action of uv - light.  C is the cathode made up of photo sensitive  Now, the potential of A is increased and the
Lenard experiment : material and is used to emit electrons. corresponding photocurrent is noted.
 A is the anode which collects the emitted electrons  Simillarly, a negative (retarding) potential is
 A and C are placed in an evacuated glass envelope applied to A and again the photocurrent is noted.
with a quartz window that permits uv -light and  Plot a graph by taking anode potential along
visible light. X -axis and photo current along Y - axis
 PQ is a potential divider arrangement which is  From the graph,
connected through a key K and battery B (1) When the potential of A increases, the photo
 The voltmeter ‘V’ and micro ammeter ‘A’ also current also increases and reaches a
included in this circuit. saturation value called saturation current.
 If there is no light incident on the cathode C, no (2) When a negative potential is applied to A, the
photoelectrons are emitted and the micro photo current does not immediately drop to
ammeter reads zero. zero, because the photo electrons are emitted
 When uv - light or visible light is allowed to fall on wity some definite and different kinetic
 A and C are two metallic plates placed in an energies.
C, the photo electrons are emitted and are
evacuated quartz bulb. (3) If the negative or retarding potential of A
attracted towards anode.
 Galvanometer G and battery B are connected in gradually increased, the photo current starts
 As a result, the photo electric current is set up in
the circuit. decreasing and becomes zero at one
the circuit which is measured using micro
 When uv - light is incident on plate C, and electric particular negative potential 𝑉𝑂
ammeter.
current flows in a circuit which is indicated by the (4) The value of negative or retarding potential
 The photo electric current depends following
deflection in the galvanometer. give to anode A which is just sufficient to stop
quantities,
 But if the plate A is irradiated by uv - light, no the most energetic photo electrons emitted
(1) the intensity of incident light
current is observed in the circuit. and make the photo current zero is called
(2) the potential difference between the
 From these observations, it is concluded that electrodes stopping potential or cut - off potential (𝑉𝑂 )
when uv- light falls on the negative plate C, (3) the nature of the material (5) Here the initial kinetic energy of the fastest
electrons are ejected from it, which are attracted electron (0 is equal to the work done by the
(4) frequency of incident light
by the positive plate A. 4. Explain the effect of potential difference on photo stopping potential to stop it. (i.e.)
 Hence the circuit is completed and the current electric current. 1 2
flows in it. 𝑒 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Effect of potential difference on photoelectric 2
 Thus the uv - light falling on the negative plate current : 𝟐 𝒆 𝑽𝑶
causes the electron emission from the surface of (𝑜𝑟) 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟓 √𝑽𝑶
the plate. 𝒎
3. Explain the experimental set up for study of photo 5. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with
electric effect stopping potential.
Experiment for study of photo electric effect : Effect of frequency on photoelectric current :
 Let the intensity of incident light is kept constant.
 The variation of photo current with the Anode
potential is studied for different incident
frequencies.
 A graph is plotted by taking anode potential along
x - axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,
40
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is (1) Part of the photon energy is used for the
independent of intensity of the incident light. ejection of the electrons from the metal
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons surface and it is called work function (𝝓𝟎 )
from a given metal is directly proportional to the (2) Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (K) of
frequency of incident light. the ejected electron.
 For a given surface, the emission of photo  From the law of conservation of energy,
electrons takes place only if the frequency of ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝐾
incident light is greater than a certain minimum 1
(𝑜𝑟) ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 − − − − (1)
frequency called the threshold frequency. 2
 There is no time lag between incidence of light where m  mass of the electron and
and ejection of photoelectrons. (i.e.) phote electric υ  velocity
(1) Stopping potential vary over different effect is an instantaneous process  At threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of
frequencies of incident light. (i.e) Greater the 7. Explain the particle nature of light. List the ejeced electrons will be zero. (i.e.)
frequency, larger the stopping potential characteristics of photons. when. 𝜈 = 𝜈0 then 𝐾 = 0 Thus eqn (1) becomes
(2) Thus as the frequency is increased, the Particle nature of light : ℎ 𝜈0 = 𝜙0 − − − − (2)
photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic  According to Eienstein, the energy in light is not  Put eqn (2) in (1)
energies so that the retarding potential needed spread out over wavefronts, but is concentrated in 1
ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈0 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 − − − − (3)
to stop thephotoelectrons is also greater. small packets or energy quanta. 2
Variation of stopping potential with frequency :  The energy of each light quantum is ; 𝑬 = 𝒉 𝝂  The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s
 The individual light quantum of definite energy photoelectric equation.
and momentum can be associated with a particle  If the electron does not lose energy by internal
and this is called photon. collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic
Characteristics of photons : energy Kmax. Then
1
 Each photon will have energy given by ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈0 + [ 𝑚 𝑣 2 ]
𝒉𝒄 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑬=𝒉𝝂= 1
𝝀 (𝑜𝑟) 2
𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ 𝜈 − ℎ 𝜈0
 The energy of a photon is determined by the 2
frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity. (𝑜𝑟) 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 − − − − (𝟒)
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and  A graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax
its momentum is given by, of the photoelectron and frequency ν of the
𝒉 𝒉𝝂 incident light is a straight line
𝒑= =
 From the graph, 𝝀 𝒄
(1) The stopping potential varies linealy with  Photons are electrically neutral, and hency they
frequency. are not deflected ny electric and magnetic fields.
(2) Below a particular frequency called threshold  When photon interacts with matter, the total
frequency (𝝂𝑶 ), no electrons are emitted. energy, total linear momentum and angular
(3) Hence at threshold frequency stopping momentum are conserved.
potential is zero for that reason. 8. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with
6. List out the laws of photoelectric effect. necessary explanation.
Laws of photoelectric effect : Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric equation :
 For a given frequency of incident light, the number  When a photon of energy ‘hν’ is incident on a
of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a
to the intensity of the incident light. The single electron and the electron is ejected.
saturation current is also directly proportional to  In this process, the energy of incident photom is
41 the intensity of incident light. utilized in two ways.
9. Explain experimentally observed facts of  In this, the resistance of the semiconductor  Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are
photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein’s changes in accordance with the radiant used to measure the intensity of the given light
explanation. energy incident on it. and to calculate the exact time of exposure.
Explanation for photo electric effect : 11. Give the construction and working of photo 13. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of
 As each photon liberates one electron, then the emissive cell. electrons.
increase of intensity of the light increases the Photo emissive cell : De Boglie wavelength of electrons :
number of electrons emitted there by increasing  It consists of an  An electron of mass m is accelerated through a
the photo current. evacuated glass or potential difference of V volt.
 From, 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 , it is evident that Kmax quartz bulb in which  The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is
is proportional to the frequency of the light and is two metallic given by
independent of intensity of the light. electrodes a cathode 1
𝟏 𝟐 and an anode are 𝑚 𝑣2 = 𝑒 𝑉
 From, 𝒉 𝝂 = 𝒉 𝝂𝟎 + 𝒎 𝒗 , there must be 2
𝟐
fixed.  Hence the speed of the electron is.
minimum energy (equal to the work function of 2𝑒𝑉
 The cathode C is semi-
the metal) for incident photons to liberate 𝑣2 =
electrons from the metal surface. Below which, cylindrical in shape 𝑚
emission of electrons is not possible. and is coated with a 2𝑒𝑉
Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency photo sensitive 𝑣= √ − − − − (1)
material. 𝑚
called threshold frequency below which there is
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the  The de Broglie wavelength of electron is
no photoelectric emission.
axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode. ℎ ℎ
 According to quantum concept, the transfer of 𝜆= =
photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous  A potential difference is applied between the 𝑚𝑣 2𝑒𝑉
anode and the cathode through a galvanometer G. 𝑚√
so that there is no time lag between incidence of 𝑚
photons and ejection of electrons. Working : 𝒉
𝝀= − − − (2)
10. Explain photo electric cells and its types.  When cathode is illuminated, electrons are √𝟐 𝒎 𝒆 𝑽
Phot electric cell : emitted from it.
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence where, ℎ = 6.626 𝑋 10−34 𝐽 𝑠
 Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which 𝑒 = 1.6 𝑋 10−19 𝐶
converts light energy into electrical energy. a current is produced which is measured by the
galvanometer. 𝑚 = 9.11 𝑋 10−31 𝑘𝑔
 It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
 When light is incident on the photosensitive  For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 𝒐
depends on ∴ 𝝀= = 𝑨
materials, their electric properties will get √𝑽 √𝑽
affected, based on which photo cells are classified (1) the intensity to incident radiation and
14. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment
into three types. They are Phote emissive cell, (2) the potential difference between anode and
which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.
Phot voltaic cell and Photo conductive cell cathode.
Davisson - Gerner experiment :
(1) Photo emissive cell : 12. Give the application of photo cells .
 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was
 Its working depends on the electron emission Applications of photo cells :
experimentally confirmed by Clinton Davisson
from a metal cathode due to irradiation of  Photo cells have many applications especially as
and Lester Germer in 1927.
light or other radiations. switches and sensors.
 They demonstrated that electron beams are
(2) Photo voltaic cell :  Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark
diffracted when they fall on crystalline solids.
 Here sensitive element made of use photocells, as well as street lights that switch
 Since crystal can act as a three-dimensional
semiconductor is used which generates on and off according to whether it is night or day.
diffraction grating for matter waves, the electron
voltage proportional tothe intensity of light or  Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in
waves incident on crystals are diffracted off in
other radiations. motion pictures
certain specific directions.
(3) Photo conductive cell :  They are used as timers to measure the speeds of
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
athletes during a race.
battery so that electrons are emitted from the hot
42 filament by thermionic emission.
 The graph shows the variation of intensity of the Principle :
scattered electrons with the angle θ for the  The wave nature of the electron is used in the
accelerating voltage of 54V. construction of microscope called electron
 For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered microscope.
wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of 50°  The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
to the incident electron beam. proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
 This peak in intensity is attributed to the used.
constructive interference of electrons diffracted  Thus higher resolving power can be obtained by
from various atomic layers of the target material. employing the waves of shorter wavelengths.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of  De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has less than (a few thousands less) that of the visible
been experimentally calculated as 1.65Å. light.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de  As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie
Broglie relation for V = 54 V as waves of electrons have very much higher
12.27 𝑜 12.27 𝑜 resolving power than optical microscope.
𝝀= 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝐀
√𝑉 √54  Electron microscopes giving magnification more
 This value agrees well with the experimentally than 2,00,000 times are common in research
observed wavelength of 1.65Å. laboratories.
 Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s Working :
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.  The construction and working of an electron
 They are then accelerated due to the potential 15. Briefly explain the principle and working of microscope is similar to that of an optical
difference between the filament and the anode electron microscope. microscope except that in electron microscope
aluminium cylinder by a high tension (H.T.) Electron microscope : focussing of electron beam is done by the
battery. electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin  The electron beam passing across a suitably
aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a arranged either electric or magnetic fields
single crystal of Nickel. undergoes divergence or convergence thereby
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different focussing of the beam is done
directions are received by the electron detector  The electrons emitted from the source are
which measures the intensity of scattered electron accelerated by high potentials.
beam.  The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser
 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper lens.
so that the angle 𝜃 between the incident beam and  When the beam passes through the sample whose
the scattered beam can be changed at our will. magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is image of the sample.
measured as a function of the angle θ.  With the help of magnetic objective lens and
magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen.
 These electron microscopes are being used in
almost all branches of science.
43
 Let ‘e’ be the charge of cathode ray particle.  Hence the deflection at the end of the electric field
5 Mark Questions & Answers  The upward force acting on cathode rays due to 1 1
𝑦  = 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 = 0 + 𝑎𝐸 𝑡 2
1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine electric field ‘E’ is; 𝑭𝑬 = 𝒆 𝑬 2 2
2
the specific charge of electron.  The downward force acting on cathode rays due to 1 𝑒 𝐸 𝑙 1 𝑒 𝐸 𝑙2
magnetic field is ; 𝑭𝑩 = 𝒆 𝑩 𝒗 𝑦 = ( ) =
Specific charge of elctron - J J Thomson Experiment 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 𝑚 𝑣2
 In undeflected equilibrium position, 2 2
 Charge per unit mass of an electron is called 1 𝑒 𝐸 𝑙 𝐵
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑦 =
specific charge (e/m) 2 𝑚 𝐸2
Principle : 𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝐵𝑣 𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝑬 𝒚 = − − − − (𝟐)
 Cathode rays (electron beam) deflects by both 𝒗 = − − − − − −(𝟏) 𝟐𝒎 𝑬
electric and magnetic fields is the principle 𝑩  Then the deflection on the screen,
involved in this method. Method (1) - To find specific charge : 𝑦 ∝ 𝑦 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑦
Set up :  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference between anode 𝐶  Proportionality constant
and cathode.  Using equation (2),
 Since the cathode rays (electron beam) are 1 𝑒 𝑙 2 𝐵2
accelerated from cathode to anode, the potential 𝑦=𝐶
2𝑚 𝐸
energy ‘eV’ of the electron beam at the cathode is 𝒆 𝟐𝒚𝑬
converted into kinetic energy of the electron beam = − − − − − (𝟑)
at the anode. Hence, 𝒎 𝑪 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
 By substituting the known values, we get
1 𝒆
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏
2 𝒎
𝒆 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝑬𝟐 Method (3) - Deflection due to magnetic field :
∴ = =
𝒎 𝟐𝑽 𝟐 𝑽 𝑩𝟐  When the electric field is turned off (𝐸 = 0), the
 The value of specific charge is , deflection is only due to magnetic field.
𝒆
 It is ahighly evacuated discharge tube = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏  The magnetic force provides the centripetal force,
 Cathode rays (electron beam) produced at 𝒎 the electron beam undergoes semi-circular path .
cathode ‘C’ are attracted towards anode disc A Method (2) - Deflection due to electric field :
Hence.
which allow only a narrow beam of cathode rays. 𝑚 𝑣2
 These cathode rays are now allowed to pass 𝑒𝑣𝐵=
𝑅
through the parallel plates and strike the screen 𝑚𝑣
coated with ZnS, a light spot is observed at O 𝑒𝐵=
𝑅
 The metal plates are maintained at high voltage. 𝐸
𝑚 ( ) 𝑚𝐸
 Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between 𝑒𝐵= 𝐵 =
pole pieces of magnet such that both electric and 𝑅 𝐵𝑅
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other. 𝒆 𝑬
= 𝟐 − − − − − (𝟒)
Velocity of cathode rays (𝒗) : 𝒎 𝑩 𝑹
 When the magnetic field is turned off (𝐵 = 0), the  The specific charge is independent of
deflection is only due to electric field. (1) Gas used
 Let ‘m’ be the mass of the electron, the upward (2) Nature of the electrodes
acceleration due to electric field ‘E’ is
𝐹𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑎𝐸 = =
𝑚 𝑚
 Upward initial velocity ; 𝑢 = 0
 Let ‘𝑙’ be the length of the deflecting plate, then
time taken to travel in electric field is,
𝑙
44 𝑡=
𝑣
2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to  Radius of the oil drop =𝑟
determine the charge of an electron. Density of the the oil =𝜌
Millikan’s oil drop method : Density of the air =𝜎
 The downward gravitational force acting on the
oil drop is.
4
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟 3 ] 𝑔
3
 The upthrust force experienced by the oil drop
due to displaced air is
4  From the free body diagram,
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜎 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟 3 ] 𝑔 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝐸
3
 Once the oil drop attains a terminal velocity υ, the 4 4
𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 + 𝑞 𝐸
net downward force 3 3
acting on the oil drop is 4 4
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑞 𝐸 = 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 − 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔
 It consists of two horizontal circular metal plates equal to the viscous 3 3
A and B each with diameter around 20 cm and are 4
force acting opposite to 𝑞𝐸= 𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌
− 𝜎 )𝑔
separated by a small distance 1.5 cm. the direction of motion 3
 These two parallel plates are enclosed in a 4
of the oil drop. 𝑞= 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
chamber with glass walls.  From Stokes law, the 3𝐸
 A high potential difference around 10 kV applied  Put equation (1), we get
viscous force on the oil 1
across the metal plates, such that electric field acts drop is ; 𝐹𝑣 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 4 9𝜂𝑣 9𝜂𝑣 2
vertically downward.  From the free body 𝑞= 𝜋 [ ][ ] (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
3𝐸 (𝜌
2 − 𝜎 )𝑔 (𝜌
2 − 𝜎 )𝑔
 A small hole is made at the centre of the upper diagram, 1
18 𝜂𝑣 2
plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the hole 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑣 𝑞= 𝜋 [𝜂 𝑣] [ ] (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
to spray the liquid. 4 4 𝐸 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
 When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid (like 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 + 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 𝟏
3 3 𝟏𝟖 𝜼𝟑 𝒗 𝟑 𝟐
glycerine) is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely 4 4 𝒒= 𝝅[ ] − − − −(𝟐)
𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 − 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 𝑬 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝈 )𝒈
downward through the hole of the top plate only 3 3
under the influence of gravity. 4  Millikan repeated this experiment several times
3 (𝜌
 Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric 𝜋𝑟 − 𝜎 )𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 and computed the charges on oil drops.
3
charge (negative charge) because of friction with 𝑟3 18 𝜋𝜂𝑣  He found that the charge of any oil drop can be
air or passage of x-rays in between the parallel = written as integral multiple of a basic value,
𝑟 4 𝜋 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 (−1.6 X 10−19 C), which is nothing but the charge of
plates. 9𝜂𝑣
 Further the chamber is illuminated by light which
2
𝑟 = an electron. Hence, 𝒆 = − 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑪
2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 3. Derive the expression for radius and energy of the
is passed horizontally and oil drops can be seen 𝟏
clearly using microscope placed perpendicular to 𝟗𝜼𝒗 𝟐 nth orbit of hydrogen atom using Bohr atom model.
𝒓 = [ ] − −(𝟏) Radius of nth orbit :
the light beam. 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝈 )𝒈
 These drops can move either upwards or (2) Determination of electric charge :
downward.  When the electric field is switched on, charged
(1) Radius of oil drop : oil drops experience an upward electric force
 When the electric field is switched off, the oil (qE).
drop accelerates downwards.  Strength of the electric field is adjusted to
 Due to the presence of air drag forces, the oil make that particular drop to be stationary.
drops easily attain its terminal velocity and  Under these circumstances, there will be no
moves with constant velocity. Let it be ‘𝑣’ viscous force acting on the oil drop.
45
𝟐
 Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at 𝒏  For hydrogen, (Z = 1), then
rest which is made up of of protons and neutrons. 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒂𝑶 − − − − (𝟑)
𝒁 𝒎 𝒆𝟒 𝟏
 Let an electron revolving around the stabe nucleus 𝟐
𝒉 𝜺𝑶 𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟕)
where, 𝑎𝑂 = = 0.529 𝐴 → Bohr radius 𝟖 𝜺𝑶𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
 Atomic number =𝑍 𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐
 For hydrogen, (Z = 1), So radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit,  The negative sign in equation (7) indicates that
Total charge of th nucleus =+𝑍𝑒
𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒂 𝑶 𝒏𝟐 − − − − (𝟒) the electron is bound to the nucleus.
Charge of an electron =−𝑒
 For first orbit, n = 1, (ground level)  Put the values of 𝜺𝑶 , 𝒉, 𝒎, 𝒆 and using ‘eV’ unit we
Mass of the electron =𝑚
𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑂 = 0.529 𝐴 have,
 From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
between the nucleus and the electron is  For second orbit, n = 2, (first excited level) 𝑬𝒏 = − 𝒆𝑽
1 (+ 𝑍 𝑒) (−𝑒) 𝑟2 = 4 𝑎𝑂 = 4 𝑋 0.529 𝐴 = 2.116 𝐴 𝒏𝟐
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑟̂  For third orbit, n = 3, (second excited level)  when, n = 1, 𝑬𝟏 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 when, n = 2, 𝑬𝟐 = − 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒆𝑽
𝑟3 = 9 𝑎𝑂 = 9 𝑋 0.529 𝐴 = 4.761 𝐴
1 𝑍 𝑒2 when, n = 3, 𝑬𝟑 = − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒆𝑽
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = − 𝑟̂  Thus, radius of the orbit, 𝒓𝒏 ∝ 𝒏𝟐
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 Velocity of electron in nth orbit :  Thus, as ‘n’ increases, energy also increases. (i.e.)
 This force provides necessary centripetal force  According to Bohr’s quantization condition, the orbit which is closest to the nucleus has lowest
given by. ℎ energy. So it is often called ground state
𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛  The ground state energy of hydrogen (- 13.6 eV) is
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑟̂ 2𝜋
𝑟𝑛 𝑛2 ℎ used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.
 At equilibrium, 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑎𝑂 =𝑛 1 Rydberg = − 13.6 eV
𝑍 2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒉 𝒁 4. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.
𝒗𝒏 = − − − (𝟓)
1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝟐 𝝅 𝒎 𝒂𝑶 𝒏 Spectral series of hydrogen atom :
− 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂ 𝟏  When an electron jumps from mth orbit to nth orbit,
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛  Hence, 𝒗𝒏 ∝ (i.e.) the velocity of the electron
𝒏 a spectral line was obtained whose wave number
1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 decreases as the principal quantum number
= − − − − − (1) (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛 increases 1 1 1
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2 Total Energy of electron in nth orbit : 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜆 𝑛 𝑚
𝑍 𝑒2  Electrostatic force is a conservative force.  here, R  Ryderg constant(𝑅 = 1.097 𝑋 107 𝑚−1 )
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑚2 𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2  So potential energy of the electron in nth orbit,  For m > n, various spectral series are obtained.
𝑟𝑛 = 1 (+ 𝑍 𝑒) (−𝑒) 1 𝑍 𝑒2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑈𝑛 = = − (1) Lyman series :
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ]2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛  n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …..
𝑟𝑛 =  Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚  Hence the wave number,
 From Bohr’s postulate, 1 1 1 𝑍 𝑒2 1 1 1
ℎ 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 = [ ] [𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛(1)] 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 =𝑛ℏ 2 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 𝜆 1 𝑚
2𝜋  Thus , 𝑼𝒏 = −𝟐 𝑲𝑬𝒏  They lie in ultra violet region
 Hence, (2) Balmer series :
 Therefore, total energy of the electron in nth orbit,
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [𝑙𝑛 ]2  𝑛 = 2 and 𝑚 = 3, 4, 5, . ….
𝑟𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = −2 𝐾𝐸𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = − 𝐾𝐸𝑛
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 1 𝑍 𝑒2  Hence the wave number,
𝑛ℎ 2 𝐸𝑛 = − 1 1 1
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [ ] 8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑟𝑛 = 2𝜋 𝜆 2 𝑚
𝑂 ℎ2 𝜀 𝑛2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚  From equation (2), 𝑟𝑛 = [ ] .Hence  They lie in visible region
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑛2 ℎ2 2 (3) Paschen series :
𝑟𝑛 = 1 𝑍𝑒
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑋 4 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑛 = −  𝑛 = 3 and 𝑚 = 4, 5, 6, ….
8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ℎ2 𝜀𝑂 𝑛2
𝒉𝟐 𝜺𝑶 𝒏𝟐 [ ]  Hence the wave number
𝒓𝒏 = [ ] − − − − (𝟐) 𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐 𝒁 1 1 1
𝒎 𝒆𝟒 𝒁𝟐 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
 Here 𝜺𝑶 , 𝒉, 𝒎, 𝒆 and 𝝅 are constant. 𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟔) 𝜆 3 𝑚
𝟖 𝜺𝑶𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐  They lie in infra red region
46
(4) Brackett series : (3) For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces 𝑁
̅̅̅̅ ln [ ] = − 𝜆 𝑡
 𝑛 = 4 and 𝑚 = 5, 6, 7, …. slowly and 𝐵𝐸 for uranium is about 7.6 MeV. They 𝑁𝑂
 Hence the wave number, are unstable and radioactive. Taking exponential on both sides,
1 1 1 (4) If two light nuclei with A<28 combine to form 𝑁
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] = 𝑒− 𝜆 𝑡
𝜆 4 𝑚 heavier nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon is 𝑁𝑂
 They lie in middle infra red region, more for final nucleus than initial nuclei. Thus, if 𝑵 = 𝑵𝑶 𝒆− 𝝀 𝒕 − − − − (𝟐)
(5) Pfund series : the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus  Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay.
 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 6, 7,8, …. of medium value A, a large amount of energy will  Here the number of atoms is decreasing
 Hence the wave number be released. This is the basis of nuclear fusion exponentially over the time.
1 1 1 and is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.  This implies that the time taken for all the
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 5 𝑚 (5) If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
 They lie in far infra red region. two or more nuclei of medium value A, the energy
5. Explain the variation of average binding energy released would again be large. The atom bomb is
with the mass number by graph and discuss its based on this principle.
features. 6. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive decay)
Binding energy curve : Law of radioactivity :
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
time, called rate of decay (dN/ dt) is proportional
to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.
This is called law of radioactive decay.
Expression :
 Let 𝑁𝑂 be the numer of nuclei at initial time (t = 0)
 Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at any
time ‘t’ 7. Obtain an expression for half life time and mean
 If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ life time.
𝑑𝑁 Half life time (𝑻𝟏 ) :
then, rate of decay = 𝟐
𝑑𝑡
 From law of radioactivity,  Half-life T 1/2 is thetime required for the number of
𝑑𝑁 atoms initially present to reduce to one half of the

∝𝑁 initial amount.
 The average binding energy per nucleon (𝐵𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ ) is 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁  From the law of radioactive decay, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑂 𝑒 − 𝜆 𝑡
the energy required to separate single nucleon (𝑜𝑟) = −𝜆𝑁 − − − − − (1) 𝑁
from the particular nucleus. 𝑑𝑡  If 𝑡 = 𝑇1 then, 𝑁 = 𝑂 . Hence
2
𝐵𝐸 [(𝑍 𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁 𝑚𝑛 ) − 𝑀𝐴 ] 𝑐 2 Here, 𝜆 → decay constant 2
̅̅̅̅ 𝑁 𝑂 − 𝜆 𝑇1
𝐵𝐸 = =  Decay constant (𝜆 ) is different for different = 𝑁𝑂 𝑒 2
𝐴 𝐴 radioactive sample and the negative sign in the 2
̅̅̅̅
 𝐵𝐸 is plotted against A of all known nuclei and the 1 − 𝜆 𝑇 1
graph obtained is called binding energy curve. equation implies that the N is decreasing with = 𝑒 2
time. 2
 From the graph, 𝜆 𝑇1
 By rewriting the equation (1), we get (𝑜𝑟) 𝑒 2 = 2
̅̅̅̅
(1) The value of 𝐵𝐸 rises as the mass number A
 Taking log on both sides,
increases until it reaches a maximum value of
𝑑𝑁 𝜆 𝑇1 = ln 2
8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly = − 𝜆 𝑑𝑡 2
decreases. 𝑁 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
Integrating on both sides, 𝑻𝟏 = =
(2) The average binding energy per nucleon is 𝑁 𝑡 𝟐 𝝀 𝝀
𝑑𝑁
about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass number ∫ = − 𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡  If the number of atoms present at t = 0 is N0 , then
between A = 40 and 120. These elements are 𝑁𝑂 𝑁 0 (1) Number of atoms remais undecayed after
comparatively more stable and not [ln 𝑁]𝑁𝑁𝑂 = − 𝜆 𝑡 1st half life = 𝑶
𝑵
𝟐
47 radioactive. [ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁𝑂 ] = − 𝜆 𝑡
(2) Number of atoms remais undecayed after  Since our human body, tree or any living organism (3) Moderators :
𝑵
2nd half life = 𝑶 continuously absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, the  The probability of initiating fission by fast
𝟒
ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶 in the living organism is also neutron in another nucleus is very low.
(3) Number of atoms remais undecayed after
𝑵 nearly constant. Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for
3rd half life = 𝑶  But when the organim dies, it stops absorbing CO2. sustained nuclear reactions
𝟖
 In general, after n half-lives, the number of nuclei Since 146 𝐶 starts to decay, the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶  The moderator is a material used to convert
remaining undecayed is given by in a dead organism or specimen decreases over fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
𝑵𝑶 the years.  Usually the moderators having mass
𝑁 = 𝒏
𝟐  Suppose the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶 in the ancient tree comparable to that of neutrons. Hence, these
Mean life time (𝝉) : pieces excavated is known, then the age of the tree light nuclei undergo collision with fast
 The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of pieces can be calculated. neutrons and the speed of the neutron is
sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the 9. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a reduced
total number nuclei present initially. block diagram.  Most of the reactors use water, heavy water
 Let 𝜆 be the decay constant of the radioactive Nucleaar reactor : (D2O) and graphite as moderators.
substance, then  Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear (4) Control rods :
𝟏 fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled  The control rods are used to adjust the
𝝉=
𝝀 manner reaction rate.
 Thus mean life and decay constant is inversely  The energy produced is used either for research  During each fission, on an average 2.5
proportional to each other. purpose or for power generation. neutrons are emitted
Half life and mean life - Relation :  The first nuclear reactor was built in the year  In order to have the controlled chain
 Half life time is given by, 1942 at Chicago. reactions, only one neutron is allowed to
ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1 = 𝜆
= 𝜆
cause another fission and the remaining
2 neutrons are absorbed by the control rods.
 Mean life period is given by,  Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod
1
𝜏= 𝜆
material
 From the above two equations, (5) Coolants :
𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝝉  The cooling system removes the heat
𝟐 generated in the reactor core.
8. Explain radio carbon dating.  Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
Radio carbon dating : sodium are used as coolant since they have
 The important application of beta ecay is very high specific heat capacity and have large
radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using this boiling point under high pressure.
technique, the age of an ancient object can be  This coolant passes through the fuel block and
calculated. carries away the heat to the steam generator
 All living organisms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) Main parts of Nuclear reactor : through heat exchanger
from air to synthesize organic molecules. (1) Fuel :  The steam runs the turbines which produces
 In this absorbed CO2, the major part is  The commonly used fuels are 235 239
92𝑈 and 94 𝑃𝑢 electricity in power reactors.
12 14
6 𝐶 and very small fraction 6 𝐶 whose half-life is  Naturally occurring uranium contains only (6) Shielding :
5730 years. 0.7% of 235 238
92𝑈 and 99.3% are only 92𝑈 .  For a protection against harmful radiations,
238
 Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always decaying  So the 92𝑈 must be enriched such that it the nuclear reactor is surrounded by a
but at the same time, cosmic rays from outer space contains at least 2 to 4% of 235
92𝑈 concrete wall of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.
are continuously bombarding the atoms in the (2) Neutron source :
atmosphere which produces 146 𝐶 .  A neutron source is required to initiate the
 So the continuous production and decay of 146 𝐶 in chain reaction for the first time.
the atmosphere keep the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶  A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or
48 always constant. polonium is used as the neutron source
10. Briefly explain the elementary particles of nature. 11. Explain in detail the four fundamental forces.
Elementary particles : Fundamental forces in nature :
 An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons  Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak
and nuclei is made up of protons and neutrons. forces are called fundamental forces of nature.
 Initially, protons, neutrons and electrons are (1) Gravitational forces :
considered as fundamental building blocks of  The attractive force between two masses is
matter. called gravitational force and it is universal in
 But in 1964, Murray Gellman and George Zweig nature.
theoretically proposed that protons and neutrons  Our planets are bound to the sun through
are not fundamental particles, but they are made gravitational force of the sun.
up of quarks.  We are in the Earth because of Earth’s
 These quarks are now considered elementary gravitational attraction on our body.
particles of nature. (2) Electromagnetic force :
 Electrons are fundamental or elementary particles  Between two charges there exists
because they are not made up of anything. electromagnetic force and it plays major role
 In the year 1968, the quarks were discovered in most of our day-today events.
experimentally by Stanford.  We are standing on the surface of the earth
 There are six quarks namely, because of the electromagnetic force between
(1) Up quark atoms of the surface of the earth with atoms
(2) Down quark in our foot
(3) Charm quark  It is stronger than gravitational force.
(4) Strange quark (3) Strong Nuclear force :
(5) Top quark and  Between two nucleons, there exists a strong
(6) Bottom quark nuclear force and this force is responsible for
 There exist their anti particle also. stability of the nucleus.
 All these quarks have fractional charges. For  The atoms in our body are stable because of
example, strong nuclear force.
2
Charge of up quark is = + 𝑒 (4) Weak Nuclear force :
3
1  In addition to these three forces, there exists
Charge of down quark is = − 𝑒 another fundamental force of nature called
3
 According to quark model, the weak force.
(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks and one  This weak force is even shorter in range than
down quark nuclear force.
(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark and two  This force plays an important role in beta
down quarks decay and energy production of stars.
 During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in
sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are
produced through weak force.
 The lives of species in the earth depend on the
solar energy from the sun and it is due to
weak force which plays vital role during
nuclear fusion reactions going on in the core
of the sun
49
Semiconductors :  But at room temperature, some of the covalent
5 marks Questions & Answers  In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden bonds are brakes and releases the electrons free
1. Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy gap (𝐸𝑔 < 3 𝑒𝑉) between the valence band from the lattice.
energy band theory. and the conduction band.
Classification of solids :  At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the
 Based on the energy band theory, solids are solid can break the covalent bond between the
classified in to three types, namely atoms.
(1) Insulators  This releases some electrons from valence band to
(2) Metals (Condutors) conduction band.
(3) Semiconductors  Since free electrons are small in number, the
conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
that of the conductors.
 The resistivity value of semiconductors is from  As a result, some states in the valence band become
−𝟓 𝟔 empty and the same number of states in the
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 𝒎.
conduction band will be occupied.
 When the temperature is increased further, more
 The vacancies produced in the valence band are
number of electrons is promoted to the conduction
called holes which are treates as positive charges.
band and increases the conduction.
 Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge
 Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the
carriers in semiconductors.
increase in temperature. (i.e.) resistance decreases
Insulators :  In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of
with increase in temperature.
 In insulator the valence band (VB) and the electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
 Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative
conduction band (CB) are separated by a large number of holes in the valence band.
temperature coefficient of resistance.
energy gap.  The conduction is due to the electrons in the
 The most important elemental semiconductor
 The forbidden energy gap (𝐸𝑔 ) is approximately conduction band and holes in the valence band
materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
6 eV in insulators.  The total current (I) is always the sum of the
 At room temperature,
 The gap is very large that electrons from valence electron current (𝑰𝒆 ) and the hole current (𝑰𝒉 )
forbidden energy gap for Si ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 and
band cannot move into conduction band even on 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒆 + 𝑰𝒉
forbidden energy gap for Ge ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒆𝑽
the application of strong external electric field or  The increase in temperature increases the number
2. Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor. of charge carriers (electrons and holes).
the increase in temperature.
Intrinsic semiconductor : 3. Elucidate the formation of a N-type and P-type
 Therefore, the electrical conduction is not possible
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity semiconductors.
as the free electrons are almost nil and hence these
is called an intrinsic semiconductor. N - type semiconductor :
materials are called insulators.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟗 (e.g) silicon, germanium
 Its resistivity is in the range of 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 𝒎
 Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is
Metals (Conductors) :
covalently bonded with the neighbouring four
 In metals, the valence band and onduction band
atoms to form the lattice.
overlap
 At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as
 Hence, electrons can move freely into the
insulator, because there is no free charges.
conduction band which results in a large number of
free electrons in the conduction band.
 Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at
low temperatures.
 The application of electric field provides sufficient  A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a
energy to the electrons to drift in a particular pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant
direction to constitute a current. from pentavalent elements like Phosphorus,
 For metals, the resistivity value lies between Arsenic, and Antimony
50 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎
 The dopant has five valence electrons while the  As Silicon atom has four valence electrons, one  On the n-side, positive ion cores are exposed and
Silicon atom has four valence electrons. electron position of the dopant in the crystal lattice on the p- side, negative ion cores are exposed
 During the process of doping, four of the five will remain vacant.  An electric field E forms between the positive ion
valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound  The missing electron position in the covalent bond cores in the n-type material and negative ion cores
with the 4 valence electrons of the neighbouring is denoted as a hole. in the p-type material.
replaced Silicon atom.  To make complete covalent, the dopant is in need  The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this
 The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will of one more electron. region and hence it is called depletion region as it
be loosely attached with the nucleus as it has not  These dopants can accept electrons from the is depleted of free carriers.
formed the covalent bond. neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is  A barrier potential (Vb) due to the electric field E
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth called an acceptor impurity. is formed at the junction.
electron is found just below the conduction band  The energy level of the hole created by each  As this diffusion of charge carriers from both sides
edge and is called the donor energy level impurity atom is just above the valence band and is continues, the negative ions form a layer of
 The energy required to set free a donor electron is called the acceptor energy level. negative space charge region along the p-side.
only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.  For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the  Similarly, a positive space charge region is formed
 At room temperature, these electrons can easily valence band in addition to the thermally by positive ions on the n-side.
move to the conduction band with the absorption generated holes.  The positive space charge region attracts electrons
of thermal energy.  Hence, in an P - type semiconductor, the from P-side to n-side and the negative space charge
 The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons majority carriers - Holes region attracts holes from N-side to P -side.
to the conduction band and are called donor minority carriers - Electrons  This moment of carriers happen in this region due
impurities. 4. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss to the formed electric field and it constitutes a
 Therefore,each impurity atom provides one extra its V–I characteristics. current called drift current.
 electron to the conduction band in addition to the Formation of PN junction diode :  The diffusion current and drift current flow in the
thermally generated electrons opposite direction and at one instant they both
 Hence, in an N - type semiconductor, the become equal.
majority carriers - Electrons  Thus, a P-N junction is formed.
minority carriers - Holes V -I characteristics :
P - type semiconductor :  It is the study of the variation in current through
the diode with respect to the applied voltage across
the diode when it is forward or reverse biased.
 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

P-type semiconductor materials.
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a  Here the N-region has a high electron concentration
pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant and the P-region a high hole concentration.
from trivalent elements like Boron, Aluminium,  So the electrons diffuse from the N-side to the
Gallium and Indium P-side. Simillarly holes also diffuse from P - side to
 The dopant has three valence electrons while the the N- side. This causes diffusion current.
Silicon atom has four valence electrons.  In a P-N junction, when the electrons and holes
 During the process of doping, the dopant with three move to the other side of the junction, they leave
valence electrons are bound with the neighbouring behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites, which
three Silicon atoms. are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable to
51 move.
Forward bias characteristics : 5. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier  The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady
 If the positive terminal of the external voltage and explain its working. dc voltage but a pulsating wave.
source is connected to the P-side and the negative Half wave rectifier :  A constant ora steady voltage is required which can
terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased. be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
 A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias voltage regulator circuits.
voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I)  Efficiency (𝜼) is the ratio of the output dc power to
through the diode along the y-axis. This graph is the ac input power supplied to the circuit. Its value
called the forward V-I characteristics. for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
 From the graph, 6. Explain the construction and working of a full wave
(1) At room temperature, a potential difference rectifier.
equal to the barrier potential is required Full wave rectifier :
before a reasonable forward current starts
flowing across the diode. This voltage is known  In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half
as threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or or the negative half of the AC input is passed
knee voltage (Vth). through while the other half is blocked.
For Silicon ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽  Only one half of the input wave reaches the output.
For Germanium ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑽 Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
(2) The graph clearly infers that the current flow is  This circuit consists of a transformer, a
not linear and is exponential. Hence it does not P-N junction diode and a resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
obey Ohm’s law.  Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.
(3) The forward resistance (𝒓𝒇 ) of the diode is the During positive half During negative half
ratio of the small change in voltage (ΔV)to the cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
small change in current(ΔI), Terminal A becomes Terminal B becomes
∆𝑽 positive with respect to positive with respect to  The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input
𝒓𝒇 = terminal B. terminal A. signal pass through this circuit and hence it is called
∆𝑰
(4) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when The diode is forward The diode is reverse the full wave rectifier.
it is forward biased. biased and hence it biased and hence it does  It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center
Reverse bias characteristics : conducts not conducts tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL).
 If the positive terminal of the battery is connected No current passes through  The centre (C) is usually taken as the groundor zero
The current flows through voltage reference point.
to the n-side and the negative potential to the p- RL and there is no voltage
the load resistor RL and  Due to the centre tap transformer, the output
side, the junction is said to be reverse biased. drop across RL
the AC voltage developed voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of the
 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage (The reverse saturation
across RL constitutes the total secondary voltage.
and the current across the junction, which is called current in a diode is
output voltage V0
the reverse V - I characteristics. negligible) During positive half During negative half
 Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows  The output waveform is shown below. cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
across the junction. This is due to the flow of the Terminal M is positive, Terminal M is negative,
minority charge carriers called the leakage G is at zero potential and G is at zero potential and
current or reversesaturation current. N is at negative potential N is at positive potential
For Silicon ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 𝝁 𝑨 Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D1 is reverse biased
For Germanium ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎 𝝁 𝑨 Diode D 2 is reverse biased Diode D2 is forward biased
 Besides, the current is almost independent of the D 1 conducts and current D2 conducts and current
voltage. flows along the path flows along the path
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up MD 1 AGC ND2 BGC
to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter The voltage appears The voltage appears
into the breakdown region. across R L in the direction across RL in the same
52 G to C direction G to C
 Hence in a full wave rectifier both postive and  The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown  The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical
negative half cycles of the input signal pass through below. which means that the diode possesses some small
the circuit in the same direction resistance called Zener dynamic impedance.
 The output waveform is shown below.  Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in the
breakdown region. It means an increase in the
Zener current produces only a very small increase
in the reverse voltage which can be neglected.
 Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not
change once it goes into breakdown.
 It means that VZ remains almost constant even
when IZ increases considerably.
8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator :
 Though both positive and negative half cycles of ac
input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature.
 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
7. Write a note on Zener diode. Explain the V - I  The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is
characteristics of Zener diode.
similar to that of an ordinary P-N junction diode.
Zener diode :  It starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V.
 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped  However, the reverse characteristics is highly
Silicon diode, designed to be operated in the
significant in Zener diode.
breakdown region.  The increase in reverse voltage normally generates  A Zener diode working in the breakdown region
 Zener breakdown occurs due to the breaking of very small reverse current. can serve as a voltage regulator.
covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in  While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is  It maintains a constant output voltage even when
the depletion region by the reverse voltage. increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the input voltage (𝑉𝑖 ) or load current (𝐼𝐿 ) varies.
 It produces an extremely large number of increase in current is very sharp.  Here, in this circuit the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is regulated
electrons and holes which constitute the reverse  The voltage remains almost constant throughout at a constant voltage Vz (Zener voltage) at the
saturation current. the breakdown region. output represented as V0 using a Zener diode.
 The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.  Here, IZ(max) represents the maximum reverse  The output voltage is maintained constant as long
current. as the input voltage does not fall below Vz .
 If the reverse current is increased further, the  When the potential developed across the diode is
diode will be damaged. greater than VZ, the diode moves into the Zener
V-I Characteristics of Zener diode :
 The important parameters on the reverse breakdown region.
 The circuit to study the forward and reverse
characteristics are  It conducts and draws relatively large current
characteristic s of a Zener diode is shown below.
VZ→Zener breakdown voltage through the series resistance 𝑹𝑺 .
IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain breakdown  The total current I passing through 𝑹𝑺 equals the
IZ(max)→maximum current limited by maximum sum of diode current IZ and load current IL (i.e.)
power dissipation. 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒁 + 𝑰𝑳
 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias  It is to be noted that the total current is always less
having the voltage greater than VZ and current less than the maximum Zener diode current.
than IZ(max).  Under all conditions 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒁
53  Thus, output voltage is regulated.
9. What is meant by light emitting diode? Explain its 10. Explain in detail about the photo diode. 11. Explain the working principle of Solar cell. Mention
working principle with diagram. Photo diode : its applications.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) :  A P-N junction diode which converts an optical Solar cell :
 LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible or signal into electric current is known as photodiode.  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
invisible light when it is forward biased.  Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly converts light energy directly into electricity or
 Since, electrical energy is converted into light opposite to that of an LED. electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
energy, this process is also called electro  Photo diode works in reverse bias. Its circuit
luminescence. symbol below.
 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is

incident on the photo diode.
 The device consists of a P-N junction
semiconductor made of photosensitive material
 It consists of a P-layer, N-layer and a substrate.  It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
kept safely inside a plastic case
 A transparent window is used to allow light to when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
 It has a small transparent window that allows light
travel in the desired direction.  A solar cell is of two types : P-type and N-type.
to be incident on the P-N junction.
 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.  Both types use a combination of P-type and N-type
 Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N
 When the P-N junction is forward biased, the Silicon which together forms the P-N junction of
junction is exposed to light and hence are called as
conduction band electrons on N-side and valence the solar cell.
light sensors.
band holes on P-side diffuse across the junction.  The difference is that P-type solar cells use P-type
 When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes the
 When they cross the junction, they become excess Silicon as the base with an ultra-thin layer of N-type
depletion region of the diode, some of the valence
minority carriers (electrons in P-side and holes in Silicon, while N-type solar cell uses the opposite
band electrons are elevated into conduction band,
N-side). combination.
in turn holes are developed in the valence band.
 These excess minority carriers recombine with  The other side of the P-Silicon is coated with metal
 This creates electron-hole pairs.
oppositely charged majority carriers in the which forms the back electrical contact.
 The amount of electronhole pairs generated
respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the  On top of the N-type Silicon, metal grid is deposited
depends on the intensity of light incident on the
conduction band recombine with holes in the which acts as the front electrical contact.
P-N junction.
valence band  The top of the solar cell is coated with anti-
 These electrons and holes are swept across the
 During recombination process, energy is released reflection coating and toughened glass.
P-N junction by the electric field created by reverse
in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non-  In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated
voltage before recombination takes place.
radiative). due to the absorption of light near the junction.
 Thus, holes move towards the N-side and electrons
 For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv  Then the charge carriers are separated due to the
towards the P-side.
isemitted. For non-radiative recombination, electric field of the depletion region.
 When the external circuit is made, the electrons
energy is liberated in the form of heat.  Electrons move towards N–type Silicon and holes
flow through the external circuit and constitute the
 The colour of the light is determined by the energy move towards P-type Silicon layer.
photocurrent.
band gap of the material.  The electrons reaching the N-side are collected by
 When the incident light is zero, there exists a
 Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of the front contact and holes reaching P-side are
reverse current which is negligible.
colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and red collected by the back electrical contact.
 This reverse current in the absence of any incident
(GaAsP). Now a days, LED which emits white light  Thus a potential difference is developed across
light is called dark current and is due to the
(GaInN) is also available. solar cell.
54 thermally generated minority carriers.
 When an external load is connected to the solar cell, towards the base region and constitutes the 13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common
photocurrent flows through the load. emitter current (IE). emitter transistor and bring out the essence of
 Many solar cells are connected together either in  The electrons after reaching the base region input and output characteristics.
series or in parallel combination to form solar recombine with the holes in the base region. Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode :
panel or module.  Since the base region is very narrow and lightly
 Many solar panels are connected with each other to doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient
form solar arrays. For high power applications, holes to recombine and hence most of the electrons
solar panels and solar arrays are used. reach the collector region.
Applications :  Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector
(1) Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, region will be attracted by the collector terminal as
toys, portable power supplies, etc. it has positive potential and flows through the
(2) Solar cells are used in satellites and space external circuit.
applications  This constitutes the collector current (IC).
(3) Solar panels are used to generate electricity.  The holes that are lost due to recombination in the 𝑽𝑩𝑬 − Base - emitter voltage
12. Explain transistor action in common base base region are replaced by the positive potential 𝑽𝑪𝑬 − Collector - emitter voltage
configuration. of the bias voltage VEB and constitute the 𝑰𝑩 − Base current
Working of NPN transistor in CB mode : base current (IB ). 𝑰𝑪 − Collector current
 The magnitude of the base current will be in 𝑽𝑩𝑩 & 𝑽𝑪𝑪 −Biasing voltages
micoamperes as against milliamperes for emitter 𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐 − Variable resistors
and collector currents. (1) Input characteristics :
 It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero,  Input Characteristics curves give the
then the collector current is almost zero. relationship between the base current (IB) and
 It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant
current controlled device. collector to emitter voltage (VCE)
 Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter
current as the sum of the collector current and the
base current.
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
 Basically, a BJT can be considered as two  Since the base current is very small, we can write,
P-N junction diodes connected back to- back. 𝑰𝑬 ≈ 𝑰𝑪
 In the forward active bias of the transistor, the  There is another component of collector current
emitter-base junction is forward biased by VEB and due to the thermally generated electrons called
the collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCB. reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO.
 The forward bias decreases the depletion region  This factor is temperature sensitive.
across the emitter-base junction and the reverse  The ratio of the collector current to the emitter
bias increases the depletion region across the current is called the forward current gain (𝜶𝒅𝒄 ) of
collector-base junction. a transistor.
 Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter- 𝑰𝑪
base junction is decreased and the collector-base 𝜶𝒅𝒄 =
𝑰𝑬
junction is increased.  The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a
 In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers transistor. Higher the value of α better is the  The curve looks like the forward
in the emitter are electrons. As it is heavily doped, transistor. characteristics of an ordinary P-N junction
it has a large number of electrons.  The value of α is less than unity and ranges from diode.
 The forward bias across the emitter-base junction 0.95 to 0.99.  There exists a threshold voltage or knee
causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow voltage (Vk) below which the base current is
55 very small.
 Beyond the knee voltage, the base current ∆𝑽𝑪𝑬 Presence of dc source at the input (saturation
𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
increases with the increase in base-emitter ∆𝑰𝑪 𝐼 region) :
𝐵
voltage.  The output resistance for transistor in  When a high input voltage (Vin = +5 V) is applied,
 It is also noted that the increase in the common emitter configuration is very low. the base current (IB) increases and in turn
collector-emitter voltage decreases the base (3) Current transfer characteristics : increases the collector current.
current. This shifts the curve outward.  This gives the variation of collector current  The transistor will move into the saturation region
 This is because the increase in collector- (IC) with changes in base current (IB) at (turned ON).
emitter voltage increases the width of the constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE)  The increase in collector current (IC) increases the
depletion region in turn, reduces the effective voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the
base width and thereby the base current. output voltage, close to zero.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage  The transistor acts like a closed switch and is
(ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a equivalent to ON condition.
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff region) :
called the input resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).  A low input voltage (Vin = 0 V ), decreases the base
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬 current (IB) and in turn decreases the collector
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑽 current (IC).
𝑪𝑬
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in  The transistor will move into the cut-off region
common emitter configuration.  It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is (turned OFF).
(2) Output characteristics : zero.  The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases the
 The output characteristics give the  This current is called the common emitter drop across RC, thereby increasing the output
relationship between the variation in the leakage current (ICEO), which is due to the flow voltage, close to +5 V.
collector current (ΔIC) with respect to the of minority charge carriers.  The transistor acts as an open switch which is
variation in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at  The ratio of the change in collector current considered as the OFF condition.
constant input current (IB) (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at  It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is and a low input gives a high output.
called forward current gain (β).  Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter
∆𝑰𝑪 in computer logic circuitry.
𝜷= [ ] 15. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑉
𝐶𝐸 with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the input and
 Its value is very high and it generally ranges output wave form.
from 50 to 200. Transisitor as an amplifier :
14. Transistor functions as a switch. Explain.
Transistor as a switch :
 There are four important regions in the curve

(i) Saturation region
(ii) Cut-off region
(iii) Active region
(iv) Break down region
 The ratio of the change in the collectoremitter
voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in  The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions
the collector current (ΔIC) at constant base functions like an electronic switch that helps to
current (IB) is called output resistance (𝒓𝑶 ). turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control
56 signal.
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal  The increase in collector current (IC) decreases Feedback network :
strength (increase in the amplitude). the potential drop across RC and increases the  The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output
 If a large amplification is required, multistage collector-emitter voltage (VCE). to the input is called the feedback network.
amplifier is used.  Thus, the input signal in the negative direction  If the portion of the output fed to the input is in
 Here, the amplification of an electrical signal is produces an amplified signal in the positive phase with the input, then the magnitude of the
explained with a single stage transistor amplifier direction at the output. input signal increases.
 Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of  Therefore, 1800 phase reversal is observed  It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
one transistor with the allied components. during the negative half cycle of the input Tank circuit :
 An NPN transistor is connected in the common signal  The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a
emitter configuration. capacitor connected in parallel
 A load resistance, RC is connected in series with the
collector circuit to measure the output voltage.
 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass
through.
 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low
reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one
stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
constructing multistage amplifiers.
16. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator.
 VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied
Transistor as an oscillator :
across the base-emitter.  Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit
 An electronic oscillator basically converts dc energy
 The output is taken across the collector-emitter. from a DC source, the energy is stored in inductor
into ac energy of high frequency ranging from a few
 Collector current, and capacitor alternatively.
Hz to several MHz.
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷 𝑰𝑩  This produces electrical oscillations of definite
 Hence, it is a source of alternating current or voltage.
 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law in the output frequency.
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any
loop, the collector-emitter voltage is  But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss
external signal source.
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
 Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
Working of the amplifier : capacitors.
Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.
(1) During the positive half cycle :  Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations
 An oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, an
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage decreases gradually.
amplifier and a feedback circuit as shown
across the emitter-base.  Hence, the tank circuit produces damped electrical
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases. oscillations.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC)  Therefore, in order to produce undamped
increases β times. oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from
 This increases the voltage drop across RC the output circuit to the input circuit.
which in turn decreases the collector-emitter  The frequency of oscillations is determined by the
voltage (VCE). values of L and C using the equation.
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive 𝟏
𝒇=
direction produces an amplified signal in the 𝟐 𝝅 √𝑳 𝑪
negative direction at the output. Hence, the
output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle : Amplifier :
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward  Amplification is the process of increasing
voltage across the emitter-base. amplitude of weak signals (i.e) Amplifier amplifies
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in the input ac signal
57 turn increases the collector current (IC).
17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second  From the above truth table, we can conclude
theorems. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
De Morgan’s First Theorem :  Thus De Morgan’s second Theorem is proved.
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is  It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled
equal to the product of its complements. OR gate.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅
Proof :  The corresponding logic circuit diagram 19. What is called modulation? Explain the types of
 The Boolean equation for NOR gate is modulation with help of necessary diagrams.
𝒀=𝑨 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+𝑩 Modulation :
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is  For long distance transmission, the low frequency
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩̅ baseband signal (input signal) is superimposed
A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅ .𝑩
𝑨 ̅ 18. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to onto a high frequency radio signal by a process
simplify Boolean expressions with suitable called modulation.
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
example.  In the modulation process, a very high frequency
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Boolean laws : signal called carrier signal (radio signal) is used to
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 (1) Complement law : carry the baseband signal.
(i) ̿ =𝐴
𝐴 Types of modulation :
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 (1) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(2) OR -Laws:
 From the above truth table, we can conclude (2) Frequency modulation (FM)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ .𝑩
̅ (i) 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 (3) Phase modulation (PM)
(ii) 𝐴 + 1 = 1
 Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved. Amplitude modulation (AM) :
(iii) 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
 It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled  If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified
(iv) 𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1
AND gate. according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
(3) AND -Laws:
 The corresponding logic circuit diagram baseband signal, then it is called amplitude
(i) 𝐴 .0 = 0
(ii) 𝐴 .1 = 𝐴 modulation.
(iii) 𝐴 . 𝐴 = 𝐴  Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier
̅
(iv) 𝐴 . 𝐴 = 0 signal remain constant.
(4) Commutative Laws :
De Morgan’s First Theorem : (i) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
 The complement of the products of two logical (ii) 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝐴
inputs is equal to the sum of its complements. (5) Associative Laws :
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩̅ (i) 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
Proof : (ii) 𝐴 . (𝐵. 𝐶) = (𝐴 . 𝐵). 𝐶
 The Boolean equation for NAwD gate is (6) Distributive Laws :
𝒀=𝑨 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
.𝑩 (i) 𝐴 (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐶
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is (ii) 𝐴 + (𝐵 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶)
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ +𝑩 ̅ Example :
A B A .B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅+𝑩
𝑨 ̅ Simplify the following Boolean expression.
𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Solution :
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 (1 + 𝐵)
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 .1 [𝑂𝑅 −law (2) ]
𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑪 [𝐴𝑁𝐷 −law (2) ]
58 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Circuit description
 We can see clearly that the carrier wave is modified  When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero  The electrical equivalent of the original
in proportion to the amplitude of the baseband (no input signal), there is no change in the information is called the baseband signal.
signal. frequency of the carrier wave. (e.g.) microphone
 Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV  It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre (2) Transmitter :
broadcasting. frequency or resting frequency.  It feeds the electrical signal from the
Advantages of AM :  Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the transducer to the communication channel.
 Easy transmission and reception FM transmitter.  The transmitter is located at the broadcasting
 Lesser bandwidth requirements Advantages of FM : station.
 Low cost  Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in
Limitations of AM : signal-noise ratio.
 Noise level is high  The operating range is quite large.
 Low efficiency  The transmission efficiency is very high as all the
 Small operating range transmitted power is useful.
Frequency modulation (FM) :  FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the better quality compared to AM radio.
baseband signal, then it is called frequency Limitations of FM :  It consists,
modulation.  FM requires a much wider channel. (i) Amplifier : The transducer output is very
 Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier  FM transmitters and receivers are more complex weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
signal remain constant. and costly. (ii) Oscillator : It generates high-frequency
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to carrier wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long
AM. distance transmission into space.
Phase modulation (PM) : (iii) Modulator : It superimposes the
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband baseband signal onto the carrier signal and
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal generates the modulated signal.
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is (iv) Power amplifier : It increases the power
called phase modulation level of the electrical signal in order to
 This modulation is used to generate frequency cover a large distance.
modulated signals. (3) Transmitting antenna :
20. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication  It radiates the radio signal into space in all
system with the necessary block diagram. directions.
Communication system :  It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves
 Electronic communication is nothing but the with the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1)
transmission of sound, text, pictures, or data (4) Communication channel :
 When the amplitude of the baseband signal is zero, through a medium.  Communication channel is used to carry the
the frequency of the modulated signal is the same Basic elements of communication system : electrical signal from transmitter to receiver
as the carrier signal. (1) Input transducer : with less noise or distortion.
 The frequency of the modulated wave increases  A transducer is a device that converts  The communication medium is basically of two
when the amplitude of the baseband signal variations in a physical quantity (pressure, types: wireline communication and wireless
increases in the positive direction (A, C). temperature, sound) into an equivalent communication.
 The increase in amplitude in the negative half cycle electrical signal or vice versa. (5) Receiver :
(B, D) reduces the frequency of the modulated  In communication system, the transducer  The signals that are transmitted through the
wave converts the information which is in the form communication medium are received with the
of sound, music, pictures or computer data into help of a receiving antenna and are fed into the
59 corresponding electrical signals. receiver.
 The receiver consists of electronic circuits like • Increasing distance  The communication systems like television
demodulator, amplifier, detector etc. • Absorption of energy by the Earth broadcast, satellite communication, and RADAR
• Tilting of the wave are based on space wave propagation.
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio  The range or distance (d) of coverage of the
navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto- shore propagation depends on the height (h) of the
communication and mobile communication. antenna given by the equation, 𝒉 = √𝟐 𝑹 𝒉
Sky wave propagation : where, 𝑅 → Radius of earth (6400 km)
 The mode of propagation in which the 22. Explain satellite communication.
electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna, Satellite communication :
directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by
the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave
propagation or ionospheric propagation.
 The demodulator extracts the baseband signal  Extremely long distance communication is possible
from the carrier signal. as the radio waves can undergo multiple
 Then the baseband signal is detected and reflections between the earth and the ionosphere.
amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed to the  The phenomenon of bending the radio waves back
output transducer. to earth is due to the total internal reflection.
(6) Output transducer :  The satellite communication is a mode of
 This is the reason why the EM waves are communication of signal between transmitter and
 It converts the electrical signal back to its transmitted at a critical angle to ensure that the
original form such as sound, music, pictures or receiver via satellite.
waves undergo total reflection and reaches the  The message signal from the Earth station is
data. (e.g.) loudspeakers, picture tubes, ground without escaping into space.
computer monitor, etc. transmitted to the satellite on board via an uplink
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and (frequency band 6 GHz), amplified by a
21. Explain the three modes of propagation of the point of reception of the sky wave along the
electromagnetic waves through space. transponder and then retransmitted to another
surface is called as the skip distance earth station via a downlink (frequency band
Modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves :  There is a zone in between where there is no
 The electromagnetic wave transmitted by : 4 GHz)
reception of electromagnetic waves neither ground  The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a
(1) Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
propagation (2 kHz to 2 MHz) straight line (line of sight) may come across tall
Space wave propagation : buildings or mountains or even encounter the
(2) Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric  The process of sending and receiving information
propagation (3 MHz to 30 MHz) curvature of the earth.
signal through space is called space wave  A communication satellite relays and amplifies
(3) Space wave propagation (30 MHz to 400 GHz) communication
Ground wave propagation : such radio signals via transponder to reach distant
 The electromagnetic waves of very high and far off places using uplinks and downlinks.
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space
transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to  It is also called as a radio repeater in sky.
waves. Applications :
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
 These waves travel in a straight line from the (1) Weather Satellites:
ground wave propagation.
transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used for a  They are used to monitor the weather and
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves line of sight communication (LOS).
or surface waves. climate of Earth.
 For high frequencies, the transmission towers  By measuring cloud mass, these satellites
 Both transmitting and receiving antennas must be must be high enough so that the transmitted and
close to the earth. enable us to predict rain and dangerous storms
received signals (direct waves) will not encounter like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
 The size of the antenna plays a major role in the curvature of the earth and hence travel with
deciding the efficiency of the radiation of signals. (2) Communication satellites:
less attenuation and loss of signal strength.  They are used to transmit television, radio,
 During transmission, the electrical signals are  Certain waves reach the receiver after getting
attenuated over a distance. internet signals etc. Multiple satellites are used
reflected from the ground. for long distances.
 Some reasons for attenuation are as follows:
60
(3) Navigation satellites: 24. Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity  Recent developments in optical communication
 These are employed to determine the among the various transmission media -justify. provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps
geographic location of ships, aircrafts or any Fiber optic communication :
other object.  The method of transmitting information from one
23. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its applications. place to another in terms of light pulses through
RADAR : an optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
 Radar basically stands for RAdioDetection And  It is in the process of replacing wire transmission
Ranging System. in communication systems.
 It is one of the important applications of  Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz)
communication systems and is mainly used to than microwave radio systems.
sense, detect, and locate distant objects like  The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon
aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc. dioxide which is highly abundant on Earth.
 The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that are  Now it has been replaced with materials such as
invisible to the human eye can be determined. chalcogenide glasses, fluoroaluminate crystalline
 Radar uses electromagnetic waves for materials because they provide larger infrared
communication. wavelength and better transmission capability.
 The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into  As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is
space by an antenna in all directions. preferred in places where multiple channels are to
 When this signal strikes the targeted object, it gets be laid and isolation is required from electrical and
reflected or reradiated in many directions. electromagnetic interference.
 This reflected (echo) signal is received by the radar Applications :
antenna which in turn is delivered to the receiver.  Optical fiber system has a number of applications
 Then, it is processed and amplified to determine namely, international communication, inter-city
the geographical statistics of the object. communication, data links, plant and traffic control
 The range is determined by calculating the time and defense applications.
taken by the signal to travel from RADAR to the Merits :
target and back.  Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than
Applications : copper cables.
 In military, it is used for locating and detecting the  This system has much larger band width. This
targets. means that its information carrying capacity is
 It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne larger.
surface search, air search and weapons guidance  Fiber optic system is immune to electrical
systems. interferences.
 To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in  Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
meteorological observations, Radars are used. Demerits :
 It is employed to locate and rescue people in  Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared
emergency situations. to copper wires.
 It is an expensive technology.
Importance :
 Fiber optic cables provide the fastest transmission
rate compared to any other form of transmission.
 It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and
business.
 Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps.
61
 Sensors
5 Marks Quentions & Answers  Coatings for windscreen and car bodies
1. Explain Nano structure in nature with examples. Chemical industry :
Nano in nature :  Fillers for paint systems
(1) Single strand DNA :  Coating systems based on nanocomposites
 It is the basic building block of all living  Impregnation of papers
things.  Switchable adhesives
 It is about 3 nm wide  Magnetic fluids
(2) Morpho butterfly : Engineering :
 The scales of the wings of this butterfly  Wear protection for tools and machines
contains nano structures.  Lubricant-free bearings
 When light wave interact with this giving the Electronic industry :
wings brilliant metallic blue and green hues.  Data memory
(3) Peacock feathers :  Displays
 They get their iridescent coloration from light  Laser diodes
interacting with 2 dimensional photonic  Glass fibres
crystal structres just tens of nanometers thick  Optical switches
 Similar nano structrures are made in lab to  Filters (IR-blocking)
glow in different colors  Conductive, antistatic coatings
(4) Parrot fish : Construction :
 It crunches up coral all day.  Construction materials
 The source of powerful bite is the interwoven  Thermal insulation
fibre nanostructure.  Flame retardants
 Crystals of a mineral called fluorapatite are  Surface-functionalised building materials for
woven together in a chain mail-like wood, floors, stone, facades, tiles, roof tiles, etc.
arrangement. This structure gives parrot fish  Facade coatings
teeth incredible durability.  Groove mortar
 It provides a blue print for creating ultr- Medicine :
durable synthetic materials that could be  Drug delivery systems
useful for mechanical components in  Active agents
electronics and in other devices that undergo  Contrast medium
repetitive movement, abrasion and contact  Medical rapid tests
stress  Prostheses and implants
(5) Lotus Leaf surface :  Antimicrobial agents and coatings
 Scaning electron micrograph (SEM) gives the  Agents in cancer therapy
nano structures on the surface of a leaf from a Food and drinks :
lotus plant.  Package materials
 This is the reason for self cleaning process on  Storage life sensors
lotus leaf.  Additives
2. Discuss the applications of Nanomaterials in  Clarification of fruit juices
various fields. Energy :
Automotive industry :  Fuel cells
 Lightweight construction  Solar cells
 Painting (fillers, base coat, clear coat)  Batteries
 Catalysts  Capacitors
62  Tires (fillers)
Textile/fabrics/non-wovens : 4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of (2) Precision medicine :
 Surface-processed textiles Robotics.  Precision medicine is an emerging approach
 Smart clothes Advantages of robotics : for disease treatment and prevention that
Household :  The robots are much cheaper than humans. takes into account individual variability in
 Ceramic coatings for irons  Robots never get tired like humans. Hence genes, environment, and lifestyle for each
 Odors catalyst absenteeism in work place can be reduced. person.
 Cleaner for glass,  Robots are more precise and error free in (3) Health wearables :
 ceramic, floor, windows performing the task.  A health wearable is a device used for tracking
Cosmetics :  Stronger and faster than humans. a wearer's vital signs or health and fitness
 Sun protection  Robots can work in extreme environmental related data, location, etc.
 Lipsticks conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or  Medical wearables with articial intelligence
 Skin creams underwater. In dangerous situations like bomb and big data provide an added value to
 Tooth paste detection and bomb deactivation. healthcare with a focus on diagnosis,
Sports/ outdoor :  In warfare, robots can save human lives. treatment, patient monitoring and prevention.
 Ski wax  Robots are significantly used in handling materials (4) Articial organs :
 Antifogging of glasses/goggles in chemical industries especially in nuclear plants  An articial organ is an engineered device or
 Antifouling coatings for ships/boats which can lead to health hazards in humans. tissue that is implanted or integrated into a
 Reinforced tennis rackets and balls Disadvantages of robotics : human.
3. What are the possible harmful effects of usage of  Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.  It is possible to interface it with living tissue
Nanoparticles? Why?  They lack empathy and hence create an or to replace a natural organ. It duplicates or
Possible harmful effects of nano particles : emotionless workplace. augments a specic function or functions of
 The major concern here is that the nanoparticles  If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the human organs so that the patient may return
have the dimensions same as that of the biological humans will just sit and monitor them, health to a normal life as soon as possible.
molecules such as proteins. They may easily get hazards will increase rapidly. (5) 3D printing :
absorbed on to the surface of living organisms and  Unemployment problem will increase.  Advanced 3D printer systems and materials
they might enter the tissues and fluids of the body.  Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot assist physicians in a range of operations in
 The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of handle unexpected situations the medical field from audiology, dentistry,
the nanoparticle. Indeed, it is possible to deliver a  The robots are well programmed to do a job and if orthopedics and other applications.
drug directly to a specific cell in the body by a small thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to (6) Wireless brain sensors :
designing the surface of a nanoparticle so that it the company.  Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial
adsorbs specifically on to the surface of the target  If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify pressure and temperature and then are
cell. the problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if absorbed by the body. Hence there is no need
 The interaction with living systems is also affected necessary. This process requires significant time. for surgery to remove these devices.
by the dimensions of the nanoparticles.  Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision (7) Robotic surgery :
 Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes. It is making.  Robotic surgery is a type of surgical
also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles to  Till the robot reaches the level of human procedure that is done using robotic systems.
reach the blood, to reach other sites such as the intelligence, the humans in work place will exit.  Robotically-assisted surgery helps to
liver, heart or blood cells. 5. Comment on the recent advancement in medical overcome the limitations of pre-existing
 Researchers are trying to understand the diagnosis and therapy. minimally-invasive surgical procedures and to
response of living organisms to the presence of (1) Virtual reality : enhance the capabilities of surgeons
nanoparticles of varying size, shape, chemical  Medical virtual reality is effectively used to performing open surgery.
composition and surface characteristics. stop the brain from processing pain and cure (8) Smart inhalers :
soreness in the hospitalized patients.  Inhalers are the main treatment option for
 It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory asthma. Smart inhalers are designed with
loss, and Mental illness. health systems and patients in mind so that
63 they can offer maximum benefit.
 Smart inhalers use Bluetooth technology to Muscle wires:
detect inhaler use, remind patients when to  They are thin strands of wire made of shape
take their medication and gather data to help memory alloys. ey can contract by 5% when
guide care. electric current is passed through them.
6. Discuss the functions of key components in Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:
Robots?  Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
Functions of key components of Robots : Sensors:
 Most robots are composed of 3 main parts:  Generally used in task environments as it provides
(1) Controller information of real-time knowledge.
(2) Mechanical parts Robot locomotion:
(3) Sensors  Provides the types of movements to a robot.
Controller :  The different types are
 It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a (a) Legged
computer program. (b) Wheeled
 It gives commands for the moving parts to (c) Combination of Legged and Wheeled
perform the job. Locomotion
Mechanical parts : (d) Tracked slip/skid
 It consists motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, and
gears that make the robot move, grab, turn, and
lift.
Sensors :
 It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to
determine the sizes and shapes of the objects
around, distance between the objects, and
directions as well.
7. Explain the various components of robotics.
Power conversion unit:
 Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and
hydraulics.
Actuators:
 Converts energy into movement. The majority of
the actuators produce rotational or linear motion.
Electric motors:
 They are used to actuate the parts of the robots
like wheels, arms, fingers, legs, sensors, camera,
weapon systems etc.
 Different types of electric motors are used. The
most often used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC
motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
Pneumatic Air Muscles:
 They are devices that can contract and expand
when air is pumped inside.
 It can replicate the function of a human muscle. ey
contract almost 40% when the air is sucked inside
them.
64

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12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

 With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found

from the centre of the conductor. ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = B ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = B 𝒉

with high voltage in to an alternating current with 𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝜋

electric field of the capacitor. Stage - 4 : Inductance ‘L’ Mass ‘m’

 Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the two light waves meeting at a

𝑑𝑁 atoms initially present to reduce to one half of the

 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is

 There are four important regions in the curve

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