[Type the document title]

ANTHROGURU
ANTHROPOLOGY

IGNOU-MA (ANTHROPOLOGY)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TOPICS ARE ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE NEEDS OF

CIVILS SYLLABUS

PAPER-1

TOPICS: UNIT- 1.8

PAPER-2

UNIT-1

CONTACT:

anthroguru@gmail.com

telegram: anthroguru
1.8 (a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology: Relative
and Absolute Dating methods.
(b) Cultural Evolution- Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures:
(i) Paleolithic
(ii) Mesolithic
(iii) Neolithic
(iv) Chalcolithic
(v) Copper-Bronze Age
(vi) Iron Age
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

1
DEFINITION AND SCOPE
UNIT 1
Definitions and Scope 5
UNIT 2
History and Development 18
UNIT 3
Interdisciplinary Relations and Approaches 31
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor K. Paddaiah Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Professor Emeritus, Deccan College Post Associate Professor
Graduate and Research Institute, Pune Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Dr. P.C. Venkata Subhaiah (Units 1) Dr. Madhulika Samanta Dr. Basanta Kumar Mohanta
Asst. Professor, Dravidian University (Unit 2) (Unit 3)
Kuppam, Andhra Pradesh Assistant Professor, Post Asst. Professor
Gradute Dept. of History & Deptt. Anthropology
Archaeology, Tumkur Indira Gandhi National Tribal
University, Karnataka University Amarkantak
Madhya Pradesh

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5519-9
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE
Introduction
The phrase archaeological anthropology may sound new and somewhat strange.
But you will not require much time and mental effort to realise that it is both
appropriate and meaningful. Let us use an analogy for this purpose. In his widely
read book ‘The discovery of India’ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru clearly states that he
did not write it as an academic text but for his own purposes to serve as a guide
for understanding the present condition of India. In other words, Nehru visualised
the past as a window for looking at and understanding the country’s present
condition. In this effort Nehru succeeded to a remarkable extent.

Archaeological anthropology has an identical objective. The study of present

day simple societies is the purview of anthropology. India is a living museum of
simple societies and cultures – be they hunting-gathering societies, fishing
communities, pastoral groups/or peasant societies. All these groups exist side by
side in different parts of the country. Aspects like their origins and antiquity and
their geographical distribution cannot be understood at all without reference to time
or temporal dimension. Here anthropology has to turn necessarily to archaeology for
guidance and help. Here prehistory branch of archaeology in particular comes to our
help. Fortunately India has a rich record of prehistoric (hunting-gathering) and
early agropastoral groups, covering a temporal range of two million years. It is the
investigation of these ancient hunting–gathering and agropastoral communities
which forms the backdrop against which alone the living simple groups can be
understood in a meaningful way. Thus archaeological anthropology endeavours to
link the ethnographic present with the archeological past.
The course archaeological anthropology deals with the investigation and
interpretation of archaeological records pertaining to early hunting-gathering
and agropastoral communities that occupied different parts of India. In this
connection we need to remind ourselves that archaeology is no longer treated as
a simplistic concern with collection and classification of antiquities. The new or
Processual archaeology, spearheaded by Professor Lewis Binford of America
who passed away in April 2011, developed the ‘archaeology as anthropology’
paradigm and emphasised the need to study the simple communities of the past
from an anthropological perspective.
This course material is prepared to enable you to understood and appreciate the
long time background provided by archaeology to the study of simple
communities. Units 1 to 3 of Block 1 deal with the definition and scope of
archaeological anthropology. Unit 1 specifies the main branches of archaeology
and also its major conceptual and methodological developments. Unit 2 takes
the story one step further and gives detailed information about the development
of Stone Age as well as protohistoric studies. Unit 3 alerts us to the fact
archaeology (archaeological anthropology), in tune with its holistic goal of
reconstructing ancient societies, takes the help of many natural and social sciences
and even humanities.
The remaining units of the course will place before you the archaeological records
pertaining to different stages of hunting-gathering and agropastoral ways of life
and what these stages mean in terms of the anthropological goals of tracing the
emergence and evolution of human culture till the beginning of recorded history.
 Definitions and Scope
UNIT 1 DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Prehistory
1.3 Protohistory
1.4 Civilisation
1.5 Archaeology: Conceptual Developments
1.5.1 Culture History
1.5.2 Reconstruction of Life Ways
1.5.3 New or Processual Archaeology
1.5.4 Interpretative Archaeology
1.6 Archaeology: Methodological Developments
1.6.1 Environmental Archaeology
1.6.2 Settlement Archaeology
1.6.3 Ethnoarchaeology
1.6.4 Experimental Archaeology
1.6.5 Ethological Studies
1.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø define each sub-unit of the subject matter thoroughly;
Ø understand the importance of each sub-unit in human cultural study;
Ø indicate the close relationship between archaeology and how this relationship
is helpful for the study of human cultures across time and space; and
Ø recognise the fundamentals of archaeological anthropology.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Anthropology and Archaeology are two interrelated disciplines that deal with
the origin and development of human culture and hence occupy an important
place in social sciences. Anthropology basically deals with the study of present-
day-simple societies and it has two main divisions called physical anthropology
and social anthropology. Several branches within it developed in course of time
like cultural anthropology, etc. Archaeology endeavours to reconstruct ancient
societies and is treated as part of anthropology in American universities. The
mutual interdependence of anthropology and archaeology arises from the simple
fact that both deal with the study of human cultures-one of the present and the
other of the past.
Archaeology is an important discipline with a methodology of its own. It recovers
antiquarian remains of various kinds from the field through laborious techniques
5
Definition and Scope including excavation. Although archaeology remained for a long time as a
descriptive and classificatory of ancient objects and features, Lewis Binford’s
New Archaeology Movement of the 1960s emphasised the larger anthropological
goals of archaeology. With the help of methods and approaches adopted from
both social and natural sciences, modern archaeology seeks to reconstruct past
human societies and their cultural processes. As such it supplies the much needed
temporal dimension to the anthropologist’s endeavour to study cultures of present-
day simple societies. This in fact is the principal objective of archaeological
anthropology. This is particularly relevant in India, which has both a rich and
diverse ethnographic record and an unequally rich archaeological heritage. Let
us now consider the main divisions within archaeology and some of its basic
concepts.

Archaeological anthropology is one of the sub branches of anthropology

deals with the origin and development of human species and its material
manifestations in the form of material culture. Archaeology not only helps
us to understand diversity in the world around us but also to understand
how people relate to the material world.

1.2 PREHISTORY
Prehistory is a period used to indicate the time before recorded history. Paul
Tournal (1833) coined the term Pre-historique to explain the finds that he had
made in the caves of southern France and the word ‘Prehistoric’ was introduced
by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is the period of human evolution before writing was
invented and records kept. The term ‘prehistory’ refers to all cultural developments
of man including his biological evolution till the beginning of historical period.
In India the historical period is commonly said to commence from about the
middle of the first millennium B.C. when Asoka issued the Brahmi edicts in
different parts of India. Prehistorians make their reconstructions of the remote
past on the basis of their study of material relics of various kinds.
Prehistory in India covers a time range of 0.6 to 0.7 million years. Recent dates
for the Palaeolithic sites of Isampur in Karnataka and Attirampakkam in Tamil
Nadu take it to 1.2 or 1.5 million years. The dates from Riwat and Uttarbaini in
the Siwalik hills of Punjab and Jammu further push the antiquity of human culture
to more than 2 million years. Throughout this period man led a nomadic way of
life with hunting of wild animals and gathering of wild plant foods as the chief
mode of subsistence. Technology was based on the preparation of tools on a
variety of rocks like quartzite and even limestone and siliceous stones like chert
and jasper. Depending upon improvements in tool making traditions and to some
extent, changes in hunting-foraging methods, prehistoric period is divided into
three major phases or stages called the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.
All these three stages are dated to the geological period called Pleistocene. In the
early part of the Holocene tiny stone implements called microliths came into
vogue. This stage is called the Mesolithic. In addition to stone, wood and bone
also began to be used for making tools from the Middle and Upper palaeolithic
phases.
Prehistoric stone tools are grouped into two broad categories: tools for heavy
work (heavy duty tools) and tools for light work (light duty tools). These were
6
used for a variety of operations such as hunting, digging of roots and tubers, Definitions and Scope
cutting, scraping, flensing and boring connected with the acquisition, processing
and consumption of animal and plant foods.

The Lower Palaeolithic stage is characterised by large sized tools such as

handaxes, cleavers, chopping tools, polyhedrons, etc. The Middle Palaeolithic
tools are smaller in size and consist of flake - tools such as scrapers, points and
borers etc. The Upper Palaeolithic culture belongs to Late Pleistocene and is
characterised by blade technology leading to the production of long, slender-
looking backed blades, points, penknives, saw edged blades, etc. In the succeeding
Mesolithic tools become very small or tiny in size, generally measuring a few
centimeters in length. The types include backed blades, lunates, triangles, points,
etc., all used to prepare composite implements such as arrowheads, spearheads
and harpoons. Rock art and intentional burial of the dead also come into vogue
in the Mesolithic stage.

Lower Palaeolithic tools Middle Palaeolithic tools Upper Palaeolithic tools

Mesolithic tools Human skeleton from Langhnaj (a Mesoltihic habitation site), North
Gujarath

7
Definition and Scope
1.3 PROTOHISTORY
The term ‘la Protohistorique,’ was first coined by the French, to refer to a period
transposed between prehistory and true historical Period. It suits India very well.
First, before historical period there is evidence of writing in the Harappan or
Indus valley scripts, though as yet undeciphered. Secondly, though the Vedic
literature was in an oral state up to the 4th century AD or so, its antiquity goes
back to the second millennium B.C. And it is an important source for
reconstructing our early social, political, religious and literary history. This is a
unique feature in world’s history. Hence, this period should be legitimately
included in as protohistory. Moreover, contemporary with much of the Vedic
literature there is evidence from all over India about the early metal-using
communities. However, this is certainly prehistory in one sense, because there is
no trace of writing in any case but since this period also runs parallel with the
Vedic literature, it has been included under protohistory. During the last 60 years
or so it has been customary in India to introduce this period as a buffer between
the ill-defined prehistoric period and the better defined historical periods covering
archaeological record of post-Mesolithic and pre-Mauryan cultures, between 3500
or 3000 B.C and 300 BC (Sankalia, 1973).
The cultural panorama of Protohistory in India began with the Neolithic phase in
seven geographical zones, i.e., North-western India including Kashmir and Swat
valleys, the Vindhyan plateau of Belan valley, the Kaimur hills and the
Chhotanagpur plateau, northern Bihar, north-eastern region covering all north-
eastern states and adjacent sub-Himalayan regions, Central-eastern region of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa complexes and the Southern region covering peninsular
India, except Kerala. It is the first settled way of life defined by permanent
settlements according to geographical convenience, production of pottery,
domestication of plants and animals, pecked and ground stone and blade tool
industries, and some degree of reliance on hunting, gathering and fishing. The
findings from Mehrgarh in Baluchistan and Lahuradeva in eastern U.P. suggest
that the Neolithic phase began around 6000 B.C. Under protohistory are also
included not only the Indus civilization but also the various Late Harappan cultures
of Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana, Late Harappan, Black-and -Red and Ochre-
painted pottery cultures of the Ganga-Yamuna Roap, and the various Chalcolithic
cultures of Rajasthan, central India, middle and lower Ganga valley, and the
Deccan. The Banas, Kayatha, Malwa, Savalda and Jorwe cultures are major
examples of this Chalcolithic stage. To this protohistoric phase also may be
assigned the iron-using painted Grey-ware culture of the Ganga Valley and the
Megalithic culture of vidarbha and South India.

Neolithic Habitation at Tekkalakota Funerary vessels from Pit dwellings from Burjaham
Tekkalakota Neolithic habitation in Kashmir
8
 Definitions and Scope

Megalithic cist circle with port-holes Copper and Terracotta objects

Brahmagiri, Karnataka (Chalcolithic : Jorwe culture)

Jorwe ware (Navadatoli) White painted black and red ware

From a chalcolithic sites: Navadatoli

Reconstruction of Proto historic Ahar (Chalcolithic site)

1.4 CIVILIZATION
The word ‘Civilisation’ refers to an advanced state of human society with a high
level of culture including city life and state level of government. We may recall
here that, Gordon Childe proposed the followings as constituents of civilization:
large urban centers; full-time specialist occupations; primary producers of food,
9
Definition and Scope paying surplus to deity or rulers; monumental architectures, ruling class that is
exempt from manual labor; system for recording information; development of
exact, practical sciences; advanced metallurgy; internal and external trade;
independence of classes comprising peasants, craftsmen and rulers; state religion/
ideology; and persistent state structures.

The Indus civilization fulfils all these criteria and ranks with the Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations. It covered an area equivalent to that both these
civilizations and flourished from the beginning of third millennium to the middle
of the second millennium B.C. Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Surkotada,
Lothal, Kalibangan are some of the major sites of this civilization. The evidence
from sites like Mehrgarh suggest that this civilization developed out of the local
agropastoral way of life. Inspiration from the Mesopotamian civilization also
played a role in its origin.

Surkodata, Harappan habitation, Cultural sequence of Arterial thorough fare

Kutch Surkodata Harappa, Kalibangan

The Citadel, Period IC, Surkotada Extended human skeleton in a grave

(Harappan) pit, Kalibangan

Grave pit burial with pottery Fire places in a row, Horned figures from
Citadal, Hissar Kalibangan
Kalibangan(Harappan) (Harappan) and
10 Burzahom.(Neolithic)
The Indus civilization declined by about 1500 B.C. probably due to loss of external Definitions and Scope
trade. Traditional interpretations attribute this decline to the invasion of Indo-
Aryan speaking groups from central Asia. The Aryan culture, initially centered
in the area of the Indo-Gangetic divide, was a rural way of life based essentially
on cattle pastoralism and rudimentary agriculture. It soon began to spread towards
east to the Ganga valley, leading to important developments in religion, economy
and social organisation. By about the middle of the first millennium B.C.
heterodox religions like Buddhism and Jainism came up and also a new phase of
urbanisation (called second urbanisation) followed, leading to the growth of cities
like Pataliputra, Kavsambi and Ujjain. These eventually paved the way for the
rise of the Mauryan empire.

1.5 ARCHAEOLOGY: CONCEPTUAL

DEVELOPMENTS
Archaeology deals with the study of antiquarian remains, which are brought
together under the phrase archaeological record. It has three or four major
components. First, there are individual objects ranging from stone tools to pots
and pans to metal objects to beads, pendants and other ornaments to seals and
coins. The second category consists of a variety of features, structures and
monuments such as hearths, house floors, religions, military and commercial
structures, and burials and burial monuments. Then there are some art creations
such as painted or incised designs on pottery, terracotta or metal figurines and
rock part. But the archaeological record also includes materials and remains
which, although not made by man, are closely associated with archaeological
sites, such as soils and sediments, plant and animal remains, ore and slag pieces,
and rocks and siliceous stone pieces.

On the landscape we notice these various categories of antiquarian remains are

generally found together as clusters. These clusters are called sites which may be
small or large like the Mohenjodaro and Harappa mounds. Depending upon the
type of human activity that took place on these spots, archaeological sites are
again distinguished into various classes such as habitation sites, animal penning
stations, factory sites, religious sites, commercial sites and military sites.

Over the last four to five centuries important changes took place from time to
time in the aims and methods adopted for dealing with the archaeological record.
The late David Clarke, in his famous article entitled ‘Archaeology: The loss of
Innocence’ published in the journal Antiquity (1973), characterised these changes
as successive stages of consciousness, self consciousness, critical self-
consciousness, and self critical self-consciousness.

In the antiquarian stage which lasted till the early decades of the 19th century, in
Europe and elsewhere in the world, amateurs from different walks of life took
interest in the cultural heritage of their respective countries and went to the
landscape and sought to obtain first hand information about palaces, forts,
paintings, sculptures and other striking antiquarian remains dotting the landscape.
They prepared short descriptions of the remains along with sketches and drawings.
These studies were of a random type, motivated by general human urges like
curiosity about surroundings, spirit of romanticism and adventure, instinct of
pleasure, respect to ancestors, etc. The notion knowledge, if it existed all, was of
11
Definition and Scope a simple nature. There was nothing like any commonly accepted methodology.
Rather the amateurs felt free to adopt their own methods of commonsense for
describing illustrating the ancient remains. It was only in the second quarter that
the element of acquiring knowledge about the past societies through their
discarded items not only emerges into the picture but witnessed three or four
swift shifts in the perspectives. These knowledge seeking perspectives are called
culture history, reconstruction of life ways, New or Processual archaeology and
Ideational or Interpretive trends. We will briefly discuss these below.

1.5.1 Culture History

The credit for introducing the knowledge perspective by dividing the pre-literate
(pre-Christian) past of Europe goes to C.J.Thomsen, the curator of the Royal
Danish National Museum of Antiquities in Copenhagen. Thomsen was confronted
with the task of cataloguing a huge collection of stone and metal objects, ceramics
and other antiquities that had accumulated in the museum. Partly by way of
using his common sense and also based upon ethnographic parallels, Thomsen
finally arrived at a three-fold classification of the objects in the collection. This
is the famous three-Age system which appeared in print in 1836. According to
this scheme, three major periods or ages existed in the pre-Christian past of
northern Europe, viz. Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages.

The second major contribution made by Thomsen lies in the fact that he was
probably the first antiquarian worker to highlight the fact that antiquarian remains
provide knowledge or information about the ancient human societies. He
specifically pointed out that these remains could inform us about ancient cultures
and burial practices, ancient environments and even about past human migrations.

This topic of partitioning prehistoric past into phases and seeking information
about the respective phases emerged as a strong trend in the second half of the
19th century. Sir John Lubbock divided the Stone Age into Palaeolithic and
Neolithic periods in 1865. Soon, thanks to discoveries in the French Caves, several
stages (Lower, Middle and Upper) were recognised within the Palaeolithic.
Likewise, several stages were noted within the Bronze and Iron Ages. The culture
history perspective thus enabled archaeologists to recognise several stages in the
development of human culture and also obtain some basic information about
each cultural stage.

1.5.2 Reconstruction of Life Ways

Even a brief glance at the archaeological discoveries of the last quarter of the
19th and the first quarter of the 20th century makes it clear to us that this period
witnessed many large-scale excavations in various parts of the Old World. These
led to the recognition of all important Bronze Age civilizations that we know
today. Heinrich Schliemann’s excavations at Troy (Hiissarlik in Turkey) exposed
the Mycenaen civilization. Arthur Evans’s work at Knossos gave us the Cratan
or Minoan civilization. Leonard Woolley exposed the remains of Mesopotamian
civilization. Flinders Petrie and others gave us the Egyptian civilization. John
Marshal and his colleagues exposed the remains of the Indus civilization.

One thing you will not fail to notice is that these civilizations could be identified
because the excavations were conducted on a large scale and almost entire towns
were exposed to view. Town lay-outs with imposing structures like palaces,
12
temples and elaborate burial tombs containing treasure were laid bare. It was Definitions and Scope
thus possible to reconstruct the life ways of these city- dwellers.

1.5.3 New or Processual Archaeology

The first explicit efforts at developing the theoretical structure of archaeology
were made by publications like Gordon Childe’s piecing. Together the Past,
Grahame Clark’s Archaeology and Society and Stuart Piggott’s Approach to
Archaeology, all published in the second quarter of the last century. Against this
background came up two major developments which dominate contemporary
theoretical archaeology-New or Processual Archaeology and Post-Processual
Archaeology and Post Processual or Interpretative archaeology. We will now
note the main tenets of these two trends.

Lewis R. Binford from the U.S. and David Clarke from England were mainly
responsible for the emergence of New Archaeology in the 1960s. Both emphasised
the systemic nature of culture and held that archaeologists should identify not
only its components but their interconnections as well, as these alone give clues
about past culture processes. Processual archaeology also emphasised the role of
environment in the functioning of human cultures. In fact, Binford adopted the
definition of human cultures as extra somatic means of adaptation to respective
environmental settings. Going beyond the traditional tasks of description and
classification of antiquarian remains, he emphasised the anthropological goal of
explaining culture change with reference to law-like formulations or
generalisations cutting across time and space. Binford held the adoption of a
regional approach to archaeological sites as a prerequisite for realising the
anthropological goals of archaeology aimed at the identification of past human
behavioural patterns.

1.5.4 Interpretative Archaeology

Since the 1980s some reactions started coming up, raising doubts and objections
about functionalist and behaviour oriented approaches of New Archaeology. Ian
Hodder of Cambridge University took the lead in staging this reaction, which
over the last quarter-century developed as interpretative archaeology.

A Major proposition of this trend holds that it is the internal, innovative elements
within human culture, rather than external environmental factors, which are agents
of culture change. The second major aspect of this new trend highlights the
importance of relating behaviour to human minds. So interpretative archaeology
has also come to be known as archaeology of mind. It brought to fore human
cognitive abilities, sentiments, feelings and emotions. This led to the growth of
definite trends such as cognitive archaeology, symbolic archaeology, structuralist
archaeology, hermeneutical archaeology, etc. As against the use of scientific
method emphasised by New Archaeology, post processual archaeology treats
archaeological record as a text and that its meanings in terms of human minds
need to be retrieved by methods of interpretation.

We may now conclude our foregoing observations about conceptual developments

in archaeology by emphasising that (1) these developments constitute yet another
instance of the progress of all social sciences from description and classification
to explanation to interpretation; and (2) these various trends are in the final analysis
mutually complementary and not contradictory.
13
Definition and Scope
1.6 ARCHAEOLOGY: METHODOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
In the preceding section we have sketched how the aims and goals have become
progressively more and more elaborate and how the character of archaeology
changed from the practical task, collecting and classifying antiquarian remains
to a full-fledged discipline which seeks to retrieve information from these about
the past human behaviour and its roots in the human minds.

We will now note how, commensurate with these developments in theory,

important changes also came about in the realm of methodology. In field
investigations random and selective recording and study of sites of the antiquarian
stage are now replaced by systematic and intensive survey of all categories and
sizes of sites in a given region. This work may involve the use of maps, aerial
photos, satellite images, etc. This is followed by vertical or horisontal excavations,
which involve detailed recording of evidence in the form of site and trench maps,
three dimensional recording of finds in the trenches, and photography. While it
is true that all excavation is destruction of original evidence, the site record is
preserved in maps, plans, stratigraphical sections and photographs.

Over and above these field methods which are peculiar to archaeology, the
discipline also employs certain broad methodological strategies for studying and
interpreting archaeological evidence. These are environmental archaeology,
settlement archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, experimental archaeology and
ethology.

1.6.1 Environmental Archaeology

Environmental archaeology is the study of past human interactions with the nature.
It finds its focus in the impact of the environment on past cultures and its influence
on the social and economic aspects of past societies. The importance of these
studies is such that Karl Butzer termed archaeology as past human ecology. Geo-
and bioarchaeology are the two main branches of environmental archaeology.
The common types of evidence used in environmental archeology are (a) animal
remains, such as bones, eggshell pieces, insects, ostracods, foraminifera, molluscs,
parasite eggs and cysts, (b) plant remains such as wood, charcoal, pollen and
spores, phytoliths and diatoms; and (c) archaeological and geological stratigraphy,
chemical and physical analyses of sediments and soils, soil micromorphology
and mineralogy. The two main issues in environmental archeology are how the
human societies in the past were shaping themselves in tune with their respective
landscape settings and how in turn the human groups directly or indirectly were
changing the physical and biological components of their landscapes.
Environmental archaeology involves very detailed field studies as well as
laboratory analyses.

1.6.2 Settlement Archaeology

Settlement Archaeology is the study of societal relationships of ancient societies
as can be inferred from the study of spatial distribution of archaeological sites
on the landscape. In the 1940s Gordon Willey of Harvard University initiated
settlement pattern studies in the Viru valley of Peru in South America. In his
own words Willey (1953) “Settlement pattern is the way in which man disposed
14
himself over the landscape on which he lived which reference to dwellings, to Definitions and Scope
their arrangement, and to the nature and disposition of other buildings pertaining
to community life. These settlements reflect the natural environment, the level
of technology on which the builders operated, and various institutions of social
interaction and control which the culture maintained”.

Settlement archaeology seeks to understand the geographical, political and

military, economic and religious/symbolic factors governing settlement locations.
Likewise, it provides important clues for reconstructing socio-economic,
demographic and other aspects of ancient life ways. Settlement pattern studies
have been carried out with reference to prehistoric and protohistoric sites in
different parts of India.

1.6.3 Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology deals with the use of analogies or parallels drawn from the
study of contemporary simple hunter-gatherer and farmers/pastoral societies for
reconstructing and interpreting the archaeological cultures. As such ethnography
serves as an important tool for archaeological reconstruction.

In the initial stages archaeologists were content with the study of published reports
and books of anthropologists on contemporary societies and use of objects shown
in museums and archival records. In more recent years archaeologists have felt
the need to undertake fieldwork themselves among present-day simple societies
and study them from archaeological points of view. Lewis Binford’s study of the
Nunamiut Eskimos of Alaska and John Yellen’s work on the Bushmen of Africa
are excellent examples of ethnoarchaeology.

Ethnographic analogies are of two types. General comparative analogies deal

with comparative studies of cultures irrespective of geographical limits. Direct
historical analogies involve unbroken links between past and present in specific
regions. India has tremendous potentialities for ethnoarchaeology. Many studies
have already been undertaken with reference to hunter-gatherer groups like the
Chenchues, Yanadis, Vanvaghris, etc. and agropastoral communities like the
Dhangars, Bhils, etc.

1.6.4 Experimental Archaeology

Archaeologists also frequently make use of analogies drawn from experimental
studies for reconstructing ancient societies. Experimental studies have a long
history of more than 150 years and have been very helpful to archaeologists
when other methodological strategies failed to give clues. Like ethnographic
analogies, analogies from experimental studies give no final answers but only
tentative or hypothetical solutions which need to be checked in the context of
actual archaeological evidence.

While undertaking experimental studies, archaeologists observe certain

precautions. First, materials similar to those used in the past should be employed
in the experiments. Secondly, modern technology and gadgets of various kinds
associated with it should not be allowed to influence the experiments.
Experimental stone tool making has been in practice from the early part of the
19th century. Louis Leakey, Donald Crabtree and Francois Bordes have made
experimental specimens of all important stone tool types of the Old and New
15
Definition and Scope world prehistory, including leaf-shaped bifacial points such as Solutrean points
of Europe and Clovis and Folsom points of North America. Experimental studies
covered many other aspects of the archaeological record such as building of
dwelling structures, construction of megalithic tombs, preparation and
consumption of foodstuffs, animal butchering, and agricultural practices.

1.6.5 Ethological Studies

Ethological studies deal with the understanding of behavioural patterns of various
animal species. Prehistorians have in particular found analogies drawn from
primatological research very helpful in reconstructing the behaviour patterns of
ancient hunter-gatherer societies. In earlier stages investigations of behaviour of
monkey species and higher apes (chimpanzee, baboon, orangutan and gorilla)
were restricted to animals kept in Zoos. Such studies gave only limited observations
about primate behaviour.

In the last half a century full fledged field studies of these primate groups in their
natural habitats were carried out; these in some cases extended for several years.
In particular, the studies on chimpanzees, baboons and other higher primate groups
have supplied many useful analogies for reconstructing the behavioural patterns
of prehistoric hunter-gatherer communities.

One of these aspects concerns group living among higher apes, which facilitates
learning of life skills by the young and affords security against other groups.
Occupation of a certain favorable areas called core areas with a home base is
common among higher apes; this analogy is helpful for reconstructing Stone
Age hunter-gatherer land-use patterns. In certain situations chimpanzees make
artificial objects like flakes by breaking stone blocks. This may give clues for
understanding the origins of stone tool making and use.

1.7 SUMMARY
In this unit we have made efforts to understand how archaeology emerged as a
distinct academic discipline from a prolonged stage of antiquarian studies done
by amateurs for satisfying innate human urges like curiosity about surroundings,
adventure and respect to ancestors.

Regular, knowledge seeking interest developed with the formulation of three-

Age system by C.J.Thomsen. This knowledge-interest became more and more
elaborate and comprehensive, encompassing both material and non-material
aspects of human culture. Archaeology is now able to answer questions not only
of what, when and about past cultures but also of why and how. The proposition
made by the famous British archaeologist C.Hawkes that archaeology can help
us reconstruct only economic and technological aspects of ancient societies is
no longer valid. Archaeology also enables us to reconstruct sociological, religious
and ideological components of past life ways.

It is in this respect archaeology serves as the bedrock for anthropological studies

of present-day simple societies spread across the world. Apart from supplying
the time dimension to human culture, archaeological studies also highlight that
regional diversity in adaptations is an inherent attribute of human culture.

16
Suggested Reading Definitions and Scope

Binford, L.R.1983. In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record.

London: Thames and Hudson.
Childe, V.G.1956. Piecing together the Past: the Interpretation of Archaeological
Data. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Daniel, G.E.1975. 150 Years Archaeology. London: Duckworth.
Clark, J.G.D,1939. Archaeology and Society. London: Methuen.
Binford, L.R.1922a. An Archaeological Perspective. New York: Seminar Press.
Halder, I.1986. Reading the Past. Cambridge University Press.
Knudson, S.J.1978. Culture in Retrospect. Chicago: Rand Mcnally.
Renfrew, C. and Bahu, P.1991. Archaeology: Theories and Methods. London:
Thames Hudson
Raman, K.V.1991. Principles and Methods of Archaeology. Madras: Parthajan
Publications.
Sankalia, H.D.1956. An Introduction to Archaeology. Pune: Deccan College.
Paddayya, K.1979. Palaeoethnography vis a vis the Stone Age Cultures of India:
Some Methodological Considerations. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research
institute 38:63-90.
Trigger, B. 1989. A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge University
Press.
Paddayya, K.1996. New Archaeology Aftermath. Pune: Ravish.
Sankalia, H.D. 1964. Stone Age Tools: Their Techniques, Names and Probable
Functions. Pune: Deccan College
Sample Questions
1) Discuss the scope of archaeology and its main divisions.
2) Show how the aims of archaeology changed from time to time.
3) What are the main methodological strategies employed in archaeological
reconstruction.
Write short notes on the following
i) Protohistory
ii) Early farming communities in India

17
Definition and Scope
UNIT 2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Three-Age System
2.3 Divisions and Periodisation
2.4 Antiquarian Initiatives in Prehistoric Researches
2.5 Development of Prehistoric Studies
2.5.1 Phase -I
2.5.2 Phase-II
2.5.3 Phase-III
2.6 Development of Protohistoric Studies
2.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the role of “Three Age System” in Archaeology;
Ø demonstrate the relationship between “time scale” and “periodisation”;
Ø interpret the role of institutions and individuals in developing Prehistory
and protohistoric studies in India; and
Ø analyse the problems in “Pre and Protohistory of India”.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The emergence of Archaeology as an academic discipline was preceded by a
long antiquarian stage. This stage can be traced back to the works of early Chinese
and Arab historians and to the historical treatises, written during the time of
Italian Renaissance. Chinese historians like Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) and Shen
Kuo (1031–1095) made important contributions in this field. They wrote about
ancient rubbings on stone and metal as well as about different manufacturing
techniques of goods in ancient China. Muslim historians of the medieval period
also showed keen interest in material remains of the Near East. A few scholars
of Egyptology like Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi knew about ancient Egyptian
monuments and developed certain techniques of excavating ancient remains (El
Daly 2005).

Since the fourteenth century, historians of Europe were utilising inscriptions,

coins and medals for extracting information about the unknown past. In the
fifteenth century, new societies and museums emerged as nuclei of researches
on the ancient Greco-Roman world. There was a direct shift of focus from the
theological interpretation of human past of earlier church historians to a humanist
approach during the Renaissance. Notables among these initiatives were the
18
collections of Nicolao Nicoli, Lorenzo de Medici of Florence and Capitoline History and Development
museum, established by Pope Sixtus IV (Sreedharan 2004). Among these
historians Flavio Biondo (1388-1463 AD) was one of the first antiquarians who
extensively used material remains of Rome to write his book on Roman History
(ibid.). This period is characterised by a tendency – to be known later as
antiquarianism. Similar researches were carried out in the Age of Enlightenment
which also generated important concepts of geology and anthropology. These
antiquarian pursuits developed some of the basic components of the modern
archaeological methods in Europe. European scholars from the Sixteenth to
Eighteenth Century made significant contributions in structuring the discipline
of modern Archaeology. William Camden was one among these early researchers
who played a key role in founding the Society of Antiquaries in London in 1707
(Trigger 1989:47). Other notable antiquarians of this period were John Aubrey,
Johan Winckelmann, William Stuckeley from Europe and Thomas Jefferson of
North America.

Systematic research in Archaeology started a little later in the Scandinavian

countries. Kings Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden
encouraged the scholars to reconstruct the history of their respective countries
from ancient records which included ancient relics and monuments (Trigger
1989:49). Johan Bure, a Swedish civil servant and Ole Worm, a Danish medical
doctor, documented a large number of material remains from the past. New
museums grew out of these collections and one such museum, based on Ole’s
collection, was opened to the public in the 1680s (Trigger 1989:49).

All these activities generated a strong belief in the power of human agency. The
Scientific Revolution in Europe further strengthened these trends of
anthropocentricity and proved to be beneficial to the growth of archaeology as a
modern scientific discipline. Similarly, archaeology profited greatly from the
works of early geologists who ensured a departure from the popular beliefs in
the Biblical theories of recent human origin and their theories were supported by
studies on stratigraphical succession. The role of geology was crucial in
developing the concept of Relative Time i.e. the succession of historical events
in respect of one another (Leet et al. 1982). The Three- Age system reflects this
idea of Relative Time for understanding human history. Now we will consider
how the Three-Age system was formulated.

2.2 THREE-AGE SYSTEM

The Three-Age system is a method of classification of material remains of human
past into a chronological order and is based upon the idea of progress in
technology. It is rooted in the writings of the Enlightenment period. In fact this
notion of progress in human history can be traced in the writings of still earlier
periods. An ancient scholar from China belonging to Eastern Zhou Period (c.770-
221) had talked about such a scheme in his poem (Renfrew and Bahn 2005:265).
He talked about four different stages of technological progression, namely, the
age of stone, jade, bronze and iron. Similar ideas were put forward by the Roman
poet Lucretius of the 1st century BC in his poem called De Rerum Natura (ibid.).
Such concepts were presented by many scholars of the seventeenth century
Europe, who were puzzled by the stone tools, then known as elf-shots or
thunderbolts (ibid. 264). Michel Mercati, a sixteenth century scholar of Italy and
19
Definition and Scope Antoine de Jussieu (1723) of France studied these so-called “thunderbolts” and
declared that these objects were from a period when iron was not in use (ibid.).
However, these early attempts towards the description and classification of the
increasing collections of antiquarian remains were based more on intuitions than
on logical arguments.

The Three-Age system was established on strong grounds by Christian Jurgensen

Thomsen of Denmark. Thomsen was the son of a wealthy merchant of
Copenhagen and was born in 1788. He studied in Paris and undertook the
assignment of arranging Scandinavian and Roman coins after his return from
France (Trigger 1989: 74). Probably this system of arrangement - on the basis of
relative dating - influenced his methods for classifying prehistoric antiquities
later. Another important influence on Thomsen was the evolutionary approach
of his time. This was a politically turbulent time for Denmark which suffered
great losses at the hands of the British in 1801 and again in 1807 (Trigger
1989:274). These calamities encouraged the Danes to devote their times to restore
the past glories of their country. In 1807, a Danish Royal Commission for the
Preservation and Collection of Antiquities was established and Thomsen was
invited to arrange its collection in 1816 (Trigger 1989:275).

Thomsen took up the task of cataloguing and describing the typological attributes
of all objects found in the collection. As we noted in Unit 1, Thomsen’s work
was influenced by evolutionary ideas of the Age of Enlightenment including the
use of stone before metals. The evidence of classical and Biblical texts also
suggested that bronze was in use before iron. He also took into account the use
of similar tools and implements in the rural life of Denmark. However there was
a problem in this scheme of classification. Thomsen was aware that a few of
these stone tools were in use even during the metal ages. Therefore it was needed
to segregate the stone tools of the Stone Age and the stone tools from the metal
ages. Thomsen depended too on ‘closed finds’ or objects which were found in
association with each other, in a single context or from a same grave (Trigger
1989: 276). He divided these antiquities into different categories on the basis of
the material, shape as well as decorations found on them. Thomsen was not
satisfied with his classification only but proceeded to examine the contexts from
where these objects were reportedly found. He could differentiate the objects of
Bronze Age from those of the Iron Age on the basis of such a typological analysis
– a crude form of seriation (Trigger 1989:276).

Box 1: Seriation
Seriation is a method of arranging material objects, assemblages or sites
into a linear sequence on the basis of the degree of similarities found in
them. The earliest exponent of the method was Christian Jurgensen Thomsen,
followed by a better effort of G.O. Montelius (1885). Sir Flinders Petrie
was the first archaeologist to apply the method in analysing excavated
materials from the pre-dynastic period of Egypt (1899) (Shaw and Jameson
1999:519-20). Petrie depended on the concept of ‘occurrence’ of ‘incidence’
(presence or absence of an object) whereas modern seriation technique
depends more on the concepts of ‘frequency’ or ‘abundance’ (changing
frequencies of a smaller number of artifacts). Various computer applications
are now being used for seriation.

20
This approach allowed him to assign all associated objects, found with stone History and Development
tools, like glass objects or pottery, to a particular age. The Museum of Northern
Antiquities, where Thomsen worked, was opened to the public in 1819 and his
researches were published in a book called Ledartraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed
(Guide Book to Scandinavian Antiquity) in 1836. The Three-Age system was
stratigraphically verified by the excavations of J.J. Worsaae (Renfrew and Bahn
2005:266).

The Three-Age system is an important conceptual method for dating the antiquities
without depending on written records. It formed the basis for prehistoric
chronology. It was rapidly adopted in museums across Europe and became the
source for further internal subdivisions and regional variations. Such internal
subdivisions were important for concepts like periodisation in the field of History
and Archaeology

2.3 DIVISIONS AND PERIODISATION

In this present section we will try to understand the meanings of ‘division’ and
‘periodisation’. The word ‘division’ actually denotes temporal division whereas
periodisation indicates further internal ordering. Temporal division of the human
past and its further periodisation were an indirect outcome of the efforts towards
classification of the objects and their arrangement in a sequential order. In this
respect archaeologists derived inspiration from the writings of philosophers,
geologists and biologists.
It is important to note that time itself has no provision to divide itself or to mark
its progress. Systems of measuring time are actually dependent on human thoughts
and are basically relative in nature. For example, there is no particular natural
event or phenomenon to declare the end of a century or the starting of a new one.
It is we, the human beings, who mark passage of time through different activities.
Even our days and nights are dependant on rotations of celestial objects and
these are not always uniform in duration. Actually, we are calculating certain
activities of these objects in relation to each other and not time. We can only
experience the continuous flow of time. In the next passage we will try to
understand the concept of Relative Time with these pre-conditions in mind.
Relative time is a system of temporal division to establish the sequence of events
in history. In other words, it is a system to establish the priority or posteriority of
events in respect to one another. Concepts of change, variability, continuity and
direction are important to determine relative time. We experience time through
varied activities and changes in these activities. However, these activities do not
define time but only indicate occurrence of events in relation to one another. All
activities have specific temporal structures such as the shooting of an arrow is a
unidirectional event in time as against death or birth which is cyclic (events
Gamble 2001:133). However, these activities do not define time but only indicate
occurrence of events in relation to one another. These notions underly the idea of
relative chronology is connected with all of these concepts as mentioned above.
For analytical purposes the entire human past has been divided into different
ages on the basis of these activities, ideas of change, concepts of progress and
variability in objects. Material remains are considered as proofs of these actions
which mark time. The biggest contribution of the geologists and archaeologists
21
Definition and Scope to human knowledge is the realisation of the immense length of time. But human
beings are not capable of imagining this immense length of time through our
intellect and we require crystallisation of it into several smaller temporal divisions
– guided by the ideas of ‘contemporaneity’ and ‘time averaging’ (Gamble
2001:137). In other words, we assign a block of time to different actions –
happening over different spaces. Such temporal divisions of human past were
influenced by works of philosophers such as Giambattista Vico (1725). Vico
(1725) opined that certain periods of history share same general characters and
similar periods recur in the same order (Sreedharan 2000:102). These ideas
became useful in creating temporal divisions of human past.
The entire range of material remains constituting the archaeological record belongs
to three broad temporal divisions, namely, Prehistory, Protohistory and Historical
period. Historical Age is further divided into Ancient, Medieval and Modern.
The Prehistoric Age deals with a period marked by the absence of written records
whereas the Historical Age is noted by the emergence of writing techniques. The
Protohistoric Age is falling between these two and is known for technological
developments along with trade and commerce but conspicuous by the absence
of writing. It is important to note here that these ages do not show uniformity
either in terms of chronological duration or in terms of geographical boundaries.
Periodisation is a process of subdividing these macro divisions of time into smaller
units, depending on certain commonly accepted parameters which mainly refer
to typo-technological developments in human society. We have already noticed
how Thomsen divided the human past into three ages on the basis of typo-
technology of material remains. His works were further refined by J.J. Worsaae
(1851). Worsaae realised that the Stone Age could be divided further into Early
and Late phases where the latter marks the advent of pottery and polished stone
tools (Renfrew and Bahn 2005:267).The British archaeologist Sir John Lubbock
(1865) divided the Stone Age into ‘Palaeolithic’ and ‘Neolithic’ stages.
It has already been mentioned that, as facilitated by a series of excavations done
in French caves by Lartet and others and also recognition of changes in the
technology and typology of stone implements, the Palaeolithic dated to the
Pleistocene was divided into Lower, Middle and Upper stages. Gabriel de Mortillet
(1821) recognised substages within these stages (e.g. Acheulian, Mousterian,
Aurignacian etc.). Also an intermediate phase called the Mesolithic, characterised
by microlithic technology and dated to the early part of the Holocene period,
was recognised between the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic stages.
Slowly the use of technological criteria (changes in the technology and typology
of implements) for dividing preliterate past came under stress and new meanings
involving socio-economic and other factors began to be ascribed to terms like
Palaeolithic and Neolithic. Gordon Childe introduced the terms savagery,
barbarism and civilization to characterise the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze
Age, respectively. Robert Braidwood introduced phrases like the eras of initial
hunting and gathering, intensified hunting and intensified collecting to mark
changes within the Palaeolithic and Megalithic phases.

2.4 ANTIQUARIAN INITIATIVES IN

PREHISTORIC RESEARCHES
Prehistoric researches in India are mainly associated with the Europeans and
22 their arrival in the subcontinent. The first antiquarians of the country were the
surveyors, who collected numerous artifacts during the courses of their field History and Development
works in different regions of India (Singh 2004:2).

Different institutions and individuals played significant roles in prehistoric

researches in India. One important institution in this field is the Asiatic Society
of Bengal. The society was established in 1784 by Sir William Jones. Though
the society devoted a significant amount of its time towards the advancement of
historical studies, but its contribution towards the publication of important
researches in the field of Prehistory can not be ignored.

2.5 DEVELOPMENT OF PREHISTORIC STUDIES

In a paper published in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal V. Ball
draws attention to the fact that a few British antiquarians like Captain Abbot had
reported the finding of agate splinters from Narmada valley as early as in 1845
(Chakrabarti 2006:1). Similar findings were also reported from Lingsugur in
Karnataka 1847(ibid.). In 1861, H. P. Le Mesurier found polished stone
implements and microliths from Bundelkhand, which was followed by similar
findings by W. Theobold in 1862 (Chakrabarti 2006:2). Theobold also mentioned
the discovery of chert cores and flakes from Port Blair by Major Houghton. No
doubt, credit should be given to these antiquarians for recognising these objects
as creations of human beings. However, Robert Bruce Foote is generally credited
with the first discovery of Palaeolithic implements in India. On 30th May, 1863,
Foote found a few Palaeolithic implements from a gravel pit at Pallavaram, near
Madras (Chennai). He is rightly called the father of Indian Prehistory.

Prehistoric researches in India can be divided into three periods: Phase I (1863-
1900), Phase II (1900-1950) (Chakrabarti 2006: 2) and Phase III (1950 - till
date). The first period is marked by individual efforts, whereas the second period
is known for the institutional involvements. The third phase is characterised by
the application of absolute dating methods and other advanced techniques and
methods for studying the prehistoric remains.

2.5.1 Phase I
During this period, a large number of individuals participated in discovering
prehistoric remains. In September 1863, Foote reported his findings of stone
tools from Attirampakkam and a few of them were in situ (Chakrabarti 2006:2).
Next year, he reported another cache of Palaeoliths from Pallavaram where also
T. Oldham found similar tools in situ (Chakrabarti 2006:2). Foote’s collections
were displayed in an exhibition at the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1864. In the
same year and the following, several discoveries of Stone Age tools were reported
by J.D. Swiney, W. Theobold, W. King, Messieurs Cornish, Fraser, Robinson
and V. Ball from Jabalpur, Madras, Bengal and Myanmar.

In 1865 W. Blanford and S.B. Wyne discovered a stone tool along with shells. A
comprehensive report on these findings was published in the Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1867. Blanfold discovered a large number of
microliths in southern M.P and Nagpur region and was able to notice their
similarities with their counterparts in Europe. He interpreted them as representing
the tool-kit of hunting and fishing communities (Chakrabarti 2006:3). Blanford
also commented that the makers of the stone tools found by Wyne, lived during
23
Definition and Scope the period of extinct animals whose fossils were found in the sediments of the
Narmada and the Godavari (ibid.).

W. King was among the pioneers in analysing the contexts of his findings from
Andhra Pradesh (Chakrabarti 2006:3). The efforts of King should also be noted
for his analysis of functionality of these tools. Ball wrote in this period that the
Palaeolithic industry of India extended up to Bengal and this technology was not
available in the North Eastern provinces. After 1867, Foote carried out extensive
surveys in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and after his retirement,
in Gujarat. Three of his major reports were published in 1866, 1873 and in 1880
(Chakrabarti 2006:2) where he discussed about the history of his discoveries
and also gave detailed descriptions of tools, raw materials and their contexts.
Foote also commented on the causes of widespread dispersal of Stone Age groups.

Foote’s work in the Kurnool caves of Andhra Pradesh, constitutes an important

chapter of this period. He found bone implements here which he compared with
the Magdalenian tools of Upper Palaeolithic Europe. The later part of Foote’s
life was devoted to the Neolithic findings from Karnataka and geology of Gujarat.
He reported on stone tools and associated fossiliferous deposits from the
Sabarmati river. He published two catalogues on his collections in 1914 and
1916, which were later acquired by the Government Museum of Madras
(Chakrabarti 2006:4).

In Northwestern Frontier and Sind, Blanford, Theobold and C. Swynnerton made

important discoveries. In 1875 Blanford suggested that the cores from the Indus
region were different from the ones found in the nearby hills. In eastern India,
Neolithic celts were reported from Assam in 1867 and again in 1870. Ball
continued his surveys in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa but his observations on these
findings do not stand modern scrutiny (Chakrabarti 2006:4).

This period is also crucial for rock art researches in India. A.C.L. Carlleyle of
Archaeological Survey of India worked extensively in the Vindhyan region. One
of the most important discoveries by Carlleyle was cited by V. A. Smith in his
1906 paper. Smith quoted Carlleyle in this article on the latter’s findings of
Mesolithic artifacts as well as rock paintings in rock shelters of Sohagighat of
Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh (Smith 1906). This discovery was made in the
winter season of 1867-68 (Smith 1906). In 1883, J. Cockburn found similar
paintings in Mirzapur district and published an account of his discoveries in
1899. However, Cockburn believed that not all of these paintings can be assigned
to the Stone Age (See Box 2).
Box 2: Rock Art
The term ‘rock art’ covers all forms of artistic activity on rock. Its principal
categories are pictograph (application of pigments), petroglyphs (motifs
carved into rocks) and engravings besides other forms like petroforms and
geoglyphs. The discovery of rock paintings in Sohagighat by A.C.L Carlleyle
in 1867-8 and his assigning them to a remote past represent one of the
earliest discoveries of rock art in the world. In 1879, Marcelo Sanz De
Sautuola discovered bison figures on the ceilings of Altamira, in Spain and
found that these are similar in style to the figurines in Upper Palaeolithic
portable art. This brought about a significant change in our understanding
of rock art in the world.
24
2.5.2 Phase II History and Development

This phase of prehistoric research in India is marked by synthesizing efforts,

participation of several institutions as well as efforts towards palaeo-
environmental reconstructions. A large number of Indian scholars participated
in prehistoric researches in this period. One of the earliest synthesizing efforts
can be found in the article of V.A. Smith (1906). In 1923, P. Mitra published his
book called Prehistoric India. In 1931, H.C. Dasgupta published a bibliography
of prehistoric antiquities (Chakrabarti 2006:6). In 1930, L.A. Cammiade and
M.C. Burkitt published their studies on prehistoric antiquities from the Nallamalai
Hills of Andhra Pradesh. Based upon their relative positions in river stratigraphy,
Cammiade and Burkitt divided their collections of stone tools into four series
corresponding to Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic,
respectively. The first series is dominated by quartzite handaxes. In the next
series, flake tools are predominant which were made on quartzite, chalcedony
and sandstone. Tools from the next series mainly comprised blades and burins
made on siliceous stones and the last series shows the dominance of microliths.
Burkitt and Cammiade assigned the river sediments in which stone tools were
found to different periods of aggradation and erosion, connected with wet and
dry periods of climate.

K.R.U Todd’s publication on the Palaeolithic industries of Bombay followed a

scheme similar to that of Cammiade and Burkitt (Chakrabarti 2006:7). In 1935,
Yale and Cambridge Universities sent a joint expedition to the Potwar Plateau
and the Indus and Narmada Valleys to reconstruct the Pleistocene sequence and
associated human remains in these regions. The expedition was led by H. de
Terra and T.T. Paterson. They published their report in 1939. Based upon their
fieldwork in the Soan valley of modern Pakistan, de Terra and Paterson recognised
a sequence of five terraces which they correlated with glaciations from the
Kashmir valley. Further they also proposed a multi-phase Stone Age sequence
called the Soan culture sequence. However, many objections were raised to these
stratigraphical and cultural reconstructions by the later work of British
Archaeological Mission in the 1980s.

Among the Indian scholars who made significant contributions to prehistory

during this period, mention should be made of V.D. Krishnaswami who carried
out researches in Madras, N.K. Bose and D. Sen who worked in Orissa and H.D.
Sankalia who carried out field work in Gujarat. Sankalia excavated the Mesolithic
site of Langhnaj in Gujarat and Krishnaswami published his findings in Ancient
India (Vol.3) (Chakrabarti 2006:7). Similarly, the publication of F.E. Zeunerss
book entitled Stone Age and Pleistocene Chronology in Gujarat (1950) made
important contributions to our understanding of alluvial stratigraphy of the rivers
in the Deccan and Gujarat and its palaeoclimatic implications.

2.5.3 Phase III

This phase witnessed many important developments in Indian prehistoric studies.
H.D.Sankalia’s explorations at Nevasa on the Pravara in Maharashtra led to the
reconstruction of an elaborate stratigraphical-cum-cultural sequence in 1956. In
the next two decades this served as a model for a number of field investigations
in Godavari, Narmada, Mahanadi and other river valleys of different parts of
peninsular India. Universities also initiated Stone Age research in their respective
areas. Indeed prehistory emerged as an important branch of Indian archaeology.
25
Definition and Scope The role of earth science got firmly established, particularly geology for
establishing the stratigraphical contexts of cultural horisons and their
palaeoclimatic implications.

This phase also witnessed the use of absolute dating techniques such as
radiocarbon, uranium, thorium, potassium-organ, electron spin resonances,
palaeomagnetism etc. V.N.Misra’s excavation at 16 R dune at Didwana in
Rajasthan revealed a full sequence of Stone Age cultures with many absolute
dates. The sites of Riwat (Pakistan) and Uttarbaini (Jammu) in Siwalik hills
have an antiquity of more than two million years. Likewise the Acheulian sites
of Isampur and Attirampakkam in South India have been dated to 1.2 and 1.5
million years. Likewise, absolute dates are available for Middle and Upper
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites, the details of which will be provided in
respective units later.

Human skeletal remains from Palaeolithic deposits are scarce in India. Only a
small number of hominid remains of the Pleistocene period are known as yet.
Kennedy (cited by Chakrabarti 2006:10) mentions the finding of a human skull
from the Upper Palaeolithic deposit of Bhimbetka by V. S. Wakankar. A hominid
skull cap dating to Middle or late Pleistocene has been reported from Hathnora,
M.P (Chakrabarti 2006:10).

Box 3: Hathnora Hominid Fossil

On 5th December, 1982, Arun Sonakia of Geological Survey of India found
a hominid skull cap from Hathnora, 22 km North West of Hoshangabad in
Madhya Pradesh. This skull cap was found embedded in the basal
conglomerate horison of Narmada. Only the right half of the skull long with
the left parietal bone has survived. The first report was published in 1984
which was followed by further reports from 1985 onwards. The deposit
containing the skull also yielded mammalian fossils and late Acheulian tools.
Badam et al. (cited by Chakrabarti 2006:11) suggested that the fossil probably
represents an archaic form of Homo sapiens.

A fourth development of this phase concerns the shift of focus from the secondary
sites associated with river gravels and silts to primary sites where the Stone Age
groups made stone tools and carried out their various other life-activities
(Paddayya, 1978). For this purpose it was felt necessary to go away from major
rivers to interior areas free from floods and other disturbances and hence likely
to preserve sites in their original condition. Also it was felt necessary to organise
field research in terms of a regional framework and not single, isolated sites. In
other words, emphasis began to be laid on the use of settlement system perspective
aimed at an anthropological or processual understanding of Stone Age cultures.
Against this perspective fresh field studies were taken up in different parts of
India. Excavations were conducted at Paleolithic sites like Chirki-Nevasa,
Morgaon, Hunsgi and Isampur, Attirampakkam, Paisra, Bhimbetka and Didwana
in Rajasthan. Also excavations were made at Mesolithic sites like Langhanaj,
Bagor and Tilwara, and Damdama and other sites in the Ganga valley.

For promoting this processual understanding of Stone Age cultures, more

systematic bioarchaeological and geoarchaeological surveys were undertaken in
these areas. Ethnoarchaeology is another major research strategy that was adopted
26
for this purpose. Hunter-gatherer groups like the Chenchus, Yanadis, Pardhis History and Development
and Musahars have been studied from this point of view by V.N.Misra and
M.L.K.Murty and others.

2.6 DEVELOPMENT OF PROTOHISTORIC

STUDIES
We have earlier noted that protohistory in India covers the time period between
the end of the Mesolithic phase and the early historical period. As such it covers
three major cultural stages viz. the Indus civilization and its later variants; the
Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures known from different parts of the sub continent;
the Iron Age cultures preceding the Early Historical. The total time span covered
by the protohistoric period is of the order of four to five thousand years.

The Discovery of the Harappan or Indus civilization stretched the story of Indian
history backwards by 3000 years. In 1921, Daya Ram Sahni recovered two
pictographic seals from Harappa similar to those unearthed by Cunningham in
1856. But their exact significance was realised in the next season when R.D.
Baneree started excavating Mohenjodaro. In 1924, the antiquities from both these
sites were examined by Sir John Marshall; he announced the discovery of this
new Bronze Age civilization in Illustrated London News (Roy 1961). Soon further
excavations were conducted at both these sites by Sahni, Marshall, M.S. Vats
and others. The discovery of Harappan civilization brought to light a highly
sophisticated Bronze Age culture, characterised by elaborate town planning and
monumental architecture, civic amenities, trade and commerce, sophisticated
system of weights and measurements systems as well as an unknown script.

During the entire decade of 1920s, new Harappan settlements were brought to
light at Lahumjodaro, Limujunejo, Chanhudaro etc. by Hargreaves, K.N. Dikhshit,
N.G. Majumdar and others (Roy 1961: 109-110). From 1925 onwards, officers
of the Archaeological Survey of India began to discover Chalcolithic settlements
as well as Harappan settlements from Sind and Baluchistan region almost every
year. In 1926, Majumdar unearthed the traces of Jhukar culture. From 1926 to
1928, Sir Aurel Stein surveyed Baluchistan and discovered a large number of
Chalcolithic and pre-Harappan settlements. Important sites among these were
Rana Ghundai, Periano Ghundai, Kulli, Mehi, Nundara, Sukhtagendor and Shahi
Tump (Roy 1961: 109). Between the years 1929-31 N.G.Majumdar discovered
Ali Murad, Amri, Lohri, Pandi Wahi. Excavations at Harappa were continued by
Vats till 1931 and these were restarted in 1940. Between 1929 and 1935, Vats
discovered Rupar and Rangpur, two other Harappan sites from India (Ray
1961:118).

In 1944, R.E.M. Wheeler surveyed Harappa again and resumed excavation in

1946. Wheeler succeeded in establishing a proper stratigraphic sequence at
Harappa and brought to light a post-Harappan culture called Cemetry H (Ray
1961:127). Despite these numerous discoveries of Harappan settlements, at the
time of partition, there wasn’t a single important Harappan site in India. So A.
Ghosh of the Archaeological Survey of India undertook a systematic survey of
the Ghaggar basin in Rajasthan from 1952 onwards. He discovered a large number
of Harappan settlements in Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. During this survey
Ghosh discovered the famous Harappan site of Kalibangan. Then onwards every
27
Definition and Scope year new Harappan sites have been reported from Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Western Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharastra. Now it is realised that this
civilization was spread over an area measuring 1500 x 1200 sq.km. (Dhavalikar
1997: 8). Such in brief is the history of discovery of Harappan civilization.

The second major aspect of protohistoric past concerns the development of early
agropastoral cultures covered by sites which are variously called Neolithic or
Chalcolithic or Neolithic–Chalcolithic, depending on the use or lack of copper.
It is true that even before Independence sporadic discoveries of polished stone
tools were made in south India, Bihar and Jharkhand, and Northeast India. Due
to lack of any excavated evidence these sites could not be placed in a proper
cultural context. It was Wheeler’s excavation at Brahmagiri in South India in
1946 which stratigraphically exposed Neolithic levels below Iron Age megalithic
strata. Still much of the Indian landscape presented a blank appearance, so much
so that in 1948 Mortimer Wheeler bemoaned that a Dark Age existed between
the end of the Indus civilization and the beginning of the early historical period.

A major achievement of post independence archaeology in India lies in the fact

that the so-called Dark Age has now been filled up with about a dozen major
cultures representing the early agropastoral stage. These are spread across the
whole country and are dated to the third and second millennia B.C. Their main
characteristics include settled village life, crop cultivation, animal husbandry,
burial practices and various crafts like ceramics and stone-tool making. The credit
for discovering these cultures goes to the Archaeological survey of India, state
departments and various universities.

The major Neolithic cultures are located in South India, Kashmir Valley, North
central Vindhyas, Bihar and Orissa and North eastern India. The principal
Chalcolithic Cultures are the Savalola, Malwa and Jorwe cultures of the Deccan,
Kayatha and Malwa cultures of central India. Banas culture of Rajasthan, and
the Black-and-Red and Ochre-Coloured Pottery cultures of the Ganga valley. In
fact, the emergence of agropastoral way of life in the subcontinent stretches
beyond third millennia B.C. The Mehrgarh excavations in Baluchistan take the
antiquity of wheat and barley cultivation and cattle and sheep /goat domestication
to the 6th–7th millennia B.C. Likewise the recent excavations at Lahuradewa in
eastern U.P. reveal that paddy cultivation or intensive exploration goes back to
6th – 7th millennium B.C.

Now let us briefly note the investigations with reference to the Iron Age. For
about two centuries various kinds of megalithic monuments (stone circles,
dolmens, cists, umbrella stones etc.) have been reported from various parts of
Peninsular India. These yielded, apart from other cultural materials, a variety of
iron objects. In the middle of the 19th century Meadows Taylor even excavated
some of the stone circles in the Deccan. But it was Wheeler’s excavation at
Brahmagiri which exposed Iron Age megalithic levels below the remains of the
Early Historical Period.

After Independence many more megalithic sites were excavated in Vidarbha

region of Maharashtra and various parts of South India. These have given evidence
of various burial practices with rich grave goads. Hallur excavation in Karnataka
has given a date of about 1100 B.C. for commencement of iron technology.
More recently excavations at Malhar in Ganga valley have pushed back the
28
antiquity of iron to 1500 B.C. Excavations by S.B.Deo at Naikund in Vidarbha History and Development
have made it possible to reconstruct the whole process of iron smelting.

2.7 SUMMARY
Proceeding from our Unit 1 on account of the definition of archaeology as a
science of the archaeological record; its three main divisions; and both conceptual
and methodological developments, we have gone one step further in this unit
and considered the criteria adopted for dividing prehistoric time into main periods
and stages. We then noted the main stages in the development of both Prehistoric
and Protohistoric studies in India. With this background we will consider in the
next unit how archaeology is intimately related to various natural and social
sciences.

Suggested Reading
Bhattacharya, D.K. 1996. An Outline of Indian Prehistory. Delhi: Palaka
Prakashan.
Bahn, P. and C. Renfrew (Eds). 2005. Archaeology: The Key Concepts. New
York: Rutledge.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1988. A History of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal
Chakrabarti, D. K. 2006. Oxford Companion to Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Chakrabarti,D.K. 1988. Theoretical Issues in Indian Archaeology. Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal
Daly, Okasha El. 2005. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in
Medieval Arabic Writings. London: UCL Press.
Dhavalikar, M.K. 1997. Indian Protohistory. New Delhi: Books and Books.
Gamble, C. 2002. Archaeology: The Basics. London and New York: Rutledge.
Ghosh, A. (Ed.) 1989. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal.
Settar, S. and Korisettar, R. (eds). 2002. Indian Archeology in Retrospect. Delhi:
ICHR and Manohar
Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Pune:
Deccan College.

Sankalia, H.D. 1977. Prehistory of India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.

Roy, S.1996. The Story of Indian Archaeology 1784-1947. New Delhi:

Archaeological Survey of India.

Sreedharan, E.2000. A Textbook of Historiography: 500BC to AD 2000.

Hyderabad: Orient Longman.

Singh, U.2004.The Discovery of Ancient India: Early Archaeologists and

Beginnings of Archaeology. Delhi: Permanent Black.
29
Definition and Scope Shaw, I. and R. Jameson (Eds). 1999. A Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

Paddayya, K. 1978. New Research Design and Field Techniques in the

Palaeolithic archaeology of India. World Archaeology. 10: 94-110.
Useful Links
The Archaeological Survey of India: http://www.asi.nic.in
Harappa : http://www.harappa.com

Sample Questions
1) Critically evaluate the importance of Three-Age system in the development
of archaeological studies in the Old World.
2) What are the main stages in the development of Prehistoric studies in India.
3) Describe how Protohistoric studies progressed in India.

30
 History and Development
UNIT 3 INTERDISCIPLINARY RELATIONS
AND APPROACHES

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biological Sciences
3.2.1 Flora
3.2.2 Fauna
3.3 Earth Sciences
3.3.1 Geomorphology
3.3.2 Sedimentology
3.3.3 Geology
3.4 Physical and Chemical Sciences
3.4.1 Chronometry
3.4.2 Chemical Analyses
3.5 Social Sciences
3.6 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to understand the relationship
of Archaeological Anthropology with:
Ø Biological Sciences (Flora, Fauna);
Ø Earth Sciences (Geomorphology, Sedimentology, Geology);
Ø Physical Sciences (Chronometry);
Ø Chemical Sciences; and
Ø Social Sciences (History, Sociology, Archaeology, Anthropology, Psychology).

3.1 INTRODUCTION
It is now clear to us that archaeology – the very basis of archaeological
anthropology–is aimed at the total reconstruction of ancient human societies. It
is a study of the chronological and geographical limits of ancient cultures. To put
the matter in a more formal way, archaeology or archaeological anthropology
has a three-fold goal: a) reconstruction of respective environmental settings of
past cultures; b) to fix their temporal limits; and c) to reconstruct the material as
well as ideational aspects of these cultures. Archaeology seeks to realise these
goals by, in addition employing its own methods, drawing upon concepts and
methods of various other sciences. In this unit therefore we will examine the
relationship of archaeology with various, biological sciences, earth sciences,
physical sciences and social sciences.

31
Definition and Scope
3.2 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Biological sciences deal with organic components (plant and the animal worlds)
of the environment. Ecology seeks to reveal the interrelationships between man
and the biological world.

3.2.1 Flora
Archaeobotany is the study of all kinds of plant remains found in archaeological
sites. These comprise actual materials like charcoal, wood remains and grains as
well as indirect evidence in the form of impressions of leaves and husks on clay
and pottery. These are microscopic remains too in the form of phytoliths and
pollen. Flotation and other techniques are used to collect these plant remains
from excavations and are then subjected to scientific examination in the laboratory.
Plant remains are particularly important for studying food economy of ancient
societies. In the Paleolithic and Mesolithic stages man was essentially parasite
on nature. In tropical regions like India, wild plant foods played a bigger role,
and these included a variety of roots and tubers, fruits, seeds, berries, gums, and
leafy greens and flowers. Wood was also used for preparing tools and weapons.
In the Neolithic stage food production commenced and man eventually began to
raise crops of many cereals and pulses. This brought about a drastic change in
man-nature interaction, including vegetation clearance leading to environmental
degradation. Plant remains are helpful in other ways too. These provide clues for
reconstructing past climate. Dendrochronology or tree ring analysis is a useful
relative dating method. Charcoal is commonly used for C-14 dating of
archaeological sites.

3.2.2 Fauna
Animal kingdom is the second important component of man’s biological
environment and is again intimately connected with human adaptations. That
this was so right from Stone Age times is revealed by the occurrence of animal
bones and other animal-related features on archaeological sites of various time
periods. Palaeontology is the study of fossilised remains of extinct wild animals
which lived in the Pleistocene period. Archaeozoology is the study of animal
remains found on Holocene archaeological sites (Mesolithic onwards).
Animal remains found in archeological sites are varied in character : bone and
antler, shells, fish remains, bird and rodent bones, even insect remains. Animals
were exploited for various purposes. Bones and antlers were sometimes used for
tool-making and hides were employed for clothing and roofing of huts. Also
ornaments like beads were prepared. More importantly, animals were used for
food purposes. Hunting of large game and scavenging of kill sites of carnivorous
animals were common in the Palaeolithic. Small animals and birds were also
trapped for food purpose. In the succeeding Neolithic stage animals like, cattle,
sheep/goat, pig, were domesticated. But hunting and collecting still continued.
Animal remains could also give clues about past climate and vegetation.

3.3 EARTH SCIENCES

Earth sciences play a pivotal role in the analysis of archaeological sediments and
in the reconstruction of physical features of ancient landscapes. Geomorphology,
32 Sedimentlogy and Geology are very important from this point of view.
3.3.1 Geomorphology Interdisciplinary Relations
and Approaches
Geomorphology is a branch of Physical geography which is primarily concerned
with the study of the land forms and the evolution of landscape. Archaeological
sites are generally found with reference to geomorphological situations like hills,
foothills, plains, river banks, lakes, coasts etc. Stone Age groups generally
preferred rocky terrain with open forest vegetations which facilitated easy
movement as required for hunting purposes. Availability of raw materials like
stone for tool making and perennial surface water sources, and good landscape
visibility influenced location of Stone Age sites. From the Neolithic period
onwards human groups also began to occupy plain lands like alluvial and coastal
plains suitable for agricultural purposes. Geomorphology enables us to reconstruct
these varied landscapes.
Archaeological anthropology has interdisciplinary approach of studying in
relation to various sciences viz., Biological sciences, Earth sciences, Physical
and Chemical sciences, Social sciences etc.

3.3.2 Sedimentology
Archaeological sites are nothing but small or large deposits of soils and sediments
associated with past human activities of various kinds. Sedimentology deals with
a systematic study of these sediments both in the field and in the laboratory.
Examination of physical and chemical properties of soils like nitrogen and
phosphate contexts provides complementary evidence to recognise various
activity areas on an archaeological sites, e.g. human-dwelling spots, animal
penning spots, animal-butchering areas, pottery-making workshops, burial spots,
etc. Studies of soils and sediments can also tell us about the formation of natural
sediments on the landscape by non-human agencies like water, wind and volcano.
This study is extremely useful for palaeolandscape reconstruction.

3.3.3 Geology
Geology is one of the oldest scientific disciplines and deals with study of various
rock formations on the earth’s surface. Its application for studying archaeological
sites has led to the origin of what is called geoarchaeology. Geology served as
the basis for the development of archaeological stratigraphy. Also the terms like
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, etc. used for partitioning geological time inspired
archaeologists to coin terms like Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, etc. to divide prehistoric
time.
Geoarchaeology now helps archaeologists in understanding the properties of
rocks, minerals and ores and their utilisation by ancient communities. It also
helps us in understanding how archeological sites have been preserved or
disturbed due to natural forces like wind, water, ice, earthquakes etc.

3.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES

Physical sciences (Physics and Chemistry) also play a very important role in the
reconstruction of past human societies from the archaeological record.

3.4.1 Chronometry
Earlier archaeological sites and their deposits were dated in relative terms with
the help of methods like stratigraphy, stylistics of artifacts and monuments, and
33
Definition and Scope degree of patination. During the last half a century a number of absolute dating
techniques developed in Physics and Chemistry have proved to be very useful
for dating archaeological sites. Their time range has now been extended to nearly
three million years. Radiocarbon, archaeomagnetism, potassium-argon, uranium-
thorium, fission-track, electron spin resonance, and thermoluminescence are some
of these methods.

The carbon 14 (radiocarbon-carbon of atomic weight 14) method gives absolute

date up to ca. 50,000 B.P. on wood, wood charcoal from fire, peat, grass, cloth,
shell, bones, dung, remains of plant and animal life. This dating technique was
for the first time introduced in 1949 by Williard F. Libby. Similarly, potassium-
argon method gives dates ranging up to a few million years on rocks, minerals,
pottery, volcanic glasses and meteorites etc. and the thermoluminescence (TL)
give dates on rocks, minerals and pottery.

In India too, these and other dating methods have now begun to be used commonly
for dating archaeological materials and sediments. C-14 dates have pushed the
antiquity of the Indus civilization to the beginning of the third millennium B.C.
and the beginning of crop and animal husbandry to 6th-7th millennium B.C.
Likewise, the Stone Age sites of Riwat and Uttarbaini in the Siwalik zone have
been dated to beyond two million years by palaeomagnetism. The Acheulian
sites of Isampur and Attirampakkam in South India are dated to 1.2 and 1.5
million years by electron spin resonance and cosmogenic nuclide methods,
respectively. Indeed we realise that these dating methods taken from physical
sciences have caused a revolution in archaeological chronology in India.

3.4.2 Chemical Analyses

Techniques borrowed from organic and inorganic chemistry have also contributed
in a significant way towards the analysis and interpretation of archaeological
materials. The application of these techniques has, for example, given fresh
knowledge about ancient copper, iron and glass technology. Also, analyses of
food and blood residues on ancient objects and pottery containers led to interesting
information about preparation of food items and their consumption. For example,
chemical analysis of starch grains on stone tools shows that already in Middle
Palaeolithic times sun-dried bread of wild grass seeds was being prepared and
consumed in Africa and Europe.

3.5 SOCIAL SCIENCES

Our foregoing observations about the role of natural sciences should not be
construed to mean that archaeology has no interconnections with social sciences.
In particular, it benefits from interpretations and analogies drawn from
anthropology, history and human geography.

In unit 2 we have already considered how clues derived from cultural anthropology
are used in archaeological reconstruction. These are ethnographic parallels or
analogies derived from the study of contemporary simple (peasant, pastoral and
hunting-gathering) communities. These analogies are of two types: general
comparative and direct historical. Considering that India is home to a
tremendously large number and variety of simple societies inhabiting hill tracts
still clothed in good vegetation. It is reassuring to know that prehistorians have
34
already studied hunting-gathering communities like the Chenchus, Yanadis, Irulas, Interdisciplinary Relations
and Approaches
Hill Pandarams, Pardhis and Van Vagris, and Gonds and made use of the analogies
for reconstructions of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic life ways. Likewise, studies of
pastoral communities like the Todas, Badagas, Kurubas, Dhangars and Bharvads
have provided to be very helpful for understanding various aspects of early
agropastoral communities.

Biological or physical anthropology is concerned with the origin, evolution and

variation of human beings. It seeks to study the physical characteristics like
physique, age, sex, cranial capacity, DNA, blood group, gene, medical history,
nutrition, food habits, dental formula, pathology and demography.

Human geography also helps archaeological reconstruction. It deals with the

study of distribution of human settlements on a given landscape and how this
distribution is governed by consideration of physical factors like terrain form,
soils and availability of water and other resources and also by symbolic and
religious factors. Such studies in human geography provide many useful clues
for reconstructing settlement geography of ancient societies.

Archaeology and history are sister disciplines; both seek to reconstruct ancient
societies and their lifeways in a comprehensive way. The differences lie in
methodology. While archaeology is based upon the use of non-written or
antiquarian materials, history makes use of written documents of all kinds. The
notion of history as the story of kings and rulers and their political victories and
defeats which prevailed for a long time has now given way to total history
involving the study of economic, social, religious and other aspects of ancient
societies. The Annales school of France has played a pivotal role in this
transformation. The concepts and methods of this new history are helpful in
archaeological reconstruction.

Other social sciences like sociology, psychology and economics as well as

humanities like philosophy, literary theory and art history also contribute to
archaeology in terms of concepts and methods.

3.6 SUMMARY
By now you will have realised that archaeology is an eclectic branch of knowledge.
While it has an independent status from the point of view of both aims and
methods, it takes the help of almost all natural and social sciences and humanities
in the recovery of antiquarian remains, their analysis and dating, and their
reconstruction and interpretation of past human societies.

Suggested Reading
Aitken, M.J.1990. Sciences-based Dating in Archaeology. London: Longmans.
Brothwell, D. and pollard, M. 2001. Handbook of Archaeological Sciences. New
York: John wiley.
Butzer, K. W. 1964. Environment and Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Butzer, K.W. 1982. Archaeology and Human Ecology. Chicago: Cambridge
University Press.
35
Definition and Scope Dancy, W.S. 1985. Archaeological Field Methods: An Introduction. New Delhi:
Surjeet Publications.
Daniel, Glyn. 1962. The Idea of Prehistory. London: C.A.Watts & Co.Ltd.
Hole, Frank and R.F.Heizer. 1965. An Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Hotter, I. 1999. The Archaeological Process: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
Rami Reddy, V. 1987. Elements of Prehistory. Delhi: Mittal Publications.

Sample Questions
1) Critically examine the role of Natural Sciences in archaeology.
2) How floral and faunal remains are helpful to study the archaeological
anthropology? Discuss.
3) How physical and chemical sciences help to study archaeological
anthropology? Discuss.
Write short Notes on the following
i) Relationship of geology with archaeological anthropology.
ii) Relationship of archaeological anthropology with geomorphology.

36
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

2
ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS
UNIT 1
Space 5
UNIT 2
Tool Families 21
UNIT 3
Tool Technologies 36
UNIT 4
Household and Decorative Objects 49
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor
Professor Dilip K. Medhi
Dept. of Anthropology
Gauhati University, Gauhati
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Dr. Debasis Kumar Mondal (Unit 1,4)
Asst. Professor, Dept of
Anthropology, West Bengal State
University, Kolkata
Language Editor
Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Associate Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Prof. D. K. Bhattacharya (Retd.) Prof. Ranjana Ray (Retd.)
(Unit 2) (Unit 3)
Dept. of Anthropoloy Deptt. of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Calcutta University, Kolkata

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5520-5
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS

Introduction
Archaeology is studied either independently or as a branch of History or of
Anthropology. Similar to Anthropology, archaeology studies the past culture
history of mankind, and the current syllabus is aimed at imparting knowledge
about the early man and his culture to the students of Anthropology. At present
day scenario, Anthropology and Archaeology within the frame of Anthropology
emerge as the dominating disciplines in the field of Social Sciences, and
Anthropology is made an important subject in the courses and curriculum in
Universities and Colleges in the developed countries like United States of America
where not alone the academicians but also common people know the subjects-
Archaeology and Anthropology. In India the British administration initiated
studies in Anthropology, and introduced the ‘Anthropological Survey of India’
and the ‘Archaeological Survey of India’ with a purpose of knowing the man
and his culture in a significantly diverse eco-cultural settings in India. In today’s
Northeast India, knowledge of Anthropology is considered essentially important
in the making of history of the region and therefore the Palaeoanthropology or
Archaeology has a basic importance in the making of history of mankind in
India vis-à-vis South Asia.

In this block, the following topics have been addressed in order to make a
wholesome study of ‘Man’ exclusively from the point of teaching and research
in Archaeology and they are:
1) Space
2) Tool Families
3) Tool Technologies
4) Household and Decorative Objects
All these topics are meticulously outlined with a purpose of giving maximum
opportunity to the students to learn and teachers to teach the subject Archaeology
within the larger frame of Anthropology syllabus. All the units inscribed in the
syllabus are explicitly elaborated to make the syllabus ‘self-revealing’ .
Archaeological Units

4
 Space
UNIT 1 SPACE

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Archaeological Site: Definition and Classification
1.2.1 Classifying Sites
1.2.1.1 By Artifact Content
1.2.1.2 By Geographic/Geographic Location
1.2.2 Kind of Sites
1.2.2.1 Living or Habitation Site
1.2.2.2 Trading Centres
1.2.2.3 Quarry Sites
1.2.2.4 Kill Sites
1.2.2.5 Factory Sites
1.2.2.6 Ceremonial Sites
1.2.2.7 Burial Sites
1.2.3 Primary and Secondary Sites
1.2.4 Importance of Primary Sites
1.2.4.1 Abandonment of a Site
1.3 Formation of Site
1.4 Recognising and Finding Archaeological Site
1.4.1 Approaches for the Archaeologists
1.4.2 Finding Archaeological Sites
1.4.2.1 Existing Knowledge
1.4.2.2 Documents
1.4.2.3 Aerial Photography
1.4.2.4 Ground Survey
1.5 Context Specific of Site
1.6 Spatial Unit: Area and Region
1.6.1 Archaeological Culture
1.6.2 Culture Areas
1.6.3 Archaeological Regions
1.7 Settlement Archaeology
1.7.1 Determinants of Settlement Patterns
1.7.2 Hunter-Gatherer Sites
1.7.3 Agricultural Settlement
1.8 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø define and identify the different types of archaeological site;
Ø understand techniques that archaeologists use to interpret the function of
the site; 5
Archaeological Units Ø understand methods used to study the relationship between people and
environment; and
Ø understand the formation of site and its abandonment.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Over time and space within different ecological environment one can witness
the biological and cultural evolution of early man. The following aspects are
involved in this statement and they are studied in Archaeological Anthropology.

Biology

Culture

Environment

Time

Space
Out of these ‘space’ is an important aspect for studying the distribution of man
in different ecological setup in relation to surrounding environment. Space has
been utilised for settlement, economic resources, and cultural activities.
Archaeologists study prehistoric subsistence pattern on the basis of artifacts with
various technologies that people developed to adapt to their environment. Cultural
ecology is a theoretical framework for studying the interrelationship between
people and their environment. Environmental approach includes both natural
and social environment. In the study of prehistoric settlement pattern, technology
and subsistence have leading role.
Today settlements usually mean cities, town and villages. However, these types
of settlement pattern are absent in Prehistoric period. First man was mobile rather
than sedentary. He created temporary camps and sites for processing raw materials
and in search of food. Cave and rock shelter were often used for occupation.
In outlining an archaeological site, different types of sites as the spatial units are
important in the context of the present study unit. One can understand the
importance of studying archaeological sites, their distribution and differentiation
in terms of time and space in cultural frame of archaeology.

1.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE: DEFINITION AND

CLASSIFICATION
A ‘Site’ or precisely an archaeological site is any kind of place, large or small,
where there are traces of human occupation or his activity found available.
Archaeological sites consist essentially of activity areas that comprise material
cultural objects like tools and remains of food in the form of rubbish dump. Sites
do not remain intact rather they change in course of time either through repeated
occupation of man and due to impact of various natural agencies. They however
remain intact on many occasion after the site is discarded and abandonment.

Sites are discovered in course of exploration upon the occurrence of stone artifact.
Their sizes range in size from a spot, larger with scatter of hunter-gatherer artifacts
6
to large city. Innumerable sites developed owing to the migratory habit of early Space
man, and many of them are not yet discovered. Smaller and bigger sites reveal
the duration of time or length of occupational time. For example Mesopotamian
occupation mounds were re-occupied again and again for hundreds and thousands
of years and its remains are discovered from a number of stratified layers. In
contrast the occupation site may contain scatters of potsherds or stone tools or
occupation layer buried under top soil. Archaeological sites may consist of an
association of assemblages of artifacts or series of assemblages stratified one
above another.

A person could hardly comprehend prehistory if he regarded each of the site as

an unique one; archaeologists therefore customarily group sites into convenient
categories. A reader working for the purpose of a general work on archaeology
will see reference in a book on Prehistory or Archaeology with different
nomenclature like Paleolithic sites, early Bronze Age sites and Iron Age; however
there will be sites like Cave Site, Sites on the River Valleys, Sites on the edges of
Lakes, lagoon and sea or in desert environment. Here the first category of sites
speaks about a cultural orientation and the later are described on their spatial
distribution.

1.2.1 Classifying Sites

Archaeological sites can be classified in the following ways:

1.2.1.1 By Artifact Content

The association, assemblages, and sub assemblages of artifacts in the sites are
used to label it as Stone Age, Chalcolithic or Iron Age and so on. Thus the
particular site can be labeled according to its specific artifacts content: stone
tools, milling stones, pottery and some metal artifacts. On the other hand the sub
assemblages recovered from the site reflect individual human behaviour, sites
can be classified by the characteristic pattern of the artifacts found in them such
as burial sites, kill or butchering sites, quarry site and habitation site.

1.2.1.2 By Geographic/Geological Location

Many human settlements are well defined types associated to various geographic
locations, and these sites can be referred as open sites, lakeside sites, cave sites,
valley sites, foothill sites, and so on.

The above mentioned sites could be expanded, but none of them can singly
account for all the possible kinds of sites. The study of all kinds of sites is relevant
to a particular objective pertaining to any research to give a holistic picture of
the social system operative in prehistory. Therefore it is meaningless to attribute
that some kinds of sites are of more value than others. It is fairer to attribute that
some kinds of sites yield a greater range of information than do the others, and
that consequently, these are the sites most often studied.

1.2.2 Kind of Sites

A site is a place where traces of ancient occupation and activity are available.
The presence of artifacts is the clue to a site. The number and variety of prehistoric
sites are limited only by the activities of prehistoric men who lived and left their
traces on the Earth. Each site is not unique and therefore archaeologists classify
7
Archaeological Units sites into categories. These sites have been classified by artifacts type such as
stone tools. The activity is represented by the remains, such as, kill site, camp
site, and quarry site. Finally the site is referred to the geo-archaeological context,
such as, stratified, non stratified or surface finds.

1.2.2.1 Living or Habitation Site

Habitation sites are the most important sites because people have lived and carried
out a multitude of activities at the place. The most commonly excavated sites are
the places where people lived and these sites were a focal point of prehistoric
activities. All archaeological sites imply habitation though it may have been for
relatively short time period. A habitation site is one around which a group of
people centered their daily activities. The artifacts in living sites reflect domestic
activities such as food production. Habitation sites that were occupied the year
round frequently have the remains of houses, but dwellings may be caves or
rock shelters or even open area in which no trace of a permanent shelter remains.
Seasonally occupied sites generally have fewer traces of architecture. Prehistoric
men found shelter in various sorts of constructions ranging from temporary
windbreaks, lean-tos to semi sub- terranean house made of logs and earth that
could be lived in year after year, mud brick or rough masonry houses etc. In
areas where shelters were not needed, habitation sites may be seen with the
remains of fire and scatter of refuse and artifacts. In prehistoric sites an arc shaped
pile of stones, which perhaps served as the floor or foundation of a windbreak,
has been discovered in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, by L.S. B Leakey.

The prehistoric caves are hollow carved in the rocks by natural agencies such as
wind and ground water. They are generally found in the lime stone formation.
Evidence of cave shelter has been found in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.
A rock shelter differs from a cave in having an overhanging rocks and almost
open sides. Hundreds of rock shelters have been found from vindhyan sand stone
area of Madhypradesh.

The open camp sites or open air sites are mainly found in the open or near the
bank of the lakes, streams and ponds. It is a living site because people lived or
camped for a certain time period. The site Langhnaj is a good example of a camp
on a dune near a Lake and Bagor is the example of open camp beside River site.

Sites that are ordinarily close to settlements are agricultural fields and terrace,
irrigation canals, roads, bridges, aqueducts, and cemeteries. Occasionally
habitation sites served the dual purpose of dwelling and defense, although
defensive structures are relatively rare in prehistoric times.

1.2.2.2 Trading Centres

A number of trading sites has been reported form a few places, though it is
difficult to recognise them with certainty. Sites centrally situated between the
Maya and Aztec areas have been identified as ports of trade, though of course
they were habitation sites as well. The site Lothal in Indus area is also of the
same type. Archeologists have found a site on non arable land that was favorably
placed for the salt and obsidian trade in Turkey. Pathways across open ground or
roads such as the Roman roads of Britain and Inca highways are distinguished
features related to trade. Teotihuacan near Mexico City is the great prehistoric
8
metropolis which covers about 20 square kilometers with a population estimated Space
as high as 125,000 persons. There are certain groups of buildings where foreign
pottery is abundant and the archaeologists think that merchants from the Gulf
Coast, Yucatan, and Oaxaca may have lived in the area.

Fig. 1.1: Different Types of Camp (Fagan, 1991)

1.2.2.3 Quarry Sites

In archaeological terms, a quarry or mine site is where there were evidences of
material, such as, stone or metal ore were mined for use as building material or
for tool manufacture. Quarries are interesting to archaeologists, because
the sources of raw materials found on archaeological sites help to know trade
networks of prehistoric and protohistoric people. Evidence at a quarry might
also show available technology in the form of tools left behind and cut marks in
the walls of the excavation pits.

Sites in which a great variety of minerals were mined are common throughout
the world although only a few of them were excavated. The presence of special
tools needed for mining copper, obsidian and other metals are important for
identifying quarry sites. Mining for metal ores also indicate a sites. Archaeologists
have uncovered the bones, and sometimes the bodies, of miners who were crushed
by falling rocks. Quarry sites may be workshop areas where ores were smelted,
flints were chipped, or soapstone was worked into bowls. Analysis of raw material
form quarry sites help to get to know which of the particular product was mined.
A study of the distribution of finished stone artifacts may tell the archaeologist a
great deal about ancient trade relations in particular stones. For example
Petrological analysis of British stone axes of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages and
of the determination by trace element studies of obsidian and copper in the Near
East indicate the areas from where those were imported.
9
Archaeological Units In 1990, a team of archaeologists of Banaras Hindu University supervised by
P.C. Pant and Vidula Jayswal noticed evidence of ancient stone quarries, including
many large cylindrical blocks in the nearby Chunar hills. Over 450 ancient quarry
sites were identified in an area of 15 sq. km. This was done on the basis of marks
of extraction of stone blocks, chiseling debris, cylindrical blocks and count marks
of the number of finished blocks.

1.2.2.4 Kill Sites

Kill sites are places where prehistoric people killed games and camped around
while butchering the meat. They are relatively common on the Great Plains. It is
common in the United States to found kill sites, places where one or more animals
were killed by hunters, some of whom may have had no permanent dwellings.
At kill sites archaeologists find the bones of the animals, projectile points used
for killing them, and the tools for butchering. In some cases where the bone
materials has been well preserved the pattern of butchering the animals can be
reconstructed. At Olduvai one such site is found.

Outside the Americas it is less common to find kill sites, though certain remains
from the Acheulian and later periods, situated at the edges of rivers and lakes
must have been combination of kill and habitation sites. Those hunters usually
have a home base from which they wander in pursuit of game and often bring
back only the edible portion of butchered animals. The amount of bone and
stone tools in these sites suggests seasonal or perhaps permanent year round
camps. Archaeologist usually calls these sites “living floors”. Frequently a
fireplace is found in which the meat was cooked.

1.2.2.5 Factory Sites

Factory site is a site where men manufacture tools. These sites are generally
located near the sources of raw material. Numerous factory sites have been
discovered in India. Example of Lower Palaeolithic factory sites is Chirki on the
valley of the river Pravara, Gangapur on the river Godavari, Chitor in Rajasthan.
Several factory sites were also used by man as camp sites or living sites. The raw
materials, finished and unfinished tools, debitage are the indicator of factory
site.

1.2.2.6 Ceremonial Sites

Ceremonial site may or may not be integral to a living site. Mayan ceremonial
sites, such as Tikal were surrounded by habitation areas. Ceremonial sites include
the imposing megalithic construction at Stonehenge. Ceremonial sites are found
in much older caves in France and Spain where remarkable paintings, carvings,
and reliefs are found. Ordinarily, however, there are no dwellings other than
those of political or religious officials and their retainers within the area of a
ceremonial site. For example, La Venta, a large Meso American ceremonial
center, was erected some distance away from the area where general population
lived.

10
1.2.2.7 Burial Sites Space

Burial sites are mostly those sites where the dead bodies are ceremonially buried.
Burial sites include both cemeteries and isolated tombs. People have been burying
their dead since at least 100,000 years ago and have often taken enormous pains
to prepare them for the afterlife. The most famous burial sites of all are the
pyramids of Giza in Egypt. Archaeologist concentrates their efforts on cemeteries
because they often contain useful information about social practices. Burial sites
range from isolated burials in shallow holes to elaborate masonry construction,
earth mounds, and megalithic monuments. At the classic Maya site of Palenque
in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, the pyramid and temple of the inscriptions were
built over a great burial chamber, and subsequently several other examples of
tombs in the pyramids have been found. Many burials are associated with special
grave furniture, jewelry and ornaments of rank.

Burials may also be found in the garbage dumps of large villages; they may be
under the floors of house; or they may occur singly, away from habitation sites.
At times certain cemeteries, or sections of a cemetery, may have been reserved
for persons of one sex or age or social rank. Usually, however, cemeteries contain
a sample of the whole population that died in the period of the cemetery’s use.
Examples of special cemeteries are those for children in Pennsylvania; separate
cemeteries for men in the Desert field in upper Austria, where special area were
reserved for children, for victims of epidemics, and for persons belonging to “an
elevated social group”. Disposal of human bodies may also involve the discard
of artifacts with the body. These grave goods are extremely valuable to
archaeologists for reconstruction of prehistoric ways of life and death.

1.2.3 Primary and Secondary Sites

The site may be either primary, if people have deposited its own remains there or
secondary, if the remains have been re deposited by another people or by natural
agency. Any other human disturbance of the ground might result in elements of
the site being moved around and re deposited. For example a primary deposit on
a river terrace has been bulldozed into another part of the terrace; the place of re
deposition is a secondary site.

1.2.4 Importance of Primary Sites

A primary site may either be disturbed or none disturbed. The living sites are
mainly primary sites. If at a site the evidence of cultural material left behind by
man is found in an undisturbed or original deposition or in –situ position it is
primary site. The material remains recovered from these sites provide valuable
information about the life of the people who lived there as well as about their
surroundings. The present trend of India is more towards exploring and excavating
the primary or the living sites. The contents of primary site comprise both natural
and human deposits. The natural deposits consist of materials laid down by water,
wind or other geological agencies. The human deposits cover the animal
deposition and material culture.

11
Archaeological Units
Kind of deposition Natural deposition Human deposition

Deposits made by geological agencies Water and wind-laid materials ——————-———-

Material brought by animals Material brought by Cultural

Deposition 1.2.3 Raw
for their own consumption man for his own remains
made by 1.2.3 materials
occupants 1.2.3 consumption
of the site 1.2.3 Processed Material prepared by animals Material prepared by
Products of Materials for their own consumption, man for their own
the including by-products consumption, including
occupants by-products
activities
Unworked Structures, tools, etc. used by Structures, tools, etc.
equipment animal in their natural state used by animal in their
natural state

Worked Structures, tools, etc. Structures, tools, etc.

equipments manufactured by animal in manufactured by man
their natural state in their natural state

The occupants themselves Remains of the animals and Morphological remains of the
of plant occupants human occupants

Fig. 1.2: Contents of primary site (Rouse 1972)

1.2.4.1 Abandonment of a Site

At some stage in the life of an activity area a settlement may be abandoned. All
features of site, such as pits, buildings, roads would be abandoned but also a
range of artifacts. Once a site has been abandoned other communities in the area
may see it as useful local resources of firewood or building materials. The site
could be leveled further for new buildings and cut away to make terraces for
new houses or agriculture.

1.3 FORMATION OF SITE

Two questions arise, “How a site is made?” and “How do you know where to
look for sites?” These are important for the Archaeologist. In principle, the answer
to both questions is easy although a little explanation and illustration are required.

Sites are the result of human activity. It is not always very easy to recognise the
prehistoric sites though understanding of the pyramids and mounds that were
built as tombs and memorials to the dead are rather easy. The condition of the
site and depth of the findings are important aspects. This depends on the formation
of the site. It is basically a geological process. Natural agencies are important
factors for formation and transformation of site.

In case of caves and rock shelters continued occupation over thousands of years
left a layered deposit of debris some tens of feet in depth. The accumulation of
debris in caves thus can be explained as the joint result of man and natural
processes. As for example family moving into a cave might bring in some branches
of grass to cover the damp, hard floor where they wanted to sit and sleep and
some rocks to sit on. They would bring in wood and branches to build fires. The
hunters would kill animals and bring their dead bodies into the cave and when
they had finished their meals they would throw the bones to one side. As natural
erosion of the cave or rock shelter took place, bits of rock and dirt would flake
12
off the ceiling. Sometimes a major rock fall would bury the whole floor. Wind Space
might add appreciable quantities of fine soil over long periods of time, and water-
carried sediments might also add to the filling process. If occupation together
with natural events continued for thousands of years, the cave might finally be
filled to its top.

The great mounds (tells) that have accumulated in some parts of the world,
especially in the Near East, represent an example which shows that natural
processes have done more to take away than to add material. At Ur in
Mesopotamia, Woolley dug more than 90 feet to reach the base of the great
mound. These mounds occur in parts of the world where the chief building
material is mud. The people make bricks both of sun dried mud and fired bricks
they laid poles across them to form a roof on which they pile brush or matting,
and cover them with a thick layer of mud. It is practically impervious in these
arid regions where there is little rainfall. Despite the low rainfall and consequent
slow rate of erosion, the houses do deteriorate and eventually become unsafe for
continuous use. Then thrifty villagers scavenge the scarce poles used in the roof
and reuse them in new structure. After this, the bare walls standing there against
the wind and rain rapidly disintegrate and eventually leave a featureless mound
where the old house stood. After some time new houses are often built on the
same location, frequently several feet higher than the original house. One may
wonder why people as they customarily do in the Near East – chose to build on
top of old houses rather than pick a spot on level land. The reasons seem to be
that, with agricultural fields beginning at the edges of the settlements, there was
no room to expand, and often defensive walls were built around the towns.

The practice of building mounds by the deliberate heaping up of dirt or stone,

the practice of building mounds on which to place houses, public buildings, and
temples was common in the eastern United States as well as in Meso –America.
Indians in the upper Mississippi Valley region of the United States often made
mounds for the purpose of burial, some of them being in the form of animals,
birds and serpents.

For a variety of reasons some locations are more attractive than others, and these
spots may be continuously occupied or frequently reoccupied. A common cause
of the successive use of the same spot may lie in its presumed religious sanctity.
Often a shrine or church existed there, and later peoples may have lived. Perhaps
they belonged to a different religion and took advantage of the same site to build
their religious structure. In Europe the great cathedrals stand on the sites of pre
Christian shrines or temples.

1.4 RECOGNISING AND FINDING

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
A wide variety of techniques, ranging from walking, to aerial photography to
magnetic prospecting, can be used to find sites. Fortunate discovery of sites are
a bit advantageous and are sometime can alter the general course of information.

1.4.1 Approaches for the Archaeologists

At the beginning to find sites in certain areas, an archaeologist must first
familiarise himself with the landscape and its potential for supporting different
13
Archaeological Units kinds of human activities. It is helpful also to have some general idea about the
kinds of sites that are likely to be found. For example, a person would normally
look in somewhat different places for sites of hunters and for sites of farmers,
hunters usually lived in relatively small camps and moved regularly in pursuit of
game. Such sites as they did occupy would have been in places where water,
game, and perhaps fuel could be obtained. Farmers, by contrast, ordinarily live
in permanent settlements and chose their sites with an eye toward arable land.

Archaeologists can then survey the landscape for suitable places on the basis of
this knowledge. Hills, grass grows, trees, and the location of sources of water
are the important indicator of finding the site. An unnatural contour of a hill, an
unusual kind of vegetation, soil, differing in color from that of the surrounding
area, is all clues to sites. If the grass grows more luxuriantly in the outlines of a
rectangle, it may mark the borders of an ancient ditch or house, and occasionally
the walls of houses may be exposed on the surface.

1.4.2 Finding Archeological Sites

The following criteria are chosen to locate a site. They are based either on
documentary evidence or on the basis of certain ways and means formulated for
the purpose of locating a site.

1.4.2.1 Existing Knowledge

Many archaeological sites have never been lost. The site may have been abandoned
but it may remain clearly visible in the landscape. It was not considered an
archaeological site as such. Classic sites like Stonehenge, the Great Wall of China,
or the Acropolis of Athens have always been known. There are many sites which
are known to local people like the lost civilization of Chandraketugarh where
the local people retain a major source of information about sites known to them,
even if this knowledge has not reached the archaeological record.

1.4.2.2 Documents
Archaeologist working in historic periods will use documents as one of their
main sources for the location of archaeological sites. Documents must, however,
always be treated with caution. The initial reason for the production of the
document must always be considered, and whether the absence of information is
simply because relevant documents have been lost.

Maps are perhaps one of the most important types of document to aid in the
location of sites. Earlier maps may locate countries, towns, villages and major
natural features.

1.4.2.3 Aerial Photography

Aerial photography is the earliest and perhaps still the most important, remote
sensing tool available to archaeologist searching for new archeological sites.
Remote sensing involves any techniques which capture geographic data by sensors
at some distance from the surface being recorded. The main elements of remote
sensing are aerial photography, satellite images and geophysics. All data gathered
through remote sensing can be separated, combined, and manipulated through
the activity of image processing, which forms one of the key elements of
geographic information system (GIS).
14
Any site with humps and bumps, like banks or ditches, has the potential to show Space
as a shadow site. Crop marks often produce the most dramatic aerial photographs.
Crop marks are basically the result of differential speed and quality of crop growth
and ripening, depending on sub-surface conditions. Essentially if the soil is deeper
in one spot in the field, the crop above will have access to more nutrients and
moisture than crops above shallow soil. Crops above a ditch or pit for example
will grow more rapidly and strongly, be taller, and ripen more slowly than those
above a wall or floor, which are likely to be weaker, shorter, and ripen more
rapidly. Crops above deeper soils will produce positive crop marks, while those
above shallow soils will produce negative crop marks.

1.4.2.4 Ground Survey

Archeological sites may also be found by systematic ground survey. This can be
approached in a variety of ways, depending on the aims of the survey and the
available time and money. Geophysical survey techniques are part of the battery
of remote sensing techniques which include aerial photography and satellite
images. Like all remote sensing techniques, geophysical surveying is a non –
destructive method of site investigation, so has obvious advantages over
excavation when dealing with the finite archaeological resources. Resistivity
survey of the soil provides some clue to subsurface features on archaeological
sites. Magnetic survey is used to find burial features such as iron objects, fired
clay furnace, pottery kilns, hearths and pits filled with rubbish or softer soil.

Beside these, exploration by foot is an age old method of finding archaeological

site.

1.5 CONTEXT SPECIFIC OF SITE

Settlement Archaeology includes the study of both permanent and temporary
interaction of humans with surrounding geophysical setting in order to understand,
how they are adapted to it. Archaeologists also try to understand the ways in
which the people in the past understood their surrounding landscape through
some ideas; initially conducive to live in and availability of food and water were
the two primary considerations, and towards the ancient historic time, ownership,
territory and status were given specific consideration. The settlement archaeology
mainly focuses the placing of structures or other features within a settlement.
Artifacts and ecofacts are used for studying the distribution of past activities of
man. In Prehistory different sites have been found such as habitational sites,
ceremonial sites, hill sites, graves, trading centers and camp. Looking at the
modern world there is diversity among the settlements such as primary
manufacturing centers, market town, suburbs or rural hamlet, centre of
transportation, fishing and agriculture. If we consider the specialised functions
of prehistoric sites firstly there is a conception of how people live and behave. It
also can be studied by ethnography, study of contemporary people and the modern
primitive communities. One group of people may use a number of sites that
have different specialised functions. Hunters frequently observed game mainly
from forest, religious activities are often carried out in sacred places and interior
territories (rural or villages) in winter may be placed for protection from wind
with the availability of fuel. Summer camps are selected at places which might
have been more comfortable than other parts of the territory. Manufacturing of
artifacts depend on the sources of raw materials. In modern times, most of the
15
Archaeological Units people are permanently settled at a place where rapid and efficient transportation
and communication are available compared to total inconvenience of early man
who moved like animal in a forest environment.

The second function may examine the content of the sites. Sometimes caves
were used as base camp and rock shelters served as a butchering station. In the
absence of domestic refuges with the geographic context specific use of the site
could be inferred.

1.6 SPATIAL UNIT: AREA AND REGION

The spatial units have been referred to thus far are all confined to the boundaries
of one community. They reflect the activities of the maximum number of people
who occupied the settlement at some time. Prehistorians seek to understand the
wider scale though archaeological research was carried out on single site. Several
communities or a scattered population living in a well defined region may be
linked to same subsistence or settlement system. Culture behaviour is identified
by patterning the ancient assemblages with background of geographical and
environmental data in a particular settlement and across the settlement.

A number of spatial units are in common use.

1.6.1 Archaeological Culture

Culture is consistent patterning of assemblages, the archaeological equivalents
of human societies. Archaeological culture is the reflection of material remains
of human culture preserved at a specific space and time at several sites.

1.6.2 Culture Areas

It is a large geographical area in which characteristic of an archaeological culture
exist in the context of time and space. For example Mayan cultural system and
Mayan culture area.

1.6.3 Archaeological Regions

This is generally described as well defined geographic areas bounded by
geographic features, such as oceans, lakes or mountains. The ecological and
cultural boundaries throughout prehistoric times also have been considered.

Regional approaches involve comparison of artifacts from a few scattered

settlements. This is based on a research strategy sampling the entire region and
reconstructs of many more aspects of prehistoric life than those uncovered at a
single site.

1.7 SETTLEMENT ARCHAEOLOGY

Settlement archaeology is the study of changing human settlement pattern and
interaction of people and their external environment, both natural and cultural.
The layout of the human settlement on the landscape, are the result of relationship
between people who decided to place their houses, settlement and religious
structure on the basis of political, economic and social considerations. Settlement
archaeology reflects the society and its technological adaptation to the specific
16
environment on the one hand and trading relationship, exploitation and social Space
organisation on the other hand.

1.7.1 Determinants of Settlement Patterns

Settlement patterns are determined by many factors related to the environment,
economic practices and technological skill. For example the distribution of San
camp in the Kalahari Desert depends on the availability of water supplies and
vegetable foods. Village lay out also reflect the idea about the need to protect
from predators or war parties.

The determinants of settlement patterns operated on at least three levels each is

formed by a number of factors as below.
1) Building or structure: Houses, household cluster and activity are units of
archaeological analysis.
2) Communities: The arrangement of structures within a single group
constitutes a community. The community is defined as a maximal group of
persons who normally reside in face to face association.
3) Distribution of communities: The density and distribution of communities,
whatever their size is determined to a considerable extent by the natural
resources in their environment and by the economy, nutritional requirements
and technological level of the population as well as by socio religious
constrains.

Fig. 1.3: The Archaeology of Settlement (Grant et.al 2007)

17
Archaeological Units 1.7.2 Hunter-Gatherer Sites
Karl Butzer (1982) studied the Lower Paleolithic Acheulian sites of Ambrona
and Torralba in Central Spain. He argued that early hunter gatherers shared the
ability of large grazing animal to adopt different feeding habits and seasonal
movement according to the abundance of resources through the year. Ambrona
and Torralba lie along the only low latitude mountain pass dividing the plains of
Castile. This was the route through which the large mammals migrated in spring
and fall from winter to summer pastures and back again. The Acheulian people
hunt these animals. During other season of the year they spread over the
neighbouring country in temporary camps near water and constantly moving herds.

Fig. 1.4: A seasonal mobility models for Achulian hunter-gatherers in central spain based
on the data from Ambrona and Torralba. During spring the hunters preyed
through the mountain passes and in summer and winter they divided into small
group and lived in temporary sites near water and stone outcrop. (Butzer, 1982)

The Jarawa is an ancient Negroid tribe and live on the Andaman islands.
This nomadic tribe continue to be hunting and gathering one. Jarawas hunt
wild pig, monitor lizard with bows and arrows.

1.7.3 Agricultural Settlement

The clustering and patterning of agricultural settlement are affected by cultural
and environmental factors combined.
18
Distribution of economic resources such as different types of land with separate Space
pasture land, cultivation and so on affects the settlement pattern. Soil distribution,
texture, depth, sub soil are important factors. The earliest European farmers
concentrated on well drained easily dug soils because they did not use heavy
plough.

Available technology, land clearance technique, available transport, crop types

exploited and other factors within site are also responsible for clustering.

Topography influences the placement of agricultural sites in relation to their

neighbours, affected direction of trade routes and encourages or inhibits
communication. The ancient Egyptian depended on the Nile for transportation
and water and the present successors still do the same.

Trade network play a leading role in the emergence of central places in great
cities.

Agricultural settlements are affected by so many environmental, economic, social

and other factors. Agricultural settlements were far more dependent on one another
than those of hunter-gatherer.

1.8 SUMMARY
The basic concept used by archaeologists in recovering remains is that of site, by
which it is meant any place in which archaeological remains have been found.
Archaeologists study different types of ancient sites which include primary and
secondary as well as permanent and temporary sites. The interaction of human
with their landscape is studied in order to understand how people adapt to it.
Human impacts on the landscape from the forest clearance to the division by
boundaries into territory are important parts of settlement study. Understanding
of landscape through ideas such as ownership, territory and status by people are
great concern to the archaeologists. For this study they need to identify the spatial
distribution of past human activities, understanding of the location of the sites
within a landscape or the placing of structures and other features within a
settlement. Artifacts, ecofacts and features are the key evidence base in studying
of distribution of ancient activities. Archaeological sites usually form through
human-related processes but can be subject to natural, post-depositional factors.
Cultural remnants which have been buried by sediments are in many environments
more likely to be preserved than exposed cultural remnants. The study of
archaeological site is a multidisciplinary approach. Experts of physical and natural
sciences, anthropoloigists, archaeologist, geologists and geographers have to
involve for proper understanding of a site. Many sites are the subject of ongoing
excavation or investigation but the study of prehistoric sites are rather scanty.

Suggested Reading
Butzer, Karl W. 1964. Environment and Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine Publishing
Company.

Drewett, Peter. L. 2003. Field Archaeology. London: Rutledge.

Fagan, Brian M. 1991. In the Beginning, an Introduction to Archaeology (Seventh

Edition). Harper Collins Publishers.
19
Archaeological Units Grant, Jim, Sam Gorin and Neil Fleming. 2007. The Archaeology Course Book.
London and New York: Rutledge.

Rouse, Irving 1972. Introduction to Prehistory, a Systematic Approach. United

State of America: Mc Grew-Hill.

Sample Questions
1) What is an archaeological site? How would you classify archaeological sites.
2) What are the different types of sites and their function?
3) How would you identify a trading centre?
4) What are primary and secondary site? How would you distinguish between
them?
5) What do you understand by spatial unit in Archaeology?
6) Discuss how a site is formed? What are the approaches for identifying
archaeological sites?
7) Discuss the implication of settlement archaeology.

20
 Space
UNIT 2 TOOL FAMILIES

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Raw Material
2.2.1 Tool Classificatory
2.3 Techniques of Manufacture
2.4 State of Preservation
2.5 Tool Types
2.6 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the selection of raw material and fabrication of the tools;
Ø discuss different types of techniques; and
Ø describe the evolution of the tool types and techniques.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Tool is a smallest unit of Culture. Cluster of tools made at a place during a
particular time is called an Industry. A cluster of industries of a particular locality
belonging to a particular time is called a Culture in prehistory. Again a cluster of
a number of cultures of a given locality forms a larger unit called a Civilization.
Therefore tools and tool families lead one to understand the different Culture of
early man and so the knowledge of tools helps in knowing both the tangible and
the non-tangible aspects of a Culture.

Tools differ from culture to culture and so its making. Tools develop in conformity
with the regular upward trend of physical and technological evolution. Chopper
is a tool on pebbles both small and large and appeared during the early part of the
Palaeolithic times followed by the Chopper-Chopping tools, and handaxes,
cleavers and disc occur later. All these are classified as Core tools or heavy duty
tools. Flake tools or light-duty tools were made at the end of the Lower Palaeolithic
times. Earlier to Lower Palaeolithic, some controversial tools were collected
from parts of England, and scholars and researchers belonging to Earth Sciences
and history gave them a status with a name called Eoliths and the period assigned
to them was the Eolithic time. Tool families of each and every cultural phase of
different ages of humankind reflect different physical features those resulted
from the application of a some kind of tool-making method. Prehistorians and
archaeologists have given some names to the tools according to the nature of
work it performed together with the name of a technique, which was applied in
making the particular tool. Therefore tools are time specific.

21
Archaeological Units
Large sized tools such as handaxes, cleavers, chopping tools are observed
in Lower Palaeolithic stage; flake - tools like scrapers, points and borers
etc. found in Middle Palaeolithic stage; and blade tool technology is the
characteristic feature of Upper palaeolithic culture.

2.2 RAW MATERIAL

Early man used both perishable and non-perishable materials for making tools
for his day-to-day subsistence and for survival as well. Tools of perishable
materials like wood and bamboo do not survive in archaeological ruins but from
ethnographic sources, evidence about such tools is very much obtainable.
Prehistorians and archaeologists could also trace tools from perishable materials
amongst the modern primitive communities during their visits on research
exploration. In Southeast Asia, chopper is used in making bamboo and wooden
tools. On the other hand, plenty of stone tools reach the hands of Prehistorians
and archaeologists, and who, on their part do reconstruct the culture of early
man on the basis of tools unearthed from stratigraphic sequences.

Three basic rocks namely, the igneous, metamorphic and indurated sedimentary
were chosen in making a stone tool. But early man’s preference primarily
pinpointed at the igneous rocks for the purpose of making tools. Flint was the
most preferred variety of rock in Europe followed by quartzite in Africa and in
Indian Sub-continent. Igneous rock comprises agate, chart, chalcedony, jasper
and quartz and other precious and semi-precious stones.

The raw material used to manufacture a given set of tools can show whether this
was quarried from distant outcrops or these are merely picked up from available
river bed. Former reveals early man’s advanced knowledge about a better quality
of rock types and the latter was a common source of rock in the form of gravel,
boulders and gravels in a river valley.

2.1.1 Tool Classificatory (Basic in brief)

Name Cultural Period Age
Chopper, Chopper-chopping, Abbevillean/Acheulean Lower Palaeolithic
Cleaver, Disc
Scraper, Mousterian points Mousterian Middle Palaeolithic
and others
Blades, Points and Bone tools Aurignacian, Solutrean, Upper Palaeolithic
Magdalenian
Microliths Mesolithic Middle Stone Age
Celt (Axe, Adze, Chisel and Neolithic New Stone Age
others).

2.3 TECHNIQUE OF MANUFACTURE

The techniques used in fabricating stone tools were recorded on the basis of
experiments done by experts from the disciplines of prehistory and archaeology.
22
Techniques were learnt amongst the primitive communities learnt in Pacific regions, Tool Families
Southeast Asia, Andaman and Nicobar, Africa and many territories of the globe.

To know the stone fabrication techniques, go through the relevant portion on

tool technology from Unit 3.

2.4 STATE OF PRESERVATION

Antiquities are deposited by one or more natural activities. Very often these are
carried by river and are rolled. At times fine deposition of line encrustation or
iron, aluminium or chromium patination can be seen spread over the surface of
the tool. It is an accepted methodology in Archaeology to use these or other
degrees of rolling, patination or encrustation to decide the relative antiquity of
the discovered specimens. It comes quite handy when one needs to separate a
group of tools which have got mixed with another fresh looking group of tools.

2.5 TOOL TYPES

One needs to delve into the fact that both tool types and their method of
manufacture have a kind of observed hierarchisation. For instance, core tools
characterise Lower Palaeolithic and even in this one can say that stone hammer
technique occurs earlier than cylinder hammer techniques. In the same way flake
tools characterise Middle Palaeolithic and Thick blade tools (not fluted blades
but punched blades) characterise Upper Palaeolithic.

Pebble tool
This term, in a strict sense, does not refer to any specific tool type. There are
many kind of tools that can be prepared on pebbles. However, many authors use
this term to include two tool types. These are Choppers and Chopping tools.

Chopper
The term chopper was first used by Hallum J. Movius Jr. for the first time in
1942 while describing tools collected from Sohan Valley, then in North-West
India. Subsequently this term is used all over in European, African and Asian
prehistory.

A broad and thick pebble which is broken transversely is chosen. Then with this
transverse-end as platform few scars are removed from one of the surfaces in
such a manner that the remaining part of the platform appears projected as a
transverse cutting edge. Generally all choppers have a transverse cutting edge,
but if the flaking produces a pointed end such a type can be called a pointed
chopper.

Sometimes the flaking is done alternatively from both the surfaces of the pebble.
These were termed chopping tools by Movius. A chopping tool also has a
transverse working end but this border is sinuous because of alternate flaking.
Since both these types are essentially similar in morphology and technique of
manufacture except for the fact that a chopping tool is bifacial, many authors
today do not count these as two separate types and call them as unifacial and
bifacial choppers respectively.
23
Archaeological Units

Fig. 2.1: Chopper and Chopping tool

Choppers are one of the predominant too types in Lower Palaeolithic of East
Africa and here these are also called Oldowan after the name of Olduvi Gorge
where these occur through several levels. In Europe these describes from
Clactonian in England as also from Central Europe. Mostly these are all grouped
together in a techno-complex termed Mode I.

Core tools
Every piece of stone has two surfaces, two borders and 2 ends. If both these
surfaces are worked and hence covered with flake scars, such a specimen is
called a core tool. If both the surfaces are not worked (i.e., maintains original
cortex) but only borders are worked then also this specimen will get classified as
a core tool.

Basically there are three major types that will get classified as core tool. These
are:

i) Discoid core: These are circular cores, as the name suggests. Flakes are
removed from all around the circumference. The maximum thickness of
the tool is in the centre. It can be worked unifacially or even bifacially.
These can be profitably used for cutting or shaving wood.

ii) Handaxe: Handaxe is one of the most prolific tool type found all over the
world during the entire length of lower Palaeolithic. However, this tool
type is not quite common in all the south east Asia. It is also designated to
form the techno-complex, Model II.

It is essentially a biface prepared in such a manner that one end of the specimen
is broader and thicker while the other end is narrow and sharp. It is because of
this sharp and pointed end that many authors started calling the “working end”.
24
The opposite end which is often thick and bulbus was called the “butt-end’. Tool Families
However, since these terms refer to assumed function strict structuralist prepared
to call them the anterior and the posterior ends, respectively.

When the handaxe prepared is massive and the technique used is block-on-block
or stone hammer technique such handaxes are taken to characterise lower
Acheulian tradition. These specimens are often more than 15 cm in length and
maintain sinuous working borders. The reduction sequence and planning of these
tools show a great deal of perfection and planning with distinct cognition of the
resultant.

Once the technique shifts to cylinder hammer all the rough edges are regularised
and smoothened by careful series of retouchings. The handaxe now become 6-
14 cm in length and are as perfect in shape as to be compared with an almond
(amygdaloid), a lance head (lanceolate) or even a heart (cordiform). Some of the
middle to Upper Acheulian Handaxes also show a distinct extended S-twist as
the lateral or working border. One of the most evolved of these handaxe is an
Ovate. This is a type where the maximum thickness shifts from the proximal or
butt end to the centre. The shape of the tool is slightly elongated elliptical. The
entire tool is covered with extensive dressing all along the circumference. In
shape these compare with the sports item discuss that is used as a missile. The
only difference is that the Ovate is not circular.

If a core has been shaped like a handaxe but one of the surfaces is entirely original
cortex then such a specimen can be called a proto-handaxe. This is mainly because
handaxe by definition has to be a biface. Thus, leaving an entire surface untouched
shows that it has not been finished, hence the name. If, however, one of the
surfaces has single flake scar with a positive bulb of percussion then this needs
to be called a flake handaxe. In some countries in the old world flake handaxes
are quite common in middle and upper Acheulian evidences.

Fig. 2.2: Different types of Handaxes

25
Archaeological Units

Fig. 2.3: Different types of Handaxes

Fig. 2.4: Different types of Handaxes

Cleaver
This is also a biface like a handaxe, with the only difference that here the working
end is broad, transverse and not pointed. The difference between this type and
handaxe is so little that Francois Borders suggested that these should not be
counted as two separate types. The generic type was named ‘Biface and handaxe’
and cleavers are re designated as two sub types of this.
In India and Africa a large majority of cleavers are prepared on medium sized
flakes. A flat and sloping scar is so removed from the anterior end that this
intersects with scar of detachment of the under surface to give rise to a transverse
working end. The lateral borders are worked in such a manner that the cross
section of the tool appears like a parallelogram.
26
Thus, whether on a core or on a flake the cleavers generally will have parallel Tool Families
side represented by lateral borders culmination into a sharp border across the
axis at the anterior end. These cleavers as a rule have a shape like a ‘U’. In some
cases the sharp border is not actually across the mid axis and is inclined to the
right or left. Such cleavers are designated as a cleavers with inclined working
edge. There are yet some cleavers where the posterior end is both thick and also
pointed. Such cleavers are called ‘V’ shaped cleavers is contradistinction to what
has earlier been described as ‘U’ shaped cleavers. Both these varieties of cleavers
can be either made transverse or inclined.
For statistical analysis as also for computation of proportion of core tools to
flake tools, handaxes and cleavers made on flakes are classified within core-tool
category.

Flake tools
A flake can be big when detached from massive cores. But such massive flakes
are seldom used to make flake tools. These are usually made on flakes which do
not exceed 8 to 9 cm in length. The larger flakes are often the staring point for
preparing a handaxes or cleaver but not what is understood by the term flake tool.

A flake becomes a tool only when it is worked and very precisely ‘retouched’
along any one or the both the longitudinal edge. The area so worked determines
the type of a flake tool. Here a word of explanation is required for the word
“retouching.” A series of nibblings executed in a contiguous manner along a
border is called retouching. A flake tool seldom shows any kind of attention to
its surfaces. (Refer to relevant portion on tool technology from Unit 3.)

In case of a piece of flake tool, a bulb of percussion appears on the main flake
surface at the point of impact of the hammer blow, characteristically both of
them remain untouched excepting employment of retouching on the edges. On
the other hand opposite surface will show some flake scars of earlier workmanship
or the traces of original pebble cortex, and largely remained untouched. In case
of levalloisean flake, of course, the entire dorsal surface will show the centrally
directed flake scars removed before the ‘flake’ was detached from the parent
lump of stone or a prepared core.

There are four predominant flake tool types. These are (i) side scraper, (ii) point,
(iii) Borer and (iv) Knife.

Side Scarper: This is the most prolific tool type of the Middle Palaeolithic
period. A simple flake is taken and retouching are delivered along one of its
borders. This is designated as a ‘single side scraper’ when one border is retouched.
This border can be convex, concave or straight. To determine if the border is
convex etc. a simple method is prescribed. Bring a pencil or a scale and touch
the retouched border. If it touches the straight pencil at one point then call this
border convex. If it touches at two points then call the border concave. If it
touches at more than two points call the border straight. Thus, we see that a
single side scarper can have three sub types. These will be written as ‘Single
Side Scraper Convex’, ‘Single Side Scarper Concave’ and ‘Single Side Scarper
Straight’. Another variety of side scraper can be when two of its borders are
retouched in such a manner that they do not meet. Such side scrapers will have
six possible sub-types. These will be written as ‘Double Side Scraper bi-convex’
27
Archaeological Units or ‘double side scraper concave-convex’ and so on. If the two scraping borders
meet at a point then such side scrapers are termed ‘Convergent side scrapers’. In
this category we do not count size sub types. Here concave is taken as the most
dominant feature, straight the next dominant and convex the least dominant. So
that if the two borders in a convergent side scraper are straight and convex it will
be called straight. In the same way, if the two borders are straight and concave it
will be called concave. Thus convergent side scarper straight will have only two
convergent borders. In a tabular form it will be as follows:
Convergent side scraper convex – Convex + Convex
Convergent side scarper straight– a) Convex + straight
b) Straight + straight
Convergent Side Scraper Concave – a) Concave + Concave
b) Convex + Concave
c) Straight + concave

Fig. 2.5: Different types of Side Scrapers

Finally, a fourth variety of side scarper is also described. This is called ‘Transverse
Side Scarper’. If the retouched border of the flake is situated across the positive
bulb of percussion (which is usually situated in the under surface) such a type is
called Transverse Side Scraper.

28
The relative frequencies of all these varieties of side scrapers, their manner of Tool Families
preparation and the various sub types provide a very useful tool that demonstrates
regional variations in respect of adaptation and skill as also the fashioning trends.

Point: A flake is so retouched along its two converging borders that a pointed
end is projected anteriorly. The emphasis of this point is more sturdy than sharp
in Middle Palaeolithic. In Upper Palaeolithic these points are both thinner and
sharper. In many cases the converging borders are not more towards the pointed
region. The base of this triangle shaped can also be given a lateral in curve like a
shoulder. Such specimens can be called single shouldered point. If a similar
shoulder is made on the other side of the base it will be called a double shouldered
point or an arrow head (Aterian culture in North Africa abounds in this tool
type). As mentioned, varieties of points dominate in European Upper Palaeolithic
after the Mousterian Culture of the same territory. Authors of the former were
the Homo Sapiens sapiens i.e. the Cro-Magnon, Grimaldi and the Chancelede
whereas Homo sapiens i.e. Homo Neanderthalensis ruled the latter.

Fig. 2.6: Different types of Point

iii) Borer
These are usually prepared on sturdy flakes. Two lateral in curves are made in
such a manner that a part of the flake projects out in the manner of a spike. Some
times on suitable flakes only one lateral in curve is enough to get the boring edge
project out. Such borers are termed ‘atypical borers’.

The method of producing lateral in curves on the border of flake is also termed
as a Notch. Such types can be prepared both on a flake as also on a blade. If two
29
Archaeological Units or more notches are prepared in a contiguous manner such a type is called a
Denticulate. Like in the earlier case a Denticulate also can be prepared on both
flakes as also on blades.

iv) Knives
‘Knife’ as a type of flake tool was not recognised till about 1965 when Francois
Borders published his recommendations for Lower and Middle Palaeolithic tool
types. This is prepared on a thick elongated flake. One of the lateral edges or
borders is thick and is blunted by removing several step scars. The other edge or
the border is sharp and runs along the lengthwise axis of the flake. The two
surfaces of the flake intersect and thus produce a sharp cutting edge to work
with. The finished specimen looks exactly like a single pool of a common orange.
The thicker edge is meant for holding in hand of the worker and the opposite
sharp in cutting and scraping. It also designated to form the techno-complex,
Mode-III.

Fig. 2.7: Tool types of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic cultures

Blade tool types

A blade is a long flake that has two parallel margins with the presence of thin
elongated flake marks on one of its surface. Normally, it has a length more than
or equal to twice its breadth. That is, every blade is essentially a flake but every
flake is not a blade. These are usually 8-9 cm in length, 2-3 cm in breadth and
1-2 cm in thickness. The technique of their manufacture is punching, i.e., indirect
percussion with an antler used as an intermediate puncher. Since blade is also
the term used for microliths produced by fluting technique it is advisable to use
the term punched blades or ‘Upper Palaolithic Blades’ for these thick blades.
For those prepared by fluting the term used is either as ‘P.S. Blades’ (parallel
30
sided blades) or simply fluted blades. There are numerous types of tools that are Tool Families
produced on blades during Upper Palaeolithic, but the most dominant among
them are (i) Retouched Blades, (ii) Backed Blades, (iii) Burins (iv) End Scraper
and (v) Leaf points.

Fig. 2.8: Different kinds of Blade tool types

i) Retouched blades
These are one of the most characteristic types found in the Aurignacian
tradition of Southwest France. In fact in European prehistory these are
designated as “aurignacian blades’.

A blade can be retouched in two distinct manners: In one case, the edge or
the border is so retouched that its sharpness does not disappear but reinforced.
This kind of retouching is called semi abrupt retouching. Thus, one makes
a distinction between Retouched Blade (wherein semi abrupt retouching
are executed) and Backed Blade (wherein retouching are steeply executed
in order to blunt the other border of the blade). 31
Archaeological Units A retouched blade is a thick blade which is retouched in a semi abrupt manner
all around the four borders of the rectangular blade. The finished specimen
looks like a slug with a flat ventral surface.

ii) Backed blades

These are blades in which one of the sharp borders of the blade is blunted
with the help of steep flaking. The manner in which this backing is done
determines the type.
a) If the backing is done in such a manner that the backed border meet the
sharp border at a wide angle the type is called Chattelperronean knife.
Here, it is important to emphasise that we have already defined a type
called knife in flake tool type. A Chattelperronean knife is made on a
blade and is an upper Palaeolithic tool, in opposition to the flake knife
which is a Middle Palalaeolithic tool type.
b) If the backing is done in such a manner that the backed border meets the
sharp border at an acute angle then the specimen is called ‘Gravettian Blade’.
Both Chattelperronean knife as well as the Gravettian Blade are the type of
tools for an Upper Palaeolithic tradition of France called Perigordian.
iii) Burins
These are blades in the anterior end of which a screw-driver like edge is
prepared by the careful removal of two sloping facets. It is done with a
vertical blow of a light at one end of a blade held upright. These facets intersect
to form the working edge which is equal to the thickness of the blade. Since
two facets meeting at an acute angle give rise to the working edge the type is
also referred to as ‘dyhedral angle burin’. These are large number of subtypes
of burins identified in Southwest French Prehistoric time. These are ‘Basque
Burin’, ‘Nailles Burin’, ‘Bec-deflute Burin’ and ‘Parrot Beak Burin’.
Essentially all these subtypes of Burins are all dehyderal angle burins, it is
only the manner in which these two hedras are created that separates one type
from the other. A Burin is also named as ‘graver’ and was used in engraving
art objects in caves and rock shelters in Western Europe.

32 Fig. 2.9: Different kinds of Burines

iv) End Scarper Tool Families

A scarping border made of the morphological end of a flake forms this type.
However, since neither a circular or square flake can have an end it is mainly
on a blade that one can have a morphological end. Thus, end scrapers are
thick blades in which the terminal end has been given these retouchings.

These are delivered from the flat under surface of the blade in almost a semi
abrupt manner. There is another variety of end scarper prepared on thick
egg shaped nodules and these are called Carinated End Scarper. The egg
shaped nodule is first directed in an oblong manner and then with the flat
surface so obtained as platform one edge of the circular edge is given steep
retouchings. The tool can conveniently be used in the manner of a carpenters
push plain. Sometimes two notches are removed from the two edges of the
retouched border so that looking from top it looks like a nose. Hence, the
type is called Nosed-end scarper (Otherwise it is essentially counted only as
a variety of carinated end scarper). The last two tool types are characteristic
of French Aurignacian.

v) Leaf Points
This is a very characteristic tool type of Solutrean tradition of French Upper
Palaeolithic. Here flat flakes or blades measuring in average 6 cm × 2 cm
are given series of scars on both the surfaces by pressure flaking technique.
As a result the blades are so reduced in thickness that they tend to be less
than 1 cm in thickness. The anterior end is then pointed. These look like
leaves of a tree and hence the name. In France these are called Laurel leaf
points. In slightly later period these leaf points are short and unifacillay
worked. These may or may not have a shoulder also knocked out on them.
These are called Willow Leaf Points. It also designated to form the techno-
complex, Mode-IV.

Microliths: This is a name given to tools which are prepared on fluted blades.
As a consequence they are, an average much smaller than the prehistoric
tools described earlier. Hence they are named ‘microlith’. These are so small
that no body can imagine that they could have been used individually. Further,
cave paintings as also some evidences from excavated material have now
confirmed that these were used by hafting in combination to produce the
ultimate weapons to be used as a ‘composite tool’. Arrow head and harpoons
are two of the most common possible use for them. Microliths start occurring
from around 14000 BC and continues till agriculture began during 6000
BC. In fact, in lower frequency, these can be seen to continue even during
Iron Age in many parts of the Old World. In India, microliths are known to
be used even today by Korwa tribe of Mirzapur district for cutting the
umbilical cord of the new born baby. Some authors even identified microliths
prepared on glass by some tribes. The glass is obtained from discarded wine
bottles by World War II soldiers. Microlithic tool types are mostly prepared
by blunting a sharp border. The most common types are Lunates, Obliquely
blunted blades and trapezes. Besides these, one can also see some Upper
Palaeolithic types repeated on these micro blades. These are end scrapers
and burins.

33
Archaeological Units

Fig. 2.10: Different kinds of Mesolithic tool types

When no triangles or trapezes are present in a microlithic cluster, it is often

designated as ‘Non-Geometric Microliths’. In case the cluster has triangles and
trapezes this is designated as ‘Geometric Microliths’.

Lunate or Crescent: If one border of a blade is so blunted that it is semi circular

in shape and meets the sharp border at two points such a type is called ‘Lunate’.

Obliquely blunted blades: These are similar to Gravettian points with the only
difference that these are prepared on these smaller fluted blades.

Triangles and Trapezes: These are blades blunted in such a manner that they
take up these geometric shapes.

Grinding and Polishing: This is a technique that has evolved in the last phase
of stone age (Neolithic). It is believed that one of the most important issues
linked with survival was to clear virgin forests and create agricultural fields. The
sturdy axes they used to know earlier will get stuck within the split of the tree
trunk. Consequently they chose to smoothen the surfaces of these axes by what
is described as Grinding and Polishing technique. The type which is prepared by
this technique is called a celt. Celt is a generic name and includes such types as
Axes, Adzes, Chisel, Wedges.

The technique involves the following steps:

Flakes: A suitable rock is chosen and then it is flaked in the shape of an axe
(similar to a cleaver in Lower Palaeolithic).

Pecking: A pointed hammer (mostly an anther tip) is used to systematically break

all the ridges on the surfaces of the axe. These ridges are created when two
flakes scars intersect.
34
Grinding: The flaked or pecked flake or core is later grounded on a stone slab to Tool Families
get the required shape and size with the production of a working edge.

Polishing: The axes so prepared are now having a more or less smooth and
regular surface. These are now rubbed on hard granite stone with sand and water
thrown in from time to time. The result of this action creates on axe which,
unless told, can be mistaken as a metal axe. It is so shining.

Usually all axes are biconvex in cross-section. These are, however, some which
are plano-convex in cross section. These are believed to be used for chiseling.
These are called ‘Adzes’. Some Adzes have an elongated body and a slightly
narrowed anterior end. These are called ‘Shoe-last celts’, on the assumption that
these were probably hafted as a shoe to the primitive ploughs.

Finally another type that emerges with this technique is called a ‘Ring Stone’.
There are flat round stones in the centre of which a hole is made using a spindle
with hard quartz as the tip. The extremely varied size and shape of these ring
stones make it very difficult to comment on their probable function. The general
view is that the massive ones were probably used as mace head for pounding
crops, while the small ones were probably used as net sinkers in nets used for
fishing.

2.6 SUMMARY
In the journey of human evolution if we will see and analyse the past then we can
say our ancestors have spent 90% of their life in Stone Age. This lesson basically
dealt with the how prehistoric man survived with these simple stone tools. This
unit also dealt with cognition of prehistoric mind.

Suggested Reading
Bhattacharya, D.K. 1979. Old Stone Age Tools. A manual of laboratory techniques
of analysis. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi and Company.

Inizan, M.L, Ballinger, M.R, Roche, H and Tixier, J. 1979. Technology and
Terminology Knapped Stone. Nanterre: CREP.

Oakley, K.P. 1972. Man the Tool Maker. London: Trustees of the British museum
natural history.

Sankalia, H.D. 1962. Stone Age Tools. Their Techniques, Names and Probable
Functions. Poona: Deccan College.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the tool types and techniques of Lower, Middle and Upper
Palaeolithic Culture.
2) Discuss the tool types and techniques of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture.
3) What is Blade tool?

35
Archaeological Units
UNIT 3 TOOL TECHNOLOGIES

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 The Earliest Tools
3.2 Raw Materials
3.2.1 Perishable Materials
3.2.2 Non-perishable Materials
3.3 Fracture Mechanics of Stone
3.4 Some Terminological Understanding
3.5 Basic Stone Tool Making Techniques
3.5.1 Percussion Technique
3.5.1.1 Anvil Technique
3.5.1.2 Bipolar Technique
3.5.1.3 Stone Hammer Technique
3.5.1.4 Cylinder Hammer Technique
3.5.1.5 Indirect Percussion or Punch Technique
3.6 Pressure Flaking
3.7 Grinding and Polishing
3.8 Basic Flake Tool Making Techniques
3.8.1 Clactonian Technique
3.8.2 Levalloisian Technique
3.8.3 Mousterian Technique
3..8.4 Retouching and Blunting
3.9 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand what is raw material;
Ø learn tool tradition; and
Ø discuss various stone tool making techniques.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Although prehistorians and archaeologists are sure that the early man initially
used some kind of natural tools made of perishable materials, the emergence of
a stone tool technology during the course of hominid evolution marks a radical
behavioural departure from the rest of the animal world and constitutes the first
definitive evidence in the prehistoric record of a simple lithic cultural tradition
(i.e., one based upon learning). Although other animals (such as the Egyptian
vulture, the California sea otter, and C. Darwin’s Galapagos finch) may use simple
unmodified tools, or even manufacture and use simple tools (as in the termiting
36 and nut-cracking behaviour of wild chimpanzees), a fundamental aspect of human
adaptation is a strong reliance upon technology for survival and adaptation. Tool Technologies
Archaeological evidence shows a geometric increase in the sophistication and
complexity of hominid stone technology over time since its earliest beginnings
at 3–2Ma.

Stone is the principal raw material found in nature. It is very hard and at the
same time is suitable to produce effective working edges when fractured into
pieces. A wide range of tasks can be executed with a piece of well fractured
stone those include animal butchery (hide slitting, disarticulation, meat cutting,
bone breaking), woodworking (chopping, scraping, sawing), hide scraping, plant
cutting, and bone and antler working. Although other perishable materials, such
as wood and bamboo including other raw materials susceptible to decay like
bone, horn, and shell, were probably used early in the evolution of hominid
technology. Tools made of stone are relatively indestructible and so provide the
longest and most detailed record of prehistoric tool manufacture. Therefore stone
tools supplemented biological loss like loss of sharp canines and claws as a
means of adaptation to the environment during the course of human evolution,
and the study of their manufacture and potential uses reveals important
information about the evolution of human culture that was substantiated with
the two free hands with opposable thumbs, erect posture together with a high
brain capacity.

3.1.1 The Earliest Tools

The earliest archaeological sites bearing definite flaked-stone artifacts (Oldowan
or Omo industry) include those found in Member from the Omo Valley (Ethiopia),
dated to ca. 2.4Ma, the archaeological sites from the Gona region of Hadar
(Ethiopia) at 2.5–2.6Ma, the sites at Lokalalei (Kenya) at 2.34Ma and possibly
Senga-5 (Zaire), between 2.3 and 2Ma. Other sites believed to be at least 1.5
Myr include those in Member E at Omo; Koobi Fora (Kenya) in and above the
KBS Tuff at Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) Beds I and II; and Peninj, west of Lake
Natron (Tanzania). The stone artifacts from the South African caves of Swartkrans
and Sterkfontein (Member 5) may be put in the same time range as well.

3.2 RAW MATERIALS

It was quite obvious that early man after the loss of the power of canine and
claw, was certainly having a kind of habit to pick some natural objects of
perishable and non-perishable materials to defend him and in search of his food.
It is true that tools from perishable raw materials do not survive in archaeological
ruins but one can substantiate the use of such objects rather a tool from
ethnographic sources. Therefore when raw materials of prehistoric tools are
concerned, it classified into ‘perishable’ and ‘non-perishable’ objects.

3.2.1 Perishable Materials

Perishable materials comprise materials like wood, bamboo and different parts
of animal bones.

3.2.2 Non-perishable Materials

The typical rock from which artifacts are produced are relatively fine grained
hard igneous rocks suitable to fracture easily in any direction (i.e., they are
isotropic). 37
Archaeological Units Commonly used rock types are flint or chert, quartzite, quartz, agate, chalcedony,
jasper and various other igneous rocks, including obsidian (volcanic glass). Some
materials namely flint or chert, can be more easily worked after heat treatment (a
controlled heating that alters crystal structure), a practice that may have begun in
Late Paleolithic times.
The different types of raw materials vary widely in their overall spatial
distributions and in time in terms of size, shape, quantity, and quality. They may
be found in primary geological context, that is, at their site of origin or formation,
such as a lava flow, quartz vein, quartzite layer, or flint nodule seam, or they may
be in secondary (redeposited) context, such as cobbles in river gravels or rocks
forming the pavement of desert surfaces.
Both the cultural rules regarding artifact design and the intended use of a tool
influence the tool types those are found in the prehistoric record. Cultural norms
and functional requirements in addition to size, shape, quality, and flaking
characteristics of the stone material also can strongly affect the kind of artifact.
More sophisticated, delicately flaked artifacts can generally be made in fine-
grained materials like high-quality flint and chert than are usually made in coarse-
grained rocks. The relative abundance or scarcity of stone suitable for flaking
affects the qualities, quantities and sizes of artifacts. For this reason the artifacts
made in rock available locally often tend to be larger and found in greater numbers
than artifacts made from stone transported over greater distances.
In general, there is increasing selectivity in use of stone materials over time in
the Palaeolithic age. Later Stone Age people were found to concentrate more on
finer-grained, high quality rock sources, often quite localized in distribution and
transported from some distance. Stone tools are broadly categorised into Core
tool and Flake tool. Subsequently different tool-making tools are associated with
them.

3.3 FRACTURE MECHANICS OF STONE

One type of fracture observed in stone-tool manufacture is often called conchoidal
fracture. This means conch shell like ripples or swirls that is generally evident in
the artifacts manufactured in finer-grained materials. In stone-tool manufacture,
a sufficiently enough force is applied to the stone in a controlled fashion. The
stone usually fractures in alignment with its crystalline structure; thus, non-
crystalline or finer-grained materials, especially isotropic materials with no
preferential cleavage planes, such as obsidian or flint, tend to produce a smoother
and more predictable fracture.
The stone is deliberately fractured (or flaked) either through a sharp, percussive
blow (direct or indirect flaking) or through the application of a compressive
force (pressure flaking). The parent piece of rock is called the core, and the spills
so removed are named the flakes.
Fracture in core is done by a hammer placed at an acute angle (less than 90°) to
the core. For this reason, in manufacturing tools from rounded pieces of rock,
such as stream cobbles, which have got pronounced overhangs or are with
flattened edges tend to be easier to flake than more spherical pieces. When a
hammer strikes the core obliquely and with sufficient force near one of these
edges, a flake is detached, that results in an associated scar called a ‘flake scar;
38 on the core (Fig. 3.1).
 Tool Technologies

Fig. 3.1: Core and Flake (modified from Whittaker, 1994)

There are several characteristics features of the flake. The surface which was
detached from the inside of the core is called the ventral, or release, surface.
This surface includes a striking platform (butt) at the top of the flake with a
definite point of percussion, where the hammer had struck, a bulb of percussion,
a bulbar scar (éraillure), ripples or waves, and fissures. The outer surface of the
flake is known as dorsal surface. On this surface several features are found.
Sometimes a cortex, which is a weathered surface of the core and/or scars of
flakes removed previously from the core (Fig. 3.2).
Although some natural processes (e.g., high-energy fluviatile or glacial forces)
can produce percussion flaking on pieces of stone, they do not exhibit the
controlled, patterned removal of flakes characteristic of even the earliest stone
industries. Early hominids clearly had a sound intuitive sense of geometry when
flaking rock and expertly exploited acute angles on cores.

Fig.3.2: Flake Landmarks (Modified from Whittaker, 1994) 39

Archaeological Units
3.4 SOME TERMINOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING
The mechanics of flake formation in stone tool making and use are basically the
same and any differences that occur can be attributed to scale. As much as possible
archaeologists and anthropologists use nonspecific language to describe the
phenomenon of flaking, and here following Cotterell and Kamminga, (1987)
some such terms are described, most of which is indicated in the following
diagram (Fig. 3.3).

Fig.3.3: Flake Terminology (modified from Cotterell and Kamminga, 1987)

A ‘flake’ is a kind of fragment detached from a nucleus. A nucleus or ‘core’ is a

piece of rock from which a flake is detached, and the selected core, which is
considered as a ‘future tool’ after it is picked up and finally it is systematically
transformed into a ‘tool’. It is important that before the selection of a core, the
tool maker was certainly having a kind of positive notion in his mind regarding
shape, size and future use of the tool.

3.5 BASIC STONE TOOL MAKING TECHNIQUES

The Basic stone tool making techniques can be divided in the following way-
Basic Techniques of
Stone Reduction

Pressure Grinding, Pecking,

Percussion
Polishing

Direct Indirect Punch

Bi-Polar Technique

Anvil or Block on
Block Technique

Stone Huammer
Technique

Clyinder Hammer
Technique

40 All the above techniques are described below.

3.5.1 Percussion Technique Tool Technologies

The simplest and most obvious way to remove a flake is by directly striking the
stone with another object preferably a stone as a hammer. The earliest crude
stone tools were primarily the result of direct percussion; there were great
refinement in indirect percussion. The tool maker has been referred as a ‘knapper’
who used two types of hammer: a hard hammer or a stone hammer selected
mostly from a river pebble. and a soft hammer. The latter is a hammer of antler,
wood, bone, or other material, softer and more resilient than stone, hardened
pieces of long bones or antlers. Stone hammers continued in use since the Lower
Palaeolithic times. During Acheulean culture stone hammer was used but
cylindrical hammer as well as soft hammer was used for final shaping. Stone
hammer results in removal of large flakes and with the help of cylindrical hammer
smaller, shallow, round and fish scale like flakes are removed. Beside these one
of the earliest form of percussion method used by prehistoric people was Anvil
technique or Block-on-block technique and Bipolar technique. These were
prevalent in Lower Palaeolithic times.

3.5.1.1 Anvil Technique or Block-on-block Technique

A core is struck against a stationary anvil to produce flakes. This percussion
technique is sometimes used in flaking very large cores. The features on flakes
and cores are similar to hard-hammer percussion (Fig.3.4).

Fig.3.4: Anvil or Block-on-block technique (Modified from Whittaker, 1994)

3.5.1.2 Bipolar Technique

Simply involves Setting a core on an anvil and hitting the core from above with
a hammer stone, just like cracking a nut. This technique was often used for very
small or intractable, hard-to-flake raw materials. In such a case, ‘positive bulb of
percussion’ appears on both the ends of the tool. (Fig.3.5).

Fig. 3.5: Bipolar technique

3.5.1.3 Stone Hammer Technique

Usually refers to the use of a stone hammer used in making handaxes during
Abbevillean culture. In this technique large flakes were struck off and therefore
profile lines of the handaxes of that time are wavy (Fig. 3.6).
41
Archaeological Units

Fig. 3.6: Hard hammer percussion with a stone hammer. The knapper uses a precision grip
on the pebble hammer stone because not much force is needed. The blow strikes
the top of the core, and the flake comes off the underlying surface (Modified from
Whittaker, 2004)

3.5.1.4 Cylinder Hammer Technique (Fig.3.7)

On the other hand, often means the use of a hammer of antler, wood, bone, or
other material softer and more resilient than stone. Such tools are often called
batons or billets. Soft hammers are less effective than hard for removing large
flakes from normal cores; so the use of a soft hammer often implies to bifaces
produced during the Acheulian culture of Lower Palaeolithic times. In case of
the entire handaxe industry of the Abbevillo-Acheulian culture, best piece of
handaxes were made with this technique, and ‘ovate’ from Europe was the
representative tool of this time. In Africa and India, ‘cleaver’ is a branded tool of
this culture. Small flakes were carefully removed with the said hammer from the
edge towards the centre of the tool and this was the advantage of the cylindrical
hammer, the blows of which could be given in a controlled way. In case of handaxe
industry of Lower Palaeolithic time, a handaxe is also known as a ‘biface’ or a
‘coup-de-poing’. In other cases, bifacial tool has been mentioned as similar to
handaxe, the blows fall on the edges, rather than on the flat platform surfaces of
normal cores. The edges of bifaces (handaxe like tools) in production are generally
strengthened by intentionally dulling them, because a thin, sharp edge will crush
under the blow rather than transmitting the force to a clean flake fracture. The
flakes produced in making bifaces have somewhat different traits from the normal
hard hammer core flake and are often referred to as biface thinning flakes.
Hammers of all degrees of hardness can be used somewhat interchangeably, and
the difference in the kinds of flakes produced depends in part on how the hammer
is used and what form of artifact is being worked. Quite often, a large flake
struck with a hard hammer is thinned and shaped with a soft hammer to make a
finished bifacial tool, or a previously prepared form (perform) that can be finished
by pressure flaking as described below.

42
 Tool Technologies

Fig.3.7: Soft hammer Percussion using wood or antler (Modified from Whittaker, 1994,
2004)

3.5.1.5 Indirect Percussion or Punch Technique

Means that the blow is transmitted to the stone through an intermediate punch,
usually made of antler called a ‘puncher’. This is a relatively uncommon
technique, though there are several modern knappers who use different styles of
indirect percussion to thin bifaces. However, because the punch can be small,
and can be placed very precisely, indirect percussion has some advantages over
direct percussion techniques and is also used for making blades (long, straight
flakes) or for notching projectile points. The disadvantage is that tools must be
held with both hands, making it more difficult to stabilize the piece that is being
worked, and many modern Knappers find it slow and clumsy. Those modern
knappers who are expert at indirect percussion, however, consider it every bit as
good as more common techniques (Fig.3.8).

Fig.3.8: Indirect percussion with a large Antler punch (Modified from Whittaker, 2004) 43
Archaeological Units
3.6 PRESSURE FLAKING
The final category of knapping techniques is pressure flaking. In pressure flaking,
the force is applied by pressing instead of striking. This allows great precision,
but generally limits the amount of force. Pressure flaking is most often used for
the final work on refined tools like various leaf points, arrow-heads and for
notching and other details that cannot be done by percussion.
In pressure flaking, the point is held on a pad of some sort in the hand or
occasionally on a bench or table like object, while the other hand presses the tool
against the edge of the stone, directing the force both inward, to make the flake
run across the face being worked, and downward, which begins the fracture.
Pressure flaking can be made more powerful by adding the pressure of the legs,
or the leverage of a longer tool, called an Ishi stick by many knappers, which is
held under the arm. The name honuors Ishi, last survivor of a group of Yahi
Indians from California. His flint knapping skills and tools were recorded by a
number of early anthropologists and are admired by modern knappers. It is also
possible to remove very long flakes (called blades by archaeologists) from a
core by pressing with a chest crutch or other tool that allows the body weight to
be brought to bear (Fig. 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11).

Fig.3.9: Pressure flaking on a bench. Fig.3.10: Pressure flaking into hand pad with
an Ishi’s stick. punch (Modified from
Whittaker, 2004)

Fig.3.11: Making obsidian Pressure Blade with a Chest crutch punch (Modified from
44 Whittaker, 2004)
 Tool Technologies
3.7 GRINDING AND POLISHING
It involves grinding and shaping a rock by rubbing it against another rock. Prior
to the said operation, the selected core for this purpose is processed by percussion
technique in giving a desired shape to the future tool. Partly flaked and ground –
edged tools bear the testimony of this application. Celts that include axes, adzes,
chisels and others were manufactured by this technique. Polishing is a stage that
is applied to give the tool a smooth and shining texture. This part of action is
done by rubbing the tool to furry animal skin. These techniques are applied on
hard grained material and often were useful for re-sharpening a Celt when its
working edge get damaged. This technique is often associated with Neolithic
farming communities in Southeast Asia, Europe, and North Africa, but it can be
found also among aboriginal hunter-gatherer communities of Australia.

3.8 BASIC FLAKE TOOL MAKING

TECHNIQUES
Flake tool tradition made its appearance at the end of the Lower Palaeolithic and
flourished since then through Middle Palaeolithic times. A number of flaking
technologies were used to make blanks and to shape a core into a finished tool.
Here a chart is given which shows some basic flake-tool making techniques.

Basic Tool
Making
Technologies

Clactonian Levalloisian Mousterian

Technology Technology Technology

However beside these a number of other techniques like crested blade technology
and Kombewa technology were also present at that time. Brief description of
these basic technologies are given below:

3.8.1 Clactonian Technique

It originally involves use of anvil technique to produce large flake tools. From
the name of the type site Clacton-on-sea, this technology is known as Clactonian
method. The flakes produced by this technique present large natural striking
platform with very pronounced interior angle (greater than 105 degrees), which
is produced due to the intersection of the axis going through the natural striking
platform with the axis going though the main flake surface, and a diffuse bulb of
percussion. The lack of any surface preparation makes these flakes highly variable
in structure and thickness.

3.8. 2 Levalloisian Technique

This is a prepared-core technology named after a place called Levallois-Perret, a
suburb of Paris where flakes and cores of this kind were first recovered and
45
Archaeological Units defined. Levallois technology is most characteristic of Middle Paleolithic
industries but begins to appear before 200Ka, in some cases in association with
Early Paleolithic industries.

Levallois cores were artificially prepared for striking out better flakes to make a
better kind of tool. Centrally directed removals were generally used to create a
square, ovoid, or other regularly shaped block of stone, which was more or less
flat on the upper surface and markedly convex on the lower surface (planoconvex).
The sides of the block were also convex (lateral convexities). A striking platform,
at right angle to the flat upper surface was prepared at one end of the core. The
Levallois flake was then removed from the upper surface by bringing the striking
platform down sharply at an angle on an anvil. The large flake that often resulted
was extremely thin in size, conformed closely to the outline of the prepared
core, and retained the pattern of centrally directed removals on its upper surface,
as well as the facets of the striking platform. Although not all of these features
characterise every Levallois flake or core, the distinctive thinness of Levallois
flakes, together with their regular shape, are suggestive of the use of the technology
in a particular assemblage. Definitive determination of Levallois technology,
however, can be made only by reconstructing the entire knapping process through
refitting. It is worth mentioning that the angle produced by the intersection of
the axis passing through the prepared striking platform with the axis that passes
through the main flake surface is always a right angle.

3.8.3 Mousterian Technique

The Mousterian or disc core technology is characterised by centripetal flaking
around the entire core margin on one or both surfaces. Although it is not different
to Levallois in both the technique and form of removed flakes, it lacks clear
support that the exterior morphology of the core was specially prepared to achieve
a flake of a particular form. Two characteristic products of this technology are
the pseudo Levallois point and the disc core itself. The later is generally circular
in form with centripetal flake scars and typically has a flaking surface that is
quite high or even pointed at the mid point.

Neanderthals were primitive humans and are the Mousterian tool-

makers. Massive skeleton and teeth, flat foreheads and heavy brow
ridges were the characteristic features of Neanderthals. The Mousterian
tool habit gets its name from artifacts discovered at a ancient rock shelter
named Le Moustier in south western France.

3.8.4 Retouching and Blunting

The term retouching involves removal of flakes from a piece of stone. Sometimes
the term primary retouch refers to the initial, roughing-out stages of stone
reduction, while secondary retouch designates the more refined reduction of
stone material, as in the case of bifacial thinning or the shaping of flake tools.
Some archaeologists restrict the term to refer to the formation of flake tools.
Where as blunting is a form of retouching which is done in such a way that a
sharp edge of a flake turns into a blunt edge. Most developed form of retouching
and blunting were actually developed during the greater part of Stone Age
especially during Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic to make various type of points
and microliths.

46
 Tool Technologies
3.9 SUMMARY
The study of stone technology does not entail simply observing the techniques
or procedures of artifact manufacture; ideally, it considers a complex series of
prehistoric actions that surround the creation of a set of tools at an archaeological
site. It is useful to view stone technology as a system that encompasses the
procurement of raw materials, the manufacture of tools from those materials, the
transport of tools and raw materials, use of the tool, the re-sharpening and
reshaping of the tools, artifact discard or loss, and the final incorporation of the
stone tools within the archaeological record. Within each major component of
this system, there are some basic questions that can yield important information
about prehistoric behaviour.

Suggested Reading
Andrefsky, W. 2005. Lithics Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Cotterell, B. and J. Kamminga (1987). The Formation of Flakes. American
Antiquity, 50:755 – 779.
Dibble, H. and A. Debenath. 1994. Hand Book of Paleolithic Typology (Vol I):
Lower and Middle Paleolithic Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Leakey, L.S.B. 1958. Working with Stone, Bone and Antler. In History of
Technology vol – 1 ed. by C. Singer. Oxford:E.J Holmyard and A.R Mall
Clarendon Press.
Sankalia, H.D. 1964. Stone Age Tools : Their Techniques of Manufacture, Name
and Use. Pune: Deccan College.
Semenov, S.A. 1964. Prehistoric Technology. London: Cory Adams and Mackay.
Whittaker, J. C. 2004. American Flintknappers. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Whittaker, John. 1994. Flint Knapping : Making and Understanding Stone Tools.
Austin: University of Texas Press.

Sample Questions
1) What were the basic technologies used during Lower and Middle Paleolithic?

2) What do you mean by the term ‘flake’? Describe different feature of a flake
with suitable diagram.

3) Discuss briefly the direct percussion method with suitable diagram.

4) Mention name of at least three sites from which earliest stone tools are
discovered. What types of raw materials were used to make stone tools?

5) What do you mean by the term lithic technology? Why study of lithic
technology is important in prehistory?

6) What type of rock fracture was used to make stone tools? Define the following
terms with diagram: Indenter, Edge angle, Flaking angle, and Force angle.

47
Archaeological Units 7) What is bi-polar technique? What do you mean by the terms retouching and
blunting?
Write short notes on the following with suitable diagrams.
i) Levallois Technique
ii) Soft hammer percussion Technique
iii) Pressure flaking Technique

48
 Tool Technologies
UNIT 4 HOUSEHOLD AND DECORATIVE
OBJECTS

Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Household/Shelter of Prehistoric Man
4.3 Household Objects
4.3.1 Artefacts
4.3.1.1 Cutting and Piercing Tools
4.3.1.2 Grinding Implements
4.3.1.2.1 Grinder, Muller, Pounder, Pestles, Saddle Querns, Mace-
Heads, Stone Tablets
4.3.2 Artefacts on Perishable Materials: Wood and Bone
4.4 Baskets, Earthenware and Potter’s Wheel
4.5 Harnessing of Fire and Flint Box
4.6 Dress and Ornaments
4.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø identify the different types of household and decorative objects;
Ø understand the function of these objects;
Ø understand methods of use to study the relationship between people and
environment; and
Ø understand the evolution of different household objects from prehistoric
period.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Man is a tool-making animal. Tools made by man to harness the existing
environment around him for better survival. Every man either primitive or modern
needs material equipment. The tools are made on various materials available in
nature. With the tools man harnesses natural resources for his survival. Material
culture is a vital component of human subsistence. The fundamental necessities
of man to have his existence on this earth are food, shelter and clothing. The
study of material culture of people is of great importance because they throw
light on values of the artefacts and on the nature of invention and on the patter of
diffusion of inventions and ideas. The artefacts have great importance for their
relations to the whole economic and social organisation and to religious and
other ceremonial practices.
Material culture means all the objects used or made by man for his survival or
for supporting and improving his life. A home used to be a bustling centre of
This unit can also be read as Shelter and Material Objects. 49
Archaeological Units economic activity. Utensils for making daily requirements like food, clothing
and many other simple things were found in the home and abode of man.
Household activities for different purposes may be categorised as follows.

Cutting and Piercing

Storing

Preparing and serving food and drink

HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES

Making fire

Tying things together, string, ropes, cords

Making clothes

Grooming

4.2 HOUSEHOLD/SHELTER OF PREHISTORIC MAN

Household of early man depended on the nature of shelter or accommodation.
Type of habitation differed according to the local climatic condition. In a warmer
climate early men lived in open air. He needed shelter in cold and rainy weather.
Caves were not convenient for habitation because a cave was dark, damp and
den of carnivorous animals. Men could only venture into the cave when he learnt
to use fire. With fire he could see what is inside the cave, could drive out other
occupants of the cave. Prior to the discovery of use of fire most of the bones of
early men recovered from the cave are proved to be of those who were prey to
carnivores. This has very well proved with evidences from South Africa. Towards
the end of Pleistocene times, man conveniently chose to live inside natural housing
facilities like caves and rock shelters. Early man was nomadic. He selected natural
shelters at different times at different locations. ‘The Great Ice Age’ during the
Pleistocene period made the climate of temperate Europe severely cold and
therefore prehistoric man lived inside caves and rock shelters comfortably, only
after he discovered the use of fire. You can very well imagine the predicament of
early men in bad weathers. However, even as early as Lower Palaeolithic times
men could raise a kind of wind break and get shelter from inclement weather.
Such evidence is found at an Acheulian site in Bihar, India (Pant and Jayswal,
50 1991).
With the advent of Holocene age when climate became warm and humid, and it Household and Decorative
Objects
made the man to live in open environment under the direct impact of sunlight
and the dark and the moonlit night under the star laden sky. We could see
emergence of new thoughts and ideas towards the end of Pleistocene with
considerable cultural developments. With new climatic situation during Holocene,
man gathered enormous wealth of knowledge about nature and identified
cultivable cereals and started to have some kind of sedentary existence. Instead
of migrating from place to place they made some kind of shelter to live in.

4.3 HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS

World of the material objects of prehistoric man is certainly too difficult to
estimate. Early man used all sorts of material objects available in his surroundings
either out of curiosity or for using them to defend him from predators, for food
getting and for making shelter. Culture can be divided into two parts, tangible
and intangible. Tangible part of the culture is also known as material culture
because it consists of materials which can be seen, touched and felt and are used
by man for his subsistence. You cannot see or touch the intangible part of the
culture but can only feel its existence. This part consists of social behaviour,
social organisation, ideas, beliefs and customs. There may be some material
representation of them, such as, you may see an idol but the faith and belief
connected with is intangible. Upper Palaeolithic men produced art. This has a
material existence but you can only imagine the purpose and idea behind such
production. Any piece of identifiable objects of prehistoric past irrespective of
its material and spiritual affiliation is an essential part of ‘Culture’.

Household articles on the basis of their activity may be categorised into:

Cutting and Piercing, Storing, Preparing and serving food and drink,
Making fire, Tying things together (string, ropes, cords), Making clothes
and Grooming.

4.3.1 Artefacts
Any kind of material object made of any kind of raw material, which the early
man either made or used is called an ‘artefact’ or a ‘tool’ or an ‘implement’. Of
all the tools made by man mostly stone tools survived the devastation of time.

4.3.1.1 Cutting and Piercing Tools

The tools for cutting and cleaving are among the most early tools invented by
mankind. If at first they were only used for butchering animals, they become
more varied as people began to make clothes, build shelters and gather
possessions. Cutting tools presume primary importance over others because of
its efficiency. With these man can exploits its environment and make other tools
and devices. Cutting tools may be classified in three major ways: by their function
or use, by the material of which they are made and by the techniques used to
manufacture them.

In terms of the function and use the cutting tools can be broadly categorised into
five groups, namely, Choppers, knives, chisels or gravers, scrapers and borers.
Tool types of prehistoric period are usually studied in several ways; first by
studying the stone tools, secondly by trying to imitate their function today, thirdly
by observing primitive people in a comparable cultural set up making similar
51
Archaeological Units tools and using them. For example a stone blade of upper Palaeolithic period
looks similar to a safety razor blade of present day.

Chopper and Chopping tool: These tools are usually round or semi oval with
an almost straight cutting edge. The edge is formed by removal of flakes from
only the upper surface of the implement or from both the surfaces of the tools.
The cutting edge may either be along the side or across the end of the specimen.
These tools could have been used for chopping of meat, blocks of wood etc.
These are quite heavy and large. This forms a characteristic feature of earliest
tools of Palaeolithic culture.

Hand axe: The handaxes are found in various shapes, such as, pear, almond,
heart. Also oval or lance like shape. Hand axes are known as multipurpose tools
because many works, such as, cutting, scraping, digging and boring could be
done with a single tool.

Cleavers: The cleavers are characterised by a broad, transverse cutting edge. It

looks like a modern axe head. The tool was probably used for cleaving and
cutting.

Scraper: As the name indicates the scrapers are used for scraping such objects
as bark of trees, dressing of thin wooden or bamboo shaft and skin of animals as
well as for various other purposes. According to the shape of a particular piece
and the location and nature of scraping edge the tool is named as Side scraper,
End Scraper, Round Scraper, Concave Scraper, Convex Scraper. Scrapers were
predominant tool type of Palaeolithic period mainly in Middle Palaeolithic and
continued for a longer time period till today in different raw materials.

Blade tools: The blade is a narrow or slender parallel sided flake and its length
is at least twice its breadth. Special tool types made from blade are the blunted
backed blade, the knives with one blunted edge. These were used for cutting
foodstuffs, for carving wood and bone in households.

Some other tools: The burin or graver primarily used for engraving and for
making slots in wood and bone, the notched blades were used in the same way as
the contemporary spoke shaves, the borer or awl probably used to make holes.
Occasionally things had to be stitched together and awls were used to make
holes through materials. The blades with one or both ends sharpened were for
scraping hides.

Microliths of Mesolithic period were prepared from blades and used as composite
tools after hafting in a shaft. Micro-blades were hafted on shafts and were used
as ‘harvesting knives’ or ‘sickles’.

The most commonly available tools of early man were primarily made by
percussion technique on rocks comprising igneous, metamorphic and indurated
sedimentary rocks. Flint was used in Europe and quartzite was used in Africa
and India. Quartz, chart, chalcedony, agate, jasper and number of precious and
semi-precious rocks were selected for the purpose of making a tool whether it is
a core tool or a flake tool, or the microliths or the Celts. Metallic tools appear at
later date.

52
 Household and Decorative
Objects

Fig. 4.1: Stone and iron Chopper

Fig. 4.2: Stone Handaxe, Cleaver and copper axe head

Fig. 4.3: Scraper, Burin, awl

Fig. 4.4: Stone and copper adzes

53
Archaeological Units

Fig. 4.5: Stone and Metal adze

Fig. 4.6: Stone and copper chisel

Fig. 4.7: Sickle of stone blade and iron sickle

54
Sharp edges of cutting tools became blunt for repeated use. Stone knives and Household and Decorative
Objects
axes were generally not ground but knapped. Re-sharpening consisted in hitting
the blade near its cutting edge, flaking off small slivers of stone and leaving
behind sharp ridge.

Metal blades were sharpened by whetting them with a smooth stone, dents were
removed by hammering. The edges of the tools were hardened by annealing, that
is, heating the tools and letting them cool slowly and hammering.

4.3.1.2 Grinding Implements

In the natural world, there are resources which may be used for everyday life
directly or after some comparatively simple preparation process. Earliest humans
hunted various kinds of animals and gathered edible fruits, nuts, tubers etc.
Grinding implements used to play very important role in the first step of the food
preparation process. It is an interesting fact that almost all the ancient grinding
implements devised by humans throughout the history have continued to be used
domestically even after the advent of more efficient and specialised ones. The
most important achievement of use of grinders was the increase in human food
supply. Many wild grass seeds which had been inedible in their raw state became
edible by grinding. Cereals, especially wheat, barley, rice, millet required some
tedious processing, such as, threshing, hulling or milling. In course of time, the
earliest primitive grinding implement was gradually improved, enlarged and
specialised for each purpose.

4.3.1.2.1 Grinder, Muller, Pounder, Pestles, Saddle Querns, Mace-

Heads, Stone Tablets
Though you may say that there is no clear evidence to tell us what sort of
implements were tried, we can easily imagine that man would take one of the
following three possible ways according to the characteristics of the grains he
used:
• Pounding which would lead to a mortar and pestle and later to a stamp mill.
• Rolling which would lead to an edge-runner.
• Rubbing which would lead to a rubbing stone, a saddle quern, and later a
rotary quern.
Different courses of development of implements could be seen at different regions
of the world, related to the grain available. As all of you know that rice or millet
was not necessarily ground to powder, because they could be cooked after hulling
only.

Following are the descriptions of some grinding implements used by early man
in prehistoric times:

i) Mullers

Muller is a rubbing stone. As you very well know these are stones used for
grinding grains, on a saddle quern. Today these are used all over India. In earlier
periods man seem to have used only natural pebble for grinding purposes. Majority
of them are made of sand stone or quartzite. The mullers were generally cylindrical
stones.
55
Archaeological Units

Fig. 4.8: Muller

ii) Mortar and Pestle

The earliest grinding implements found from the remains of the Prehistoric era
consisted of a roundish stone which was held in the hands and a larger hollowed
stone for a bed stone. The hollowness is necessary for efficient impaction and to
prevent grain from falling off the stone. Husks of the grains are hulled. The
grains are further ground and powdered on a mortar with the help of a pestle.

Fig. 4.9: Mortar and pastle

iii) Saddle Quern

Saddle Querns or Mill-stone is a comparatively large, roughly square or
rectangular stone slabs with flattish or concave surfaces. These began to appear
along with ground stone tools. Since its flat surface have smoothed and or
hollowed out, it is supposed that they were used by men for crushing, grinding
or milling grains. There are three types of Querns.
a) Querns with circular grinding surface brought about by round ball like
hammer stone or mullers.
b) Querns showing up and down grinding surface with plano- convex mullers.
c) Querns exhibiting both these features.
A large number of stone querns have been found both at Mohenjodaro and
Harappa for grinding cereals. All these are saddle querns and no specimen of any
revolving quern has been found. The two main types were those on which another
stone was pushed or rolled to and fro and the others in which a second stone was
used as pounder.
56
 Household and Decorative
Objects

Fig. 4.10: Saddle quern

iv) Rotary Quern

The rotary quern, consisting of two circular stone discs was the beginning of a
new era in grinding technology. Various evidences of fragmented pieces of rotary
querns are found from all over Europe, especially Rome, South-East Asia (Taxila,
600B.C.-500A.D) and China.

Fig. 4.11: Rotary quern

v) Mace head
These are of various shapes but with a drilled hole in the centre. This hole is
meant for fixing the wooden haft through it. This is a kind of pounder. This is
mostly found in Neolithic culture and is made of polished stone. Some mace
heads are found in Mesolithic culture of Europe but those are rough and crude.

Fig. 4.12: Mace head

vi) Stone tablet

Small stone tablets also have been found from archaeological sites. On one or
both flat sides were gracefully composed stylized zoo morphs or curvilinear
geometric designs in deep relief. Paint has been found on some tablets, leading
archaeologists to propose that these stone tablets were probably used to stamp
designs on cloth or animal hides, or onto their own bodies. These are usually
found in the habitation sites of prehistoric man. Some stone tablets found from
Upper Palaeolithic caves in Europe could be an artist’s sketch pad could be a
tablet for writing as is found from the middle east with cuneiform writings.

4.3.2 Artefacts on Perishable Materials: Wood and Bone

You must have seen that many of our present day artefacts are made of perishable
materials like wood and bone. In India and other parts of Asia bamboo is used
for a large number of purposes. If you go to the villages and other rural areas you
will find that bamboo and wood are used for making houses, furniture and even
utensils. This is also found in the cities. We can very well say that bamboo and
57
Archaeological Units wood were profusely used in making tools and utensils. Chopper, a heavy duty
tool and scraper were used for making tools from bamboo and wood.

Tools made of bone, animal teeth, antler and ivory appear during the Upper
Palaeolithic times. These are fashioned in the form of Baton-de-commandement,
lance points, dart thrower, spear thrower, needle, harpoons and fish hooks. These
implements a played major role in the subsistence economy of the people.

Fig. 4.13: Ivory ladles

4.4 BASKETS, EARTHENWARE AND POTTER’S

WHEEL
Can you imagine life without a container? Containers function everywhere as
means of transporting and storing food, artefacts and other material possessions.
In addition containers are widely used in cooking and particularly in boiling of
both liquids and solid food. It is also used for preserving food.

Early man at the very beginning of its evolution was very much like its primate
ancestors who were foragers, meaning, they ate whatever and whenever they
found anything edible, in the same way as the modern monkeys and apes do.
They did not carry food item in a storing device. However, the evolved man is
endowed with a foresight. He may collect his food item for sharing with others
or may be storing for future consumption. For keeping food and other essential
items probably they used leaves, barks of trees, shell etc. which were found in
nature. Similar uses of natural objects are still found today. Perhaps he made
basket like objects for keeping his things or could have dug a hole in the ground.
There are evidences for such thing from various parts of the world. Earth lined
baskets dug in the ground for storage of grains is known as silos and is found in
many Neolithic sites. In Neolithic Egypt grains was stored in the habitation
compounds in silo pits and mud-coated baskets. Gradually man learned to make
container from clay. We call them pots. First evidence of pottery comes from
Mesolithic culture.

The possession of pottery not only makes the storage and transportation of liquid
easier, it can also be used for the storage of small grains, seeds and other materials.
Pottery is also used as pipes, ornaments, ladles, lamps and for serving foods.
58
Sometimes potteries are used for burial. Spoons have been used for eating with Household and Decorative
Objects
since very early times. It is most likely that prehistoric people used shells or
chips of wood as spoons.

Knowledge of making earthenware in large quantity is assigned to the Neolithic

man who made pots from clay. Initially pots were made by hand and it served the
purpose of a container. Potter’s wheel was subsequently invented and wheel
made earthenware were designed. The potter’s wheel later revolutionised the
archaic technology and industrial movement during prehistoric and modern times.
No form of machinery including the locomotives is possible to move without a
wheel and the principle of rotary motion.

Fig. 4.14: Neolithic Basket

Fig. 4.15: Neolithic Pottery

Fig. 4.16: Indus Pottery

59
Archaeological Units
4.5 HARNESSING OF FIRE AND FLINT BOX
The use of fire is almost as old as human life. Before actually making fire, man
tamed fire by harnessing it. That means by learning to control it. Like any other
animal he must have been afraid of fire but then he used the natural fire and kept
it burning by feeding fuel to it. Fire making came later. Possibly man used fire
against attack of animals at night. With the discovery of fire they could venture
into the caves and live there. Homo erectus pekinensis in China used fire. Fire is
mainly used to make foods edible by cooking and in cold areas for warming up
the body. Dried up branches, dried dung and later charcoal was used as fuel.

Man could discover that at the stroke of a stone against another, fire could be
produced from the spark and is called percussion method. Man practiced it to
generate fire as one of the earliest methods of producing fire. In another procedure
called fire drill, one wooden stick vertically twirled on another stick placed
horizontally produces spark which is captured in dried grasses and leaves. In
another method known as bow drill in which, a wooden bow the string of which
was wound tightly around a spike. With a hollowed out drill cap made of stone
or a nut shell the spike was pressed against the fire stick and the bow was rotated
back and forth to produce fire. Later on modern primitive communities began to
carry a flint box that contained ‘a piece of iron’, another ‘piece of hard igneous
rock’ with some amount of ‘cotton’ similar to the safety match box of modern
times.

Fig. 4.17: Bow Drill and hand Drill

4.6 DRESS AND ORNAMENTS

As a result of physical evolution, man lost the furry body coat similar to that of
Primate. Although human bodily hair is not less than those of the apes, it does
not provide a furry coat to protect him from cold. Consequently, there was a
need for clothing in the form of dress.

The origin of clothing is obscure. A kind of robe or a cloak made from the skin of
large animals was the first to be used by man during Mousterian Culture; however
it did not survive in archaeological ruins. Mousterian man lived in Europe during
part of Wurm glaciation around 200,000 to 30,000 BC.

Evidence of clothing in Upper Palaeolithic period is supported by the appearance

of first eyed bone needle. Needles that originated in the Solutrean culture in France
from 19,000-15,000 BC, prominently occur in the later part of Solutrean and in
entire Magdalenian culture.
60
Spinning and weaving is an innovation of Neolithic period. At the Neolithic Household and Decorative
Objects
‘Swiss-Lake dwellings’ in Switzerland, evidence of ‘Spinning and Weaving’ came
forth with the existence of spindle whorls. The earliest known woven textiles
that came from the Near East is from the fabrics used for wrapping the dead
bodies. Presence of spindle whorls at archaeological excavations suggest textile.
Early Egyptians cultivated flax for making garments.

The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization used cotton for clothing as early
as the 5th millennium BC to 4th millennium BC. Yarn for weaving came from
cultivated flax and from animals like sheep.

Fig. 4.18. Spindle, whorl and bone needle

Ornaments
The Upper Palaeolithic men decorated their bodies with different kinds of
ornaments like necklace, perforated teeth, beads and shell and mollusc.

Beads
Evidence for the use of beads ranges between 33,000 to 45,000 years BP in Later
Stone Age in South Africa. Even Neanderthals are known to have made and used
beads.

Prehistoric beads were made of softer materials like sea shell, egg shell, bone,
ivory, teeth, clay, stone, shale, etc. Even pine nuts, fruit pits and seeds were used
as beads. Hard materials like jade were also used in early culture.

As in most ancient civilizations, women of the Harappan civilization decorated

themselves with jewellery and probably men also did likewise. Rich people wore
ornaments of gold, silver and precious stones. The middle classes used ornaments
made of copper, bronze, shell, bones and the poor ones of terracotta and pottery
made of copper, bronze, shell, bones and terracotta. A large number of beads of
different sizes and shapes and materials have been recovered from almost all the
sites of the Harappan civilization. These are mainly steatite and stone beads.
Steatite beads are very hard and almost all these beads are white in colour. Majority
of these beads were glazed either blue or green. Next to steatite the largest number
of beads is made of silicate stones of transparent and opaque varieties. The
transparent silicate stones being colourless quartz or rock crystal, amethyst, yellow
quartz or smokey quartz and the opaque ones being agate, carnelian, chalcedony,
chert etc. The opaque varieties of beads and particularly those of agate are by far
the commonest.
61
Archaeological Units

Fig. 4.19: Jewellery of Mohejodaro

Fig. 4.20: Beads of Harappa

The mirrors of Harappan people are not made of glass but of bronze. They are
slightly oval in shape. One of them has the edges of the face raised by 0.17 inch
and the polish has completely disappeared. Their handles are rectangular with a
hole at the end and it looks the handle were encased in wood. These mirrors are
heavy. Such metallic mirrors were used in early Egypt and Sumer. They are
either round or elliptical but not oval.

Faience

Faience was used in many countries such as India, Crete, Mesopotamia and China.
It appears that Harappan Faience worker manufactured this material out of the
paste of quartz-sand mixed with lime and a bit of soda. This paste was put under
pressure in moulds of different shapes and moulded objects were dried in the
sun. After glazing with sand, soda, borax or lime different coloured faience were
produced. Mainly blue coloured faience were used as beads. Besides beads other
personal ornaments made out of faience were bangles, rings, amulets, ear-stud,
pedants and button.
62
 Household and Decorative
Objects

Fig. 4.21: Fayence bracelet from Harappa

Terracotta bangles
Many of the terracotta bangles were originally painted with black or red
designs. Terracotta bangles include incised and painted pattern. Terracotta bangles
are and were the most sought jewels. Even during the ancient Indus civilizations,
terracotta bangles were made and were painted in black and red. In those times
people have used them in multitudes, in the same way as the glass bangles of
today. Terracotta bangles make a sort of jingling sound as that of glass or metal
bangles and are very attractive. Harappan stoneware bangles and high-quality
ceramic ornaments are unparalleled in ancient as well as modern world. Stone
bangles were unglazed with bright red and pinkish to grey-black colour.

Fig. 4.22: Terracotta bangles of Harappa

Shell bangles
The most common shell object at most of the major Harappan sites is represented
by shell bangles. These bangles were produced from T. Pyrum, the conch shells.
Bangles were prepared with the use of a variety of specialised and unspecialised
tools. Most of the finished bangles were perhaps incised with a motif in the form
of chevron ‘V’.

Metal bangles
Copper and bronze bangles have been found from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
The bangles were made from a round hammered rod bent in a full circle. The 63
Archaeological Units space between the ends of the bangle would be pried apart to slip it over the
wrist. Brass bangles also have been discovered from Chalcolithic culture of Orissa.

Ropes and cords

There are some ropes and cords for stringing beads and tying them around their
wrists or hung as amulets around their necks. They wrapped their possessions in
a piece of cloth and tied it into a bundle. The raw materials for these strings and
cords were animal and plant fibres, rawhide, and leather. Fibres were spun into
threads, some as fine as measuring a third of a millimetre, and two or more
strands were twisted into string. Flax, palm fibre, rush, papyrus, and various
grasses were used for making coarse ropes. Two-strand ropes were sometimes
doubled and redoubled, resulting in thick rope of eight strands. For making nets
they had netting needles, made of wood, bronze or any other suitable material.
Brooms and cloths were used to clean houses.

4.7 SUMMARY
Household and decorative objects are studied for understanding degree of craft
specialisation, specific artefact classes that were exchanged outside the
community, behaviour of people and rough estimate of numbers of people as
reflected from the assemblages of artefact types. Without the tools, containers
and other implements of daily use our culture would not have flourished. These
are part of daily activities of early man. Although people during early times did
not have a proper concept of household but artefact found at the living sites
suggest household type and activities therein.

All prehistoric people used tools but because of perishable nature of some
materials we do not have all evidences of the materials used by man. The most
fundamental tools are those which are used for cutting. These are made of stone,
either chipped or polished by a variety of techniques, many of which are still in
use. First metal tools were made from copper and its alloys like bronze or brass.
Iron and steel came later. The early containers were natural products such as
bark and leaves. In Egypt there is evidence of basketry before they produced
pottery. Pottery containers are used primarily by sedentary farming communities
from Neolithic period. Wide use of metal containers seems confined to highly
industrialised culture. Containers are essential for storage and to increase the
efficiency of transportation.

Suggested Reading
Beals, R. L. & Hoijer, H. 2007. An Introduction to Anthropology: New Delhi:
Shurjit Publication.

Childe, V. G.1958. New Light on the Most Ancient East. London: Roudledge &
Kegan Paul Ltd.

Fagan, B. M. 2004. People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory.

Eleventh Edition. Singapore: Pearson Education.

Grant, Jim, Sam Gorin and Neil Fleming. 2007. The Archaeology Course Book.
London and Newyork: Routledge.

Jaggi, O.P.1969. Dawn of Indian Technology. Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons.
64
Medhi Dilip, K. 2002. Prehistoric Fashion of Stone Tools (Studies in Lithic Household and Decorative
Objects
Technology). Man and Environment in Northeast India, Vol II:39-47. New Delhi:
Omsons Publications.

Pant, P. C. and Vidula Jayswal, 1991. Paisra:The Stone Age Sttlement of Bihar.
Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.

Sample Questions
1) What kind of household was there in prehistoric times?
2) What do you understand by material culture in prehistory?
3) What is an artefact? What kind of artefacts one may expect at a prehistoric
habitation site?
4) Why did people need container? Give an account of types of containers
present during prehistoric times.
5) What is the purpose of a grinder? What different types of grinding implements
found in prehistoric households. How these grinders changed the life of
people?
6) Point out evolution of garments in prehistory.
7) Give an account of different types of ornaments in vogue among prehistoric
people.

65
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

3
GEOLOGICAL FRAME WORK
UNIT 1
Time and Space 5
UNIT 2
Recent Period 16
UNIT 3
Human Palaeontology 23
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor D.K. Bhattacharya (Retd) Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Dept. of Anthropology Associate Professor
University of Delhi, Delhi Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Prof. Ranjana Ray (Retd) (Unit 1,2) Dr. A. R. Sankhyan (Unit 3)
Dept. of Anthropology Anthropologist
Calcutta University, Kolkata Anthropological Survey of India, Kolkata

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU

August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5521-2
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 3 GEOLOGICAL FRAME WORK
Introduction
Understanding geological history of our planet enables us to understand the
backdrop as well as the stage within which the entire drama of organic evolution
was played out. It will also be not just an over simplification to state that life
itself is a product of the geological phenomenon. Another very important use of
geological phenomena is to enable us the access to a geo-zoological sequence to
help our understanding of the birth and progression of man in our planet. The
sequencings of geological events provide convenient categories of time. In the
absence of any form of calendar for such a distant past experts find it a convenient
aid to form a time table or a chronometer. This chronometer is named ‘Geo
chronological time scale’. It is important to emphasis here that the various geo-
zoological events are not necessarily of equal duration yet these are arranged as
‘periods’ of the past in a successive pattern. Invention of a plethora radiometric
dating system has now been able to make the geo-zoological scale understood in
a much better way.
Geology has enough evidence to prove that the planet has undergone very acute
climatic fluctuations in the past. These climatic fluctuations resulted in thick
sheet of polar ice descending as far south as almost 40o N in the temperate belt.
In the tropical belt the effect of the same change of increased precipitation caused
heavy rain fall for long duration. This phenomenon is termed pluviation. Through,
glaciation and pluviation cycles provided convenient stages within a time
sequence.
Man evolved from within this climatic back drop. Around 14-17 million years
ago trees started becoming less in E.Africa and hence a large number of primates
were bushed to the ground. Ground living progressively changed their anatomy
in such a manner that they could grind their food with specially evolved cusped
teeth and also attempt an erect posture. This chain of changes took a long period
of adaptive struggle for them. May be by 7 million years they already started
showing 300 to 400 c.c. brain capacity. By the time this process reached 40,000
years from today man has already developed a brain capacity of 1200c.c to 1400
c.c. In addition to this his hands have been freed from locomotion. Nearly 50
different maneuverability of the wrist and fingers were also developed in this
process. This enabled him as an accomplished tool maker. Power of cognition
and co-ordinating movement enabled him to hunt animals and gather wild seed,
roots and tubers.
Man’s biological development in each of the stages in the path of his progression
during all these million years clearly demonstrates that cultural development
goes hand-in-glove in human evolution. Since erect posture brought about a
narrowing of the birth canal, human babies had to be delivered with only 30
percent of its potential brain capacity. Consequently human babies are helpless
for a much longer period of time than in other primates. This elongation of mother
child dependency brought about a distinct change in their foraging technique.
They started developing a ‘home base’ where weaning mothers or pregnant women
are stationed, possibly maintaining a fire. The other members of the band return
to this home base every night. This change brought about enormous number of
changes in interpersonal communication and sharing of experience within the
band. Progression of culture is studied by archaeologists, and human
paleontologists study the biological process.
Geological Frame Work

4
 Time and Space
UNIT 1 TIME AND SPACE

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Geological Time-Scale and Quaternary Framework
1.3 Plio-Pleistocene Boundary and Pleistocene Period
1.4 Climatic Episodes of Pleistocene Period
1.5 Stratigraphic Evidences for Climatic Fluctuation on Earth during Pleistocene
1.6 Pleistocene Epoch in India
1.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the meaning of ice age and the climate that prevailed in the ice
age;
Ø know about pluvial and inter-pluvial epochs that were present in the tropical
region at the same time as the ice age in the temperate region; and
Ø learn the importance of environment for the evolution of Human being and
his culture.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
It was Charles Lyell who brought forth the idea of geological time in his book,
Principles of Geology in 1833. He was the first person to explain the relevance
of geological strata for reconstruction of time. Geological strata means the layers
of soil, clay, rocks and gravels which are usually found in linear order both on
the surface and under surface of the earth. In fact the crust of the earth is made of
such layers. Lyell’s work is based on the law of superimposition of geological
layers known as stratum. In an undisturbed sequence it is found that lower the
stratum earlier the date of the stratum in respect to the layers lying on it. Natural
history is divided into ages and eras based on this principle. Charles Darwin
provided the evolutionist view and Lyell gave the background for the
understanding of change and development.

Geology is a branch of science which deals with earth in historical order. Geology
and geography are closely related to each other. Geography mainly studies the
present day surface of the earth, which is exposed and can be seen, whereas the
surface which was once exposed but now is under the present surface is mostly
the subject of study of geology. Surface geology is equally important because a
comparison of the undersurface condition with that of the present surface gives
an idea about the conditions under which the undersurface layers were formed.
In connection with surface geology major data which can be gathered are on the
erosion and depositional activities. The present surface geology study, also known
as, geomorphology, provides information about the land surface and the climatic
5
Geological Frame Work condition under which they were formed. This information helps us to reconstruct
climatic condition of the earlier period. In the study of man the framework is
made up of the geomorphology and environment of the area, that is the
understanding of the space. It must be kept in mind that environment was not
uniform throughout the time for human evolution.

Erosion and deposition are major activities in the formation of earth’s surface.
These are caused by elements like temperature, rainfall, wind and humidity.
Surface materials are loosened by thermal activities, water and wind. The loosened
materials are carried away by wind, water and by gravitation, if the surface is
located on a slope. This process is called erosion. The eroded materials are carried
by the elements, such as wind, water and gravitational pull and are deposited
somewhere else. These two activities are going on on the surface of the earth
under the influence of elements like wind, rainfall, temperature and humidity.
These elements make up climates and are components of the environment.

Environment is made up of abiotic and biotic factors. Climate, soil and topography
belong to the abiotic aspect of the environment. Flora and fauna belong to the
biotic aspect of the environment. Man is a part of the biotic environment. Together
with geology and geography comes another word, that is, ecology, which expresses
the idea of interrelationships. Man evolved through Quaternary period. Therefore
quaternary geography/ geology connote both environment and time. Various
estimations put the date of Quaternary and about 4-2.8 millon years.

There are many approaches to the study of Quaternary geography. Following are
the three basic approaches out of these (Butzer, 1964):

1) Individual Pleistocene researches by the natural sciences. These are carried

out independently either in the fields or in the laboratory by geologists,
geographers, soil scientists, botanists, zoologists and meteorologists. Most
of the palaeoenvironmental data is obtained in this way.

2) Ecological and environmental information is gathered by collaborating with

the anthropologist as also the archaeologist, especially in the field. Most
common background for the study is provided by Pleistocene geology,
geomorphology, palaeontology and pollen analysis.

3) Archaeological anthropologists work for a fuller understanding of human

ecology of prehistoric man especially in the realm of cultural geography
and economy.

1.2 GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE AND

QUATERNARY FRAMEWORK
Of the 4,500 million and more years of the earth’s existence only the last 600
million years can be traced with accuracy. Primitive forms of life must have
been evolving for many millions of years before their first fossilized record is
found in deposits dating from around 600million years. The earliest vertebrates
did not appear for another 100 million years. Mammals date back to a little less
than 250 million years. Man who is the most advanced of the mammals has only
emerged within the last 2-3 million years.

6
Perspective of time is important for both culture historian and for the geologist. Time and Space
The Quaternary period is the last phase of geological history. It covers a time
span of two million years and covers the total period of human history. Excepting
for the last 5,000 years of recorded history, most of Quaternary represents
prehistory.

The history of the Earth is chronologically determined by the time scale

which provides a base for the earth scientists, geologists, paleontologists,
and other scientists to determine the age of the earth.

Geological time scale is divided into eras. The era in which we live is called
Cenozoic. It is divided into two periods, the Tertiary and the Quaternary.
Quaternary period is divided into two epochs, Pleistocene and the Holocene.
Holocene is the recent time. It is a distinctive name for the last 10,000 years, for
the sake of convenience. Pleistocene is a very unusual period in the history of
the earth. It coincides with the history of man and also is a time when drastic
climatic changes took place on earth. The environmental changes affected the
mammalian life as well as human evolution. Throughout the greater part of earth’s
history world’s climate was warmer and much less differentiated than it is today.

Towards the end of the Tertiary period, around 56 million years back there was a
gradual cooling of temperature mainly in the higher altitude and latitudes. In the
present day temperate regions there was a southward movement of the snowline
compared to what it is at present. Similar change was observed towards north in
the southern hemisphere. On the higher altitudes, on the mountain tops a similar
lowering of snowline was recorded. As a result glaciers were found in areas
where at present none exist. The present temperate zone was displaced towards
equator by some 15 degree to 20 degree of latitude. The tropical regions of the
world experienced change in average annual rainfall and subsequent decrease in
the same. The climatic change brought in change in the environment and in the
level of flora and flora. Pleistocene and Holocene environment changes are
recorded in the strata of the earth’s undersurface. Geological study produces a
time scale for understanding of the evolution of man and change and development
of his culture. Quaternary is considered as a framework, a backdrop against which
anthropological study of man may be made. The framework is of environment,
space and time. Human ecology gives rise to change and development in culture.

Pleistocene is divided into three parts; lower, middle and upper. This is based on
time scale, which is available through geology, palaeontology, palinology and
through radiometric dating. The beginning of Pleistocene is dated at c. 1.65 million
years B. P. on the basis of date found at Olduvai Gorge. In the year 2009
International Union for Geological Science (IGUS) fixed the date for the
beginning of Quaternary at 2.58 million years B. P. E (Before Present Era) at the
base of Matuyama, palaeomagnetic event. Middle Pleistocene starts at 0.73
million years B.P. This is based on dates found at the sea core no. V28-238
(Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973), near the Solomon plateau in the Pacific Ocean.
Upper Pleistocene begins approximately at 128 thousand year B. P.

Two developments have fixed time scale for Pleistocene. These are: (i) The advent
of absolute dates for the entire 2.58 Myr and (ii) the stratigraphic record obtained
from cores drilled into the ocean floors. These developments have revolutionised
quaternary geology. The deep sea sediments provide a continuous stratigraphic
7
Geological Frame Work record of Pleistocene events that can be fixed at key points by absolute dates.
The uppermost section falls within the range of C14 while sediments from the
core can be tested for magnetic polarity. Palaeomagnetic studies have shown
that at 0.73 Myr the earth’s magnetic field changed from reversed to normal
polarity. The Bruhn- Matuyuma boundary is a stratigraphic marker of worldwide
significance since it can be identified in ocean cores and terrestrial volcanic
rocks where it has been dated by Potassium/ Argon isotope decay methods. The
boundary now marks the division between the lower and middle Pleistocene
(Butzer and Isaac (ed), 1975). The last interglacial/ glacial cycle correspond to
the upper Pleistocene at 128 Kyr. These are estimated dates. The climatic changes
are gradual processes, and they happen over a range of time (Gamble, 1986).

1.3 PLIO-PLEISTOCENE BOUNDARY AND

PLEISTOCENE PERIOD
Towards the end of the Tertiary period a gradual change in climate had been
observed. The last epoch of Tertiary period which precedes the Pleistocene is
known as Pliocene. The boundary between Pliocene and Pleistocene is important.
This period is marked not only by absolute date but also by the presence of a
group of animals who are the index to Pleistocene, meaning that they are found
only in Pleistocene. Thus they are called index fossils for Pleistocene. These are
known as villafranchian fauna after the name of a place called Villafranca d’Asti
in Itally. At this place those fossils were first identified. Villafranchian fauna are
Equus (horse), bos (cattle), elephas (elephant) and camelus (camel). The first
three are more common in Eurasia. Any geological layer yielding any one of
these fossils may be identified as Pleistocene. The beginning of Pleistocene is
also marked by the appearance of deep water foraminifera Globorotalia
truncatulinoides.

In India work has been done by various scholars both in the sub Himalayan
regions and in the peninsular regions. New techniques and extensive works point
to the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in the Siwalik deposits, in Kashmir valley in
the Karewas deposit and in alluvial deposits in the peninsular region. The date
for this boundary goes back to 1.9 Myrs (Dennel and Rendell, 1991).

1.4 CLIMATIC EPISODES OF PLEISTOCENE

PERIOD
Glacial and Interglacial Periods
The pioneer in working on the climatic episodes of Pleistocene period was Agssiz
in1840. This work was taken up by Penck and Bruckner in 1909. They made a
synthesis of the fragmentary evidence found in the periglacial zone in the form
of moraines, glacial tills, river terraces, loess profiles, pollen sequences, molluscan
faunas, beetle assemblages and animal bones, particularly of rodent species. The
result led to a classic Alpine chronology of four major glaciations separated by
three interglacials. The terms for the four glaciers are Günz, Mindel, Riss and
Würm, named after four little streams in the Alps. These four glacial and three
interglacial stages formed the framework for the Pleistocene and Palaeolithic
studies.

8
The deep sea core has revolutionised the idea of Pleistocene. It provides Time and Space
continuous stratigraphic record for the Pleistocene events. The stratigraphic record
is constructed from hundreds of cores drilled into the ocean floor of the world.
The coring of the ocean floor produces sediment columns, which are made up of
small marine foraminifera. The foraminifera skeletons are made up of calcium
carbonate and when the foraminifera were alive they had absorbed oxygen as
well as its isotopes. Two types of oxygen are there, 16O and 18O of these 16O is
normal and 18O is its isotope. The ratio of these two isotopes may vary because
of evaporation. In case of high evaporation more of the lighter molecule of 16O is
taken up in the air and the heavier isotope 18O is left in the oceans. At the time of
ice formation, during the glacial part of the cycle the sea level falls as moisture is
taken up and used to build continental ice caps. The oceans of the world then
become smaller and are charged with 18O. The sea cores inform us about the size
of the ocean during Pleistocene and also about contemporary events that took
place on the land surface (Gamble, 1986).The isotope sediments had been
correlated by scholars for vegetation cycle on the basis of pollen analysis; by
loess and loam cycles and by cave sediments. It became clear that oxygen isotope
curve gives an indication of the changes of ice volume on land and of the oceans
having consequently been slightly over 1% richer in 18O at the last ice age
maximum than today. Hundred thousand years scale dominates, then 40,000
years and subsequently 20,000 year of length of each fluctuation. Interglacial
stages are identified by the pollen analysis. Through this time warmth loving
fauna replaced the cold loving ones and deciduous mixed oak forests grew in
place of coniferous ones.

Causes of Ice age

Several theories were put forth for finding out the reason for ice age. The most
accepted one is the astronomical theory. It was developed by Crole and elaborated
by Milankovitch. Earth’s temperature would vary with periodic changes in earth’s
orbit and axis. Over approximately 96,000 years the shape of the earth’s orbit is
known to have changed from circular to elliptical and back. Axis tilts from about
21.50 to 24.50 and back over 42,000yrs. Variations in equinoxes resulted in
variation in the time of the year when earth is nearest to the sun. This variation
gave rise to the difference in reception of solar radiation on earth. Subsequently
climatic fluctuation took place during Pleistocene.

Pluvials and inter pluvials climate

There is undoubtedly some evidence that there have been major climatic changes
in the tropical region, in the lower latitude and lower altitude. There are traces of
lakes in the region which are now dry; fossil soils are found which only could
have been formed at a wetter and at subsequent drier periods than those prevailing
today; and accumulation of windblown sand (dune) occurs under protective cover
of vegetation. The relatively wet climate is known as pluvial and the relatively
dry condition is known as interpluvial. There is no doubt that these climatic
changes were directly or indirectly the effects of the same general cause which
affected glaciation. The view that the pluvial in the low latitudes and glaciers of
the high latitude were contemporaneous is still not firmly established (Oakley,
1968). Researches in East Africa have shown that there were four major pluvials
with intervening interpluvials experienced in this zone. Their sequence is as
follows:

9
Geological Frame Work 4. Gamblian pluvial
Third inter pluvial
3. Kanjeran Pluvial
Second Interlpuvial
2. Kamasian Pluvial
First Interpluvial
1. Kageran Pluvial

There have been two more wet phases recorded in the Post Pleistocene phase.
These are:
ii) Nakuran
i) Makalian
The names for pluvial and interpluvial of east Africa are widely used in other
parts of the country also to indicate similar climate and its sequences.

1.5 STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCES FOR

CLIMATIC FLUCTUATION ON EARTH
DURING PLEISTOCENE
Evidence for cold climate
Glaciers: It is a moving mass of ice. Snowline is the critical limit above which
more snow falls than can melt. It is formed at a place where mean annual
temperature is somewhere below freezing point (00c). Glaciers give important
information about wind direction and moisture sources. Ice is an altered form of
snow. Ice is formed due to repeated melting and over freezing of snow. Ice is
capable of plastic movement. Movement of ice causes internal deformation and
basal sliding over bedrock. The movement of ice leaves mark by carrying the
loosened materials and also curving a deeply recessed basin known as cirque
also termed as U shaped valley.

It is mainly stratigraphy which provides useful evidence of the Pleistocene climatic

oscillation. Some of them are moraine, loess, frost soil, or solifluction, travertine,
gravel deposits and certain types of flora and fauna.

Moraine: The debris material that is carried with the ice is known as moraines.
Ancient moraines help in reconstruction of the past glaciers. There are various
kinds of moraines, namely, lateral, end and bottom moraines. The classification
is based on location of the moraine in relation to the path of the glacier. The
bottom moraines are also known as till or boulder clay.

Loess: Windblown dust, which is finer than sand but coarser than clay. This is
formed of rock waste of glacier climate, composed of dust which can be easily
carried by wind. Loess is usually found in periglacial zone. It is pale yellowish in
colour. Kukla (1975) distinguished alternating sequence of loess and loam. Loam
represents warm climate. Stages of glacial and interglacial sequence on the basis
of loess and loam are made in the areas where glacial ice did not reach.

10
Frost soil and solifluction: The area where temperature is such that subsoil Time and Space
remains permanently frozen is known as permafrost zone. During warm condition
thawing of the soil takes place for only about a few cm to about a few mm. The
zone has got certain geomorphic activities, such as solifluction, that is, soil creep
of the thawed layer. In areas of annual freezing and thawing structures like ring
or net work, known as stone ring and polygon soil are produced. Ice wedge is
another formation. It is produced under -10 degree centigrade. Wedge shaped
cracks are found due to presence of water and ice. Frost soil helps to recognise
climatic feature. It is found in areas where the warmest month record below 10
degree centigrade. Such areas were too cold to allow any forest to grow.

Evidence for mild climate

Various kinds of soil are produced, namely, brown soil, black soil, due to growth
of vegetation in a warmer condition.

Travertine: It is found in the lime rich region. It is a deposit of calcium carbonate.

Formation takes under a humid climate.

Glacio-fluvial terraces: Streams of melt water formed near end of the glacier
join to form rivers. The debris carried by the glacier is deposited as gravel along
the course of the river when water supply to the river becomes less due to dry
cold condition. At a subsequent time down cutting of the deposit takes place and
a step like structure is formed. These terraces are important for understanding
the glacial and interglacial sequence in a periglacial zone.

The area where actual presence of glacier is found is known as glaciated area.
The area where direct presence of glacier is not found but the climate is influenced
by the nearby glacier is known as the periglacial region. The area where no
influence of glacier is found is known as a-glaciated zone. Man did not live on
top of a glacier. He preferred periglacial and a-glaciated regions to live in.

1.6 PLEISTOCENE EPOCH IN INDIA

India is basically under tropical monsoonal climatic regime. Palaeoclimate varies
in the subcontinent. There are three major geomorphological zones in India.
They are the Himalayan region, the Indo-gangetic plain and the Deccan land
mass. Wide glaciated tract is found in the Himalayas. The sub Himalayan region,
mainly the Punjab plain and Potwar plateau were under periglacial condition
and the rest of India was within a-glaciated or non glaciated tract having alternating
pluvial and interpluvial climates.

Siwalik formation in North West India and Kashmir valley has yielded evidences
of Pleistocene glaciations. Siwalik deposit occurs as low outermost hills of the
Himalayas all along from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Siwaliks have yielded
beds belonging to both Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The beds are named as
Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan, Tatrot and Pinjor. The Neogene-Quaternary
boundary is found below the Pinjor beds. Fission track dating is made of a bentonic
tuff, underlying a rich Pinjor fauna near Haro river (a tributary of the Indus), in
Attock district, Pakistan and is placed at 1.61 plus minus 0.10 Myr B. P. (Agrawal,
1992).

11
Geological Frame Work Kashmir valley was formed around 4 Myrs ago. At the beginning the climate
was warm subtropical with a South Western monsoon. But it changed to cool
temperate (Mediterranean type of climate with winter rain) about 2Myrs ago
with the rise of the Pir Panjal range. Between 0.6 and 0.3 Myrs three long cold
periods have been detected on the basis of faunal, isotopic and pollen data, with
corresponding warm periods observed in the loess-palaeosol sequence in late
Pleistocene. The loess-palaeosol deposit of Kashmir valley is known as karewas.

De Terra and Paterson (1939) recognised main series of four glacial and three
interglacial epochs, of which the first two glaciations were more intensive than
the later two, with still later oscillations or stages of retreat. Each glacial period
saw intraglacial pulsations of the ice front, more evident in the late stages than in
the early, because of erosion and weathering. There had been two oscillations in
the second glacial phase, four advances and a retreat in the third period and four
advances in the fourth period, with several retreat stages.

TD 225m

Boulder
Congl.
II glacial
II Interglacial
T1135m
Potwar III glacial
Pinjor, Tetrol Series T2 104m Basant gravel of Potwar
dipping toward river
Redeposition
III Interglacial
Potwar
T3 45m
IV glacial
River level T4 27m Recent
T5

Fig. 1.1: Glacio-fluvial terraces in the sub-Himalayan region (Agrawal, 1992)

Pleistocene stratigraphy from second glacial period onward is found in the rivers
of the region, such as, Jhelum, Indus, Sutlej and their tributaries. Fig. 1.1 above
presents a composite picture of the stratigraphic sequence of the river terraces in
relation to Siwalik formations. Owing to tectonic movement the boulder
conglomerate which was deposited by second glacial period was tilted. The first
rivers, Indus, Sohan etc were formed in the Potwar plateau. This started to curve
away from them cutting into the boulder conglomerate giving rise to the first
terrace (T1) at the second interglacial time. Second glacial terrace (TII) was
formed by spreading of the gravel at first then covering it with loam. Third
interglacial terrace (T III) is formed due to erosion carried out by the release of
greater volume of water in the streams and rivers because of warming up of the
condition and melting of glaciers at the source of the rivers. Terrace (IV) is of
depositional nature belonging to fourth glacial period. The last terrace T (V)
belongs to Holocene in the recent years. Large scale correction has been done for
this sequencing. One of these refers to the entire glacio-fluvial succession of
Potwar as belonging to late Pleistocene.

Pleistocene formation of peninsular India has yielded evidence for alternating

wet and dry conditions, similar to that of Africa’s pluvial and interpluvial
conditions, though the nature and types of the climatic events are quite different
in India from those of Africa.

12
A sequence of environmental changes in the Thar Desert for the last two million Time and Space
years has been analysed through laboratory and field studies. There are a number
of formations which have yielded evidences and a correlation of them has given
a complete sequence. The sediments studied are in the form of river sections,
tanks, wells etc. The formations are named after local place names. There are
some important formations. Jayal formation is made up of cobbly gravel and is
dated to late Neogene to early Pleistocene. Though unconfirmed, lying on it is
the Amarpura formation. It is made of loam, marl and kankar. Amarpura formation
is dated from Middle Pleistocene to Upper Pleistocene period. Didwana formation
is constituted of Aeolian and lacustral formation. This section had been dated by
several techniques. The Didwana profile ranges in age from Middle Pleistocene
to Holocene.

Quaternary deposits in Peninsular India

Quaternary geological formations can be classified into six distinct units
depending on the mode of occurrence: (1) Fluviatile deposits of river valleys,
(2) Aeolian deposits, (3) Shallow marine deposits, (4) Cave deposits, (5) Laterite
and (6) Thick deltaic deposits (Prasad, 1999).
1) Fluviatile deposits of river valleys: The Pleistocene sequence in Narmada
valley is important because it has yielded the fossil partial skull of Narmada
man. It is one example of fluviatile deposit mainly of sand, silt and gravel.
Along Pranhita-Godavari basin rich mammalian fauna consisting of Elephas
namadicus, Equus namadicus and Bos sp. are found indicating Pleistocene
date for the sediment.
In Narmada valley, in Chennai region and in the eastern part of India the
Pleistocene sediment is mainly represented by fluviatile deposit in the form
of alternating deposits of gravel and silt bed. The gravel beds represented
wet phase. River had more water and due to greater volume and velocity of
the river gravel was formed and deposited. At the time of a relatively dry
phase volume and velocity of the river water was less and finer materials
were deposited. On the whole two distinct cycles of wet and dry phases are
noticed in most of the areas. In eastern India three cycles are identified
(Ray, 1999).
2) Aeolian deposits: Aeolian deposits are represented by loess and windblown
sand dunes. These are confined to arid and semi-arid regions. The coastal
tract contains various terraces of sand dunes indicating successive positions
of the shore lines.
3) Shallow marine deposits: Near Tuticorin a number of beds have yielded
invertebrate shells belonging to late neogene/quaternary boundary. These
also included Elephas hysudricus and Bos sp. The Milolite limestone known
as Porbandar stone of Saurasthra, the littoral concrete of Bombay and
Kathiawar coast and the shell limestone deposits along the coast lines of
Kerala and Tamilnadu represent Pleistocene deposits of coastal region.
4) Cave deposits: The cave deposits in Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh contain
numerous fossils in the stalagmite floors. These belong to Pleistocene- early
Holocene date.

13
Geological Frame Work 5) Laterite: Laterite is a product of weathering in a humid climate. Low lying
plains of east and west coasts are covered by laterite. They also cover terraces
and are associated with palaeolithic implements. In Madras and Singhbhum
area secondary laterites were also deposited in the tributary river valleys in
place of gravel and silt deposits.

6) Thick deltaic deposits: The Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea showed
comparatively slow rate of deposition along its mouth. Kutch and Cambay
region is uplifted to the present height in the Quaternary time.

Human habitat and culture: As mentioned earlier the Quaternary gives a

framework for the study of human adaptation, change and development of culture.
A complete geographical-ecological understanding of a prehistoric community
– the palaeoenvironment, its resource potential and external limitations, and man
and environment relationship which is manifested in the economics are considered
an important aspect in the study of Archaeological Anthropology.

The glacial periods did not have a high biomass. Man adapted to this environment
by cultural innovation. Interglacial period had produced higher biomass and
human adaptation with culture was more prolific in nature.

In the tropical region the oscillation between wet and dry phase was not drastic.
Change and development of culture was more gradual in nature, without much
drastic change. Culture that flourished during Pleistocene is known as Palaeolithic.
It is subdivided into lower, middle and upper Paleolithic stages.

1.7 SUMMARY
Quaternary geo-morphology has been the backbone of prehistoric chronology
for a long time. Of course this was also aided with palaeontology and palynology.
However, in the recent years deep sea core oxygen isotopic analysis with
palaeomagnetic reversal phases have provided a stronger and more solid support
to this prehistoric calendar. Geo-morphology, and geology, as such, have been
used as an aid for reconstructing past climatic features during various periods
within Pleistocene. The world experienced two types of climatic events. One in
the temperate regions and the other was in the tropical areas. In the former there
were advance and retreat of glaciers, corresponding with cold and mild climatic
phases. In the tropical areas there were alternating wet and dry conditions,
corresponding with more rainfall and less amount of rainfall. Cause of ice age is
predicted as a result of astronomical change in the axis and orbit of the earth
around the sun and subsequent variation in the reception of solar radiation on
earth. Quaternary gives a background for the study of man and his culture in the
fluctuating climatic situation. India experienced glacial condition in the Himalayan
and sub-Himalayan regions. Rest of India experienced pluvial and interpluvial
conditions. Evidences of Quaternary climate are found in various stratigraphic
evidences. In fact regional variation of climate and biosphere, within specific
geological stages, was responsible for giving rise to different types of ecological
condition. Paleolithic culture in India and other parts of the world was formed in
response to the fluctuating climatic condition, which varied through space and
time within quaternary epoch.

14
Suggested Reading Time and Space

Agrawal, D. P, 1992. Man and Environment in India through Ages. New Delhi:
Books and Books.

Butzer, Karl W, 1964. Environment & Archaeology. Chicago: ALDINE publishing

Company.

De Terra and T. T. Paterson, 1939. Studies on Ice Age in India and Associated
Human cultures. Washington D. C.: Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication.

Gamble, Clive, 1986. The Palaeolithic settlement of Europe. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Kukla, G. J, 1975. Loess Stratigraphy in Central Europe. In K. W. Butzer and G.

L. Isaac (ed) After the Australopithecines. 99-188. The Hague: Mouton.

Lowe, J. J. and M. J. C. Walker, 1984. Reconstructing Quaternary Environment.

England: Longman Group Ltd.

Oakley, K. P, 1968. Framework for Dating Fossil Man. Chicago: Aldine

publishing Company.

Prasad, K. N, 1999. Observations on Quaternary Formations in Peninsular India.

In Gondowan Geological magazine, Quaternary of India, ed. M. P. Tiwari and
D. M. Mohabey, special volume 4:43-49.

Ray, Ranjana, 1999 A Study of Acheulian Cultural Remains from the Gravel
Beds in Orissa. Gondowan Geological magazine, Quaternary of India, ed. M. P.
Tiwari and D. M. Mohabey, special volume 4: 361 -369.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss why Quaternary is considered as a framework in the study of man.
2) What are the stratigraphic evidences for cold climate in Europe.
3) What are the evidences for mild climate in temperate region.
4) What was the climatic background of Europe during Pleistocene period.
5) What kind of climatic fluctuation took place in tropical region during
Pleistocene period.
6) What are the evidences of Pleistocene climate in Rajasthan
7) Write short notes on the following
i) Moraine,
ii) Loess,
iii) Interglacial,
iv) Periglacial,
v) Karewas,
vi) Didwana

15
Geological Frame Work
UNIT 2 RECENT PERIOD

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Holocene Geomorphology
2.2.1 Sea Level Changes
2.2.2 Deltas
2.2.3 Deserts
2.3 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø learn about Holocene, the present epoch in which we are living;
Ø understand the climatic change from fluctuating Pleistocene to stable
Holocene or recent period;
Ø understand the present climatic event through various stratigraphic evidences;
and
Ø get a brief outline of nature of adjustment made by man in the changing
condition.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Holocene is the last phase of the Quaternary. It is synonymous to the terms Recent
and Post-glacial. It is convenient to maintain a distinctive name for the last 12,000
years (B.P.E.) because the climatic set up in this period was much different from
its preceding period. The onset of the Holocene in Europe brought in climatic
and ecological conditions similar to those of the present day. During the last
12,000 years (B.P.E.) there were numerous short term fluctuations, as well as,
long term trends towards cooler or warmer, moister or drier climate. These were
not significant compared to the climatic events which took place by the end of
the Pleistocene. In Europe and other temperate regions the climate gradually
became warmer. Previously, climate was quite cold. With the rise in the
temperature snowline receded pole ward and to a higher altitude on mountain
tops. As a result land form changed, patterns of vegetation changed and cold
loving animals moved north wards giving way to warmth loving species.
Similar changeover of climate from the Pleistocene fluctuating condition to that
of the present day stable climate has also taken place in the tropical countries
like Africa and India. It is believed that the Holocene is nothing but a prelude to
another glacial or pluvial time. Probably the peak of the recent interglacial/ inter
pluvial epoch was reached at c. 12,000 yrs (B.P.E) and we are heading for a
changed sequence in another c. 10,000 yrs. The marks of climatic change and
the change in the environment are left on the surface of the earth. Geological
study of different areas has confirmed that smaller climatic oscillations marked
16
the post Pleistocene climatic regime. It means that at the early part of Holocene Recent Period
there were shorter cold and warm fluctuations until the present climatic stability
was reached. Man reacted to the change by adjusting to the environment with his
culture. Culture of early Holocene or Post Pleistocene time period is called the
Mesolithic culture. Subsequent stabilisation of climate and development of the
modern man gave rise to agricultural economy, which culminated in great
civilizations of the world. In fact considering the time span of human history it is
the last c. 10,000 yrs that have seen very fast progress in the cultural and economic
history of man.

2.2 HOLOCENE GEOMORPHOLOGY

Europe
Europe was under the influence of glaciations during Pleistocene period. Snowline
marking the arctic tundra was extended up to the present temperate zone. At the
end of Pleistocene period, due to change in solar radiation, Europe was gradually
warming up. This led to mass scale change in geography, biology and human
culture of Europe.

Deglaciation
By the end of the Pleistocene there was evidence of the retreat of glaciers towards
the polar regions of the earth. First warm phase after the last glaciation, that is,
würm, is known as Bölling. Then around 12,000 B. P. another interval came,
which is known as Alleröd. Tundra vegetation was replaced by coniferous forests.
Climate was warmer during Alleröd times than the main Würm glaciation. Overall
climate became continental and on the dry side in Europe. However, there was a
short cold phase after the warm phase. Glaciers readvanced in Europe and north
America and world sea level dropped by another 5-10 m.

Change in the sea level

In Europe the changes in the sea level is understood in detail in the Baltic region.
The evolution of Baltic region to that of the present geographical condition is
summarized below:
Baltic Sea Began c. 2000 B. C.
Littorina Sea Began c. 5000 B. C.
Ancylus Lake Began c. 7800 B. C.
Yoldia Sea Began c. 8300 B. C.
Baltic Ice Lake Began c. 9000 B. C.
Movements of the sea level, also known as eustatic movement and the land
surface movement known as isostatic, took place with the end of the ice age. Sea
level rose because large quantity of water was released in the sea due to melting
of the ice. With the melting of the ice great mass of weight was lifted from the
surface of the earth and land surface was raised upwards. This has been studied
in detail in the Baltic Sea region of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Baltic was an
Ice Lake by the end of the glacial period. During Pre-Boreal period with the
melting of the ice, it became a sea and was known by the name Yoldia Sea. It was
named after the molluscan fauna yoldia artica. Land surface rose during Boreal
17
Geological Frame Work phase and Baltic became a fresh water lake and is known as Ancylus Lake, with
the characteristic presence of mollusc, Ancylus fluviatilis. During the subsequent
Atlantis period the sea level rose again and Baltic became a sea known as Littorina
Sea. This phase is identified with the presence of common periwinkle shells
known as Littorina littoria. Several transgressions and regressions of sea took
place in Atlantic period. Transgression means advance of sea and regression
means retreat of the sea. Some of the transgressions are dated.

Change in vegetation pattern

The first phase of Holocene is known as Pre-Boreal (8300-7500 B. C.). Boreal
means forest and pre-boreal is the period which preceded the full development
of forest. At this time environment changed much more. The glaciers were reduced
to their present dimensions. The retreat of glaciers was rapid. Climatic changeover
from glacial to post glacial went through a gradual process producing an over-all
warm condition, gradual retreat of the continental glacier and a climate ultimately
warmer than that of the present day. Standard pollen zones were established.
From the perspective stages of vegetation, the environmental changes of the
early Holocene proceeded gradually.

K. Jessen in 1934 divided Holocene climate of Europe into nine basic zones
based on pollen analysis. Pollen analysis provided a picture of forest development
in north and northwest Europe. Forest in Scandinavian language is referred to as
boreal. Europe was under Park Tundra condition (pollen Zone I-III) by the end
of Pleistocene. With warming up of climate park tundra vegetation made way
for Birch-pine pollen zone (IV) of the pre-boreal period that is a period through
which forest development was taking place. The first phase of forest development
is known as early boreal (pollen zone V). This phase was dominated by pine
trees, but hazel and birch were also found. This is followed by late boreal (pollen
zone VI). Pine and hazel trees dominated the forest, together with some elm and
oak in its first phase and lime and alder at its later phase. Pollen VII (a) is known
as Atlantic period because the land bridge connecting Great Britain to Europe
was submerged and the climate of the area was exposed to the influence of Atlantic
Ocean. The forest of this period is characterized by the presence of alder-oak-
elm-lime trees. This phase continues into a period known as sub Boreal (pollen
zone VII b). In it elm declines slowly and hazel increases (Table.2.1). The climate
becomes such as is found today in Europe.

Table 2.1: Pollen profile of Holocene period in northwestern Europe

(after Butzer, 1964. P. 407)

Zone Date (B.C.) Name Dominant Inferred

Vegetation Climate
VIII After 800 Subatlantic Beech Maritime
VII 3000-800 Sub-boreal Oak-beeck More continental
VI 5600-3000 Atlantic Oak-elm Warmer and maritime
V (7500) - 5800 Boreal Hazel-pinc oak Warmer and continental
IV 8300 - (7500) Preborcal Birch pine Warm-continental

18
Change in the animal world Recent Period

Forest did not abruptly replace tundra at the close of the Pleistocene. Rather,
forest-tundra and parklands, succeeded by open and woodlands, dotted by
numerous drained tundra lowlands. The woodlands forest tundra was preferred
by reindeer and bison in winter. The Pleistocene tundra fauna gradually became
extinct. Large species like mammoth, wooly rhinoceros, giant elk and musk-ox
gradually disappeared. The reindeer which provided most of the livelihood in
Pleistocene became restricted mostly to Northeastern part of Europe. New animal
spectra appeared.

Change in human adaptation

The onset of the Holocene period had a sudden and serious effect on man. The
great herds of herbivorous were replaced by more solitary games, such as, deer,
wild cattle, boar and similar other animals. The Mesolithic culture was considered
a consequence of environmental changes. Human populations adapted themselves
with the changed condition. In the Boreal period growth of forest gave rise to
forest based culture represented by heavy equipments like axe and adzes, suitable
for woodwork. Some of the areas in the central Europe was free from forest
because of infertile loess deposits of last glacial epoch. In this area and along the
Mediterranean coast microlithic culture flourished.

The Holocene is the name specified to the ~10,000 years of the Earth’s
history –the moment since the end of the last major glacial epoch, or ice
age.

Africa
Leakey found two wet phases intervened by a dry phase during the post pluvial
condition in Africa. They are Makalian and Nakuran respectively. The Makalian
is the first post pluvial wet phase. Evidence of this phase was found in the lake
Nakuru and is represented by a strand line 375 ft above present day Lake Nakuru.
Cultures contemporary to this climatic stage are Elmentieta, Wilton and upper
Capsian, better known together as Late Stone Age culture in Africa. The Nakuran
is the second of two distinct post pluvial wet phases recognised in Kenya. It is
represented by a strandline 145 ft above the present Lake Nakuru. The
contemporary cultures were Late Stone Age cultures of Africa. This phase was
preceded by a very dry phase correlated with climatic optimum. That means that
in between the wet phases Makalian and Nakuru represented a dry phase.

Holocene in India
Similar to Pleistocene, Holocene geological formations can also be classified
into six distinct units depending on the mode of occurrence: (1) Fluviatile deposits
of river valleys, (2) Aeolian deposits, (3) Shallow marine deposits, (4) Cave
deposits, (5) Laterite and (6) Thick deltaic deposits (Prasad, 1999).

1) Fluviatile deposits of river valleys

In the Kashmir valley the palaeosol developed at 18Kyrs is considered to be the
first phase of deglaciation of the valley. Climatic amelioration was suggested by
Agrawal (1992) around 18Kyrs, 6-5 Kyrs and 1 Kyrs B. P. This is also correlated
with increase in human settlement in Kashmir valley.

19
Geological Frame Work In the Potwar region of the Siwaliks last terrace in the rivers of the area, the
terrace T (V) belongs to the Holocene period. Even in the peninsular region,
wherever identifiable, the last terrace near the river bed belongs to the Holocene.

2.2.1 Sea level Changes

3) Shallow marine deposits
Work in the ocean floor sediments of Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal suggested
a weak monsoon around 20,000 B. P. during the last Pleistocene epoch. Evidence
from the Arabian Sea core has shown that there were three cold and arid phases
approximately at 18kyrs, 7 kyrs and 2 Kyrs. At Tuticorin bay Zeuner had identified
fossil dunes and present day dune along the coast. His study has shown that sea
level changed from higher to lower level by early Holocene time. The fossilized
dunes were formed at the time of higher sea level. Sea was higher by 20-30 ft at
the end of the Pleistocene. Worldwide dry climatic phase led to the formation of
dunes and also to lagoons along the coast. These are locally known as teris. The
Mesolithic people lived on the ancient dunes and exploited the marine resources.

Afterwards the climate changed and weathering occurred. This made the dunes
get fixed. They became reddish and cemented. In the next phase wind activity
restarted and fresh teris and lagoons began to be formed.

2.2.2 Deltas
6) Thick deltaic deposits
The delta regions have shown mainly the sea level changes and also the changes
that had taken place due to tectonic movement by the early Holocene period.
This is mainly observed in Kutch, the deltas of Arabian Sea.

2.2.3 Deserts
2) Aeolian deposits
In the deserts of Thar the lacustrine formation of Didwana sediment yielded
interesting results. The alternating evaporate and non evaporate suggest fluctuating
hydrology in response to the slight amelioration of the arid climate of the terminal
Pleistocene and the early Holocene (13,000-6000 B. P.). Organic rich clays and
domination of Artemisia pollens suggest sub-humid climate between c. 6000
and 4000 B. P.

Dunes were formed during late to early Holocene period in the arid areas of
Gujarat, especially at the Mesolithic sites of Langhnaj. The dunes were formed
after a short wet phase. The low areas around the dunes were inundated and
formed lakes. Mesolithic people lived along the lake shores. Their habitation
also coincided with gradual desiccation and formation of the dunes.

5) Laterite
In Deccan plateau and other areas the Holocene deposit consisted of red
colluviums soil made of pelletic laterite. There are loose kankary deposits found
over the gravel of last wet phase.

Special mention may be made of a calcareous deposit known as ghutin lying on

top of the silt bed or alluvium deposit of late Pleistocene. Geologists found that
20 the ghutinlayer always suggested Post Pleistocene deposition.
 Recent Period
2.3 SUMMARY
Worldwide Holocene heralded the beginning of recent climatic condition. Recent
or Holocene is considered as a period of climatic stabilisation. It could very well
be another interglacial age. However, this period had experienced a gradual
changeover from fluctuating climate of Pleistocene to stable climate of Holocene.
Evidences from geography, geology, palinology and palaeontology have clearly
shown the dynamicity of climatic change over and subsequent cultural adaptation
of man to the changed climatic condition in Europe.

Holocene deposit in India had shown that there were smaller climatic oscillations
before the present day condition was reached. In the glaciated and periglaciated
regions small advances of cold phases gradually led to the present day condition.
This is noticed in the Karewa deposits and in the terrace sequence of Kashmir
valley and Siwaliks, respectively. In the Desert area the pollen study had shown
alternating short spells of semi-arid condition until the present day arid condition
set in. This is also recorded in pollen analysis from lakes in Rajasthan and
measuring of the alternation of salinity and fresh condition of the water of the
lakes. In the coastal region fossil dunes were formed. In the plateau area kankary
lateritic pellets and calcareous ghutin were formed because of the onset of dry
condition after a short wet phase.

India is a land of diverse geomorphological features. Similar diversity was

maintained in the Holocene period. Man settled in diverse environmental zones
and adjusted with his culture in the varied condition and formed ecological niche.
In India the culture of early Holocene is known as Mesolithic or Microlithic. In
later part of Holocene agriculture developed in river valleys. Hunting-gathering
way of life continued in hills and jungles.

Suggested Reading
Agrawal, D. P. 1992. Man and Environment in India through Ages. New Delhi:
Books and Books.

Butzer, Karl W. 1964. Environment & Archaeology. Chicago: ALDINE publishing

Company.

Gamble, Clive. 1986. The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Oakley, K. P. 1968. Framework for Dating Fossil Man. Chicago: Aldine

publishing Company.

Prasad, K. N. 1999. Observations on Quaternary formations in Peninsular India.

In Gondowan Gerlogical magazine. Quaternary of India. ed. M.P. Tiwari and
D.M. Mohabey, Special Volume 4:361-369.

Sankalia, H. D. 1972. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakista. Bombay:

Bombay University.

21
Geological Frame Work Sample Questions
1) Define the geological period known as Holocene.
2) What are the stratigraphic evidences for the onset of Holocene in Northwest
Europe?
3) What kind of climatic changes took place in Europe during Holocene.
4) Write short notes on:
i) Teris in Coastal region in South India
ii) Ghutin in the plateau area
iii) History of Baltic Sea
iv) Pollen sequence of Post Pleistocene in Europe
v) Holocene sequence in Didwana formation

22
 Recent Period
UNIT 3 HUMAN PALAEONTOLOGY

Contents
3.1 Origin of Primates
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Major Features of Primate Behaviour
3.1.3 Physical Characteristics that Classify the Primates
3.1.4 Early Fossil Primates and their Evolution
3.1.5 Advanced Hominoid Primates and Common Ancestors
3.2 Origin of Man
3.2.1 Plio-Pleistocene Hominids
3.2.2 Pleistocene Hominins: Distribution and Bio-Cultural Characteristics
3.3 Narmada Man
3.3.1 Cranial Remains
3.3.2 Postcranial Remains
3.4 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you will be able to understand:
Ø what Palaeoanthropology aims at;
Ø what is a Primate;
Ø which Primates were closer to humans;
Ø which biological and behavioural characters made us different from other
Primates; and
Ø whether humans are still evolving or the end product of evolution.

3.1 ORIGIN OF PRIMATES

3.1.1 Introduction
Human Palaeontology or Palaeoanthropology is a very fascinating and challenging
subject. Also known as evolutionary anthropology, it aims at the scientific study
of human origins in time and space. Palaeoanthropologists seek to illuminate the
evolutionary history of the human lineage: when, where, and how our species,
Homo sapiens evolved. For long palaeoanthropologists confront the creationists
or philosophical critics of Darwinian doctrine of evolution as they interpret human
“uniqueness” a result of “special creation” without any links with the apes. Their
fundamental arguments were that the great apes (chimpanzee, gorilla and
orangutan) walk in an inclined quadrupedal fashion and have small brains in
contrast to humans who walk in upright bipedal fashion and possess large brains
and higher intellectual and ethical standards. But, great progress made in human
palaeontology during the nineteenth and twentieth centurie led to amazing
discoveries of ape and human fossils from the entire Old World. At large, the
fossil record of early apes and humans is now complete enough to make one
23
Geological Frame Work visualize how humans evolved from some very peculiar kind of ape or more
apelike precursor (‘hominoid’) which shared traits with early human ancestors
(‘hominids’).

In this section we shall understand why anthropologists study the Primates, and
we understand human evolution better or about the lives of our ancestors if we
understand more about primate biology, behaviour and ecology since the first
members of the human species were more similar to living nonhuman primates
than to any other animals on earth. Which seemingly “human” traits are ours
alone, and which are shared with various primate relatives? What the different
branches of the Primates are and when they split, and which branch or lineage
evolved to man.

ea
oid
op
a

hr
ide

dea

dea
nt
uro

nA
isoi

sioi
Lem

ow
Lor

Tar
Cr
Adapiformes

Omomyiformes
Miocene
Eosimiidae

Oligocene

Darwinius
Eocene

Darwinius Haplorhini

A simplified early primate evolutionary tree (after Williams etal. (2010)

Platyrrhini Catarrhini
Cercopithecoids Hominoids
Hylobatids Hominids

Spider Monkey Macaque Gibbon Orangutan Gorilla Human Chimpanzee

Siamang

6 MYA
Ouranopithecus Dryopithecus 9 MYA
Proconsul Sivapithecus 14 MYA
16 MYA
19 MYA
25 MYA

40 Million Years Ago

After David Begun Scientific American Inc. (2003)

24
It is now fairly established that the hominid and the great ape lineages split around Human Palaeontology
6 to 8 million years ago, but many of their common traits are much more ancient,
and could be traced back to about 20 million years ago when the first “tail-less
monkey”, known as Proconsul, appeared in Africa. In fact, many more common
traits of the hominids and hominoids are also shared by the monkeys and can
further be traced back to over 40 million years ago when the ‘anthropoid’ primates
(monkeys, apes and hominids together) had not differentiated. We can further
visualize the unbroken thread of shared ancestry further back in time to the early
primates over 55 million years ago when there was a divergence of the two great
branches of the primate family tree. One branch was of the haplorrhines,
represented today by tarsiers and the anthropoids, and the second was of the
strepsirrhines, the group to which living lemurs, lorises, and ‘bush babies’ belong.
Latest combination of genetic, zoological, and palaeontological data has supported
the view that the tarsiers and their omomyid relatives were most closely related
to the early anthropoids, whereas the Darwinius and its kin were more closely
related to the lemurs.

3.1.2 Major Features of Primate Behaviour

Besides physical resemblances between us and the Primates, it is important to
understand what social behavioural traits we have inherited from the Primate
ancestors. Some main traits are briefly described below.

i) Gregarious
Primates are social animals, living and travelling in groups that vary in size
from species to species. In most species, females and their offspring constitute
core of social system.

ii) Aggression, Dominance/ Hierarchy & Territoriality

Primates have clear territoriality, especially in forest species. Many primate
societies are organised into dominance hierarchies that impose some degree
of order with groups by establishing parameters of individual behaviours.
Although aggression is frequently a means of increasing one’s status, it
serves to reduce the amount of actual physical violence; exerts control simply
by making a threatening gesture.

iii) Affiliative behaviours

To minimize actual violence and to defuse potentially dangerous situations,
there is an array of affiliative, or friendly, behaviours that serve to reinforce
bonds between individuals and enhance group stability, e.g, physical contact
(touching), and hand holding, hugging, and kissing in orangutan, gesture of
friendliness, submission, appeasement or closeness; most notable primate
activities is grooming, the ritual cleaning to remove parasites, shreds of
grass or other matter. The mother-infant bond is the strongest and most
long-lasting in the group.

iv) Play
Frequent play activity among primate infants and juveniles is a means of
learning about the environment, testing strength, and generally learning how
to behave as adults.

25
Geological Frame Work v) Communication
Primates have a great range of calls that are often used together with
movements of the face or body to convey a message; warning calls, threat
calls, defense calls, and gathering calls.

vi) Tool use

In the wild, gorillas do not make or use tools in any significant way, but
chimpanzees use digging sticks to hunt termites. Bonobos and chimpanzees,
provide essential clues in the reconstruction of adaptations and behaviour
patterns of our earliest ancestors

3.1.3 Physical Charactersistics that Classify the Primates

Primates are classified broadly into two suborders: the prosimians and the
anthropoids.

Suborder: Prosimia
They are the most distant and most varied primate relatives of man. Many are
nocturnal (active in the night), hence have more developed sense of smell than
other primates (wet, “naked” doglike nose), large eyes, independently mobile
ears, sensory whiskers, many arboreal, hence the four non-thumb digits act
together, not independently, many have a “grooming claw” on the second toe
only; nails on other digits, many have a “dental comb” comprised of the four
lower incisor teeth and the lower canines, which are long, narrow, and close
together, for use in grooming fur and gathering food, less complex behaviour,
less learning, relatively smaller, less developed brains than the anthropoids. Most
have the full three premolars. All prosimians, except tarsiers, have the post-
orbital bar but lack the post-orbital plate; tarsiers have both, like anthropoids do.
Prosimians are further divided into three infraorders: lemuriformes, lorisiformes
& tarsiiformes

Lemuriformes (lemurs)
They are found only on Madagascar Island and have evolved there in isolation
into diverse forms and are therefore regarded as a case of adaptive radiation.
Most of the lemurs are small sized, tree-dwelling, nocturnal, quadrupedal as
well as vertical clinging and leaping.

Lorisiformes (lorises)
They occur both in Africa and Asia, Sri Lanka and are small, nocturnal, arboreal;
mostly eat fruit, gum, and insects. Examples: galagos (fast hoppers) and runners
(“bushbabies”), slender?lorises: slow climbers and creepers.

Tarsiiformes (tarsiers)
They inhabit rain forests of Southeast Asia and Indonesia. They are small,
nocturnal, arboreal, vertical clinger and leapers; eat insects and some small
vertebrates. They are recently classified in the anthropoid suborder, rather than
prosimians.

Suborder: Anthropoidea
We along with the monkeys and apes belong to this Suborder of generally larger
26 bodied, mostly diurnal (active in the day) primates; retina with a fovea (central
area of higher resolution vision)- absent in prosimians except the tarsiers; dry Human Palaeontology
nose, reduced sense of smell, reduced sensory whiskers, independently controlled,
dexterous digits, nails on all digits (no claws), generally larger brain relative to
body size, generally more complex behaviour, post-orbital bar (like all primates)
including the post-orbital plate (absent in prosimians except the tarsiers).
Anthropoids are subdivided into two infraorders: Platyrrhines and Catarrhines.

Infraorder: Platyrrhines
Platy=flat, Rhine=nose; they are “flat nosed”: round, forward-facing, widely
separated nostrils only in the New World, hence often called “New World
monkeys” (NWM), three premolars on top and bottom, almost all diurnal all
mostly arboreal, living in forests mostly quadrupedal, some able to swing by
arms or tail a few have prehensile tails, which are found only among the New
World monkeys specifically, only among one family of NWMs, the Cebids, e.g.,
the capuchin monkey, which is notable for being one of just four primates that
are known to regularly make and use tools- the sticks as weapons, modify twigs
and leaves to probe for insect larvae.

Infraorder: Catarrhines
Cata= prominent /raised, rhine= nose. Humans, apes and Old World monkeys
fall in this category. They have narrow, downward-facing nostrils, two premolars
on top and bottom, rather than three, some have tails, but none are prehensile,
more variable adaptations than New World monkeys. Catarrhines have two
superfamilies: Cercopithecoids (Old World monkeys) and Hominoids (apes and
humans)

Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys: OWMs)

It is a highly variable group, arboreal and/or terrestrial; has many kinds of social
organisations and mating strategies, often groups of numerous females and one
or several males. Cercopithecoids have two subfamilies: Colobines and
Cercopithecine.

Subfamily: Colobinae
It is of arboreal leaf-eaters found in Africa and Asia. E.g., colobus monkeys: no
thumbs (apparently an adaptation to moving through trees?); langurs: sometimes
called “leaf monkeys”, “Miss Waldron’s Red Colobus”, last seen in 1970’s,
declared extinct in September 2000.

Subfamily: Cercopithecinae
They are mostly semi-terrestrial, quite varied, found in Africa; macaques also
live in Asia typically in large, multi-male, multi-female groups, e.g. baboons,
macaques, vervet monkeys.

Subfamily: Hominoidea
It is the branch of the apes and humans; generally the largest primates, with no
tails, have relatively larger brains, Y-5 molars, basically forest dwellers, more or
less arboreal, wide chest with shoulder blades (scapulae) on the back, rather than
on the side as in quadrupeds, so the forelimbs can stick out sideways, rather than
just moving forward and back, greater mobility of shoulders, elbows, wrists,
these are presumably adaptations for complex climbing in trees, rather than just
27
Geological Frame Work walking on top of branches. Traditional classification has three families:
hylobatids (lesser apes), pongids (great apes), and hominids (us).

Family: Hylobatidae
It is of the “lesser apes”, generally smaller than the pongids, e.g., gibbons and
siamangs. They live in tropical forests of Asia; nearly full-time brachiators
(overhand swingers through the trees) with very long arms, monogamous mating,
little sexual dimorphism, males more involved in infant care than most other
primates, especially the siamangs, highly territorial.

Family: Pongidae (great apes): orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzee (it includes
bonobos=pygmy chimpanzees)

Orangutans are only on southeast Asian islands of Sumatra and Borneo;

extremely sexual dimorphism in size, face, etc., quadrumanual and arboreal when
small, more terrestrial when grown to large size, (especially males), very solitary,
fruit, leaf, and bark eater.

Gorillas live in central African forests in small groups of one or two adult males,
a few females, some young; they eat leaves, stalks, bamboo; mostly terrestrial
(although this may vary depending on their environment).

Chimpanzees and their close relatives bonobos called “pygmy chimps”, even
though they are not consistently much smaller mostly eat plants, especially fruit,
but sometimes insects and other animals

Common chimps: Pan troglodytes large multi-male, multi-female groups

centered on a stable group of related males who stay in their natal group

Bonobos: Pan paniscus, female-centered groups; regularly use tools and modify
objects to serve as tools, strip twigs to “fish” for termites, wad up leaves to
sponge water out of cavities in tree trunks; crack nuts using a stone in one hand
and a larger stone or root as an anvil.

Family: Hominidae
The family of man and his Plio-Pleistocene ancestors, traditionally placed in
their own family, probably more closely related to chimps (and / or to orangutan)
than to gorillas, bipedal, have reduced canines, huge brains for body size. More
discussion follows in other section.

3.1.4 Early Fossil Primates and their Evolution

Primates arose as part of a great adaptive radiation that began more than 100
million years after the appearance of the first mammals and the flowering plants
about 65 million years ago.

Palaeocene Primates
By 65 million years ago, primates were diverging from other mammalian lineages
(such as those which later led to rodents, bats and carnivores). For the period
between 65-55 Mya, it is extremely difficult to identify the earliest members of
the primate order since the available fossil material is scarce, and they were not
easily distinguished from other early (generalised) mammals.
28
Eocene Primates Human Palaeontology

First fossil forms that are clearly identifiable as primates appeared during Eocene
(55-34 Mya). From this period have been recovered a wide variety of primates,
which can all be called prosimians. Lemur-like adapids were common in the
Eocene, as were species of tarsier-like primates. They were insect eaters and
adapted to tree-dwelling. They had larger, rounded braincases; nails instead of
claws, eyes rotated forward, binocular vision, presence of opposable large toe.

This time period exhibited the widest geographical distribution and broadest
adaptive radiation ever displayed by prosimians. In recent years, numerous finds
of Late Eocene (36-34 Mya) suggest that members of the adapid family were the
most likely candidates as ancestors of early anthropoids.

Oligocene primates
The center of action for primate evolution after Eocene is confined largely to
Old World; only in Africa and Eurasia. We trace the evidences of apes and
hominids during Oligocene (34-23 Mya) the vast majority of primate fossils
coming from just the Fayum area of Egypt with 21 different species. The main
genera are:

Apidium
The most abundant of all Oligocene forms, adapted to fruit and seed diet, they
were a small arboreal quadruped, adept at leaping and springing, like a squirrel.

Propliopithecus
Morphologically quite primitive, small to medium in size, likely fruit eaters.

Aegyptopithecus
It was the largest of Fayum anthropoids, similar to modern howler (6-8 kg) with
primitive skull, short-limbed, heavily muscled, slow-moving arboreal quadruped.
It bridges the gap between the Eocene prosimians and the Miocene hominoids.

3.1.5 Advanced Hominoid Primates and Common Ancestors

Early Miocene
Large-bodied hominoids first evolved in Africa ~ 23 Mya. Then they migrated
into Eurasia, dispersed rapidly and diversified into a variety of species. After 14
million years ago, we have evidence of widely distributed hominoids in many
parts of Asia and Europe. The separation of the Asian large-bodied hominoid
line from the African stock (leading ultimately to gorillas, chimps and humans)
thus would have occurred at about that time.

They are presently classified into at least 23 species, lived in dense rain forests
to more open woodlands, were partially terrestrial (ground living) and even
occasionally bipedal, and most of them were fruit eaters, some included leaves
as well. Currently recognised African Early Miocene (20- 17 Mya) fossil taxa
are: Proconsul (P. heseloni, P. majus, and P. nyanzae); Afropithecus,
Turkanopithecus, Otavapithecus, Equatorius Nacholapithecus

29
Geological Frame Work Middle to Late Miocene
The well-known Middle Miocene African hominoid is Kenyapithecus that falls
on the threshold of the “advanced” hominoids, appeared by 14.5 Mya at Fort
Ternan Kenya. Hominoids are rare in African Later Miocene; the known one is
Samburupithecus around 8-9 Mya followed by Sahelanthropus ~7-8 Mya in
Chad, regarded as the ‘Chimpanzee-hominid’ last common ancestor, but still
debated.

Not all African apes evolved into hominines. Those that remained in the forests
and woodlands continued to develop as arboreal apes, although ultimately some
of them took up a more terrestrial life. These are the bonobos, chimpanzees and
gorillas, who have changed far more from the ancestral condition than have the
still arboreal orangutans.

European and Eurasian Hominoids

They appeared during Middle Miocene (14-11 Mya) and currently recognised
fossil taxa are:
Dryopithecus (=Rudapithecus),
Ankarapithecus (earlier Sivapithecus meteai)
Graecopithecus (earlier Ouranopithecus)
Griphopithecus, Heliopithecus, Oreopithecus
Some scholars regarded Dryopithecus as the common ancestor to Chimpanzee-
hominid clade, but others as ancestor to African apes only. Ankarapithecus is on
the orangutan clade; Heliopithecus is closer to the gibbons, whereas the,
Oreopithecus is debated either a monkey or a side-branch of the hominoids.

South Asian (Siwaliks) and East Asian (Chinese) Taxa

Hominoids appeared in South Asia (Siwaliks) and their fossils have been found
in India and Pakistan at ~12.3 Mya and survived there until ~5.5 Mya; spread
eastward to southern China ~ 8 Mya. Currently the following species are
recognised:
Sivapithecus (S. parvada, S. indicus, S. punjabicus (= Ramapithecus)
Krishnapithecus (= Pliopithecus)
Gigantopithecus (=“Indopithecus”)
Lufengpithecus (L lufengensis), L. keiyuanensis & L. hudienensis
• They varied in size from moderately small (Ramapithecus) to large
(Sivapithecus indicus) and very large (Sivapithecus parvada). Indian
Gigantopithecus (G. bilaspurensis) and Chinese (G. blacki) were great giant
“aberrant hominids” of gorilla-size, sometimes speculated as the ancestors
of the illusive “Himalayan Snowman”.

• Ramapithecus, earlier considered hominid, is now lumped in Sivapithecus

genus, but recognised a separate species, S. punjabicus or S. sivalensis.

• Sivapithecus indicus face has a concave profile and projecting incisors

bearing striking similarities with the orangutan. But, dentition and lower
jaw are closer to early hominids.

30
• But, Sivapithecus forelimbs indicate a unique mixture of arboreal Human Palaeontology
quadrupedalism and no suspensory component of the orangutan. Sivapithecus
possessing a mosaic of hominid and ‘pongid’ (orangutan) characters are
regarded some scholars their exclusive last common (or generalised) ancestor.

• Lufengpithecus in China is similar to Sivapithecus.

• Krishnapithecus (=Pliopithecus) was probable ancestor of the gibbons.

3.2 ORIGIN OF MAN

3.2.1 Plio-Pleistocene Hominids
Plio-Pleistocene hominids are presently known from Africa only. The following
hominids genera and species are currently recognised indicating a great diversity:
Australopithecus: (i) A. africanus, (ii) A. aethiopicus
Kenyanthropus: i) K. rudelfensis (ii) K. platyops
Paranthropus: (i) P. walkeri (ii) P. bosei (iii) P. robustus
Praeanthropus: (i) P. anamensis (=A. anamensis), (ii) P. afarensis [=A. afarensis
(Lucy)], (iii) P. garhi = (A. garhi), (iv) P. bahrelghazali (=A. bahrelghazali)
Ardipithecus: A. ramidus
Traditionally, three genera were recognised, viz., Australopithecus, Paranthropus,
and Ardipithecus, the last one is currently regarded closer to Homo. They are
collectively recognised as australopithecines.

The first member of australopithecines was discovered in 1924 in a limestone

cave at Taungs in South Africa by Raymond Dart. It was named as
Australopithecus africanus (“Southern ape of Africa” regarded as a “missing
link” between apes and humans. They had hominid upright stance; the molar
teeth were very large whereas the front teeth very small unlike apes. In 1959 a
nearly complete skull, well-dated to 1.8 Mya was discovered at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania by Mary Leakeys, named as “Zinjanthropus boisei” (now Paranthropus
boisei). Major findings came from Kenya, Ethiopia, and other areas of the Great
Rift Valley East Africa, dated to 4.2 Mya with the earliest evidence for bipedalism
in Australopithecus anamensis (later Praeanthropus anamensis). The 3.5 Mya
Ardipithecus (“Little Foot”) is currently regarded closer to humans. Hominid
footprints of 3.8 Mya were discovered at Laetoli in Tanzanian are the hallmarks
of bipedalism.

In the mid-1970s, “Lucy” skeleton (Australopithecus afarensis) was discovered

by Donald Johanson, dated to 3.2 Mya having long arms and short legs yielding
3½ feet stature. But her pelvis and knee was fully biped human like, but her toes
and fingers were long and curved like an ape’s, the brain too small like an ape.
Her molar teeth were large and with thick enamel like humans, but the rib cage
was conical, neither precisely like known apes nor humans. So, Lucy possessed
a mosaic, partly ape, partly human, and partly intermediate.

The other australopithecines is “Kenyanthropus platyops” found near Lake

Turkana in 1999 and dated to 3.5 Mya, was a small-brained biped with small
front teeth and large rear teeth.
31
Geological Frame Work A new species dated at ~2.5 Mya, Australopithecus garhi (now Praeanthropus
garhi), was “robust” australopithecines. Robust hominids evolved gradually as
the climate of Africa underwent a prolonged period of cooling and grasslands
expanded at the expense of forests. They developed large (megadont) molar teeth,
and strong bones and muscles to enable them to crack and grind down energy
rich hard nuts and seeds. Paranthropus represents such an extreme robust lineage
discovered by Mary Leakey in 1959 and dubbed as “Nutcracker Man”.

Did australopithecines make tools? A. garhi had associated evidence of

butchered gazelle bones and supported tool use.

Three major stages may be recognised in Hominid Evolution. The stages

in sequence, the stage of Australopithecus, the stage of Homo erects and
the stage of Neanderthal man.

3.2.2 Pleistocene Hominins: Distribution and Bio-Cultural

Characteristics
In this section you will learn the evolution of our genus, Homo, and its various
species through time and their distribution in the Old World. Several species
have evolved and preceded the modern Homo sapiens and these are listed in the
box.

A Recent count of the various species of Man (Homo):

1) H. habilis (Africa)
2) H. ergaster (Africa)
3) H. erectus (Asia: Java, China, India)
4) H. georgicus (Europe)
5) H. antecessor(Europe)
6) H. cepranensis (= EuropeanH. erectus)
7) H. heidlebergensis (Old World)
8) H. neanderthalensis (Europe, West Asia)
9) H. sapiens (Old World)
10) H. floresiensis (Indonesia)
We shall understand the variation of morphological characters of various fossil
species generally referred to as ‘hominins’ with special reference to the cranial
traits that changed during the course of hominin evolution.

1) Homo habilis
The earliest indications of the genus Homo are recorded at about 2.4 to 1.8
Mya in East Africa at the same time and place as the earliest recognisable
simple stone tools, known as Oldowan, made on small rounded pebbles.
Homo habilis is the earliest known Homo showing anatomical evolutionary
continuity from the preceding Australopithecus to the following Homo
ergaster.

32
 The most famous specimen of Homo habilis lineage is ER-1470 discovered Human Palaeontology
in 1972 Richard Leakey’s expedition in the Lake Turkana in Kenya. Its
reconstructed skull showed brain volume of ~ 735 cc but a flat face. Another
and better skull is ER-1813 but with a relatively smaller brain ~600 cc, also
found in Olduvai Gorge and in South Africa, initially called “Telanthropus”
.
The 1st Stone Tool-maker ~2mya: Homo habilis-though still small- brained
but intelligent scavengers and tool- makers (slide by A.R. Sankhyan)

Oldowan Chopper
made by Homo habilis

The most interesting feature of Homo habilis is its facial reduction and cranial
increase (compared to australopithecines). But, its limb proportions – the
long arms and short legs, are quite primitive fitting somewhere between the
Great apes and the Australopithecus indicating imperfect bipedal locomotion.

2) Home ergaster
Compared to the very gracile Homo habilis, Homo ergaster (ER-3733)
discovered in 1974 was taller and large brained (850 cc), and efficient tool-
maker who hunted with choppers and crude handaxes. It firmly established
that enlargement of brain occurred but with robust body about 1.8 Mya.

A nearly complete skeleton (WT-15000) of an adolescent male (ER-3883)

was discovered in 1984 by Richard Leakey’s team on the western side of
Lake Turkana, famous as the ‘Nariokotome Boy’- who lived and died about
1.6 Mya. He had heavily muscled arms, prognathous face, no forehead and
strong supra-orbital torus. He stood about 5½ feet tall even at ~12 years age
and if fully grown it could have become the first six-footer of Pleistocene.
This indicates running over long distances, and therefore, Homo ergaster is
considered the first hominin to venture out of Africa.

3) Homo georgicus
Homo georgicus was similar to Homo ergaster in many ways and therefore
regarded the descendant of the latter. Discovered in 1983 in the southeast
Europe in Georgia at Dmanissi site at 1.8 Mya, Homo georgicus is the first
earliest representatives of Homo outside Africa. Later on, stone tools and at
least six individuals were found along with stone tools and cut marks on
animal bones indicating the possibility of meat processing.

33
Geological Frame Work

Dmanisi
Chopper
H. erectus
Handaxe

1. D 2700 (Dmanisi) and WT 15000 (Nariokotome)- Homo ergaster

are two similar small and quite lightly- built adolescent skulls.
Pictures from National Geographic
Homo georgicus

2. Daynes 3. Anton

Dmanisi cranial fossils (compiled

from different sources, especially
from Gabunia et al., 2001)

Facial skeletons of African H.

ergaster (KNM-WT 15000 (cast))
and Dmanisi (D2282) after
Gabunia et.al. (2001)

Morphology
The Dmanissi crania are similar but about 90% smaller than African H.
ergaster. They were stout and short (stature ~150 cm) as they lived in the
temperate zone, whereas African H. ergaster was lean and tall since it lived
in a relatively dry and hot steppes environment. Other salient features are:
v Moderate supraorbital tori, relatively tall, thin-walled, narrow cranial
vaults

v Small cranial capacities (600-800 cc) like Homo habilis and unlike the
Asian Homo erectus (~1000).

v Mandible has primitive bucco-lingually narrow anterior teeth and P/3;

The D2282 face similar to H. ergaster, but small and pyriform (nasal)
aperture.

v Limb proportions similar to modern humans: legs (femurs) longer than

arms; vertebral column S-shaped, the foot well arched- indicating long
distance walking and running.

v Shoulders and arms were unique; hands resting outwardly.

v They exhibit a unique mosaic of “primitive” (ancestral) and “derived”

(novel, descendant) features, while almost modern in their body
proportions.

v They were associated with core-and-flake industry indicating that the

Oldowan Industry associated with foraging strategy was also as efficient
in facilitating dispersal as the Acheulian technology.
34
4) Homo erectus Human Palaeontology

Homo erectus evolved from Homo georgicus and was higher-brained and
versatile tool-maker, skilled organised hunter and therefore the widest spread
species having colonized most of the Old World one million year ago. Typical
Homo erectus first appeared in China and Java at ~1.6 Mya and survived as
late as 200 – 300 Kya (K= kilo=thousand, ya=years ago), even later at
Ngandong (Java) at ~100 Kya. Earlier presence of Homo erectus was debated
in Western Europe, but the skull from the Tautavel Arago Cave besides
Palaeolithic evidences from Lazaret cave and Terra Amata at Nice in southern
France attest their presence.
Distribution
The box below displays the main Homo erectus and other hominins.

Temporal and Special Distribution of H. erectus, Archaic & Modern

H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis (adapted from Conroy, 2005)
Kya
Africa Eurasia East Asia Australia
30 Upper Cave of
Afalou Cro-Magnon
Zhoukoudian
Chancelade Saint-Cesaire Niah Cave
50 Modern Ngandong Lake Mungo
Le Moustier
Homo Saplens
La Chapelle
Amud
100 Kebara
Neandertals
Border Cave Shanidar
Aduma
200 Klasies River
Skul & Qafzeh
Ngaloba Krapina
(LH18) Tabun
Herto Dali
500 Omo Jinnirshan
Steinheim Ehringsdorf
Kabwe
Sima de los Huesos Zhoukoudian
Archalcs Arago (Atapuerca)
1000
Boxgrove Mauer Hexian
Bodo

Gran Dolina (Atapuerca)

1500
Daka
Homo erectus
Olduvai
Nariokotome Dmanisi
KNM_ER Sangiran
1800
37333

Box 1: Distribution sites of Homo erectus

an early African fossil (KNM-ER 3733 from Kenya, which is dated to 1.78 mya)

an early Indonesian fossil (Sangiran 17 from Java and dated to between 1.7-1.0 mya)

a late Chinese fossil (Zhoukoudian reconstruction that is dated to between 600-300 kya)

a late Indonesian fossil (Ngandong from Java dated to 53-27 Kya)

and even an immature individual (the 8-11 year old Nariokotome boy from Kenya that
dates to 1.6 mya).
35
Geological Frame Work Box 2: Distinguishing Cranial Characteristics of Homo erectus

1. Cranial capacity > Australopithecus but <Homo sapiens 750 - 1225cc. mean =
900cc. EQ 3.3-4.0 (Mchenry, 1994)
2. Long, low cranial vault with thick cranial walls (nearly twice as thick as modern
humans)
3. Face is short but massive, nasal aperture projecting forward relative to the
lateral facial regions (not a dished or concave face) the lower part of the face
protrudes (prognathism)
4. Large supraorbital torus (usually in the form of a bar) and supraorbital sulcus
5. Frontal bone low and receding
6. Postorbital constriction greater than Homo sapiens but less than
Australopithecus
7. Variable development of a sagittal keel along midline
8. Angular occipital with occipital (nuchal) torus
9. Broad base cranium - maximum breadth of skull low on temporal bone (about
the level of the external auditory meatus - ear) = pentagonal-shaped skull
(when viewed from behind) - Not Bell Shaped
10. Basicranium moderately flexed
11. Tooth size is smaller than Australopithecus (reduced megadonty) but greater
than Homo sapiens
12. No chin

5) The Archaic Homo sapiens

The later (“evolved”) Homo erectus and early (“archaic”) Homo sapiens are
indistinguishable. The terms “evolved” and “archaic” are not taxonomically
accepted, but often applied to a Old World widely occurring Middle
Pleistocene hominins living during 600 -150 Kya. So, many scholars consider
these a single species, Homo heidlebergensis, which is transitional between
Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.

Box 3: Dates and distribution sites of late Homo erectus/early Archaic Homo
sapiens or Homo heidlebergensis

African specimens European specimens Asian specimens

Kabwe cranium Steinheim cranium (Germany), 200- Dali cranium
(Zambia), 125 kya? 250 kya (China), 180-230 kya
or 500 kya - 200 kya Sima de los Huesos - Ata-puerca
Bodo cranium numerous specimens (Spain), 300- Jinniushan (China)
(Ethiopia), 600 kya 400 kya (200-280 kya
Arago face and partial cranium
(southern France), 320-470 kya
Mauer mandible (Germany) 500 kya

In their overall morphology, Homo heidlebergensis are similar to Homo erectus

in thick cranial vault, low sloping forehead, long low skull and a large robust
face with heavy brow ridges. But, they have two important differences, a larger
braincase (1210 cc) and lesser development of three Homo erectus bony ridges:
36
(a) the double arched supraorbital torus, (b) the reduced occipital torus, and (c) Human Palaeontology
the sagittal keel. So, they would seem to be more advanced towards modem
Homo sapiens.

Important fossils of the Homo heidlebergensis or “archaic” Homo sapiens are:

Kabwe (Zambia), Petralona in Greece, Steinheim in Germany, Dali in China,
and Narmada in India.

The Homo heidlebergensis have some Neanderthal-like specialized listed in the

box.

slightly developed
cranium low and
sagittal keel less postorbital
elongated
constriction
frontal bone
massive and
(forehead) sloping
double arched
brow ridges
large zygomatic
arch

RHODESIAN MAN (KABWE)

1. Larger average brain size, 1212 cm3 (Campbell, Loy, & Cruz-Uribe, 2005)
2. Rounded parietal bones, giving the cranium a barrel shape from posterior
view
3. Development of an occipital bun, a rounded bony protrusion on the occipital
bone in the region of the occipital torus
4. Development of midfacial prognathism produced by inflation of the maxil-
lary bones
5. The presence of large noses
6. Development of a retromolar gap (a space between the lower third molar and
the ascending ramus of the mandible)

6) Neanderthals – Homo neanderthalensis

‘Neanderthal’ is an informal term, referred to a unique population with a
distinctive morphology found in Europe and the Middle East ~150- 27 Kya.
They are currently classified as Homo neanderthalensis but earlier as Homo
sapiens neanderthalensis.

Postcranially Neanderthals were very well built with many unique features,
namely, shortened distal segments (radius and ulna in forelimb, tibia and
fibula in hind limb), large joint surfaces, and pronounced anterior posterior
curvature of the femur and radius, likely representing adaptations to the
colder climates. The salient cranial and postcranial characters of the
Neanderthals are shown in the figure and listed in the boxes.

37
Geological Frame Work
Salient Features of Neanderthal Cranium
double arched large cranium low and long
supraorbital torus

suprainiac fossa
Occipital bun
nasal juxtamastoid eminence large
aperture chin lacking
large
Neanderthal (La Chapella aux Saints)

Neanderthal Features: Cranial & Postcranial

1. Large cranial capacity, mean = 1498 cc (Ruff et.al. 1997), 1. Overall short and robust people, Body
male range = 1524-1640cc and female range = 1270-1425 mass mean = 75 kg, F mean = 67.2 kg
cc (McKee, 2005), EQ = 4.78 (Ruff et.al., 1997). (Rosenberg et al., 2006). Stature estimates
= 1.5-1.7 meters (4'1111-5'7'') (Conroy,
2. Long, low and wide cranial vault 2005), M=169 cm (5'6.5"). F = 160 cm
(5'3") (Stringer & Gamble 1993).
3. Cranial base is often relatively flat (often not highly flexed)
2. Barrel-like chest cavity with broad scapula
4. Large face characterized by midfacial prognathism, inflated
and large shoulder joint.
maxilla, big nose and no canine fossa
3. Pelvis wide with by a long narrow pubic
5. large supraorbital rorus often forming a double arch
ramus
6. occipital bun (chignon with a suprainiac fossa
4. hand with wide fingertips and strongly
7. Maximum breadth at midparietal griping
8. Small mastoid but a large juxtamastoid eminence 5. Femur and tibia have large spiphyses (end
joints) with robust, cortically thick shafts
9. Chin usually absent
(although not as thick as Homo eroctus).
10. Teeth size smaller than Homo erectus but larger than ours, The radius and femur are curved antero-
molars with enlarged pulp chamber (taurodont) and a posteriorly. patella (kneecap) large and
retromolar gap (gap between M3 and the anterior margin thick.
of the ascending ramus of the mandible).
6. Shorten distal limb segments (fore-arm
lineage leading to Neanderthals and tibia)

There are two specimens that date from 800 kya to 650 kya (Gran Dolina of
Atapuerca Spain and Ceprano of Italy), somewhat from Homo
heidlebergensis and placed into a separate species, Homo antecessor, but
treated on the lineage leading to Neanderthals.

7) Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS)

Modern Homo sapiens or earlier Homo sapiens sapiens (we) evolved with
many changes over the archaic type that include the enlargement and
rounding of the cranial vault by the expanding brain, at the same time
reduction in the size of the face. Earlier view was that modern humans had
not appeared until 35 – 40 Kya, but several fossils were discovered with
modern features between 195 and 100 Kya in Africa and subsequently at 90
Kya in the Middle East.

Distribution
The specimens to represent modern humans or nearly modern humans
include: at Omo, Herto, Klasies River Mouth Cave (Laetoli Hominid 18),
and Ngaloba Border Cave in Africa, at Middle East (Israel), namely Qafzeh,
and Skhul Caves, Chancelade and Cro-Magnon (France), Upper Cave of
Zhoukoudian (China) or Lake Mungo (Australia).
38
 Human Palaeontology
large vertical
browridge forehead rounded high
lacking or cranial vault
week

rounded
occipital

canine
large mastoid
fossa
process
no retromolar
face vertical chin gap
(orthognathous) developed

Salient Features of Early Modern Humans

Morphology
Early AMHS were essentially like modern humans albeit somewhat more
robust in some specimens. The salient features of these early modern humans
are listed in the boxes below.
Cranial Postcranial

1. tall rounded cranial vault with a large brain,
mean = 1349cc and EQ = 5.28, (Ruff,
1997)
2. small, vertical face with canine fossa
3. relatively vertical frontal bone (forehead)
4. brow ridge development is absent or
relatively small
5. large mastoid process
6. highly flex cranial base
7. gently rounded occiput (no torus or bun)
8. when viewed from behind the skull in
widest near the top of the parietal region
9. chin
10. small teeth
11. no retromolar gap
1. generally less robust postcranial skeleton, mean body
weight - F = 58kg (127.6 lbs), M = 49kg (107.8 lbs)
(McHenry & Coffin, 2000) mean stature - F = 175cm
(≈5'9"), M = 161 cm (≈5'3") (McHenry & Coffin,
2000)
2. limb bones can vary from small and delicate to very
large and robust however, they are still significantly
less robust than earlier people
3. scapula is characterized by a bisulcate or ventral
sulcus on the lateral margin
4. thumb distal phalange 2/3 the length of the proximal
phalanx
5. distal limb segments usually longer relative to entire
limb
6. cortical bone of the femur and tibia thinner than in
earlier people
7. pubic bone is shorter and thicker than that of the
neanderthals

The fundamental question still debated in palaeoanthropology are where, when

and how did modern humans arise. There are basically two models that address
these questions:

1) Multiregional Model: It suggests that there was an early migration of Homo

erectus to Asia, eventually into Europe, and during this period of geographic
expansion, the hominin populations maintained enough gene flow between
populations in the various regions of the world to preserve species integrity.
This widely dispersed hominin population evolved from early Homo erectus
to archaic and eventually into modern Homo sapiens. So, there is continuity
of characteristics in each region shared by the entire humanity.

39
Geological Frame Work 2) Single Origin or Replacement or Out of Africa Model
It postulates that hominins exited Africa early in the Pleistocene and occupied
Asia and eventually Europe, and that gene flow was occurring within each
region of the world but not extensively between the different regions. But,
modern humans arose in Africa around 150 Kya, and later colonized Asia
and Europe replacing the resident archaic populations of those regions. This
model postulates that modern humans first evolved and there is no continuity
of Homo erectus traits to archaic hominins to modern humans in each region
of the world. One would also expect to see some overlap in resident archaic
populations and the immigrant modern human populations.
Partial Replacement/Assimilation Model
Multiregional Model Population Replacement Model Genetic Replacement Model
Europe Africa Asia Europe Africa Asia Europe Africa Asia

Anatomically H. sapiens
Anatomically
modern modern
H. sapiens H. sapiens

Archaic
Archaic H. Sapiens
H. Sapiens

H. erectus
H. erectus H. erectus

Gene flow

It is basically the Out of Africa Model, but postulates some gene exchange between
migrant modern humans and local archaic humans. This model still argues that
most of our ancestry is African but it allows for some contribution of the more
ancient local populations.

3.3 NARMADA MAN

Narmada Man, rather men, is known by the cranial and postcranial fossil remains
representing two types of archaic hominins or human populations.

3.3.1 Cranial Remains

A partial right portion of the skullcap (calvaria) Narmada Man was discovered
from Hathnora in Central Narmada valley during 1982 by Arun Sonakia of the
Geological Survey of India, who reported the finding in 1984 in the Records of
the Geological Survey of India. Detailed studies on it were conducted by M.A.
de Lumley in France during 1985, and in USA during 1991 by Kenneth A.R.
Kennedy. The calvaria show a mosaic of H. erectus and “archaic” H. sapiens
characters. The main Homo erectus characters include:
1) Small mastoid process
2) Narrow post-orbital constriction
3) Maximum breadth across the mastoid
4) Prominent torus angularis
40
The important Homo sapiens characters traits include Human Palaeontology

1) A relatively high elevation of the cranial vault

2) The landmarks bregma and vertex are not coincident
3) The most posterior point in the instrumental calibration of maximum cranial
length falls superior to the landmark inion (where it lies in erectus skulls)
4) The estimated cranial capacity is between 1155 and 1421 cubic centimetres.
This on the contrary averages at about 1000 cubic centimeters in erectus.
Important “unique features” in Narmada Cavaria infrequent/absent in erectus
and modern sapiens are:
1) The furrowing of the sagittal ridge along the top of the Cranial Vault.
2) A large external auditory meatus (ear hole)
3) An unusually long temporal bone.
But, scholars remained divided on the status of Narmada calvaria as either
“evolved” H. erectus or “archaic” H. sapiens, but, recently many favour it as H.
heidlebergensis (for details see reference).

3.3.2 Postcranial Remains

Another discovery of Narmada Man was made by A. R. Sankhyan of the
Anthropological Survey of India, reported in January 1997 in Journal of Human
Evolution from the vicinity of the Calvaria site of Hathnora but slightly younger
bed to it. It was of three postcranial fossils, namely right and left clavicles and a
partial 9th left rib. These fossils revealed very short, robust and stocky archaic
hominin, with a stature (134 cm) and shoulder width (30 cm) found in the shortest
female Andaman Pygmy.

Thus, the cranial and postcranial bones from Narmada valley come from two
types of Middle to Late Pleistocene archaic hominins. They were found associated
with Late Acheulian handaxes, cleavers and choppers, and Middle Pleistocene
mammalian fauna indicating about 250-200 Kya (for details see references).

41
Geological Frame Work
3.4 SUMMARY
There is no science other than human palaeontology or palaeoanthropology which
through the hard fossil evidences studies man as a species in time and space. It
seeks to understand the natural origins of mankind and how humans are
biologically and behaviourally related to other animals, e.g. the primates. After
two centuries’ struggle with orthodoxy, thanks to palaeoanthropology that we
have now understood that we are the product of a long evolutionary past, and
that the entire present humanity belongs to a single highly adaptive species, Homo
sapiens, which could succeed over several species which went extinct during
the course evolution. For over 10 million years we remained undifferentiated
from the apes, and got splitted about eight million years ago. We were small-
brained hominids until two million years ago, and acquired modern brain and
physique just over 150,000 years back. Like the physique, human mind, myths,
superstitions and other behaviours are also the products of evolution. Our
evolutionary wisdom- a gift of palaeoanthropology-can potentially serve the
humankind in a befitting way since it cuts across the continental, regional, racial,
ethnic, cultural and socio-religious biases.

Suggested Reading
Kennedy, K. A.R. (2000). God-Apes and Fossil men: the Paleoanthropology of
South Asia. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.

Sankhyan, A.R. and Rao, V.R. (2007). Human Origins, Genome & People of
India: Genomic, Palaeontological & Archaeological Perspectives. New Delhi:
Allied Publishers.

Sankhyan, A R. (2009). Asian Perspectives on Human Evolution. New Delhi:

Serials Publications.

Williams, B., Kay, R., & Kirk, E. (2010). New Perspectives on Anthropoid
Origins. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences.

Sample Questions
1) How would you define a Primate?
2) Which Primates were closer to humans?
3) Name the currently recognised last common Ape-Hominid ancestor in the
fossil record?
4) Discuss the status of the Siwalik, European and African hominoids in
understanding the last common ancestor.
5) Do fossil evidences support the Chimpanzee as the closest ape to man?
6) Discuss the Evolutionary hypotheses-‘Out of Africa’ ‘African Eve’ or ‘Out
of Asia’ in brief.
7) Distinguish between the Multiregional and the Single Origin hypotheses.
8) Was Homo erectus a dead evolutionary end in Asia?
9) Who were the probable ancestors of Hobbits- Homo floresiensis?
10) What is the status of Narmada man/men in the broad Old World perspective
of early human evolution?
42
11) Do the Cranial and Postcranial fossils of Narmada Man belong to a single Human Palaeontology
species or archaic population?
Write short note on the following
i) Missing Link
ii) Heidelbergenesis

43
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

4
DATING METHODS
UNIT 1
Relevance of Dating 5
UNIT 2
Relative Chronology 21
UNIT 3
Absolute Chronology 33
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor V. H. Sonawane Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Dept. of Archaeology and Ancient History Associate Professor
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Varansi
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Prof. P. Vijaya Prakash (Unit 1,2) Prof. Falguni Chakrabarthy (Unit 3)
Dept. of Anthropology Dept of Anthropology
Andhra University Vidyasagar University
Visakhapatnam West Bengal

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5522-9
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 4 DATING METHODS

Introduction

Archaeology is a multidisciplinary social science that routinely adopts analytical

techniques from disparate fields of inquiry to answer questions about human
behaviour and material in the prehistoric, protohistoric and historic periods till
recent past. It is unique in respect to other branches of the social sciences and
humanities in its ability to discover and to arrange in chronological sequence,
certain episodes in human history that have long since passed without the legacy
of written records. With the many advances that have been made in the related
fields of archaeology, one of these is the dating techniques as most successful
endeavour made by scientists. Therefore, the success of archaeology in
reconstruction depends mostly on our ability to make chronological orderings,
to measure relative amounts of elapsed time and to relate these events to our
modern calendar. Here, chronology which draws its methods from geology,
botany, zoology and physics played a vital role. The main objective of various
geological methods is to trace the development of time scale in years which
extend back into distance past beyond the historical calendar. The field application
of geochronology is in prehistoric archaeology and human palaeontology. The
evolution of human being, both from the anthropological and cultural points of
view cannot be properly understood, unless the time element is introduced.
Someone had rightly said ‘History without chronology is like a picture without
frame’, or ‘History without date is a grandmother’s tale’. Therefore this text has
been written with special regard to archaeology. The most important contribution
of various geochronological dating methods is that it is now possible to build a
unified chronological framework for the archaeology of the whole world. It has
brought many changes in the traditional chronologies. Here we are going to discuss
how chronologies and time-frames of culture, climate or geographical events
are determined through different dating methods. A broad range of methods are
now available for dating events in Earth history. Some of these are more precise
than others. Four categories are recognised e.g. numerical-age methods, calibrated-
age methods, relative-age methods and correlated-age methods.

However in archaeological literature, two categories of dating are customarily

recorded- relative and absolute. Relative dating techniques which identify the
order in which sites or artefacts were used in a sequence from earliest to latest
while absolute or chronometric dating techniques try to establish an exact or
approximate calendar date for a site or artefact. It will be interesting to look back
at the revolution radiocarbon dating has brought all over the world, about 50
years ago. It came as a god-sent to archaeology. For the first time the prehistorian
could hope to date his finds, both accurately and reliably by a method that made
no archaeological assumptions what so ever. As we are covering quite a few
dating techniques, it is not possible to go into their great details, but have been
discussed in a simple manner so that the reader can appreciate more the potential
and limitations of different dating methods.
Dating Methods

4
 Relevance of Dating
UNIT 1 RELEVANCE OF DATING

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Relative Dating
1.2.1 Stratigraphy
1.2.2 Geological Calendar
1.2.3 Glacial Calendar
1.2.4 Fossil Fauna Calendar
1.2.5 River Terraces
1.2.6 Fluorine Test Dating
1.2.7 Nitrogen Dating
1.2.8 Palynology
1.2.9 Patination
1.3 Absolute Dating
1.3.1 Radio Carbon (C14) Dating
1.3.2 Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) Dating
1.3.3 Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating
1.3.4 Archaeomagnetic Dating
1.3.5 Dendrochronology (Tree Ring Analysis)
1.3.6 Varve Analysis
1.3.7 The Oxygen 16/18 Ratio Method
1.3.8 Obsidian Hydration Method
1.4 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø discuss about the different kinds of methods to date the archaeological /
pre-historic sites; and
Ø describe the importance of dating methods in pre-historic Archaeology.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the study of archaeology, time is no more and no less important than
environment. Dating is used to generate temporal units such as period and
horisons, which in turn are useful in the study of the growth and development of
society. Time is employed in evolutionary studies in order to measure the direction
of cultural growth and development as well as rates of change. In practical sense,
time is defined by the archeologist / palaeoanthropologist as a succession of
events whose order can be defined. In archaeological literature, two types of
dating are customarily recognised- relative and absolute. The following are some
of the dating methods used in archaeological studies:
5
Dating Methods
Relative dating Absolute dating
Stratigraphy Radiocarbon dating
Geological calendar Potassium-argon dating
Glacial calendar Thermoluminescence dating
Fossil fauna calendar Archaeomagnetic dating
River terraces Dendrochronology
Fluorine test dating Varve analysis
Nitrogen dating Oxygen 16/18 Ratio Method
Palynology (pollen dating) Obsidian hydration dating
Patination

Stratigraphy, Geological calendar, Glacial calendar, Fossil fauna calendar,

River terraces, Fluorine test dating, Nitrogen dating, Palynology (pollen
dating) and Patination are some of the important dating methods in Relative
Dating where as Radiocarbon dating, Potassium-argon dating,
Thermoluminescence dating, Archaeomagnetic dating, Dendrochronology,
Varve analysis, Oxygen 16/18 Ratio Method and Obsidian hydration dating
are some of the important Dating methods in Absolute dating.

1.2 RELATIVE DATING

Relative dating is basic to chronology. It is ordering of events in the absence of
any written record or evidence. Relative chronology is important in reconstructing
prehistoric archaeology / palaeoanthropology. In relative dating the duration of
the event is unknown, so also the elapsed time between events is very difficult to
determine. Furthermore, the temporal distance between any past event and the
present cannot be determined. All of these deficiencies can be overcome when
relative time is transformed into an absolute scale.

1.2.1 Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the study of layered deposits. Stratigraphic study is based on the
law of superposition, which declares that deposits, whether of natural or cultural
origin, form with the oldest on the bottom of the sequence and each overlying
stratum younger, or more recent, than the layer below. Once the strata have been
observed from early to late, it is possible to date the artifacts and eco-facts of each
layer according to Worsaae’s law of association. This position states that objects,
both natural and cultural, found together in the same layered deposit are of the
same age. Thus the relative dating of the super positioned deposits also dates their
fossil specimens. The law of association is useful not only in the ordering of site
historiographies, but also in the construction of local regional sequences.

1.2.2 Geological Calendar (Refer the Chapter on Pleistocene

Period)
The history of the earth is subdivided by the geological calendar. Originally this
history was organised by the relative age of the various rock formations that
6
comprise the stratigraphic record of the science of historical geology. Later this Relevance of Dating
relative chronology was converted to an absolute chronology by the use of the
various radiometric-dating techniques. The oldest rocks, of Pre-Cambrian age,
have been dated to 4.6 billion years ago by uranium-lead radiometric assays.
Younger sub-divisions of the geological calendar are dated in a relative sense by
the fossil content of the rock units and in an absolute manner through the broad
range of isotopic decay techniques.

The subdivisions of the geological calendar with taxonomic breakdown into

eras, periods and epochs are presented in the table. The Cenozoic, the latest era,
is the subdivision during which modern forms of life evolved. The Cenozoic era
is subdivided into two periods, the Tertiary and Quaternary, respectively the third
and fourth subdivisions of the geological calendar. The Tertiary period saw the
rise of mammals, including primates during the last 65 million years. The
Quaternary is of prime importance to the study of cultural evolution because it is
the period of humankind. During the Quaternary, the fossil record shows the
biological evolution of humans and their primate relatives over the last two million
years.
The Standard Geological Calendar
Major Era Period Epoch Duration in Millions of Appearance of new forms of life
Geological million years years Ago
Intervals (Approx.) (approx)
CENOZOIC Quaternary Holocene Approx. last 10,000 years Plant and animal domestication
Pleistocene 1.9 Stone tools
CENOZOIC

Tertiary Pliocene 3.6 5.5 Humans appear

Miocene 20.5 5.5 Savannas expand Early apes
Oligocene 12 38 New and old world monkeys appear
Eocene 16 54 Early primate radiate
Paleocene 11 65 Early primates appear Archaic mammals
dominate

MESOZOIC Cretaceous 71 136 Dinosaurs, birds, placentals and

MESOZOIC

marsupials
Jurassic 54 190 Therian mammals, dinosaurs dominate
Triassic 35 225 Early dinosaurs, mammal like reptiles
Permian 55 280 Many reptiles
PALAEOZOIC
PALAEOZOIC

Carboniferous 65 345 First reptiles, true fish, insects

Devonian 50 395 Land animals, amphibians
Silurian 35 430 Land plants, jawed fishes
Ordovician 70 500 Jawless fishes, earliest vertebrates
Cambrian 70 570 Many marine invertebrates
PRE- PRECAMBRIAN 4,030 Single cell organisms
CAMBRIAN
Formation of earth’s crust about 4,600 million years ago

1.2.3 Glacial Calendar

The Quaternary period of the geological time scale in turn is subdivided into two
epochs, the Pleistocene and the Holocene. The Pleistocene is characterised as
7
Dating Methods the “Ice Ages” when pre-modern humans evolved. Fully modern humans, called
Homo sapiens in biological terminology, appear at the end of Pleistocene and
flourished during the last 10,000 years, epoch called Holocene. The Holocene
epoch is the geological interval following the ice ages and hence is often called
post-glacial. It has witnessed essentially modern climates and is marked by the
appearance of the first agricultural village and ultimately of urban civilisation.

The Pleistocene is characterised as an epoch of widely fluctuating climates with

world temperature averages ranging between 4º and 5º C below today’s values.
During cold climatic episodes the polar icecaps thickened and continental glaciers
advanced as snow accumulated at high latitudes, while mountain glaciers formed
and advanced in middle latitudes. While water was stored in ice sheets, the world
sea level dropped because of the retention of water at high latitudes. Alternately
during warm, interglacial episodes of the Pleistocene, the icecaps melted, glaciers
retreated, and sea levels rose.

The glacial calendar is subdivided according to oscillation of climates from cold

to warm. The cold episodes are called glacial stages. In Europe at least four
glaciations have been recognised and named as Gunz, Mindel, Riss and Wurm
in Alps mountain region and Elster, Wieschel, Saale and Wardha in Scandinavian
region. Three warm climate phases have been identified and named Gunz-Mindel,
Mindel-Riss and Riss-Wurm interglacial in southern Europe, and Cromerian,
Holsteinian and Eemian in northern Europe. The capitalised glacial stage names
are pulses of cold climate with internal variations. These minor oscillations of
intense cold are called stadials while the intervening relatively warmer sub-
episodes are called inter-stadials.

Chronological Chart of Pleistocene Period and Palaeolithic Cultures in the Old

World
Glacial Europe Africa Africa Southeast Asia Southwest Fossil finds
calendar Asia

10,000 Magdalenian Capsian Upper ? Upper Cro-Magnon

Wurm III Solutrean Ibero-Maurusian Palaeolithic Palaeolithic Man
Gravettian Aterian
Perigordian/ Egyptian Up.Pal.
Aurignation Dabban, etc
Chatelperronian Lupembian

Wurm Mousterian Mousterian Late Soan Final Anyathian Mousterian Homo

I and II/ Final Acheulean Upper Acheulean Middle Final Neanderthals
Weichsel Sangoan Palaeolithic Acheulean
80,000

Riss / Wurm Pre-Mousterian Upper Acheulean Middle Anyathian Acheulean

200,000 Upper Acheulean Palaeolithic
Up. Soan

Clactonian Acheulean Acheulean Choukoutien Acheulean Homo

Upper Acheulean Soan erectus
Riss / Saale Middle Acheulean

Mindel/Riss Clactonian Acheulean Soan Old

Middle Acheulean Acheulean
Early Acheulean

8
 Relevance of Dating
Glacial Europe Africa Africa Southeast Asia Southwest Fossil finds
calendar Asia

Mindel/Elster Clactonian Old Acheulean Lower Choukoutien-1 Ubeidyia

500,000 Early Acheulean Palaeolithic Choukoutien-13
Abbevillian Old Soan

Gunz/Mindel Flakes? Oldowan - - - Australo-

pithecines

Gunz ? Oldowan - - - -

Vallonet pebble tools

Upper Villafranchian

Danube
1.9 million
Oldowan

Customarily, the Pleistocene epoch is periodised in a three-fold scheme as upper

(late), middle and lower (basal). The Lower Pleistocene is marked by: 1) the first
cold phase, 2) the Biber glaciation, 3) the two Donau glaciations, and 4) the
Gunz glaciation. The time interval of the Lower Pleistocene period extends from
700,000 to 2.0 million years ago. The Middle Pleistocene contains the Cromerian
and Holesteinian interglacial plus the Mindel and Riss glacial stages, according
to the terminology of the Alpine-Swiss sequence of Europe. The corresponding
glacial stages, Elster and Saale, are advances of the Scandinavian sheet that pushed
down from the Baltic Sea onto the north German plains. And finally, the late
(upper) Pleistocene epoch is a comparatively short period of time approximately
of 100,000 years including the Eemian interglacial and Wurm / Weichsel glaciation
and ending about 10,000 years ago with the final retreat of the worlds continental
and mountain glaciers. The Pleistocene period in Africa has witnessed the
downpour of rains called pluvials. These are named as Kageran, Kamasian,
Kanjeeran and Gamblean pluvials corresponding to the glacial episodes of Europe.
These pluvials are alternately represented by inter-pluvials such as Kageran-
Kamasian, Kamasian-Kanjeeran, and Kanjeeran-Gamblian. These pluvials and
inter-pluvials represent wet and dry climates respectively.

1.2.4 Fossil Fauna Calendar

Pleistocene events were reconstructed based on animal and plant fossils collected
or unearthed from different geomorphic features of the Pleistocene period. The
faunal remains discovered by Boucher de Perths along the Somme River in
northern France were systematically classified by the palaeontologists and
geologists, which were considered as index of relative chronology of that time.
Elephasmeridionalis, an archaic Elephasantiquus, the Etruscan rhinoceros,
Merck’s rhinoceros, hippopotamus, the archaic Elephasstenonis, the sabre-toothed
tiger, cervussolhilacus, the Somme deer, the giant beaver- trogontheriumetc were
the Pleistocene fauna of that part of the Pleistocene Period. Whenever deposits
of unknown age containing such or similar faunal assemblages were discovered
they were being dated to the same relative age based on the principal of
association. It soon became evident that the Pleistocene was a time of giant
animal forms and rapid species evolution, a process called speciation. Since
9
Dating Methods tooth enamel is durable and teeth are highly distinctive to each animal species,
the Pleistocene was easily subdivided on the basis of its palaeontology, particularly
the teeth of various elephant species. One particular faunal assemblage, name
the Villafranchian after a type-site located in France, was elected as the horison
marker separating the end of the Tertiary period (Pliocene epoch) from the
beginning of the Quaternary period (Pleistocene epoch). The Plio-Pleistocene
boundary marker is typified by a list of now-extinct giant animals including an
elephant like animal, rhinoceros, horse, and a huge beaver.

1.2.5 River Terraces

In the study of relative chronology the rivers extend wonderful evidences. Rivers
are sensitive to physical forces and provide habitat for several biological species,
including humans. It is evident that several of the present day rivers had formed
or shown dynamism during the Pleistocene Period. Rivers have the capacity of
erosion and deposition. When there is an abundant supply of water, rivers generate
erosion capacity while deceleration in supply deposit whatever they carry, resulting
in river geomorphology. A permanently flowing river would be in a state of
erosion, if there were no oscillations of sea level, or fluctuations of climate, or
tectonic movements of the ground. Such a river would cut down its bed all the
time to discharge its waters and maintains a thalweg (a gently sloping curve),
which is roughly a parabolic in shape. The rivers at the origin are active and they
are considered as young, while at the mouth they are old as they are stable, but at
the middle reaches they are called matured with lot of floodplains. Rivers have
the generic character of changing their courses, which depends on the change in
climate and depends on the terrain, thereby they are the indicators of several
episodes of events (time and climate).

According to their modes of origin, three kinds of river terraces are distinguished:
i) Tectonic terraces, ii) Thalassostatic terraces, and iii) Climatic terraces. All
these terraces are due to interruptions or sudden intensifications, which are
paramount for palaeo-climatic study.
i) Tectonic terraces: One possible source of such disturbances is tectonic
subsidence or uplift of part of the river’s course. In nature, these movements
may be extremely complicated and since tectonic terraces have little
significance for the general chronology of the Pleistocene period.
ii) Thalassostatic terraces: Thalassostatic terraces are located at the river
mouths resulted due to the fluctuations of the level of the sea. A drop of the
sea level creates a step at the former mouth of the river, which is gradually
moved upstream by erosion. The result is a nick point and a terrace, which
diverges from the later thalweg in the down stream direction and ends
abruptly at the coast. A rise in sea level usually leads to the formation of a
funnel shaped estuary. If this is shallow enough and the river carries a
sufficient amount of detritus and will be deposited gradually at the estuary.
In some cases the aggradation above the new high water mark pushes out an
estuarine sediment towards sea resulting in deltas. Thalassostatic terraces
are of great stratigraphic value where they depend on eustatic fluctuations
of the sea level.
iii) Climatic terraces: Climatic terraces are most important from the
stratigraphic point of view as they provide direct evidence of climatic
fluctuations suitable for relative chronology.
10
Uplift upper course of river: Let us assume that the course of the river is crossed Relevance of Dating
by a fault and that the entire upper portion of the river has been raised. A waterfall,
or rapids, will then be formed where the river passes from the raised block down
to the stable portion, and increased erosion will gradually gnaw back the upper
edge. After sometime no more will remain than a portion of the river’s course,
with a gradient steeper than above and below, it will join smoothly with the
lower portion of the thalweg curve, but its upper end will be represented by a
distinct break in the curve, which will become weaker and weaker the more it
works itself upstream. Such break is called a nick point. The remnants of the
ancient level of the river from the nick point as far as the fault will form a ‘terrace’,
which at the fault, runs out into the air. The gravel sheet of such terrace will be
thin (about equal to the depth of the river), since no aggradation took place.

Subsidence of upper course of river: In the case of subsidence of the upper course
of the river the fault will create a bar crossing the thalweg. It is very obvious that
this bar prevents much of pebbles, sand and mud from traveling further down
the river, and the break at the fault will, after sometime, be filled in with deposits.
This aggradation will rise slightly upstream, but its gradient will be smaller than
that of the portion of the upper course above it. In this portion erosion will
continue, until the break at the upper end of the aggradation is smoothed out.
The break at the fault is of the shape of the nick point and the normal erosion of
the un-disturbed lower course of the river will smooth it out, gnawing a channel
across the fault into the aggradation. The result is that a terrace remains at the
side of the valley, which is not parallel to the modern thalweg and which, in its
middle portion above the fault, consists of aggraded river gravels.

1.2.6 Fluorine Test Dating

Fluorine test dating is another method of relative dating. It is based on the fact
that amount of fluorine deposited in bones is proportional to their age. The oldest
bones contain the greatest amount fluorine, and vice-versa. The fluorine test is
useful in dating bones that cannot be ascribed with certainty to any particular
stratum and cannot be dated according to the stratigraphic method. A shortcoming
of this method is the fact that the rate of fluorine formation is not constant, but
varies from region to region. The quantity of fluorine can be determined either
through chemical analysis or with the X- ray crystallographic method.

1.2.7 Nitrogen Dating

Nitrogen provides another measurement of relative age. By contrast to fluorine,
nitrogen in bone decreases with the length of time it has been buried. The nitrogen
test together with fluorine will provide information as to the relative age of bone
specimens. Such techniques are especially important when we wish to establish
whether all the bone specimens in a level or of the same age or whether they are
of different ages and their association in the level are due to secondary deposition.

1.2.8 Palynology
Relative dating can also be done on the evidence of floral remains. A common
method, known is Palynology (the study of pollen grains). The kind of pollen
found in any geological stratum depends on the kind of vegetation that existed at
the time such stratum was deposited. A site or locality can therefore be dated by
determining what kind of pollen was found associated with it.
11
Dating Methods 1.2.9 Patination
Stones either buried in the ground or laying on the surface for a length of time
undergo chemical alteration. Such alteration, termed patina, is manifest in a milky
coloured coating on the surface of the stones. The differences in degree of
patination are assumed to represent differences in relative age.

1.3 ABSOLUTE DATING

Dates termed absolute are really of two separate categories. Those, which are
stated in terms of years in our calendar, are true absolute dates. The true absolute
dates may be derived from tree rings, ancient calendrical systems, coins, and
varves where traced directly back in time from present. The other category consists
of techniques, which yield dates expressed in years with an associated probability
factor. These methods depend on knowing the rate of change and the amount of
change, the number of years that have elapsed since the process of change began.
The methods based on this principle are Carbon-14, Potassium-Argon (K-Ar),
Uranium-Thorium (Ur/Th), Thermoluminescence (TL), Archaeomagnetic etc.
The term chronometric dating refers to quantitative measurement of time with
respect to a given scale. It is synonymous with the more traditional term absolute
dating, but is gaining favour among dating specialists who regard it as more
appropriate term. The dating methods rely upon the half-life period or the
radioactive isotope decay constants are often referred as isotopic dating methods.

1.3.1 Radiocarbon (C 14) Dating

Radiocarbon dating had its origin in a study of the possible effects that cosmic
rays might have on the earth and on the earth’s atmosphere. Willard Frank Libby,
a Noble Laureate in chemistry for his pioneering work in developing this
technique, has provided us with a thorough account of the early research. He
credits Serge Korff with having discovered that neutrons are produced when
cosmic rays enter the earth’s atmosphere. These particles, being uncharged, are
very effective in causing transmutations in the nucleus of any atom with which
they colloid. Neutrons are found to have an intensity that corresponded to the
generation of about two neutrons per second for each square centimeter of the
earth’s surface. Libby theorised that, upon entering the earth’s atmosphere, they
would react with Nitrogen-14. The reaction produces a heavy isotope of carbon,
carbon-14, which is radioactive.

14 N + n 14 C + H

The two carbon-14 atoms per second per square centimeter go into a mixing
reservoir that consists not only of living matter, but also of the dissolved
carbonaceous material in the oceans, which can exchange carbon with the
atmospheric carbon dioxide. For each square centimeter of the earth’s surface,
there are about 7.25 grams of carbon dissolved in the ocean in the form of
carbonates, bicarbonate and carbonic acid, and the biosphere itself contain about
0.33 gm per square centimeter of surface. Adding all elements of the reservoir,
Libby observed that one arrived at a total of 8.5 gm of diluting carbon per square
centimeter, and that the two carbon-14 atoms disintegrating every second should
be contained in 8.5 gm of carbon.

12
Libby argued that one could assert that organic matter, while it is alive, is in Relevance of Dating
equilibrium with the cosmic radiation, and all radiocarbon atoms that disintegrate
in living things are replaced by the carbon-14 entering the food chain by
photosynthesis. At the time of death, however, the assimilation process stops
abruptly. There is no longer any process by which carbon-14 from the atmosphere
can enter the body. In the disintegration process, the carbon-14 returns to nitrogen-
14, emitting a beta particle in the process. The half-life is measured by counting
the number of data radiations emitted per minute per gram of material. Modern
carbon-14 emits about 15 counts per minute per gram, whereas carbon-14, which
is 5700 years old, should emit about 7.5 counts per minute per gram.

C 14 βN 14

Half-life of Carbon-14
The present official half-life of carbon-14 is 5568 ± 30years, and was derived
from the weights average of three determinations: 5580 ± 45 years, 5589 ±75
years, 5513 ± 165 years. However, the 5th and 6th International Radiocarbon Dating
conferences agreed that 5730 ± 40 years was the best value available.

The preparation and dating of sample

The datable sample is converted into a gas form – carbon dioxide, methane,
acetylene, or benzene by burning or by other means. The gas, however, contains
radioactive and electronegative impurities derived from the original material.
These are removed in an elaborate vacuum system, through which the sample
passes. The purified sample is then piped into a proportional counter, which
operates on the principle that the size of electrical pulses originating in it is
proportional to the energy of the beta particle initiating each pulse. The sample
is counted for 1000- min intervals and each sample is counted at least twice,
preferably with at least a week intervening between the two counts. The net
activity of the sample then is compared with the activity of modern standard.

Calculation of a radiocarbon date

I = Ioet ————————— (1)
Where
I = the activity of the sample when measured.
Io = the original activity of the sample (as reflected by a modern standard)
= The decay constant = 0.693/T1/2 the T ½ the half-life.
t = time elapsed.
T½ = 5568 years, then we can write the equation for a routine calculation as
T = log Io x 18.5 x 103 years ————————— (2)
Datable materials
Nearly any material containing carbon is potentially suitable for radiocarbon
dating. Organic material with high carbon content such as charcoal, wood, bone,
shell, and iron are most reliable. In addition to these, peat, paper, parchment,
cloth, animal tissue, leaves, pollen, nuts, carbonaceous soils, the organic temper
in pottery sherds, wattle and daub construction material, and prehistoric soot
from the ceiling of caves are also used for dating.
13
Dating Methods Limitation
The level of the counter background sets a practical limit of about 50,000 years
to the age that can be determined. The limit can be extended by artificial
enrichment of carbon-14 relative to the carbon-12 with the aid of a thermal
diffusion column. Thus, at present time, the technique of radiocarbon dating has
an operational limit of 70,000 years.

1.3.2 Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) Dating

The Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) dating method covers nearly the whole range of
the time scale, with published dates extending from 4.5 billion years ago to
2,500 years ago. This impressive range is due in part to the extremely long half-
life 1.3 billion years ± 40 million years of the radioactive isotope of potassium,
potassium-40, with its decay produces argon-40.

The potassium-argon dating method can only be used in situations where new
rock has been formed. The lavas, tuffs and pumice found as overlying strata at
localities that contained culture-bearing deposits in such diverse areas as Italy,
East Africa and Java are useful for this dating.

Underlying principle of the method

Potassium (K) is one of the elements that occur in great abundance in the earth’s
crust. It is present in nearly every mineral, either as a principal constituent or as
a trace element. In its natural form, potassium contains 93.2% K39, 6.8% K41 and
0.00118% radioactive K40. For each 100 K40 atoms that decay, 89% become
calcium-40 and 11% become argon-40, one of the rare gases.

Argon-40 an inert or inactive gas, which by means of diffusion can easily escape
from its parent material under certain conditions. During rock formation virtually
all Ar40 that had accumulated in the parent material will escape. As the rock or
mineral crystallises, the concentration Ar40 drops off to practically zero. The
process of radioactive decay of K40 continues, but the concentration of Ar40 that
develops over time will now, when dated, denote the moment of rock formation.

Sample preparation
Sample preparation involves first, crushing of the rock samples, second
concentrating it to high purity, third washing it on sample screens to remove
fines, and fourth, treating it with hydrofluoric acid. The main problem of the
technique is the elimination of atmospheric argon from the sample. By removing
the outer layer of the sample, most of the atmospheric argon will be removed.
However, treatment of samples with hydrofluoric acid has proved to be very
effective in reducing the atmospheric argon in the sample. Immediately after
sample preparation and drying it should be put into the extraction line and place
under vacuum.

Potassium-Argon analysis
Potassium-argon dates are calculated from measurements of the sample content
of argon-40. The amount of potassium in a sample fraction can be determined by
a flame photometer, although for small concentrations, isotopic dilution analysis
and even neutron activation analysis can be used. The determination of the
concentration of argon is determined by mass spectrometric analysis.
14
Calculation of Potassium-Argon dates Relevance of Dating

The Ar40 and K40 contents are used to calculate the Potassium-Argon date of
sample. The primary assumption, required to assure a correct age, is that the
initial concentration of Ar40 was zero, and that no diffusion losses took place.
t = 1/ in 1+ (1+R)/R x (40 Ar rad)/(40 K) ———————— (1)
Where
(40 Ar rad) and (40 K) are given in number of atoms,
= The total decay constant of 40 K
R= the banding ratio of the double decay of 40 K.
By substituting the values = 5.32 x10-10 y-1 and R=0.123 (the most reliable decay
constants) replacing K40 by K total (using the isotopic abundance of K40)
converting the ration (40 Ar rad)/(K) into the units and using the common
logarithms instead of the natural logarithms, equation (1) can be reduced to the
form
T= 4320 log 10 {1+ 134.7 (40 Ar rad)} —————————(2)
K
Where t is given in million of years.
t = 2.53 x 105 x (40 Ar rad)/K ——————————(3)
Datable materials
Potassium-argon dates have been determined for such igneous minerals as
muscovite, biotite, phlogopite, orthoclase, sanidine, microline, and leucite, for
volcanic glasses (obsidian), and for the sedimentary minerals gluconite, illite,
carnallite and sylvite.

1.3.3 Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating

Farrington Daniels of the University of Wisconsin suggested the dating of ancient
pottery by thermoluminescence measurements as early as 1953. Since then this
dating technique has undergone serious investigations and development, and at
present has become fully operational as an absolute dating technique with an
accuracy of plus or minus10%.

The Principle of Thermoluminescence

Thermoluminescence is released in the form of light of stored energy from a
substance when it is heated. The phenomenon occurs in a number of different
crystalline solids, including pottery. All ceramic materials contain certain amounts
of radioactive impurities, for example uranium, thorium and potassium, in parts-
per-million concentration range. These elements emit alpha, beta and gamma
radiation at a specific rate that will depend only on the impurity content of the
sample. This radiation will cause ionisation within the sample, and electrons
and other charge carriers (called holes) will result. Also within the ceramic
materials will be crystal imperfections (or traps) that were formed during and
after crystallisation. The released charge carriers will tend to be trapped in this
lattice of crystal imperfections at ordinary ambient temperatures. These charge
carriers will exist in a metastable state, a few electron volts above the ground
state. When the ceramic is heated the electrons and holes are released from their
15
Dating Methods traps at definite temperatures. Upon their release, electron-hole recombination
will occur, returning these charge carriers to their ground state, and affecting the
release of their excessive voltage as light, measurable in photons. The longer the
ceramic has been crystallised, the more ionising radiation will have resulted and
the more trapped electrons and holes will be held in the crystal structure.

The thermoluminescence observed is a measure of the total dose of radiation to

which the ceramic has been exposed since the last previous heating. In the case
of pottery, the event dated is the firing of the pot during the pottery making
process. The temperature of the firing environment, believed to have been in
excess of 7500C was high enough to remove the thermoluminescence that had
been acquired by the clays and tempering materials during geological times.

Dating procedure
After the samples have been prepared (by crushing grains ranging from 1 mm to
1 µm or less) the tiny disk of sherd grains are placed individually in special
apparatus designed to generate up to 5000 C heat rapidly and to record the
thermoluminescence emitted by means of a photo multiplier tube. The glow
recorded by the photo multiplier tube is measured with an electrometer, which,
in turn, is attached to a recorder that produces a graph of light output versus
temperature (glow curve). The height of the plateau in the natural glow curve is
taken as the natural thermoluminescence. An evaluation of the total dosage is
made in rads (1 rad =100 ergs of absorbed energy) by measuring the sensitivity
of thermoluminescent minerals found in the pottery sherd. In addition to knowing
the natural TL of the sherd, and the sensitivity of the TL components of the sherd
to alpha and beta irradiations, it is also necessary to know the natural radiation
dose received by the sherd each year. The total uranium and thorium measured
in terms of alpha activity using a device called a scintillation counter. The K40
content of the sherd is usually determined by means of X-ray fluorescent analysis.

The actual age of pottery sherd is then given by the relationship:

Natural TL
age = —————————————————————
(TL/rad)a x (rads/ year)a + (TL/rad), x (rads/year)
in which
(TL/rad) denotes thermoluminescent sensitivity and (rads/years) denotes annual
dosage of radiation.

1.3.4 Archaeomagnetic Dating

Archaeomagnetic dating is based on the known fact that the direction and intensity
of the earth’s magnetic field vary over the years. Clay and clay soils contain
magnetic minerals and when the clay is heated to a certain temperature, these
minerals will assume the direction and a proportional intensity of the magnetic
field, which surrounds them. They will retain this direction and intensity after
they are cooled. By measuring these qualities, the age of the sample can be
determined if the changes in the earth’s magnetic field at that location are known.

The magnetic moment

The magnetic field of the earth at any given point is defined by three
measurements, the angle of declination, the angle of dip, and the magnetic
16
intensity. When a needle is suspended at its center of gravity so that it can swing Relevance of Dating
freely in all directions, and is then magnetized, it will assume an inclination to
the horisontal direction. The angle of magnetic dip is strongly latitude dependent,
varying from 00 at the magnetic equator to 900 at the magnetic poles. In addition
to inclination, the needle will exhibit definite directions in a figurative horisontal
plane. The directions defined by the needle are called magnetic north and magnetic
south. The angle between magnetic north and geographic north is called the
angle of declination.

Measurement procedure
Robert Dubois, a specialist in archaeomagnetic dating, uses what is referred to
parastatic magnetometer in his specially constructed dating laboratory at the
university of Oklahoma. This magnetometer embodies the principle of the
compass needle. It consists of three bar magnets, spaced on a slender rod
suspended from a very fine wire of phosphor bronze or quartz. The entire assembly
is enclosed within a plastic tube that protects it from air currents. A thin beam of
light shines on a mirror glued to the rod, then reflects, like a pointer, to a numbered
scale. The horisontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is annulled by
passing an electric current through large coils of wire that surround the
magnetometer by means of wooden scaffolding. Locally produced magnetic fields
with a vertical gradient are annulled by the use of the three bar magnets. The
upper and lower magnets are equal in strength and antiparallel to the middle
magnet, which has double strength. With this arrangement there is zero torque
from any vertical magnetic field.
The three magnets act like a double set of diametrically opposing magnets of
equal strength. Since the pull on the two parts of each magnet system is equal
and opposite, the effect of the earth’s field is cancelled and the beam of light
points to zero. When a sample is placed on a platform directly beneath the
suspended magnets, the entire assembly above it rotates slightly. This rotation is
caused by the lower magnet, which is affected more strongly than the other
magnets, and swings toward the direction of the sample, rotating the entire
assembly as it moves. The reflected beam of light moves across the scale, exactly
like a compass needle, indicating just how far the clay sample has caused the
magnets to turn.
By setting the sample on its top and bottom, its angle of declination is measured
directly; the angle of dip is calculated from readings taken when the sample is
set on each of its four sides. These values then are used to calculate where the
geomagnetic pole was located when the clay was fired. Measurements on a number
of samples enable the investigator to compute a mean vector. This is the common
and recommended procedure for archaeomagnetic dating.

1.3.5 Dendrochronology (Tree Ring Analysis)

Dendrochronology is a method that uses tree-ring analysis to establish chronology.
A major application of dendrochronology in archaeology is, as a tool for
establishing tree-ring dates. Another application of this analysis is the influence
of past environmental conditions. The modern science of dendrochronology was
pioneered by A.E. Douglass, an astronomer who had set out to investigate sunspot
cycles by tracing climatic factors reflected in the growth of trees. From his earliest
studies, which were purely climatic in a systematic manner, an absolute
chronology for the southwestern United States.
17
Dating Methods The underlying process
Tree-ring analysis is based on the phenomenon of formation of annual growth
rings in many trees, such as conifers. Usually trees produce one ring every year
from the cambium, the layer of soft cellular tissue that lies between the bark and
the old wood. The growth rings of trees vary throughout. This variation is caused
by two major factors: first the thickness varies with the age of the tree, the rings
becoming narrower as the tree gets older. The second factor that affects the
thickness of growth rings is the change in climate from one year to another. In
years with unfavorable weather, such as drought, the growth rings will be
unusually narrow. On the other hand, during years with exceptionally large
amounts of rain, the tree will form much wider growth rings. Most of the trees in
a given area will show the same variability in the width of their growth ring
because of the climatic fluctuations they all endured. Such trees are said to be
sensitive, those that do not exhibit variability are said to be complacent. The
pattern of narrow and wide rings that sensitive trees in an area display is the
basis for cross dating among specimens. This pattern is unique, since the year-
to-year variations in climate are never exactly the same, and the resulting wide
and narrow ring sequences will not be exactly the same through along period of
time.

The technique of analysis

In the analysis of tree-ring specimens, the first objective is the establishment of
cross-dating between samples, and then cross-dated specimens are matched
against a master chronology, which itself is a product of previously cross-dated
pieces. Essentially, what is involved is the recording of individual ring series
and their comparison with other series. Consequently, the initial requirement is
the positive identification of each of the visible growth increments within the
sample.

Several different instruments designed to accurately record widths along a radius

have been developed. These include the Craig-head-Douglass measuring
instrument, the De Rouen Dendrochronograph, and the Addo-X. After the
measured values are translated into plotted graphs, both visual and statistical
comparisons can be made.

It is necessary to build a known tree-ring chronology that goes back far enough
to overlap and cross-date with the unknown segment. Starting with modern
samples of known date, successively older and older specimens are cross-dated
and incorporated into the matrix until a long-range tree-ring chronology is
established. The validity of tree-ring dating ultimately depends upon the precision
with which cross dating can be accomplished.

1.3.6 Varve Analysis

Varves are laminated layers of sediments, which are deposited in lakes near a
glacial margin. Each varve is made up of two layers, a coarse, thick usually
lighter coloured layer on the bottom and a thin, fine grained, darker coloured
layer on top. The two layers together represent the deposition from one year’s
glacial melt. The coarser layer may be correlated with summer melt and the thin
layer with the winter’s runoff.

18
Varves are variable in thickness, but this is not a problem in their use for dating. Relevance of Dating
A major restriction is that varves occur only in glaciated regions and therefore
are absent in most of the world. Their most outstanding occurrence is in
Scandinavia where they have been traced continuously back in time from the
present to 17,000 years ago. Gerhard De Geer first described the varve sequences
on the basis of the Scandinavian evidence. Subsequently varve analysis has been
applied in certain areas of North America, South America, and Africa.

1.3.7 The Oxygen 16/18 Ratio Method

The oxygen 16/18 techniques provide climatic data, primarily a record of
fluctuations in past temperature. Nonetheless, this method may be used by
extrapolation for the dating of Pleistocene events. The primary application of
the method has been in the analysis of deep-sea cores, although ice cores have
also been studied. Deep-sea cores are made up of the layered ooze on the sea
floor, which accumulates at a very slow rate, one to several centimeters per 1000
years. The components of Globigerina ooze are clay and from 30 to 90 per cent
of calcium carbonate derived from the shells of Foraminifera. The ocean
temperature at the time these Foraminifer were living can be assessed by the
ratio of the two stable isotopes, Oxygen-16 and Oxygen-18, in the calcium
carbonate of their shells. The temperature graph so determined is of little value
for short-term fluctuations because of the reworking of bottom sediments by
burrowing sea floor fauna. For long-term fluctuations it is reliable and presents
us with a temperature curve adjusted to that of the oceanic surface. The oceanic
curve may then be correlated with continental phenomena, primarily glacial
advances and retreats. The resultant curve is therefore a record of Pleistocene
climatic fluctuations, the later portion of which has been precisely dated by carbon-
14 and Pa 231/Th 230 methods. By exploration the deep-sea core curve may be
used to estimate the duration of Pleistocene events beyond the range of precise
dating techniques.

1.3.8 Obsidian Hydration Method

A freshly broken surface of obsidian exposed to the atmosphere absorbs water to
form a visible surface layer, termed a hydration layer. It increases in thickness at
a fixed rate. We thus have available another natural clock for the precise
measurement of elapsed time. In as much as a great many stone implements
were made from obsidian, the potential of such a method is indeed great. The
application of method is simple. First a small thin section is removed from the
specimen with a diamond lapidary saw. The sample is mounted on a microscope
slide and then examined with a polarising petrographic microscope. The polarised
light makes the hydration layer visible, and its thickness in microns may be
directly measured.

However, it is not possible to compare this measurement with a universal thickness

standard because hydration does not occur at the same rate in every region. There
seems to be a correlation with temperature and other environmental factors, which
suggests that regional rates of hydration are possible. Lists of dates have been
prepared for various selected areas, and they show promise of an acceptable
reliability. Problems limiting the method are variable chemical composition of
different obsidians, or surface exposure, or frequent variations in temperature
and precipitation. A final problem is reuse of obsidian implements. In spite of
these limitations, the method has merit where the specimens dated are of a similar
19
Dating Methods variety of obsidian and all the specimens have been buried in similar environment
since use.

1.4 SUMMARY
The spatial and temporal scales are important in understanding the bio-cultural
evolution of humankind. This unit provides the nature of temporal scale and its
components in extending the time dimension. Time is such an important factor
that it embraces every object, either of biological or culture in the process of
evolution. Therefore, the dating of an object is integral in anthropological studies.
There are two kinds of ways in determining the age of an object, would it be a
fossil, an object or an event of culture. They are relative and absolute dating
methods, the former is useful in putting the objects on relative timeframe in a
bracket of millennia or million, while the later pinpointing the age in numerical
years (very close to decades or centuries).

Several kinds of dating methods are presented in this unit. They can be broadly
categorised into three groups such as earth science related (geological and glacial
calendars derived on geomorphological studies such as stratigraphy, river terraces,
varves etc.), radio active isotopic analysis dependent (Carbon-14, Potassium-
Argon, Thermoluminescence, archaeomagnetic etc.), chemical analysis based
(fluorine – uranium – nitrogen (F-U-N), and fossil studies (faunal and floral
fossils including dendrochronolgy and palynology). Any one or combination of
these methods is of great help in extending the time dimension to the objects of
study. In chronological studies the precession of the dating adds value to the
object or event in the spatio-temporal scale.

Suggested Reading
Brothwell, D and E. Higgins. 1970. Science in Archaeology. New York: Praeger.
Butzer, K.W. 1971. Environment and Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Cornwall, I.W. 1958. Soils for the Archaeologist. London: Phoenix House.
Michels, J.W. 1973. Dating Methods in Archaeology. New York: Seminar Press.
Zeuner, F.E. 1958. Dating the past. London: Methuen.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the relevance of dating in archaeological studies.
2) What are isotopic dating methods? Describe one of the isotopic dating
techniques used in prehistoric studies.
3) What is a fossil? Bring out the palaeontology dependent dating techniques
and their use in understanding bio-cultural evolution.
4) Write an essay on Pleistocene Period by integrating different calendars used
in chronological studies.

20
 Relevance of Dating
UNIT 2 RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Stratigraphy
2.3 Alluvial (River) Deposits
2.4 Glacial Deposits (Moraines)
2.5 Aeolian Deposits
2.6 Lacustrine Deposits
2.7 Cave Deposits
2.8 Fossilisation
2.9 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the importance of stratigraphy, which was the outcome of different
geomorphic agencies;
Ø ‘change is the law of nature’ – change in climate particularly during
Pleistocene Epoch is significant in anthropological studies; and
Ø fossils, both animal and plant are of great help in reconstructing Pleistocene
environment during which man had evolved.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Archeological sites, depending on the cultural time range involved, may represent
former houses, villages, or towns; they may pertain to temporary or seasonal
camps, or to killing or butchering sites. Other sites may have little or no ecological
meaning, but consist only of scattered artifactual material, possibly redeposited
within a river trace. Sites dating from historical or late prehistoric times are
commonly found on the surface, possibly buried under cultural debris or a little
blown dust, and altered by a weak modern soil profile. Many sites belonging to
different periods are found exposed at the surface. A great number of prehistoric
sites, however, are found in direct geologic context, within or underneath
sediments deposited by some geomorphic agency.

2.2 STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is the study of layered deposits. Stratigraphic study is based on the
law of superposition, which declares that deposits, whether of natural or cultural
origin, form with the oldest on the bottom of the sequence and each overlying
stratum younger, or more recent, than the layer below. Once the strata have been
observed from early to late, it is possible to date the artifacts and eco-facts of
21
Dating Methods each layer according to Worsaae’s law of association. This position states that
objects, both natural and cultural, found together in the same layered deposit are
of the same age. Thus the relative dating of the superpositioned deposits also
dates their fossil specimens. The law of association is useful not only in the
ordering of site historiographies, but also in the construction of local regional
sequences.

For the archeologist a “stratified” site is one with distinct archeological horisons,
with or without a geologic context. The term “surface” site might be used to
describe a variety of things, such as an archeologically un-stratified surface-find
or even an ancient open-air encampment now buried by a meter or two of loess
or marl. From the archeologist’s point of view, sites may be classified according
to their cultural-ecological meaning or according to digging criteria. The earth
scientist, interested in providing a stratigraphic date or a geographical-ecological
meaning for a site, would naturally use different criteria of classification.

“Stratified” and “surface” sites: The most interesting kind of archeological site
for the earth scientist is one found in a direct geologic context, i.e. geologically
stratified or geologically in situ. This should not imply that the cultural materials
have not been derived, but only that their present location is geologically
circumscribed. For the sake of Convenience “Stratified” will here be used in this
geologic sense only. “Surface” site will be restricted to materials found at the
surface, without geologic context.

According to the basic geomorphological situation or the type of deposits

involved, archeological sites can be geologically classified as follows:

a) Alluvial sites: artifacts, fossils, occupational floors and the like found within
former stream deposits.

b) Lacustrine sites: archeological materials found in former lake beds, in ancient

bogs, swamps, or spring deposits.

c) Aeolian sites: archeological materials found in or under wind-borne sand or

loess, or found in relation to features resulting from deflation or wind scour.

d) Cave sites: archeological materials found in direct relation to erosional or

depositional phenomena associated with former coastlines.

e) Costal sites: archeological materials found in caves with some form of

geologic or archeological stratigraphy.

f) Surface sites:the great mass of scattered archeological materials and sites

found at the surface, with little possibility of direct association with any
geomorphic event.

Identification of the depositional medium contemporary with or subsequent to

an archeological site is vital to the earth scientist. The specific relation of a cultural
horison to a geomorphic event can provide direct paleo-environmental
information. This local environmental setting may in turn be stratigraphically
linked to regional or worldwide changes of climate.

22
 Relative Chronology
2.3 ALLUVIAL (RIVER) DEPOSITS
The intensity and extent of alleviation in a stream valley varies in different
environments. In the arctic barrens and tundra, streams are overloaded and deposit
sediments along the length of their courses. In arid and semi-arid zones water
loss through evaporation leads to alleviation along the river course. In the boreal
forests floodplains are common while in the temperate and tropical woodlands,
the rate and extent of downstream alleviation is comparatively limited. The
savanna lands are somewhat exceptional through significant colluviation.

Streams accelerate their activity in terms of erosion when there is increase in

water supply due to heavy rains, the sediment loads increase and depending
upon the river gradient readjustment sets in. streams reestablish a form of
equilibrium related to its gradient (thalweg curve) and transport ability, and cut
down its bed to a lower and smaller floodplain. The old floodplain becomes
obsolete, and is separated from the new, functional floodplain by vertical
escarpments forming terraces. Such alluvial terraces consists of benches, built
of river deposits, remaining at the level of defunct, higher floodplains.

Terrace formation
At the start, the floodplain has a certain elevation and rate of deposition. Increased
flood discharge with greater transport ability and load will lead to (a) more
extensive flooding and consequently enlarging the floodplain, with undercutting
of nearby hill slopes and, (b) a higher floodplain level due to accelerated
deposition. The new floodplain, across which the river migrates horisontally, is
broader and higher and characterised by deposition of more and larger-sized
materials. When the volume and rate of deposition decreases to their original
level, the stream will attempt to maintain its velocity- despite a decreasing volume
by shortening its course and thereby increasing the gradient. A straighter course
is adopted, usually associated with a predominance of down cutting. The new
floodplain will be smaller, and will be cut out as a limited section of the greater
floodplain. In this way alluvial deposits are built up at various elevations and
with a distinctive morphology.

Alluvial sites rank second only to cave sites in the early history of archeological
excavations. Excavations or borings in river valleys have frequently struck alluvial
sands or gravels of various ages containing animal remains or human artifacts.
Natural exposures in terrace faces have also revealed archeological materials.
Many such sites have little more to offer than sporadic, water-rolled stone
implements and possibly a little bone of dubious association. Other sites, however,
may represent occupation floors with rich associations of undisturbed tools and
fossils. Interpretation of such sites can, with due effort, be carried to a satisfactory
stage of environmental and stratigraphic understanding (Butzer, 1971).

The periglacial stream terraces of the Old World were probably first studied by
Paleolithic archeologists, and the well-known Somme River succession of
northern France was established as a sequence of integrated solifluction beds,
loesses, and periglacial stream deposits. Once assumed to be the framework of
Paleolithic cultural stratigraphy, many of the sites in question are of limited
importance since they were mainly collection of derived artifacts rather than
occupation floors. The pluvial terraces of the arid zone have played a significant
23
Dating Methods role archeologically in both the Old and New World, even in rather late prehistoric
times. The twin sites of Torralba and Ambrona, in the Spanish province of Soria,
were situated on the marshy floodplain margins of a stream valley during a moist,
cold phase of the Lower Pleistocene. Swanscombe is an example of a significant
site associated with downstream valley alleviation during a high, Middle
Pleistocene sea level. The site was occupied on a Thames floodplain almost 30
m. above that of the present. Although not wholly undisturbed by stream
redeposition, the contemporaneousness of the human and animal fossils was
established by fluorine tests.

2.4 GLACIAL DEPOSITS (MORAINES)

Glaciers provide important stratigraphic data to permit identification of glacial
or interglacial epochs, either locally or on much larger scale through melt water
deposits and through the world-wide oscillations of sea levels. Glaciers develop
in cool areas with heavy snowfall. Once formed, the glaciers create a microclimate
of their own. They reflect radiation (increase albedo), lower the summer
temperature by contact and radiative cooling, thereby lead to significant
temperature inversions in the lower atmosphere, i.e. a cold skin of air underlying
warmer air above. The larger is the glacier, the greater is the environmental
modifications, and hence they are the markers of palaeo climate and time episodes.

Ice fields that form where snowfall exceeds annual ablation are the result of
compaction and structural alteration from snow to ice. The density of fresh snow
is in the order of o.15 – 0.16. after settling, removal of part of the pore space, and
recrystallisation, the stage of granular snow or firn (with density of 0.5 – 0.8) is
attained. Repeated melting and refreezing, aided by further compaction under
pressure of overlying firn and snow leads to complete impermeability to air and
densities exceeding 0.82 is defined as ice, which is capable of plastic flow. The
resulting ice mass may form either mountain, valley, or piedmont glaciers in
rough highland terrain, or ice caps in areas of smoother topography.

Moraines: Although permanent ice covers only 10 per cent of the world land
surface today, it extended over 32 per cent at the time of maximum Pleistocene
glaciation. Apart from the areal significance of glacial phenomenon, moving ice
is also the most powerful agent of erosion and deposition. When snow fields
persist over several years they evolve to larger ice masses, erosional niches will
be created in the valley-head areas. If there is much accumulation of snow the
ice basin will over deepened and broadened leading to quarrying of lateral rock
faces. Such loosened rock is embedded and carried within, on top of, or below
the ice. The flow passes through stream valleys by cutting deep, broad floors
flanked by over-steepened cliff faces to further flow of ice. These U-shaped or
trough valleys are commonly several hundred meters deep in the case of matured
glaciers, and are conspicuous hallmarks of valley glaciation. Towards the terminus
of the ice, debris accumulation may take the form of frontal ridges or end moraines,
as sub-glacial ground-moraines, or as side or lateral moraines which extend back
through much of the glacial valley. Coalescing ice tongues may also leave
intermediate ridges of rock and dirt known as medial moraines. The melt water
deposits of sand and gravel stream-laid a head of the ice terminus are known as
outwash.

24
 Relative Chronology
2.5 AEOLIAN DEPOSITS
Wind is one of the natural agencies had the capacity of erosion and deposition
thereby modifying the topography of the earth. But, erosion by wind is limited to
dry, loose, and fine-grained sediments, not protected by a plant cover. Under
natural conditions wind erosion will be more or less limited to the arid zone and
high arctic barrens, except for locally favourable areas: broad sand beaches, and
exposed stream or lake beds during low-water. Particles in the silt or fine and
medium sand size (< 0.2 mm) are carried in suspension by strong winds. Coarse
sands are moved by saltation. Transport of the suspended load, consisting of
silts and finer sand grades, is effected over long distances. During strong dust
storms, great masses of Aeolian materials may be carried over hundreds of
kilometers, only to be deposited very slowly in response to decreasing wind
velocities, or more rapidly by being washed down by rain. Extensive Aeolian
sedimentation of silt and fine sand may then occur well outside of those
environments suitable for wind erosion. The coarser sands of the bed load can
only move along the ground, migrating as sand ripples, ridges, or dunes. These
materials will ordinarily be confined to the general source region, with exception
of smaller dunes migrating from the coast or along other local sources of sand.

Corresponding to mode of transport of the different particle sizes, wind-borne

sediments may consist of striking coarse-grained sand mounds or dunes, of
smooth, extensive sheets or mantles of fine-grained materials. The
morphologically conspicuous, coarse-grained types are largely confined to the
world deserts and the arctic barrens, whereas the sand or dust (loess) sheets may
be deposited almost anywhere, although they only retain structure and other
characteristics when laid down in open country.

Sand Dunes: Dunal forms include migratory ‘free’ dunes, whose existence is
independent of topography, and ‘tied’ dunes, related to some permanent wind
obstruction. The free dunes include several types:
a) Longitudinal dunes occur in groups of long, parallel ridges, with many peaks
and sags. They may be 100 km. long and over 100 m. high, lying parallele
to the direction of strong winds. Their formation may be aided by local
turbulence, leading to accumulation now on one side or on the other.
b) Crescentic dunes or barchans, as the name implies, are crescentic in plan,
the horns and steep concave slopes facing downwind. These dunes may
attain 30 m. in height and 400 m. in width and length. They develop with
unidirectional effective winds.
c) Transverse dunes form irregular, wave like ridges at right angles to the
effective wind direction, sometimes merging or occurring simultaneously
with barchans fields.
d) Parabolic or U-shaped dunes are superficially similar to a barchan, but are
more elongated and slightly asymmetrical, with the gentle, concave slope
facing windward, the steeper, convex face down wind.

Specific archeological associations with Aeolian features are mainly of three

kinds.

25
Dating Methods a) Occupation floors or scattered artifacts found under or on top of sand dunes;
b) Archeological materials found under, within, between or on the surface of
the loess,
c) Archeological materials exposed by wind deflation or scour.
One of the best examples of an archeological site related to a complex sequence
of stream and wind erosion and deposition is the Holocene San Jon site of eastern
New Mexico. Most of the terminal Pleistocene Siberian cultures of the Kom,
Ombo plain and Egypt, were deflated and are now partly found on yardangs
scoured out of old Nile deposits. In late Pleistocene, innumerable loess sites
from central and Eastern Europe are examples of occupation during or after
loess sedimentation. Geomorphological investigation of aeolian sites is primarily
concerned with whether aeolian activity was contemporary with occupation, and
whether it preceded or followed occupation. Evidence of soil development in
the stratigraphic profile are important, and other indications of sedimentary breaks
may be obtained from vertical curves of particle sizes, carbonate, or humus
content. With due caution, pollen studies may also be possible in the humic
horisons of an aeolian profile. In general, the exact stratigraphic correlation of
sediments and archeological levels can be determined, and careful examination
may possibly reveal the contemporary environmental setting of the site as well
as the changing environmental patterns of the period.

2.6 LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS

Lake and swamps beds have been laid down in standing waters and are more
generally known as lacustrine deposits. They include:
a) evaporates, usually gypsum or salts;
b) calcarious beds, including chalk;
c) marls;
d) silts and clays;
e) sands; organic deposits.
Evaporites consist mainly of gypsum (calcium sulfate) and other salts such as
sodium, magnesium and potassium chlorides or sulfates. Such beds frequently
indicate dessication or lake shrinkage- periodic shrinkage during the dry season
or long-term reduction of a larger lake to a lagoon or salt pan (e.g. Dead Sea).
Evaporates, with the exception of open coastal lagoons are indicative of some
degree of aridity or at least of a high ratio of evaporation to precipitation (Butzer,
1971).

Lacustrine chalks usually indicate perennial lakes which are not subject to very
great seasonal fluctuations of oxygen content. Lacustrine chalks are common in
many climatic zones. In temperate Europe they may be deposited organically by
pond weeds; in dry areas such as the Sahara, inorganic precipitation is more
important. Plant and animal remains are more common in such beds (Butzer,
1971).

Marls are calcareous silts deposited both in lakes and swamps. The lime content
may be derived through plant or inorganic agencies; the clays and silts represent
26 soil products carried in by streams and rain-wash. Common in humid and even
semiarid lands, freshwater marl sedimentation is commonly confined to Relative Chronology
comparatively small water bodies.

Silts and clays are generally carried into standing waters in suspension by local
streams. They may occur wherever finer weathering products are available.
Lacustrine silts and clays are however, most common in moist climates.

Sands of lacustrine deposition are most widely found in areas with limited
vegetation. In lower latitudes the widespread lacustrine sands of the Sahara were
largely derived from sandy wadi deposits in the course of Pleistocene. The
prehistoric Chad and Fayum lakes of northern Africa are striking examples of
lacustrine sands derived from direct stream influx as well as lake wave-action
on local sandstone bedrock.

Organic deposits, of many different kinds and complex origins, are most common
in cooler latitudes although they are not quite unknown in the tropics and
subtropics. Prehistoric settlements were common around the banks of lakes. For
example, the early Holocene site of Star Carr, Yorkshire, was situated next to a
now extinct lake, and subsequently buried by bog depostis. In the Fayum
depression of northern Egypt, high Nile floods were responsible for the creation
and maintenance of several late Pleistocene and Holocene lakes. Various
Paleolithic and Neolithic populations occupied the fringe vegetation of those
lakes, leaving cultural and animal remains along the former shorelines or within
the sand of the beaches. At the Lower Pleistocene site of Ternifine, western
Algeria, a rich fauna with skeletal remains of the hominine Atlanthroupus (Homo)
mauritanicus is exposed in clays and spring deposits of a former lacustrine basin.
Zinjanthropus and “pre-Zinj” sites found in mixed lacustrine and volcanic ash
beds of Bed I, at Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika dating from the Basal Pleistocene.
These examples are all related to pluvial climate of Pleistocene period.

In higher-latitude Europe, lacustrine beds were mainly found in poorly-drained

ground moraine areas abandoned by the continental glacier. So for example, the
Lower Paleolithic occupation level at Hoxne, near Ipswich, is located in clayey
silts of Holstein interglacial age. The beds record a former lake within a depression
in Elster till. The interesting Middle Paleolithic spear of Lehirngen, near Hannover,
was found with an intact elephant skeleton in lacustrine marls of Eem interglacial
age, overlying the Saale ground moraine.

Swamp and bog deposits, some of them postdating sites, have long enjoyed
considerable archeological interest in northern Europe. They have produced
potsherds, plowshares, house or village foundations, and even fully intact corpses.

2.7 CAVE DEPOSITS

Caves were first ‘discovered’ for science by archaeologists, and despite the
enthusiasm of ameture cave explorers, caves and archaeology remain almost
synonymous in the public mind. The earth sciences have also shown some
considerable interest in caves and subterranean caverns. Various processes of
groundwater solution and cave formation are a part of karst geomorphology.
Practically, all true caves have developed as a result of solution in limestone,
and the term “karst” refers to landscape noticeably modified through the dissolving
agency of underground waters.
27
Dating Methods Man and animals have sought shelter in caves since the beginnings of prehistory,
and some of the most interesting cultural sequences have been derived from
cave sites. The cave strata had been intensively studied and in fact these studies
are basic in understanding biological evolution and geomorphic environments
tied up with relative time scale. Today certain sequences of cave sediments, faunal
assemblages, and pollen are as vital for Pleistocene stratigraphy as the cultural
horisons are for Stone Age archaeology.

Two major kinds of caves are distinguished: exterior caves, and interior passages
and caverns. The exterior type may vary from simple overhangs and shelters
(rock-shelters) to shallow caves. Most of these have been dissolved or eroded
near the water-mark by streams or wave-action at the coast. Sometimes they are
produced by hallowing out of softer rock strata. Cave environments are highly
variable. Direct sunlight is reduced or eliminated entirely. Relative humidities
are high, particularly in deep, shaded caves. Except at the very entrance,
temperatures are usually too low for soil development, and chemical weathering
is practically limited to carbonate solution.

The stratigraphic layers found in caves are of either external origin and partly
internal. The extraneous materials may be washed in by rainwash, drawn in by
gravity, blown in by wind, moved in through solifluction or washed through
rock joints by percolating soil and groundwater. In addition, man and beast had
carried in a variety of inorganic objects and materials, deliberately or inadvertently.
Due to these natural and artificial reasons the cave sediments would consists of:
1) Fossil layers: animal bones, carcasses, feces, etc;
2) Archaeological layers: the occurrence of individual proofs of human presence
with or without fossil remains; and
3) Cultural layers: sediments strongly influenced by human activities such as
fire and tool-making along with many imported objects such as stones, bones,
shells, plant matter etc.

The only point of further interest requiring comment is the use of caves by early
man. In all but the rarest cases, occupation was limited to the foreparts or entrance
area of a cave. Deep interior caverns were widely use for ritualistic or artistic
purposes in some areas, but such damp, lightless vaults would ethnological
analogies have bearing on Paleolithic cave-dwellers, it may be mentioned that
the Australian aborigines of the northern Lake Eyre area, the Shoshones of the
Great Basin and the Kalahari Bushmen are all known to have occupied caves or
overhangs (rock-shelters) on occasion.

Cave sites have assumed importance at many times and in many areas, ranging
from the australopithencien caves of South Africa to the crevice breccias of
Peking, from the Upper Paleolithic caves of southern Frnace and adjacent Spain
to the terminal Pleistocene cave cultures of the southwestern U.S.A. In India too
we have a very good number of rock-shelter and cave sites denoting prehistoric
cultures together with relative time-scales. The Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh,
Bethamcherla in Andhra Pradesh, Gudium in Tamil Nadu can be quoted as
examples in this direction.

28
 Relative Chronology
2.8 FOSSILISATION
Mineralised end product of an organic matter is a fossil. The organic materials
are largely decomposed and carried away in solution. In this fossilised condition,
the bone is characteristically light in weight, porous and brittle. Soil waters may
percolate freely through fossilised bone, carrying oxides and carbonates in
solution. When the soil dries out, a film of mineral precipitates is left in the pore
network of the bone. Eventually these spaces are refilled, and mineral replacement
of bone material by calcium carbonate, sequioxides, or silicates may take place.
Dehydrated animal bone consists of about two-thirds mineral matter and one
third of organic matter. The mineral component is mainly calcium phosphate
with some calcium carbonate and other salts. The organic components include
fat, citric acid, organic carbon, nitrogen, and amino acids which are combined in
proteins and fats. Depending on the conditions of sedimentation or the chemical
environment, rapid burial of bone or shell may preserve either the mineral or
organic matter. Fossil bone and shell may be obtained from a number of natural
and cultural sedimentary environments:
a) Stream, lake, swamp and spring beds;
b) Beach and estuarine beds;
c) Loess and volcanic ash;
d) ”fossil”, “archaeological” and “cultural” cave strata; and
e) Artificial situations such as kitchen middens, burial pits, etc.
The study of such materials by palaeontologists or palaeozoologists may yield
data of considerable environment and stratigraphic importance, which is the prime
concerned of an anthropologist or a culture historian. The study involves several
steps and they are:
a) Taxonomic identification, for which purpose skull, dentition, antlers, horn
cores, and long bones are particularly useful;
b) Quantitative analysis, i.e. determination of the minimum number of
individuals for a species present, for which the quantity of the most frequent
diagnostic skeletal part is used;
c) Age, sex, and size composition;
d) Ecological interpretation, based on comparison of the morphology, behaviour,
and ecological relations for a living species, or comparative anatomical
collections for an extinct species.
Animal remains, including bone and a wide range of organic refuse pertaining to
dietary habits, are invariably richest in occupation sites of man or ‘sedimentary’
predators. The latter include the cave-dwelling bears, hyenas, lions and owls of
European Pleistocene.

Pleistocene Fauna
The environmental significance of the European Upper Pleistocene fauna is better
understood than that of any other Pleistocene fauna. Only three of the genera are
extinct and two of those, the woolly mammoth and rhino, have been found more
or less intact at certain localities, so that their diet and cold adaptations are well
29
Dating Methods known. A half dozen further species became extinct at the close of the Pleistocene,
but allied species of the same genera are still present. In all, these Upper
Pleistocene faunas can be carefully evaluated in terms of their modern (or
historical) environmental distributions. They are therefore an interesting case in
point.

The characteristic mammalian species of the interglacial (Eem) fauna are the
extinct, straight-tusked woodland elephant (Elephas [Palaeoloxodon] antiquus),
the extinct woodland rhino (Dicerorhinus mercki), the African hippopotamus
(H. amphi bious major), the boar (Sus scrofa), fallow deer (Dama dama), and
roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). In mid-latitude Europe these animals are rarely
found in glacial age deposits. They do however occur in the Mediterranean lands
during part or all of the Wurm. In addition to these species there are a few dozen
mammals of the temperate and boreal woodlands are also found in mid-latitude
Europe during glacial periods. These include elk (Alces alces), red deer (Cervus
elaphus), aurochs (Bos primigenius), the woodland horse ancestral to
Equuscaballus silvestris, lynx, wild cat (Felis silvestris), fox (Vulpes vulpes),
wolf, wolverine, sable (Martes zibellina), and brown bear (Ursus arctos ssp.).

The glacial (Wurm) fauna includes temperate and boreal woodland forms consists
of “typical” tundra fauna: reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), musk-ox (Ovibos
moschatus), the snow shoe and arctic hares (Lepus timidus, L. arcticus), the
mountain lemming (Lemmus [Myodes] Lemmus), and the arctic fox (Vulpes
[Alopex] lagopus). Alpine forms such as the steppe ibex (Capra ibex prisca), the
chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), the alpine marmot (Marmota marmota), and
alpine vole (Microtus nivalis) were found well outside of their high mountain
haunts.

In addition to these, a cool, mid-latitude steppe fauna was also present, ranging
through Hungary into southern France. They are saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica),
the wild steppe horse of tarpana and Prezewalski type, the steppe fox (Vulpes
corsac), the steppe polecat (Putorius putorus eversmanni), the steppe marmot
(Marmota bobak), the hamster (Citellus citellus), and a gerbil (Allactaga saleins).
Some of the best known “cold” elements include the wooly mammoth, wooly
rhino, the steppe bison and the giant elk. The characteristic cave faunas of the
European Pleistocene include the cave bear, the spotted cave hyena, and cave
lion. Each of these species was cold tolerant but rather intermediate in its
requirements. They are not ‘cold’ indicators by any means.

Pleistocene Plant Fossils- Pollen

Pollen analysis or palynology is one of the important indicators of palaeoclimate
and dating in palaeo ecological studies. The basic principle of pollen analysis is
that most wind-pollinated trees, shrubs, and grasses emanate pollen in great
quantities. The particle size of pollen is on the order of 0.01 – 0.1 mm.’ and the
absolute weight less than 10-9 grams. Consequently, pollen grains are readily
removed by wind and widely dispersed in the lower atmosphere where the grains
are carried in suspension. Distances of 100-250 km. are readily crossed by
traveling pollen, and grains may be found up to several kilometers in the lower
atmosphere. Pollen density is greatest at elevation of 200 to 500 meters above
the ground, and it remains appreciable to elevation of 2 km. Pollen accumulation
in any one locality will therefore provide a regional rather than a local cross-
section of the pollen-emanating plants present.
30
The annual pollen ‘rain’ in a vegetated area amounts to several thousand grains Relative Chronology
per square centimeter. A part of this pollen may be preserved indefinitely if
oxidation is limited or absent, particularly in dense, poorly aerated sediments or
in acidic environments such as provided by bogs or many lake beds. Year after
year stratified laminae of sediments, including a small cross-section of the year’s
pollen that is preserved, may be laid down under various conditions at a number
of localities. Each of these sediments, then, preserves its own chronological and
environmental record (Butzer, 1971).

Application of pollen analysis

Pollen analysis may be applied to a broad range of palaeo-environmental
problems.
a) Reconstruction of local vegetation: Careful interpretation of contemporary
pollen spectra from neighbouring sites may provide a good picture of local
vegetation and ecology. Certain floral elements are characteristics of certain
environments, although most genera are distributed rather than more broadly.
If species identification is possible and supported by some macro-botanical
evidence reconstruction of forest type is possible.
b) Regional pollen maps: Plotting of data of approximately contemporary pollen
spectra over wider areas can be made.
c) Climate change: Although with considerable qualification, it may be said
that specific changes in pollen spectra with time may indicate climate or
ecological change at a locality.
d) Stratigraphic dating: Characteristic pollen diagrams have been described
for certain interglacial periods or for the Holocene period in temperate
Europe. Such standard profiles are frequently used as dating tools, either
within the span of a certain diagram, or as fossil assemblages referring to a
particular interglacial interval. Artifactual materials in bog can occasionally
be dated according to their position within pollen profiles.
e) Prehistoric settlement: Forest clearance, burnings, and agricultural
colonisation are dramatically recorded in pollen profiles by sudden
abundance of NAP, appearance of weed or cereal pollen, and the like. In
fact the earliest agricultural settlements in temperate Europe frequently have
been first recognised by pollen diagrams, as in the case of Denmark.

2.9 SUMMARY
The ‘stratigraphy’– the descriptive account of sequence of layers formed due to
the geomorphic agencies is the main source of data system used in relative dating
ever since the chronological understanding of events. Natural agencies like wind,
water, ice etc. had the high energy capacities to erode materials during dynamic
conditions, while in low energy conditions remain as depositing agents. Due to
these dynamic conditions the rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, glaciers etc, the surface
of the earth has been subjected to topographical changes, which can be learned
through the geomorphology. A wind range of deposits (alluvial, aeolian, morainic,
lacustrineare, karst etc.) are systematically brought out in understanding
chronological ordering of events.

31
Dating Methods Since the Pleistocene Period embraces the human emergence and initial
development, the dynamic nature of depositing agencies were presented in this
unit. The fauna and flora are sensitive to climatic change, thereby the faunal and
floral variation in given time frame were of great significance in relative
chronology besides the palaeoclimatic inferences. The geomorphological studies
together with biological remains in the form of fossils (both macro and micro)
go a long way in understanding the environmental changes that had taken place
during the Pleistocene Period.

Suggested Reading
Brothwell, D and E. Higgins. 1970. Science in Archaeology. New York: Praeger.
Butzer, K.W. 1971. Environment and Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Cornwall, I.W. 1958. Soils for the Archaeologist. London: Phoenix House.
Michels, J.W. 1973. Dating Methods in Archaeology. New York: Seminar Press.
Zeuner, F.E. 1958. Dating the Past. London: Methuen.
Sample Questions
1) Discuss various kinds of Glacio-Pluviation climatic events that had taken
place during Pleistocene Period.
2) Describe the process of formation of river terraces and bring out how the
terrace formations are useful in relative chronology.
3) What is palaeontology? Discuss the importance of paleontology in
understanding palaeo-climate.
4) Write short notes on the following
i) Moraines
ii) Cave deposits
iii) aeolian sands iv.lacustrine deposits
5) Write an essay on integrating the Pleistocene climatic sequence against the
geomorphological events and the fossil fauna- floral evidences.

32
 Relative Chronology
UNIT 3 ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Absolute Method of Dating
3.3 Radiocarbon Dating or C14 Dating
3.4 Potassium – Argon Method
3.5 Thermoluminescence or TL Dating
3.6 Palaeomagnetic or Archaeomagnetic Dating
3.7 Varve Analysis
3.8 Dendrochronology or Tree-ring Dating
3.9 Amino Acid Racemization Dating
3.10 Oxygen Isotope and Climatic Reconstruction
3.11 Uranium Series Dating
3.12 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø define the different types of dating techniques – Relative and Absolute
Chronology;
Ø understand underlying principles of different absolute dating techniques;
Ø understand reasons why particular techniques are appropriate for specific
situation; and
Ø understand the limitations of different dating techniques.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Archaeological anthropology is unique with respect to the other branches of the
social sciences and humanities in its ability to discover, and to arrange in
chronological sequence, certain episodes in human history that have long since
passed without the legacy of written records. But the contributions of archeology
to this sort of reconstruction depend largely on our ability to make chronological
orderings, to measure relative amounts of elapsed time, and to relate these units
to our modern calendar.

Many important problems in archeology like origins, influences, diffusions of

ideas or artifacts, the direction of migrations of peoples, rates of change, and
sizes of populations in settlements can be solved with the help of different methods
of dating. In general, any question that requires a definite statement like the type,
A is earlier than B, depends on dating. Then, if it can be shown that, A is earlier
than B, and not contemporary with or later than B; the two alternative hypotheses
can be ruled false.
33
Dating Methods Archaeologists have used many different techniques to work out the age of
artifacts and sites for which they have no historical dates and in order in which
they were used. These dating techniques can be broadly subdivided into two
groups:
• Relative dating techniques which identify the order in which sites or artifacts
were used in a sequence from earliest to latest.
• Absolute (or chronometric) dating techniques that try to establish an exact
or approximate calendar date for a site or artifact.
The techniques selected depend on the specific task and evidence as well as
practical consideration such as cost. Many of the scientific techniques are
expensive and require high level of technical skill to use and to interpret. The
span of human history studied by the archaeologists is so vast and environments
so varied that technique suitable for one place and period may be unsuitable for
another.

3.2 ABSOLUTE METHOD OF DATING

All of us are familiar with calendars and clocks that are based on the observed
periodicity of certain natural events. Calendars give elapsed time measured relative
to the movements of heavenly bodies; clocks are ultimately related to the same
cycle, and time consists essentially of subdivisions of it. The important point
about these measurements is that they depend on the repetition of events at uniform
intervals. In this sense, a day is a day without regard to the year in which it
occurs.

With calendric and horologic time, it is easy to date the succession or synchrony
of events anywhere in the world. It permits placing of chronologically successive
but geographically separate events, and ultimately establishes the basis for studies
of rates of change, differential development in separate areas, and the identification
of the geographic sources of widespread cultural influences.

Different techniques of determining absolute time of an archaeological sites or

artifacts which deserve mentioning are namely: Carbon14 dating, Potassium-Argon
Dating, Thermoluminiscence, Palaeomagnetism, Varve Analysis, Dendrochronology,
Amino Acid Recimization, Oxygen Isotope, Fluorine-Uranium-Nitrogen dating.

Carbon 14 dating, Potassium-Argon Dating, Thermoluminiscence,

Palaeomagnetism, Varve Analysis, Dendrochronology, Amino Acid
Recimization, Oxygen Isotope, Fluorine-Uranium-Nitrogen dating are
some of the important techniques for determining absolute time.

3.3 RADIOCARBON DATING OR C14 DATING

Radiocarbon dating has made a revolutionary impact in the fields of archaeology
and quaternary sciences. It is the best known and most widely used of all
chronometric dating methods. J. R. Arnold and W. F. Libby (1949) published a
paper in Science describing the dating of organic samples from object of known
34
age by their radiocarbon content. Since the radiocarbon dating method became a Absolute Chronology

regular part of the archaeologist’s tool kit we began to have a world chronology
for prehistory, based almost entirely on dates obtained by Libby’s technique.

Principles
The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that cosmic radiation produces
neutrons that enter the earth’s atmosphere and react with nitrogen. They produce
Carbon 14, a carbon isotope with eight rather than the usual six neutrons in the
nucleus. With these additional neutrons, the nucleus is unstable and is subjected
to gradual radioactive decay and has a half-life of about 5730 years. Libby’s
equation describing the reaction as
N14 = C14 + H1
Chemically C14 seems to behave exactly as ordinary nonradioactive carbon C12
does. Thus the C14 atoms readily mix with the oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere,
together with C12, and eventually enter into all living things as part of the normal
oxygen-exchange process that involves all living plants and animals. As long as
matter is living and hence in exchange with the atmosphere, it continues to receive
C14 and C12 atoms in a constant proportion. After death the organism is no longer
in exchange with the atmosphere and no longer absorbs atoms of contemporary
carbon.

After the death of an organism the C14 contained in its physical structure begins
to disintegrate at the rate of one half every 5730 years; thus, by measuring the
amount of radiocarbon remaining, one can establish the time when the plant or
animal died. Half-life (t 1/2) is measured by counting the number of beta radiations
emitted per minute (cpm or counts per minutes) per gram of material. Modern
C14 emits about 15 cpm/g, whereas C14 5700 years old should emit about 7.5
cpm/g. In the disintegration the C‘14 returns to N14, emitting a beta in the process.
Thus:
C14 = B - + N14 +

Suitable Materials for Radio Carbon Dating

Radiocarbon dates can be taken from samples of many organic materials. The
kinds of material selected for C14 dating are normally dictated by what is available.
The ideal material for radiocarbon dating is wood and charcoal burned at the
time the archeological site was occupied. Charcoal and wood are generally
considered optimal since they can be readily treated by sodium hydroxide. Bone
burned at the time when the site was inhabited can also be dated. Unaltered
wood from dry sites, soot, grasses, dung (animal and human), well preserved
antler or tusk, paper, calcareous tufa formed by algae, lake mud, parchment, peat
and chemically unaltered mollusc shells all contained enough C14 to allow them
to be dated. Unburned bone contains a substance called collagen, which is rich
in carbon, and this can be extracted and dated.

Other vegetable or animal products such as leaves, nuts, paper, parchment, cloth,
skin, hide, or hair can be dated but are seldom or never present in prehistoric
associations.
35
Dating Methods

Procedure of Radiocarbon Dating

The first stage in the dating procedure is physical examination of the sample.
The material is then converted into gas, purified to remove radioactive
contaminants, and then piped into a proportional counter. The counter itself is
sheltered from background radiation by massive iron shields. The sample is
counted at least twice at intervals of about a week. The results of the count are
then compared with a modern count sample, and the age of the sample is computed
by a formula to produce the radiocarbon date and its statistical limit of error.
A date received from a radiocarbon dating laboratory is in this form:
3,621 ± 180 radiocarbon years before the present (B.P.)
The figure 3,621 is the age of the sample (in radiocarbon years) before the present.
With all radiocarbon dates, A.D. 1950 is taken as the present by international
agreement. Notice that the sample reads in radiocarbon years, not calendar years.
Corrections must be applied to make this an absolute date.

The radiocarbon age has the reading ± 180 attached to it. This is the standard
deviation, an estimate of the amount of probable error. The figure 180 years is an
estimate of the 360 year range within which the date falls.

36
The conventional radiocarbon method relies on measurements of a beta-ray decay Absolute Chronology
rate to date the sample. A number of laboratories are now experimenting with an
ultra sensitive mass spectrometer to count the individual Carbon14 atoms in a
sample instead. The practical limits of radiocarbon dating with beta decay
approaches are between 40,000 to 60,000 years.

Accelerator mass spectrometry allows radiocarbon dating to be carried out by

direct counting of Carbon14 atoms, rather than by counting radioactive
disintegrations. This has the advantage that samples up to 1/1,000 the size can
be dated, especially for the time span between 10,000 and 30,000 years ago.
Accelerator dating distinguishes between Carbon14 and Carbon12 and other ions
through its mass and energy characteristics, requiring far smaller samples to do
so.

Sources of Error in Radio Carbon Dating

Errors of three kinds reduce the absolute dating value of the technique:
(a) statistical-mechanical errors, (b) errors pertaining to the C14 level of the sample
itself, and (c) errors related to laboratory storage, preparation, and measurement.
These facts may be outlined briefly.

a) A statistical-mechanical error is present as a result of the random, rather

than uniform, disintegration of radioactive carbon. This is expressed in the
date by a plus-or-minus value in years (e.g., 6,240±320 yrs.). This statistical
error can be reduced by increasing the time of measurement.

b) Sources of error in the C14 content of a sample may be a result of (1) past
fluctuations of the C14 concentration in the C14 exchange reservoir; (2)
unequal C14 concentration in different materials; and (3) Subsequent
contamination of samples in situ.

Archaeological Applications
Radiocarbon dates have been obtained from African hunter-gatherers settlements
as long as 50,000 years before the present, from early farming villages in the
Near East and the Americas, and from cities and spectacular temples associated
with early civilisations. The method can be applied to sites of almost any type
where organic materials are found, provided that they date to between about
40,000 years ago and A.D. 1500.

Limitations
Radiocarbon dates can be obtained only from organic materials, which mean
that relatively few artifacts can be dated. But associated hearths with abundant
charcoal, broken animal bones and burnt wooden structures can be dated. Artifacts
contemporary with such phenomena are obviously of the same age as the dated
samples. Chronological limits of Carbon 14 dating are accurate from around 40,
000 years B.P. to A.D. 1500.

3.4 POTASSIUM – ARGON METHOD

Next to radiocarbon, the most spectacular results in isotopic dating have been
obtained with the potassium-argon method. It is the only viable means of
chronometrical dating of the earliest archaeological sites. Geologists use this
37
Dating Methods radioactive counting technique to date rocks as much as 2 billion years old and
as little as 10,000 years old.

Potassium (K) is one of the most abundant elements in the earth’s crust and is
present in nearly every mineral. In its natural form, potassium contains a small
proportion of radioactive potassium40 atoms. For every hundred potassium 40
atoms that decay, eleven become argon40, an inactive gas that can easily escape
from its material by diffusion when lava and other igneous rocks are formed. As
volcanic rock forms by crystallisation, the concentration of argon40 drops to almost
nothing. But regular and reasonable decay of potassium40 will continue, with a
half-life of 1.3 billion years. It is possible, then, to measure with a spectrometer
the concentration of argon40 that has accumulated since the rock formed. Because
many archaeological sites were occupied during a period when extensive volcanic
activity occurred, especially in East Africa, it is possible to date them by
associations of lava with human settlements.

A useful cross-check for the internal consistency of K/ Ar dates is provided by

paleomagnetic stratigraphy. Unaltered lavas that remain in place undisturbed
preserve a record of the earth’s magnetic field at the time of their cooling. Apart
from the minor movements of the magnetic poles with time,
magnetohydrodynamic processes in the earth’s fluid core have repeatedly reversed
the positions of the north and south magnetic poles. Consequently, paleomagnetic
data shows a bimodal distribution in “reversed” and “normal” fields. K/Ar dating
has demonstrated the existence of normal polarity “epochs” from 690,000 years
to the present, and again from 3.3 to 2.4 million years ago, of reversed polarity
epochs prior to 3.3 million years and again between 2.4 and 0.69 million years
ago. Unfortunately, each of these epochs was interrupted by a number of brief
“events,” characterised by rapid switches of the earth’s magnetic field. Although
the paleomagnetic record is correspondingly complicated, it nonetheless provides
opportunity to check the consistency of K/ Ar dates.

A cross-check on the “absolute” calibration of K/Ar dating has been provided by

fission-track dating of volcanic glass from Bed I, Olduvai Gorge. This method
uses different assumptions and is prone to other sources of error. The number of
“tracks” caused by spontaneous fission of U238 during the “life” of the sample
is counted. Age is determined by obtaining the ratio of the density of such tracks
to the number of uranium atoms, which is obtained from the increase in track
density produced by fission of U235 . The Olduvai cross-check provided a fission
track age of 2.0 million years that compares reasonably well with K/ Ar dates
averaging about 1.8 million years.

Datable Materials and Procedures

Potassium argon dates have been obtained from many igneous minerals, of which
the most resistant to later argon diffusion are biotite, muscovite, and sanidine.
Microscopic examination of the rock is essential to eliminate the possibility of
contamination by recrystallisation and other processes. The samples are processed
by crushing the rock, concentrating it, and treating it with hydrofluoric acid to
remove any atmospheric argon from the sample. The various gases are then
removed from the sample and the argon gas is isolated and subjected to mass
spectrographic analysis. The age of the sample is then calculated using the argon
40 and potassium 40 content and a standard formula. The resulting date is quoted
with a large standard deviation-J or early Pleistocene site, on the order of a quarter
38
of a million years. (http://www.jrank.org/history/pages/6430/Potassium-argon- Absolute Chronology
Dating).

Archaeological Applications
Fortunately, many early human settlements in the Old World are found in volcanic
areas, where such deposits as lava flows and tuffs are found in profusion.

The first archaeological date, and one of the most dramatic, obtained from this
method came from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, where Louis and Mary Leakey
found a long sequence of human culture extending over much of the Lower and
Middle Pleistocene, associated with human fossils. Samples from the location
where the first cranium of Australopithecus boisei was discovered were dated to
about 1.75million years. Even earlier dates have come from the Omo Valley in
southern Ethiopia, where American, French, and Kenyan expeditions have
investigated extensive Lower Pleistocene deposits long known for their rich fossil
beds. Fragmentary australopithecines were found at several localities, but no
trace of tools; potassium argon dates gave readings between two and four million
years for deposits yielding hominid fossils. Tools were found in levels dated to
about two million years. Stone flakes and chopping tools of undoubted human
manufacture have come from Koobi Fora in northern Kenya, dated to about 1.85
million years, one of the earliest dates for human artifacts.

Limitations
Potassium-argon dates can be taken only from volcanic rocks, preferably from
actual volcanic flows. This laboratory technique is so specialised that only a
trained geologist should take the samples in the field. Archaeologically, it is
obviously vital that the relationship between the lava being dated and the human
settlement, it purports to date be worked out carefully. The standard deviations
for potassium-argon dates are so large that greater accuracy is almost impossible
to achieve.

Chronological Limits
Potassium argon dating is accurate from the origins of the earth up to about
100,000 years before the present.

3.5 THERMOLUMINESCENCE OR TL DATING

Introduction
Thermoluminescence dating popularly now known as TL is the determination
by means of measuring the accumulated radiation dose of the time elapsed since
material containing crystalline minerals was either heated (lava, ceramics) or
exposed to sunlight (sediments) (http://wn.com/Thermoluminescence_dating).

The Principle
The materials from which pottery is made have the property of storing energy by
trapping electrons as atomic defects or impurity sites. This stored energy can be
released by heating the pottery, at which time visible light rays, known as
thermoluminescence, (a weak light signal) are emitted. All pottery and ceramics
contain some radioactive impurities at a concentration of several parts per million.
These materials emit alpha particles at a known rate, depending on how densely
39
Dating Methods concentrated they are in the sample. When an alpha particle absorbed by the
pottery minerals around the radioactive impurities, it causes mineral atoms to
ionise. Electrons are then released from their binding to the nuclei and later
settle at a metastable (relatively unstable) stage of higher energy. This energy is
stored, unless the parent material is heated — as when the pot is being fired —
when the trapped electrons are released and thermoluminescence occurs. After
the pot is fired, alpha particles are again absorbed by the material and the
thermoluminescence potential increases until the pot is heated again. Thus a
clay vessel is dated by measuring the thermoluminescence of the sample as well
as its alpha-radioactivity and its potential susceptibility to producing
thermoluminescence. In the laboratory, the trapped electrons are produced from
a pottery fragment by sudden and violent heating under controlled conditions.

‘Zeroed’ by firing of pot in a

kiln to over 500ºC

Energy released
as a flash of light
Original levels in which can be
quartz crystals in measured
clay

Amount of
Thermoluminescence
(TL) Gradual
increase of TL
at a regular Zeroed by
rate experimental firing
in laboratory

Time

The amount of energy released is relative to the amount of time since last heated
to over 500ºC the ‘clock setting event’.

(How Thermoluminescence Work)

Archaeological Applications and Limitations

Thermoluminescence dating is used for material where radiocarbon dating is
not available, like sediments. Its use is now common in the authentication of old
ceramic wares, for which it gives the approximate date of the last
firing.Thermoluminescence has been used with reasonable success to date heat
altered stone tools, burned hearths, and pottery. Exciting possibilities are emerging
from experiments with dating Ice Age sediments such as loess, some in contexts
where there are associations with Stone Age artifacts.

40
 Absolute Chronology
3.6 PALAEOMAGNETIC OR
ARCHAEOMAGNETIC DATING
Introduction
After World War II, geologists developed the paleomagnetic dating technique to
measure the movements of the magnetic north pole over geologic time. In the
early to mid 1960s, Dr. Robert Dubois introduced this new absolute dating
technique to archaeology as archaeomagnetic dating (http://archserve.id.ucsb.edu/
courses/anth/fagan/anth3/Courseware/Chronology/11_Paleomag_Archaeomag).

The Earth’s magnetic core is generally inclined at an 11 degree angle from the
Earth’s axis of rotation. Therefore, the magnetic north pole is at approximately
an 11 degree angle from the geographic North Pole. On the earth’s surface,
therefore, when the needle of a compass points to north, it is actually pointing to
magnetic north, not geographic (true) north (http://archserve.id.ucsb.edu/courses/
anth/fagan/anth3/Courseware/Chronology/11_Paleomag_Archaeomag).

The Earth’s magnetic north pole has changed in orientation (from north to south
and south to north), many times over the millions of years. The term that refers
to changes in the Earth’s magnetic field in the past is paleomagnetism. In addition
to changing in orientation, the magnetic north pole also wanders around the
geographic North Pole. Archaeomagnetic dating measures the magnetic polar
wander.

Principles
Direction and intensity of the earth’s magnetic field varied throughout prehistoric
time. Many clays and clay soils contain magnetic minerals, which when heated
to a dull red heat will assume the direction and intensity of the earth’s magnetic
field at the moment of heating. Thus if the changes in the earth’s magnetic field
have been recorded over centuries, or even millennia, it is possible to date any
suitable sample of clay material known to have been heated by correlating the
thermoremanent magnetism of the heated clay with records of the earth’s magnetic
field. Archaeologists frequently discover structures with well-baked clay floors—
ovens, kilns, and iron-smelting furnaces, to name only a few—whose burned
clay can be used for archaeomagnetic dating.

Thermoremanent magnetism results from the ferromagnetism of magnetite and

hematite, minerals found in significant quantities in most soils. When the soil
containing these minerals is heated, the magnetic particles in magnetite and
hematite change from a random alignment to one that conforms with that of the
earth’s magnetic field. In effect, the heated lump of clay becomes a very weak
magnet that can be measured by a parastatic magnetometer. A record of the
magnetic declination and dip similar to that of the earth’s actual magnetic field
at the time of heating is preserved in the clay lump. The alignment of the magnetic
particles fixed by heating is called thermoremanent magnetism.

Datable Materials and Procedures

Substantial floors of well-baked clay are best for the purpose. Tiny pillars of
burnt clay that will fit into a brass-framed extraction jig are extracted from the
floor. The jig is oriented to present-day north-south and fitted over the pillars,
41
Dating Methods which are then encapsulated in melted dental plaster. The jig and pillar are
carefully removed from the floor, and then the other side of the jig is covered
with dental plaster as well. The clay sample is placed under suspended magnets
and rotated. The scale will record the declination and dip of the remnant
magnetism in the clay.

An absolute date for the sample can then be obtained if the long-term, secular,
variation of the earth’s field for the region is known.

Archaeological Applications and Limitations

From the archaeological point of view, archaeomagnetism has but limited
application because systematic records of the secular variation in the earth’s
magnetic field have been kept for only a few areas. Declination and dip have
been recorded in London for four hundred years, and a very accurate record of
variations covers the period from A.D. 1600. France, Germany, Japan, and the
southwestern United States have received some attention. At the moment the
method is limited, but as local variation curves are recorded from more areas,
archaeomagnetism is likely to far more useful for the more recent periods of
prehistory, when kilns and other burned-clay features were in use.

Chronological Range
By archaeomagnetic dating one can date two thousand year old human evidence.

3.7 VARVE ANALYSIS

Varves are annual, graded, bands of sediment laid down in glacier-fed lakes
contiguous with the margins of continental glaciers. Detailed work by G. de
Geer (1912, and later authors) on such annual sediment layers shows that a new
load of sediment enters the lake in the wake of each spring’s thaw. The coarser
materials (mainly silts) settle down first while the finer ones (clays) gradually
settle during the course of the summer. In larger lakes, wave motion may impede
fine sedimentation until autumn when the lake surface freezes over. In numerous
cases, fine sedimentation continues under the ice throughout the winter. When
coarse silts or fine sands are deposited again during the succeeding spring, a
sharp contact zone is formed, so enabling clear identification of the annual
increment.

Further seasonal distinctions are provided through biological evidence. The coarse
springtime accretion is generally dark and rich in organic matter, while the fine
summer sediment is light-colored due to calcium carbonate precipitation. The
late summer and autumn sediments are dark again. Pollen examinations of the
upper dark layers have shown pollen sequences according to the time of blooming,
while microorganisms such as diatoms are concentrated in the light, summer
segment.

The thickness of the annual deposit or varve varies from year to year depending
on the course of the annual weather and its influence on the ablation of the
nearby glacier. A warm year produces large varves, a cold year narrow ones. A
requisite to the regular laminar sedimentation is the temperature contrast of
warmer, inflowing waters and cold lake waters, whereby the sediment is
distributed evenly over the lake bed. Such conditions are best met in ice-margin
42 lakes.
De Geer first recognised that varve sequences were very similar between nearby Absolute Chronology
lakes – within a kilometer of each other – on account of the similarity of local
climate. On this basis sequences were correlated and extended in time from area
to area. By following the various stands of the retreating ice front. De Geer
established an almost complete sequence covering 15,000 years from the late
Upper Pleistocene well into historical times. This provided a true chronology
whereby glacial features related to the retreat and dissipation of the European
glacier could be more or less precisely dated. For example, the close of the
Pleistocene was fixed by the event of the draining of the Baltic ice lake, which,
according to the varves, occurred in 7912 B. C. Radiocarbon cross-dating suggests
that this date may be at most a few centuries off.

Difficulties in the Varve Chronology

Within Fennoscandia the varve-chronology, as established by De Geer (1912,
1940) and Sauramo (1929), has in part remained a respectable body of evidence.
It has been shown, however, that storms create multiple varves annually in shallow
lakes through addition of extra influx and the stirring of sediments. As most of
the lakes south of the Fennoscandian moraines, dating about 9000 B. C., are
shallow, the earlier chronology is now considered doubtful.

The establishment of varve-chronologies outside Scandinavia, as attempted by

Antevs (1925) in North America, has not been very successful. A major reason
for this failure has been extrapolation of sequence segments over hundreds of
miles. World-wide correlations of a frivolous type were attempted later whereby
reversed seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres, of nonglacial
characteristics of varves, have been simply ignored. These attempts have
discredited the varve method and generally speaking, other techniques have now
replaced the varve chronologies everywhere except in Fennoscandia.

3.8 DENDROCHRONOLOGY OR TREE-RING

DATING
Dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, was originated in Arisona by A. E.
Douglass in about 1913. Tree-ring analysis is a botanical technique with strong
analogies to varve study.

Principles
The underlying principle is that nontropical trees add an annual growth increment
to their stems. Each tree ring, the concentric circle, representing annual growth,
visible on the cross-section of a felled trunk. These rings are formed on all trees
but especially where seasonal changes in weather are marked, with either a wet
and dry season or a definite alternation of summer and winter temperatures.

Particularly in “stress” zones, along the polar and grassland tree limits, annual
radial growth fluctuates widely, depending on the fluctuations of the growing
season climate. In warm semiarid regions, available moisture largely controls
the rate of radial growth of trees: the tree ring of a moist year is wide, while that
of a dry year is narrow or, on occasion, missing entirely. In sub polar regions,
rainfall is less significant since the late spring snows keep the water content of
the soil sufficiently high. Instead summer, and particularly July, temperatures
show the most significant correlation with radial growth.
43
Dating Methods Dendrochronologists have invented sophisticated methods of correlating rings
from different trees so that they build up long sequences of rings from a number
of trunks that may extend over many centuries. By using modern trees, whose
date of felling is known, they are able to reconstruct accurate dating as far back
as 8,200 years. Actual applications to archaeological wood are much harder, but
archaeological chronology for the American Southwest now goes back to 322
B.C.

Datable Materials and Procedures

The most common dated tree is the Douglas fir. It has consistent rings that are
easy to read and was much used in prehistoric buildings. Pinon and sagebrush
are usable, too. Because the latter was commonly used as firewood, its charred
remains are of special archaeological interest. The location of the sample tree is
important. Trees growing on well-drained, gently sloping soils are best, for their
rings display sufficient annual variation to make them more easily datable. The
rings of trees in places with permanently abundant water supplies are too regular
to be usable. Samples are normally collected by cutting a full cross-section from
an old beam no longer in a structure, by using a special core borer to obtain
samples from beams still in a building, or by V-cutting exceptionally large logs.
Once in the laboratory, the surface of the sample is leveled to a precise plane.
Analysing tree rings consists of recording individual ring series and then
comparing them against other series. Comparisons can be made by eye or by
plotting the rings on a uniform scale so that one series can be compared with
another. The series so plotted can then be matched with the master tree-ring
chronology for the region. Measuring the tree rings accurately can also add
precision to the plottings.

44
Archaeological Applications Absolute Chronology

Extremely accurate chronologies for southwestern sites have been achieved by

correlating a master tree-ring sequence from felled trees and dated structures
with beams from Indian Pueblos. The beams in many such structures have been
used again and again, and thus some are very much older than the houses in
which they were most recently used for support. The earliest tree ring obtained
from such settlements date to the first century B.C. but most timbers were in use
between A. D. 1000 and historic times.
One of the most remarkable applications of tree-ring dating was carried out by
Jeffrey Dean (1970), who collected numerous samples from wooden beams at
Betatakin, a cliff dwelling in northeastern Arisona dating to A.D. 1270. Dean
ended up with no fewer than 292 samples, which he used to reconstruct a history
of the cliff dwelling, room by room. Dendrochronology has been used widely in
Alaska, the Mississippi Valley, northern Mexico, Canada, Scandinavia, Ireland,
the British Isles, Greece, and Germany (Bannister and Robinson, 1975; Baillie,
1982). Recent European research has been especially successful. What the
bristlecone pine is to the Southwest, oaks are to Europe.
Arisona tree-ring laboratories are trying to analyse data on annual variability in
rainfall from the many trees encompassed by their chronologies. A network of
archaeological and modern chronologies provides a basis for reconstructing
changing climatic conditions over the past two thousand years. These conditions
will be compared with the complex events in southwestern prehistory over the
same period.

Limitations
Dendrochronology has traditionally been limited to areas with well-defined
seasonal rainfall. Where the climate is generally humid or cold or where trees
enjoy a constant water supply, the difference in annual growth rings is either
blurred or insignificant. Again, the context in which the archaeological tree-ring
sample is found affects the usefulness of the sample. Many house beams have
been reused several times, and the outside surface of the log has been trimmed
repeatedly. The felling date cannot be established accurately without carefully
observing the context and archaeological association of the beam. For this reason,
several dates must be obtained from each site. Artifacts found in a structure
whose beams are dated do not necessarily belong to the same period, for the
house may have been used over several generations.

Chronological Range
Dendrochronology is accurate from approximately seven thousand years ago to
the present, with wider application possible. Nonarchaeological tree-ring dates
extend back 8,200 years.

3.9 AMINO ACID RACEMIZATION (AAR) DATING

All living things use proteins as building blocks in the production of their physical
forms. In turn, proteins are composed of folded strands of 20 diverse smaller
subunits called “amino acids”. All amino acids, except for one (glycine), come
in two different forms known as the laevorotatory (L - left) and dextrorotatory
(D - right) form, which are mirror images of each other, but cannot be
superimposed one over the other. 45
Dating Methods What is especially attractive about these two L- and D-forms, at least for the
purpose of this topic, is that the vast majority of living things only use the L-
form. However, as soon as the creature dies, the L-amino acids start to
spontaneously convert into the D-form through a process called “racemization”.
If the rate of conversion can be determined, this process of racemization might
be useful as a sort of “clock” to determine the time of death.

Basic Assumptions
In order to use the rate of racemization as a clock to exactly estimate when a
living thing died, one must know how diverse environmental factors may have
affected the rate of change from the L- to the D-form. As it turns out, this rate,
which is different for each type of amino acid, is also exquisitely sensitive to
certain environmental factors. These include: Temperature; Amino acid
composition of the protein; Water concentration in the environment; pH (acidity/
alkalinity) in the environment; Bound state versus free state; Size of the
macromolecule, if in a bound state; Specific location in the macromolecule, if in
a bound state; Contact with clay surfaces (catalytic effect); Presence of aldehydes,
particularly when associated with metal ions; Concentration of buffer compounds;
Ionic strength of the environment.

Of these, temperature is generally thought to play the most significant role in

determining the rate of racemization since a 1o increase in temperature results in
a 20-25% increase in the racemization rate (Coote, 1992; Stuart, 1976). Clearly,
this factor alone carries with it a huge potential for error. Even slight ranges of
error in determining the “temperature history” of a specimen will result in huge
“age” calculation errors.

“Amino acid dating cannot obtain the age of the material purely from the data
itself. The rate of racemization cannot be standardised by itself because it is too
changeable. Thus, because of the rate problem, this dating technique must rely
on other dating techniques to standardise its findings. As a matter of fact, the
ages obtained from racemization dating must rely on other techniques such as
Carbon 14, and if the dating of Carbon 14 is not accurate, racemization dating
can never be certain. So, how is it thought to be at all helpful? Well, it is thought
to be helpful as a “relative” dating technique.

Interestingly enough, the racemization constant or “k” values for the amino acid
dating of various specimens decreases dramatically with the assumed age of the
specimens. This means that the rate of racemization was thousands of times (up
to 2,000 times) different in the past than it is today. Note that these rate differences
include shell specimens, which are supposed to be more reliable than other more
“open system” specimens, such as wood and bone.

Add to this the fact that radiocarbon dating is also dependent upon the state of
preservation of the specimen. In short, it seems like the claims of some scientists
that amino acid racemization dating has been well established as reliable appears
to be wishful thinking at best.

Because of these problems AAR dating of bone and teeth (teeth in different
locations in the same mouth have been shown to have very different AAR ages)
is considered to be an extremely unreliable practice even by mainstream scientists.
That is because the porosity of bones makes them more “open” to surrounding
46
environmental influences and leaching. Specimens that are more “closed” to Absolute Chronology
such problems are thought to include mollusk shells and especially ratite (bird)
eggshells from the emu and ostrich. Of course, even if these rather thin specimens
were actually “closed” systems (more so than even teeth enamel) they would
still be quite subject to local temperature variations as well as the other above-
mentioned potential problems. For example, even today “very little is known
about the protein structure in ratite eggshell and differences in primary sequence
can alter the rate of Asu formation by two orders of magnitude [100-fold] (Collins,
Waite, and van Duin 1999). Goodfriend and Hare (1995) show that Asx
racemization in ostrich eggshell, heated at 80 oC has complex kinetics is similar
to that seen in land snails (Goodfriend 1992). The extrapolation of high
temperature rates to low temperatures is known to be problematic.

3.10 OXYGEN ISOTOPE AND CLIMATIC

RECONSTRUCTION
Isotopes of a particular environment will have the same chemical properties, but
their different masses cause them to be separated or fractioned by certain natural
processes.

The oxygen isotopes have been useful in the reconstruction of past environmental
condition. It has three isotopes each with a different atomic mass (same number
of protons but varying numbers of Neutrons). The oxygen with eight neutrons
has an atomic mass of sixteen and is designated 16O, the isotope with nine neutrons
is designated 17O, and the isotope with ten neutron is designated 18O. When
water evaporates the lighter oxygen isotope (16O) is preferentially incorporated
into water vapor, while the heavier isotope (18O) becomes proportionately higher
in the remaining water. The fact that 18O is preferentially left in ocean water
during evaporation has been used to infer global climatic fluctuations. This has
led to a revolution in our understanding of environmental and climatic change
during the time of human biological and behavioral development. When this
climate change is dated, they can sometimes be used to ascertain the age of
archaeological sites. Isotopic signals content in marine sediment, calcite veins
and ice core sequence appear to provide a continuous record of global climatic
change for the interval associated with the archaeological record. These isotopic
signals have been related to relative sea level change and alternative periods of
colder global climates (Glacial) and warmer global climates (Inter glacial).

During ice-age the 16O isotope of oxygen does not immediately recycle back into
the ocean but instead becomes part of the large ice sheets. The heavy oxygen
isotope (18O) becomes more common in oceans during these colder intervals.
This colder isotope ratio is recorded in the shells of Ocean’s living organisms.
When warmer global climatic intervals prevail, the lighter isotope, which had
been trapped in the ice, returns to the ocean. Thus, during interglacial, there is
proportionately less 18O in the oceans. The change in the oxygen isotope ratios
have been used to connect artefact bearing deposits with climate chronologies.
The variation in oxygen isotopes from the deposits-ridden shell was correlated
with the deep sea isotope record.

The advantage of the marine oxygen isotope record is that it provides a continuous
record of the climatic change that have occurred during the past 2 million years.
47
Dating Methods

3.11 URANIUM SERIES DATING

Thorium-Uranium (Ionium-Deficiency) Method
Mollusks, marine coral, and freshwater carbonates contain uranium234 at or shortly
after death, but no thorium230 , a daughter element of uranium that is virtually
insoluble in natural waters. If the fossil carbonates subsequently remain closed
to isotopes of the uranium series, the amount of Th230 present will reflect the
original concentration of U234 and the period of isotopic decay. Since the half-
life of U234 is 248,000 years, and that of Th230 is 75,000 years, Th grows to
equilibrium with U in about 500,000 years. In the meanwhile, the ratio Th230 /
U234 is a function of age. The effective dating range of this ionium-deficiency
method is 200,000 to 300,000 years.

The major source of error is the introduction of foreign uranium and its daughter
products after the death of the organism. To some extent this type of contamination
can be screened out, but isolated age determinations cannot be accepted with
any great confidence. The Th230/U234 technique has been applied to the study of
Pleistocene beaches and lake beds in different parts of the world and there has
been sufficient internal consistency as well as consistency with accepted
geological correlations to warrant a moderate degree of optimism. In effect, this
method has proved crucial for correlating littoral deposits of the last two
interglacial periods, both in relation to the radiocarbon-dated portions of the
Wurm glacial, and to the apparent temperature fluctuations recorded in organic
oozes of the deep-sea floor.

U234 Method
Uranium is present in carbonate solutions in very small concentrations. It is
fixed after sedimentation and, barring possible contamination, is not susceptible
to outside addition or loss. U234, the daughter element of U238 ,is originally present
48
in the carbonate solutions but increases through radioactive decay after Absolute Chronology
sedimentation. If the initial proportions of U234 and U238 are known for a particular
depositional medium, the U234 / U238 ratio of a fossil carbonate provides an
approximate date with a potential dating range of 1 to 1.5 million years (Thurber,
1962). This ratio is fairly constant (1.15) in marine waters but rather variable in
fresh waters. Dating of coral has yielded U234 ages consistent with independent
age formation, although marine mollusks receive an unpredictable contribution
of uranium from surrounding sediments, so that they are less reliable. Dating of
freshwater carbonates, such as travertines, has been attempted after establishing
the U234 / U238 ratio for modern waters. However, such ratios will vary considerably
through time, and the resulting dates are not particularly consistent.

Uranium Series Dating

238U
á

234Th
â

234Pa
â

234U
á

230Th

Further decays

Protactinium-Thorium (Protactinium-Ionium) Method

The decay of uranium (U234 and U238 in ocean waters is attended by the formation
of daughter elements, Pa231 and Th230 , which accumulate in deep-sea sediments.
Being produced by the same element, the ratio of Pa231 (half-life, 32,500 years)
and Th230 (half-life, 75,000 years) should be unaffected by the concentration of
uranium in marine waters and should be a function of time only, independent of
changes in geological conditions. These elements are generally but not always
resistant to post-depositional diffusion within the sediment.

Although the laboratory preparation and ultimate analysis of samples is strictly a

task for the qualified specialist, it is useful for the persons concerned to be aware
of the different results possible, depending on the method of preparation used.
49
Dating Methods There is, at present, no standard method of preparation. Many authors specify
their methods, others do not. Some authors have obtained pollen from certain
samples by using one technique; others employing another method may fail to
find any pollen. Some techniques are widely considered acceptable, while others
are frequently considered of dubious validity, other less frequently mentioned
but equally serious grievances are directed against over intensive preparation of
samples with massive destruction or mutilation of pollen. Since pollen has now
been widely and successfully studied from rather “unorthodox,” nonacidic,
sedimentary environments in the arid zone and humid tropics, new preparation
methods have necessarily been introduced to preserve from wanton destruction.

Until recently the only evaluation of the problem, unfortunately not well suited
for the nonspecialist, was a detailed compilation by C. A. Brown (1960). The
revised text book of Faegri and Iversen (1964) consequently fills a long-felt
need.

Only one, widely employed technique is briefly described here, in order to

illustrate the stages of “cleaning.” Three undesirable substances may be present
and may be removed in the following manner:
a) Calcium carbonate is removed with cold, diluted (25 per cent) hydrochloric
acid.
b) Silica is removed by letting the sample stand for 48 hours in 40 per cent
concentrated hydrofluoric acid, after which the sample is washed and then
heated with 10 per cent hydrochloric acid.
c) Unwanted organic matter is destroyed by first boiling in 10-15 per cent
hydrogen peroxide and then, after washing, boiling the sample a second
time in 10 per cent potassium hydroxide.
All three techniques may have to be applied to clays or marls, whereas only (c)
may be required in the case of peat, lignite, or coal. When the various undesirables
have been so removed, the final residue of pollen is mounted in glycerine jelly
on a permanent slide or suspended in liquid glycerine for immediate investigation
under the microscope with 300x to 1000x magnification.

3.12 SUMMARY
Archaeologists have used many different dating techniques to work out the age
of artefacts and sites for which they have no historical dates and the order in
which they were used. The different techniques selected depend on the specific
task and evidence as well as practical consideration such as cost. Many of the
scientific techniques are expensive and required high level of technical skill to
use and to interpret. The span of human history studied by archaeologists is so
vast and environments so varied that techniques suitable for one place and period
may be unsuitable for another. The absolute methods that provide calendar dates
have been used since the middle of the twentieth century. With the exception of
dendrochronology, they all have margins of error and are expensive to use. There
are some less commonly used methods, such as Fission Track, Electron Spin
Resonance (ESR) which are still at an experimental stage. Several techniques
measure the age of layers rather than the archaeological deposition and are limited
to particular type of geology. Most of them are used in combination for cross
50 dating.
Suggested Reading Absolute Chronology

Butzer, K.W. 1971. Environment and Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.

Coote, G.E. 1992. Lon Beam Analysis of Fluorine: Its Principles and Applications.
Nuclear Instruments and Methods B66:191–204.

Fleming,Stuart. 1976. Dating in Archaeology. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Grant, Jim, Sam Gorin and Neil Fleming. 2007. The Archaeology Course book:
London and New York: Routledge.

Leute, Ulrich. Weinheim, West Germany: VCH, Michels, J. W. 1973. Dating

Methods in Archaeology. New York: Science Press.

Parkes, P. A. 1986. Current Scientific Techniques in Archaeology. London &

Sydney: CROOM HELM.

Taylor, R. E., and C. W. Meighan, eds. 1978. Chronologies in New World

Archaeology. Orlando: Fla. Academic Press.

Sample Questions
1) Define Relative and Absolute methods of dating and discuss the relevance
of dating in archaeological anthropology.
2) Write the principle and procedure of radiocarbon dating.
3) Discuss in brief about various aspects of potassium argon dating.
4) Discuss in brief about various aspects of varve analysis.
5) How is the amino acid racemization used to date bones and teeth?
6) Discuss how oxygen isotopes have been useful in the reconstruction of past
environmental condition.
7) Discuss, in brief, about various aspects of dendrochronology.
8) Discuss, in brief, about uranium series dating.
9) Discuss, in brief, about palaeomagnetic dating.

51
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

5
PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES
UNIT 1
Lower Palaeolithic Cultures 7
UNIT 2
Middle Palaeolithic Cultures 32
UNIT 3
Upper Palaeolithic Cultures 47
UNIT 4
Palaeolithic Art 66
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor M.L.K. Murthy (Retd) Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Centre for Regional Studies Associate Professor
Hyderabad Central University, Hyderabad Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Prof. K. Paddayya (Unit 1) Dr. M.K. Singh (Unit 2,3,4)
Emeritus Professor Assistant Professor
Deccan College Post-Graduate & Dept. of Anthropology
Research Institute, Pune University of Delhi, Delhi

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5523-6
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 5 PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES
Introduction
Man, by his tool making ability, emerges from an animal background and assumes
higher status than any other animal. He makes tools on stone, wood, bone and
antler and obtains his food by hunting. This capacity of tool making is the
harbinger of culture. He learns to build shelters, to use fire, to clothe himself,
and to transmit ideas through signs or symbols and presumably even by speech,
though not in writing. This period of man’s history belongs to the realm of
prehistory. And the evidences for reconstructing the life ways of prehistoric man
are the tools, which are, predominantly, the stone tools that survived the ravages
of time. By studying the stone tools—the techniques by which stone tools are
made and their functions—prehistoric archaeologists have identified different
cultures, which are called Stone Age cultures. These are Palaeolithic (or the Old
Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).

The long period of human development, before the advent of agriculture and use
of metal is the epoch of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures. The Palaeolithic is
divided into Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, and Upper Palaeolithic
cultures. All these are hunting-gathering cultures. These cultures are distinguished
by their respective tool types, the ensembles of which are called industries. The
stone tools show progressive refinements in the techniques of tool manufacture
and advancement in hunting methods from Lower Palaeolithic to Upper
Palaeolithic.

The Palaeolithic cultures flourished in the geological era called Pleistocene. The
Pleistocene era, climatically, is characterised by glacial (extreme cold conditions
and extensive ice caps) and interglacial (warm period) conditions in the temperate
zones and pluvial (heavy rainy or wet period) and interpluvial (dry period)
conditions in the tropical belt. Early human populations (i.e. Palaeolithic) lived
in major parts of the temperate zones (Europe) and tropical zone (Africa and
Asia) successfully adapting to these climatic events and environments.

The earliest stage of the Lower Palaeolithic culture is represented by a stone tool
industry known from Kadar Gona and Hadar regions of Ethiopia in Africa. This
is dated to 2.5 million years. The Lower Palaeolithic culture in Africa is recognised
by two stone tool industries, i.e. the Oldowan industry, and the Acheulian industry
(the handaxe-cleaver or biface industry). The Oldowan is a crude industry of
pebble tools, mainly chopper-chopping tools which is well documented in Bed I
of the famous Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, and is dated to 1.85 million years BP.
Human fossils associated with Oldowan tool traditions belong to the
Australopithecine and Homo lineages. The Soan industry in the northwestern
part of the Indian subcontinent (Soan Valley in Pakistan) is a pebble tool industry.
From the Indian side of the border, pebble tool industries are known from the
Sirsa and Ghaggar valleys of Haryana, Beas and Banganga valleys of Himachal
Pradesh, and the Hoshiarpur-Chandigarh zone of the Siwalik Frontal Range.

The Acheulian industry (named after the French site of St. Acheul), synonymous
with the handaxe-cleaver industry, as the name suggests, is characterised by
handaxes, cleavers, and a variety of scrapers on cores and flakes which are finished
by careful working on one side (unifacial flaking) and on both sides (bifacial
flaking), and also secondary retouch. Prehistoric sites yielding handaxe-cleaver
industries are wide spread in Africa, Europe, Southwest Asia (also called Middle
East) and South Asia (i.e. India). In Africa, it is best represented at Olduvai
Gorge (Bed II), Olorgesailie, Koobi Fora, Kalambo Falls and Isimila. Absolute
dates from these sites show that the Acheulian persisted from about 1.65 million
years BP till 0.25 million years BP. The extinct human species Homo erectus
(which appeared around 1.8 to 1.7 million years ago) is associated with the
Acheulian culture.

Acheulian industries have extensive distribution in almost all the river valleys
of the Indian subcontinent. The earliest known Acheulian site in India is Isampur
in the Hunsgi Valley of north Karnataka, which is dated to 1.2 million years BP;
and other dates from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka range
between 0.7 million and 0.2 million years BP. In the later stages of the Acheulian
tradition, handaxes and cleavers have become very refined and symmetric in
shape, and also flake-tools of refined forms (scrapers, points etc.) are
manufactured. These foreshadow the succeeding Middle Palaeolithic cultures,
characterised by flake-tool industries.

The Middle Palaeolithic culture is characterised by flake-tool traditions and

consists of a variety of tools made on flakes such as scrapers, points, borers and
awls; and miniature handaxes and cleavers of fine workmanship occur at some
sites. These flaks are produced by specialised technique called prepared core
technique. The Middle Palaeolithic culture is best documented in the excavations
of cave sites and open-air sites in Europe, Southwest Asia, and Africa. In these
regions, the Middle Palaeolithic culture is called as the Mousterian culture, named
after the rock shelter of Le Moustier in France. The human species associated
with the Mousterian culture is the extinct Homo neanderthalensis. The popular
name for this hominin is Neanderthal man. There are a variety of sub-regional
variations in the Middle Palaeolithic culture in different parts of the Old World.
The time span of Middle Palaeolithic culture ranges between 0. 25 million and
50,000 years BP. Neanderthals very probably started some of the activities and
beliefs that are considered most characteristic of humankind. They practiced
hunting magic; buried the dead with care and performed death rituals; took care
of the crippled and disabled; and in some cases resorted to cannibalism. In India,
Middle Palaeolithic culture is wide spread, and is charactrised by typical flake
tool industries. Absolute dates for the Middle Palaeolithic in India point to a
time range of 165, 000 years BP to 31,000 thousand years BP.

The Upper Palaeolithic culture succeeds the Middle Palaeolithic Mousterian or

other flake tool cultures in different parts of the Old World. This phase marks the
first great climax of human achievements. Upper Palaeolithic cultures flourished
in Europe, Southwest Asia, Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia during the
later stages of Upper Pleistocene, often referred to as Late Pleistocene. The age
of the Upper Palaeolithic falls between 40,000 and 12,000 years BP. The human
species associated with this cultural phase is Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens
(AMHS), the extant and the only surviving human species. We belong to this
species.

The Upper Palaeolithic shows technological advances in stone tool manufacture

by the production of parallel sided blades which are finished into a variety of
tools finished by blunting or backing, and secondary retouch. These blades are
produced by specialised technique called prismatic core technique or fluted core
technique. There are a variety of sub-regional manifestations of Upper Palaeolithic
cultures in Europe and Southwest Asia. Southwestern France is considered as
the “classical region” in which all these Upper Palaeolithic sub-regional
successions are well preserved in stratified contexts. These cultures are
Chatelperronian (35,000 – 29,000 years BP), Aurignacian (34,000 – 29,000 years
BP) Gravettian (28,000 – 22,000 years BP), Solutrean (21,000 – 19,000 years
BP) and Magdalenian (18,000 – 12, 000 years BP). Further, in addition to stone
tools, these cultures have excellently executed bone and antler tools such as
points, harpoons, awls etc. In India, the Upper Palaeolithic culture is well
documented in all the major river valley systems; and the Kurnool caves have
yielded an assortment of bone tools. The Upper Palaeolithic cultures in different
parts of the Old World are succeeded by epi-Palaeolithic cultures of short duration
at the fag end of the Ice Age, which develop into the Mesolithic cultures of
specialised hunters, fishers and gatherers in the Holocene period.

The hallmark of the Upper Palaeolithic is art. Upper Palaeolithic art begins in
the Aurignacian culture, develops in the Gravettian and Solutrean, and blossoms
in the Magdalenian, both in the splendid decoration of ordinary objects (called
art mobilier or home art), and in the superb polychrome cave paintings (parietal
art or cave art). A large variety of paintings on cave or rock walls and cave
ceilings, and petroglyphs (engravings or line drawings on rock or cave walls)
have been found especially in France and Spain. Another important category of
art is in the form of ‘Venus Figurines’. These are small statuettes of naked, and
often obese or pregnant women, sculpted in mammoth ivory, stone or clay. These
figurines may be fertility icons or emblems of security and success. According
to some scholars, the appearance of language during this period made these
behavioural changes possible.
 Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
UNIT 1 LOWER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Birth of Prehistory
1.3 Man’s Place in Biological Evolution
1.4 Earliest Stage of Human Culture in the Old World
1.5 Geographical Features of India
1.6 Changing Perspectives in Indian Palaeolithic Research
1.7 Phases within the Paleolithic and Dating
1.8 Archaeological Record of the Palaeolithic
1.9 Lower Palaeolithic Stage in India
1.9.1 The Soanian Cultural Tradition
1.9.2 The Acheulian Cultural Tradition
1.9.2.1 Important Sites
1.9.2.2 Stages within the Acheulian Tradition
1.9.2.3 Hunting and Foraging
1.9.3 Settlement Patterns
1.9.4 Non-utilitarian Behaviour
1.9.5 Hominin Fossil Record and Origins
1.10 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø describe how “prehistory”, having a hoary past, emerged as a branch of
“human history”;
Ø understand about the origin of our ancestors (early hominins); and
Ø discuss the antiquity and cultural manifestations of Stone Age societies in
India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson we shall learn about the earliest stage in the history of man’s
biological and cultural evolution. This is the stage when creatures ancestral to
man began to branch off from their ape-like cousins. This journey covers a time
span of 2.5 million years and involved improvements both in aspects of the
biological make-up like bipedal posture and brain enlargement and in cultural
behaviour, of which intentional preparation of tools out of natural materials like
stone and wood was a critical one. The branch of archaeology which deals with
the study of this initial stage of human history is called prehistory.
7
Palaeolithic Cultures Stated in other words, prehistory deals with the origins and growth of human
societies before the advent of writing systems, which in the case of India developed
by about the middle of the first millennium B.C., e.g. the edicts of Asoka inscribed
in Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts and scattered in different parts of the country.
Considering evidences like the composition of Vedic texts and the (still
undeciphered) script of the Indus Civilisation, a transitional stage called
protohistory has been provided between history and prehistory in India. Broadly
speaking, this stage covers the third and second millennia and early half of the
first millennium before the Christian era. It is characterised by the rise of many
early agropastoral Neolithic-Chalcolalthic communities characterised by settled
village life, domestication of animals like cattle and sheep/goat, cultivation of
crops like wheat, barely, rice and millets, and emergence of various crafts and
arts. In the Indus valley, this phase eventually led to the growth of an urban
civilisation based on town planning and bronze technology. It is the long period
of hunting and gathering way of life preceding the agropastoral stage which
forms the subject matter of prehistory.

1.2 BIRTH OF PREHISTORY

Ancient thought in different parts of the world offered divergent interpretations
of the story of man. For instance, in ancient Hindu thought you will notice the
concept of four yugas (Krita, Treta, Dvapara and Kali) spanning more than 4
million years and their cyclical repetition. Christian theology on the other
advocated the view that the world including man was created by God in 4004
B.C. In the 18th century some of the Enlightenment thinkers of Europe postulated
that human society passed through the successive stages of hunting and gathering,
pastoralism, agriculture and civilisation. Then in 1836 C.J. Thomsen, Curator of
the Royal Danish Museum in Copenhagen, put forward the famous Three Age
system. It divided the preliterate past of Northern Europe into Stone, Bronze and
Iron Ages. But it was still implicitly believed that these Ages would fall within
the temporal framework of 6000 years provided for the entire human story in
Christian theology.

The actual birth of prehistory took place in May 1859 when a team of three
British scientists comprising Joseph Prestwich (geologist), Hugh Falconer
(palaeontologist) and John Evans (archaeologist), based upon their personal
inspection of the actual sites, ratified before the Royal Society in London the
findings by John Frere in England and by Boucher de Perthes in Northern France
of primitive stone implements in drift gravels of rivers along with fossilised
bones of extinct species of wild cattle and other large mammals. It was thus clear
that Northern Europe was occupied by man much before its landscape assumed
its present form. A long phase of infancy was thus prefaced to human history.
Happily this development coincided with the publication in the same year of
Charles Darwin’s famous book On the Origin of Species, which advocated
evolution of organic life from simple to developed forms through the process of
natural selection.

Darwin’s book gave the much needed impetus to prehistoric studies. In his book
Prehistoric Times (1865) Sir John Lubbock not only announced the birth of a
new science called prehistory but divided the Stone Age into Palaeolithic (Old
Stone) and Neolithic (New Stone) ages. And by the end of the 19th century, not
8
only an intermediate stage called the Mesolithic was introduced between the Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
Palaeolithic and the Neolithic but several stages were identified within the Bronze
and Iron Ages. Furthermore, thanks to the cultural sequence obtained from cave
and open-air sites in France, three phases were recognised within the Palaeolithic
(Lower, Middle and Upper).

In the early decades of the 20th century important Stone Age sites were reported
from southern part of Africa. Soon East Africa followed suit and the team led by
L.S.B. Leakey undertook sustained investigations in the Olduvai Gorge of
Tanzania. Other discoveries followed in Kenya and Ethiopia. And East Africa
has now emerged as the cradle of mankind. In West Asia a large number of cave
sites were found in the Mount Carmel area. Then important discoveries were
made at the open-air sites of Ubeidiya and Gesher Benot Ya’akov. In East Asia,
the lead was taken by China and the famous discoveries of Peking Man were
made at the cave site of Zhoukoudian. Likewise, discoveries of Java Man were
announced from Indonesia.

It will be a pleasant surprise for you to know that Robert Bruce Foote of the
Geological Survey of India found Palaeolithic sites near Madras (Chennai) in
1863, just four years after the birth of prehistory in Europe. And by the 1930s a
four-fold Stone Age sequence was identified in the Kurnool area of Andhra
Pradesh.

The continents of Australia and America also have Stone Age sites but these are
chronologically much later and also the courses of cultural developments in these
regions are somewhat different than those of the Old World comprising Africa,
Europe and Asia.

1.3 MAN’S PLACE IN BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

In the evolutionary scheme the humans together with the apes, monkeys and
prosimians belong to the Order Primates, which itself forms part of the Class
Mammalia. The ancestor common to us and the African apes (our closest relatives
living today) lived between 8 and 6 million years ago. The earliest creatures that
branched off from this ancestor and paved the way for human evolution are
called the hominins. The fossil discoveries from southern, eastern and central
parts of Africa clearly show that between 6 and 2 million years ago more than a
dozen hominin species existed, with evidence of bipedal posture and dental
features more hominin and less ape-like. Among these the more common and
widely known are the Australopithecines (Southern Apes), several forms of which
appeared around 4 million years ago. These Australopithecines included both
gracile and robust forms and the first stone tools appeared 2.5 million years ago.

Between 2 and 1.7 million years ago (the boundary between the geological periods
called Pliocene and Pleistocene) another major development took place. This is
the emergence of early forms of the genus Homo, known as the Homo rudolfensis,
Homo habilis and Homo ergaster. These are characterised by larger brains (cranial
capacity between 510 and 687 cc), smaller jaws and teeth, longer legs, shorter
arms, and more dexterous hands with a longer thumb. From this stage developed
the later hominin forms called Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo
neanderthalensis and, finally, our own species Homo sapiens (Fig. 1.1).

9
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 1.1: Chart showing one interpretation of hominin biological and cultural evolution

1.4 EARLIEST STAGE OF HUMAN CULTURE IN

THE OLD WORLD
With this knowledge of the biological basis of human lineage, we will briefly
review the evidence pertaining to the cultural or behavioural aspects of this
formative stage of human history. In Africa, the earliest known artificially
modified objects of stone (i.e. stone tools) are found at Kadar Gona and Hadar in
Ethiopia and are dated to 2.5 million years ago (Fig. 1.2).

Fig.1.2: Stone artefacts (choppers/cores and flakes) dated to 2.5 million years ago from
10
Hadar and Omo valley in Ethiopia
Even organic material like wood might have been employed but no traces have Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
survived. More spectacular and authentic are the stone tools found in Bed I of
the famous Olduvai Gorge site in Tanzania, dated to 1.85 million years ago.
These artefact assemblages have been designated as the Oldowan industry by
L.S.B. Leakey. It appears that members belonging to both Australopithecine and
Homo lineages were responsible for these cultural assemblages representing the
earliest stage of human inventory. These includeAustralopithecus/africanus/
aethiopicus/gorhi/boisei/robustus and Homo habilis/rudolfensis. The artefacts
themselves consist of types such as choppers, heavy scrapers, discoids, awls,
polyhedrons, anvils, hammer stones, etc. (Fig. 1.3). The Oldowan tradition
continued into later periods (Bed II at Olduvai Gorge) and this later tradition is
called Developed Oldowan. The Oldowan sites tend to be concentrated close to
river flood plains and channels, deltas and lake margins. These hominins probably
formed themselves into small groups of about 30 individuals. They gathered
wild plant foods and obtained animal foods either by hunting or scavenging.

Fig.1.3: Stone artefacts of the Oldowan tradition dated to 1.85 million years ago from
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania: 1) unifacial chopper; 2) flake scraper; 3) light duty
chopper; 4) utilised flake; 5) bifacial choppers.

The second major stage in cultural development came with the appearance of
hominin species that anticipated living people in anatomy and cultural behaviour.
This is called Homo erectus which appeared around 1.8 to 1.7 million years ago.
Associated with this stage a new cultural tradition called the Acheulian appeared.
It is named after the French site of St. Acheul where handaxes and cleavers
characteristic of this stage were first found by Rigollot in 1854. Similar but
somewhat cruder artefacts were found by another Frenchman Boucher de Perthes
between 1836 and 1846 near the town of Abbeville in Northern France. In Africa,
this tradition is best represented at Olduvai Gorge (Bed II), Olorgesailie, Koobi
Fora, Kalambo Falls and Isimila and persisted from about 1.65 till 0.25 million
years ago (Fig. 1.4). In the later stages of the Acheulian tradition, handaxes and
cleavers became very refined and more symmetric in shape. Also flake-tools of
refined forms (scrapers, points, etc.) appeared, foreshadowing the next cultural
11
Palaeolithic Cultures stage called the Middle Palaeolithic which is associated with Neanderthal man
and dated roughly between 0.25 million and 50,000 years ago. The Middle
Palaeolithic tradition was followed by the Upper Palaeolithic stage attributed to
Homo sapiens.

Fig. 1.4: Stone artefacts of the Acheulian tradition dated to 1.65 million years ago from
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.

Now you will be curious to ask the question: When did the hominin occupation
of other parts of the Old World take place? Since the end of the 19th century
fossil remains of Homo erectus have been found in river deposits at Trinil,
Mojokerto and Sangiran on the island of Java. These have been designated as
Java Man or Pithecanthropus erectus. While some scholars hold that these are
not older than 0.8 million years, others ascribe an antiquity of 1.65 millions to
these findings. In China Homo erectus fossils are known from Zhoukoudian and
Gongwangling; these are dated between 0.8 and 0.4 million years ago. The stone
artefacts from Nihewan basin, some 150 km west of Beijing, have been dated to
1.6 million years ago, thereby implying human colonisation of Northeast Asia at
an early date. Such a possibility gains in strength because of the existence of
very early sites like Ubediya in Israel (dated between 1.4 and 1.1 million years
ago) and Dmanisi in Georgia (dated to 1.8 million years ago) yielding stone
artefacts, animal bones, and skulls and lower jaw of Homo ergaster. Considering
that the Chinese tool assemblages consist of simple core tools (choppers and
chopping tools) and flakes but lack true handaxes, in the 1940s, the late Professor
Hallam L. Movius Jr. of U.S.A. drew a line through northern India to distinguish
the handaxe or Acheulian tradition of Africa, West Asia and Europe from the
pebble-tool tradition of Eastern and Southeast Asia. This is called the Movius
Line.

What about the human occupation of the European continent? Thanks to the
finding of a lower jaw at Heidelberg in Germany, representing a form of Homo
ergaster called Homo heidelbergensis, it is known since long that a late form of
the Acheulian culture spread from Spain and Italy to northern Europe by 0.5
million years ago. The human fossil remains and stone artefacts from cave deposits
12
of the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain and human skull cap found at the site of Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
Ceprano in Italy show that human colonisation of southern Europe was already
underway by 0.8 to 0.9 million years ago. More recent stone artefact findings
from Orce in Spain, Monte-Poggiolo in Italy and Pont-de-Lavaud in France show
that this colonisation may have already been initiated between 1 and 1.4 million
years ago.

So far we have examined the biological and cultural aspects of the Lower
Palaeolithic stage in Africa, Europe, and East and West Asia. Let us now consider
the evidence for this stage in South Asia.

1.5 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

India (or South Asia, for general geographical and cultural purposes) is a distinct
geographical entity at subcontinental level. It is a land of tremendous diversity,
geographically, culturally and linguistically. Its principal geographical zones are
the towering snow-clad Himalayas in the north; the Hindukush and Karakoram
ranges in the northwest; the arid Thar desert of western Rajasthan; the fertile
Indus and Gangetic alluvial tracts; the somewhat triangular-shaped peninsular
tract flanked by the Sahyadris on the west and Eastern Ghats on the east; and the
hill-tract of Northeast India. Each zone has tremendous variability in terms of
landforms, soils, rainfall and vegetation.
In the Pleistocene, which has a duration about two million years, India was a
part of global climate. Oxygen isotope studies of marine core-sediment samples
have proved that the northern latitudes of the earth witnessed an alternation of
nine or ten glacial and interglacial (cold and warm) periods. During glacial periods
India experienced dry climate and weak monsoon, while interglacial periods
were characterised by strong monsoon with high rainfall. The gravels and silt
sediments preserved in the various river valleys in India do suggest a succession
of wet and humid climatic phases.
The Indian landscape was endowed with all the prerequisites for a successful
hunting-gathering way of life: suitable landforms permitting free movement of
hunter-gatherer groups; occurrence of a variety of basic rocks and siliceous stones
for making tools; existence of perennial water bodies in the form of a large and
small streams and springs; and availability of a large variety of wild plant and
animal foods. It is therefore not surprising that, barring the Himalayan tract proper
and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts, Stone Age groups occupied the whole of the
Indian landmass. It is interesting that even the desertic zone of western Rajasthan
was marked in the past with streams and pools and ponds which attracted Stone
Age groups right from the Lower Palaeolithic till the Mesolithic stage.

1.6 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN INDIAN

PALAEOLITHIC RESEARCH
Robert Burce Foote, who joined the Geological Survey of India at Madras
(Chennai) in 1858, almost single-handedly laid the foundations of prehistory in
India (Fig. 1.5). He was inspired by the Royal Society’s ratification of the findings
of stone tools and animal fossils in England and the Somme valley of Northern
France and started looking for similar Palaeolithic implements on the Indian
soil.
13
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 1.5: Robert Bruce Foote (1834-1912), the Father of Indian Prehistory

He found the first group of implements at Pallavaram (now a suburb of Chennai)

in May 1863 and continuously followed up this discovery for nearly three decades.
In the course of his geological surveys in South India and Gujarat he discovered
nearly 400 sites and classified them under the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Iron
Ages. In the elaborate Introduction of his publication about these sites which he
prepared in 1916, Foote made many insightful observations about the life and
times of Palaeolithic societies.

Robert Bruce Foote, a British geologist joined the Indian geological survey
in 1858, then after the establishment of archaeological survey of India in
1862, Boote began the systematic research of human prehistoric remains
in India. He discovered the handaxe in southern India at a place called
Pallavaram near Chennai.

The next major development took place in 1930. Based upon the stratigraphical
evidence of gravels and silts recorded in the rivers of Eastern Ghats in Kurnool
area of Andhra Pradesh and also considering the typological aspects of stone
tool assemblages recovered from these deposits, L.A. Cammiade (a District
Collector) and M.C. Burkitt of Cambridge University proposed that Southeast
India witnessed a four-fold Stone Age sequence. They designated these stages as
Series I to IV, which broadly correspond to Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic,
and Mesolithic stages, respectively. In the next four decades similar stratigraphical
and typological studies were carried out in different regions of the country. H.D.
Sankalia and his colleagues and students at the Deccan College, Pune, played a
pivotal role in these studies. Sankalia’s book Prehistory and Protohistory in
India and Pakistan (1974) provides an elaborate synthesis of the results.
14
Since the 1970s new perspectives were developed in Stone Age research. These Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
were aimed at rising above classificatory studies of stone tools and making
inferences about the behavioural patterns of hunter-gatherer communities.
Emphasis now began to be laid on intensive regional surveys aimed at the
identification of in situ or primary sites of all sizes and kinds. Settlement system
approach was adopted to relate the sites to respective landscape settings. Emphasis
was also laid on the identification of formation processes of sites. Analogies
were sought from ethnographic and experimental studies. In tune with these
new perspectives many fresh studies including the excavation of primary sites
and ethnographic research about the exploitation of wild plant and animal foods
were undertaken in Kurnool and Cuddapah basins of Andhra Pradesh, Kortallayar
valley of Tamil Nadu, Kaladgi and Bhima basins of Karnataka, Western Deccan
plateau, Central India, Rajasthan and Chhota Nagpur area.

1.7 PHASES WITHIN THE PALAEOLITHIC AND

DATING
For some time after Independence archaeologists expressed doubts about the
existence of an Upper Palaeolithic stage in India. But excavations in Kurnool
caves in Andhra Pradesh, Bhimbetka caves in Madhya Pradesh, and at the open
air sites of Renigunta in Andhra Pradesh and Patne in Maharashtra, have revealed
clear-cut cultural levels of this stage. So the Indian Palaeolithic can now be safely
divided into three developmental stages: Lower, Middle and Upper. The Lower
Palaeolithic has two cultural traditions, viz. the Soanian pebble-tool tradition
and the peninsular Indian handaxe-cleaver tradition. These traditions involved
the use of large pebbles or flakes for making choppers and chopping tools,
handaxes, cleavers, knives, etc. The Middle Palaeolithic is based on the use of a
variety of flakes struck from cores for preparing scrapers, points, borers and
other tools. Further refinements came in the Upper Palaeolithic stage. Now
implement types like blunted and penknife blades, blades with serrated edges
and arrow points are made on long parallel-sided blades struck in a series from
cylindrical cores by punch technique.
For a long time the topic of dating these stages within the Palaeolithic remained
at the level of assigning relative ages to them on the basis of stratigraphical
positions of tool-assemblages found in river-bank sediment profiles. Happily,
during the last quarter-century it has been possible to date some of the sites in
absolute terms by means of scientific dating techniques such as the radiocarbon,
palaeomagnetism, thermoluminiscence, potassium argon, argon argon and
uranium thorium.
At Riwat near Peshawar in Pakistan a flaked pebble and some other artefacts
were found in a cemented gravel occurring at the base of a 70 m deep section
within the Siwalik sediments (Fig. 1.6). This gravel has been dated to 1.9 million
years ago (revised to 2.5 million years) on the basis of palaeomagnetism. Likewise,
at Uttarbaini in Jammu some nondescript artefacts were found in Siwalik
sediments which have been assigned an age of 1.6 million years (revised to 2.8
million years) by fission track method. Although some doubts are expressed
about these dates, these sites are presently the earliest known archaeological
sites in India.
15
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 1.6: Flaked artefact of quartzite dated to 1.9 million years ago from Riwat in Pakistan

The site of Isampur in North Karnataka has given a date of 1.2 million years on
enamel of animal teeth, obtained by means of electron spin resonance method.
This is the earliest known Acheulian site in the subcontinent. Other Acheulian
sites such as Dina and Jalalpur in Pakistan, Didwana (Rajasthan), Umrethi and
Adi Chadi Wao (Gujarat), Nevasa, Bori and Morgaon in Maharashtra, and Sadab,
Teggihalli and Yedurwadi in Karnataka have produced dates on materials like
calcretes, milliolites and volcanic ash. These range between 0.7 and 0.2 million
years, thereby suggesting that the Acheulian culture persisted for one million years.
Absolute dates are available for the Middle Palaeolithic sites of Didwana
(Rajasthan), Kalpi (U.P.), Jetpur (Gujarat), Dhom and Mula Dams (Maharashtra)
and Jwalapuram (Andhra Pradesh). These dates range from 1,65,000 years to
31,000 years B.P.
More than one dozen dates obtained by thermoluminiscence and radiocarbon
methods are known for the Upper Palaeolithic sites in Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan; these range from 40,000 years to
11,000 years B.P.

1.8 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD OF THE

PALAEOLITHIC
Let us now examine the nature of archaeological record (i.e. the traces of human
habitation that survived the ravages of time) of this period. Palaeolithic sites are
of two principal types: open air sites and caves or rockshelters. Open air sites are
more common in all parts of India and occur on or close to large and small rivers
and also in interior basins or valleys and foothill zone of hill ranges. They represent
various formation processes ranging from true in situ or undisturbed sites found
on weathered bedrock or else in soft silts to occurrences in colluvial and river-
borne gravels. Cave and rockshelter sites occur in hilly areas covered with
sedimentary rocks (sandstones and limestones). Bhimbetka complex in Madhya
Pradesh and Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh are well-known examples. Sanghao
cave in Pakistan and Batadomba and Beli- lena Kitulgala in Sri Lanka are some
other famous cave sites. The principal aspects of cultural record found at these
sites are as follows:
16
1) The record basically consists of stone tools made of basic rocks (quartzite, Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
dolerite, granite and limestone) and siliceous materials like cherts and
chalcedonys.
2) The earliest known wooden artefacts consist of spears of spruce found at
Schöningen in Germany. These are dated to 0.4 million years ago and were
used for hunting horses (Fig. 1.7). Wood might have been used for shaping
spears, points and arrows in India too, and for that matter in many parts of
the world, but nothing has survived. Tools made of animal bones are known
from a few Palaeolithic sites e.g. Middle Palaeolithic site at Kalpi in the
Yamuna valley and Upper Paleolithic caves in the Kurnool area.

Fig. 1.7: Hunting spears of spruce wood dated to 0.4 million years ago from Schöningen in
Germany

3) Apart from fossil faunal collections from river sediments and Kurnool caves,
small amounts of bones of wild cattle, deer and other animals are found in
association with cultural material, e.g. Acheulian sites in the Hunsgi and
Baichbal valleys of Karnataka.
4) Plant remains are extremely rare. Remains of wild bread fruit and two types of
banana occur at the Beli-lena Kitulgala cave in Sri Lanka (dated to 10,000 to
8,000 B.C.). Gesher Benot Ya’akov in Israel (dated to 0.8 million years ago)
has yielded remains of a variety of wild nuts with evidence of fire treatment.
Evidence of fire in the form of a hearth is known from Upper Palaeolithic
caves in the Kurnool area and is dated to about 16,000 years ago.
5) Human skeletal remains are known from Hathnora on the Narmada river,
but these are more common from the Mesolithic stage.
6) Some of the paintings from Bhimbetka and other caves may date to the
terminal phase of the Upper Paleolithic. Personal ornamentation in the form
of bone beads and pendants appears in the Upper Palaeolithic phase at Patne
and other sites in Western India.
17
Palaeolithic Cultures 7) Structural remains consisting of ground plans of hut-like dwellings were
exposed from the Acheulian levels at Hunsgi in Karnataka and Paisra in
Bihar and the Upper Palaeolithic site No.55 near Riwat in Pakistan. Also a
shrine-like rubble platform of stone, meant for the worship of a natural
stone block with bright-coloured laminations as the manifestation of mother
goddess, was found at the Late Palaeolithic site of Baghor in Madhya Pradesh.

1.9 LOWER PALAEOLITHIC STAGE IN INDIA

As we have noted earlier, the Lower Palaeolithic phase in India (see map of sites
in Fig. 1.8) consists of two principal tool-making or cultural traditions, viz., a)
the Soanian tradition forming part of the East and Southeast Asian chopper-
chopping tool tradition and b) the Handaxe-cleaver or biface assemblages
constituting the Acheulian tradition, which is widely known from the western
half of the Old World (Africa, Western Europe, West and South Asia). Movius
Line formalised the geographical dichotomy between these two Palaeolithic
traditions of the Old World.

Fig. 1.8: Important Lower Palaeolithic sites in South Asia: 1) Riwat; 2) Pahlgam; 3) Jalalpur;
4) Dina; 5) Beas-Banganga complex; 6) Sirsa-Ghaggar complex; 7) Dang-Deokhuri
complex; 8) Didwana; 9) Jayal; 10) Jaisalmer-Pokaran Road; 11) Ziarat Pir
Shaban; 12) Berach complex; 13) Chambal complex; 14) Bhimbetka; 15) Raisen
complex; 16) Lalitpur; 17) Damoh complex; 18) Son complex; 19) Sihawal;
20) Belan complex; 21) Sisunia, 22) Singhbhum complex; 23) Paisra; 24) Brahmani
complex; 25) Wainganga complex; 26) Mahadeo Piparia; 27) Adamgarh; 27A)
Hathnora; 28) Durkadi; 29) Samadhiala; 30) Umrethi; 31) Gangapur; 32) Chirki-
Nevasa; 33) Bori; 34) Nalgonda complex; 35) Hunsgi and Baichbal basins complex;
36) Mahad; 37) Anagwadi; 38) Malwan; 39) Lakhmapur; 40) Nittur; 41) Kurnool
complex; 42) Nagarjunakonda complex; 43) Cuddapah complex; 44) Rallakalava
18 complex; 45) Kortallayar complex; 45A) Ratnapura complex.
1.9.1 The Soanian Cultural Tradition Lower Palaeolithic Cultures

The existence of this tradition was recognised in 1939 by H. de Terra of Yale

University and T.T. Paterson of Cambridge University in the northwestern part
of the subcontinent. On the basis of their field studies in the area they identified
a series of five terraces on the river Soan, forming part of the Indus drainage
system. They correlated these terraces with glacial and interglacial events of the
Kashmir valley above. Further they collected stone artefacts from some of these
terraces and, on stratigraphical and typological considerations, put up what has
come to be called the Soan culture-sequence, comprising pre-Soan, Early Soan,
Late Soan and Evolved Soan stages (Fig. 1.9). The tools consist of pebbles with
working edges on their sides or ends, obtained by means of flaking from one or
both surfaces (producing choppers or chopping tools) (Fig.1.10). The British
Archaeological Mission led by Robin Dennell, which worked in this area (now
in Pakistan) in the 1980s, raised serious doubts about the palaeoclimatic
interpretations and cultural sequence put forward by de Terra and Paterson. But
the term Soan culture has stuck on in Indian prehistory.

Fig. 1.9: Schematic section showing terrace stratigraphy and Stone Age sequence in the
Soan valley of Pakistan

Fig.1.10: Choppers and flake tools of the Early Soan tradition

19
Palaeolithic Cultures From the Indian side of the border, pebble-tool assemblages were found in the
Sirsa and Ghaggar valleys of Haryana, Beas and Banganga valleys of Himachal
Pradesh, and Hoshiarpur-Chandigarh sector of the Siwalik Frontal Range (Fig.
11). Curiously enough, bifacial assemblages were also found at more than 20
places in the latter area. This led some scholars to the interpretation that the
hominin groups responsible for these two traditions co-existed in the same area
– the Soanian tradition confined to duns or valleys of the Frontal Range and the
biface tradition restricted to plateau surfaces. The Soan assemblages from Punjab
have been assigned by some workers to the Middle Palaeolithic tradition.

Fig.1. 11: Pebble-tools from Lower Palaeolithic sites in India: a) Nittur, Karnataka; b)
Jaiselmer-Pokaran Road, Rajasthan; c) Sirsa valley, Haryana; d) Mahadeo
Piparia, Madhya Pradesh.

In recent years the German archaeologist Gudrun Corvinus reported Soanian-

like assemblages from the Dang valley in Nepal. Also claims of pebble-tool
industries called the Mahadevian and the Durkadian have been put forward from
the Narmada valley. Pebble tools have also been reported from Nittur in Karnataka
and from some sites in Kerala. But all these findings still remain to be confirmed.
The Ratnapura assemblages from Ratnapura gravels and silts in southern Sri
Lanka also contain both pebble tools and bifacial artefacts.

1.9.2 The Acheulian Cultural Tradition

This tradition is better documented than the Soanian from the points of view of
chronology, spatial distribution of sites and land use patterns. Large clusters of
sites are known from the Kortallayar valley of Tamil Nadu, Kurnool and Cuddapah
basins of Andhra Pradesh, Kaladgi and Bhima basins of Karnataka, Chhota
Nagpur zone of Bihar and Jharkhand, hill-tracts of Uttar Pradesh south of the
Ganges, Narmada and Son valleys of Madhya Pradesh, Saurashtra and mainland
20
Gujarat, the plateau tract of Maharashtra, Rajasthan including the desertic zone Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
in the west, Aravalli ridges near Delhi, and the Siwalik zones of Punjab and
Nepal. Some sites are also known from the Konkan coast and the northeastern
coast of Andhra Pradesh.

Quartzite was the preferred rock for tool-making. Where it was not naturally
available, the Acheulian groups made use of other available rocks like limestone
in the Bhima basin, dolerite and basalt in Maharashtra, granite in Jhansi district
of Uttar Pradesh, and fossil wood in Bihar and Bengal. Stone hammer, soft
hammer and prepared core techniques were employed for detaching flakes and
shaping them into implements. We will now briefly consider the evidence from
major excavated primary sites.

1.9.2.1 Important Sites

Singi Talav (western Rajasthan) was a lake-shore site excavated by V.N. Misra
and his team. This site yielded an assemblage of 252 artefacts of quartzite and
quartz from two levels of silty clay. The assemblage comprised choppers,
polyhedrons, bifaces, scrapers and points.

Rock-shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh was also excavated by

V.N. Misra. It preserved 4 m thick cultural deposit containing Acheulian, Middle
and Upper Palaeolithic, and Mesolithic levels. The 2.5 m thick Acheulian level
consisted of occupation levels paved with stone slabs and rubble. An excavated
area of 16 m2 yielded 4700 artefacts of quartzite. Adamgarh (also in Madhya
Pradesh) also exposed an Acheulian level below Middle Palaeolithic deposits.
Lalitpur (Jhansi district, U.P.) produced an early and in situ assemblage made up
of granite tools.

Paisra (Munger district, Bihar) lies in an inland valley enclosed by hills forming
part of the Kharagpur range. It was excavated by R.K. Pant and Vidula Jayaswal
and exposed Acheulian levels below 1 to 1.5 m thick colluvial deposits. In addition
to a large assemblage consisting of early Acheulian artefacts, the excavation
exposed remains of hut-like dwelling structures in the form of alignments of
post-holes and a circular arrangement of stone blocks.

At Chirki-Nevasa (Maharashtra) Gudrun Corvinus found the Acheulian cultural

material in a colluvial gravel resting on a rock platform on the river Pravara.
Trench VII (74 m2 in extent) excavated here yielded 1455 artefats of dolerite
along with fossil bones of wild cattle and other animals. The large basalt blocks
found in this layer probably formed part of the ground plan of a dwelling structure.
The site was a seasonal camp used for multiple purposes. The artefactual collection
included handaxes, cleavers and knives as well as a small-tool component made
up of flake-tools of chert and chalcedony.

Morgaon is another important site from the Deccan basalt landscape; it is located
in the upper reaches of the Bhima drainage system. It has preserved 2 to 15 m
thick ancient sediments including a tephra (volcanic ash) layer. A trench (6 x 4
m) excavated by Sheila Mishra and Sushma Deo between 2002 and 2004 yielded
artefacts from three horisons. The main horison consisted of weathered basalt
rubble found on surface of clay and produced 180 artefacts of local basalt. A
second trench (5 x 5 m) dug in 2007 yielded an assemblage of 162 specimens
including cleavers and handaxes.
21
Palaeolithic Cultures Four Acheulian localities were excavated by K. Paddayya in the Hunsgi and
Baichbal valleys of North Karnataka. Localities V and VI at Hunsgi in the Hunsgi
valley and Locality VI at Yediyapur in the Baichbal valley preserved 20 to 30 cm
thick in situ cultural levels on weathered bedrock (granite); these were covered
by silt deposit measuring up to 50 cm in thickness. Rocky eminences or ridges
above the beds of local streams were selected for camping and the open spaces
found on these ridges were used for the erection of temporary shelters consisting
of a framework of wooden posts and branches covered with grasses. The main
trench (63 m2) at Hunsgi locality V yielded an assemblage of 291 artefacts of
limestone. Yediyapur locality VI yielded nearly 600 artefacts of pegmatite from
an excavated area of 60 m2.

At Isampur in the Hunsgi valley K. Paddayya’s detailed geoarchaeological

investigations and excavations exposed a quarry-cum-camp site covering an area
of three-quarters of a hectare. It is associated with a weathered rock outcrop
made up of silicified limestone blocks of suitable sizes and shapes. It lay close to
a palaeochannel with a perennial body of water. Five trenches were excavated
here, covering an area of 169 m2. The Acheulian level was 20 to 30 cm thick and
was covered by 50 cm thick brown silt. Trench 1 (70 m2 in extent) exposed
seven chipping clusters containing unmodified limestone blocks, cores, flake
blanks, finished implements and waste products of limestone, all found in mint-
fresh condition (Figs. 1.12 and 1.13). Hammerstones required for flaking were
acquired from the surrounding area in the form of rounded nodules of quartzite,
basalt and chert. This trench yielded an assemblage of over 15,000 specimens,
which made it possible to reconstruct the flaking methods adopted by the hominins
for making handaxes, cleavers, knives and other implement types. Isampur
excavation also yielded fossilised bones and dental remains of wild cattle and
deer and shell fragments of land turtle. Isampur served as a localised hub in this
part of the Hunsgi valley, from where the hominins radiated onto the surrounding
limestone tablelands and valley floor as part of their daily foraging rounds.

Fig.1.12: Acheulian horison exposed in Trench 1 at Isampur, Karnataka

22
 Lower Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig.1.13: Acheulian chipping clusters for making stone artefacts exposed in Trench 1 at
Isampur in Karnataka

Shanti Pappu’s investigations in 200 km2 area of the Kortallayar valley in Tamil
Nadu brought to light many Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic sites. The
Acheulian sites at Mailapur and Pariculam are associated with low energy stream
and sheet flood deposits. In the excavations at Attirampakkam an in situ Acheulian
assemblage of quartzite was found in a thick layer of laminated clay; it also
yielded fossilised bones of wild cattle and other species. This site has recently
been dated to 1.5 million years by an advanced scientific technique.

1.9.2.2 Stages within the Acheulian Tradition

Although not documented stratigraphically at any one particular site, the
Acheulian culture with a duration of nearly one million years has been divided
into two developmental stages – Early Acheulian and Late Acheulian. The Early
Acheulian assemblages are based on the employment of stone hammer technique.
Hence handaxes, cleavers and large cutting tools are thick with irregular cross-
sections and sinuous edges. Their surfaces are uneven and still retain large patches
of cortex. Cleavers, handaxes, picks, knives, and polyhedrons are the principal
types. Pointed shapes (pear-shaped, lanceolate and pyriform) are in a majority.
This stage is represented by sites like Ziarat Pir Shaban in Sind, Singi Talav and
16 R Trench near Didwana in Rajasthan, Lalitpur, Chirki-Nevasa and Morgaon,
Paisra, Attirampakkam, Hunsgi, Yediyapur and Isampur. As an example of
assemblage composition, one may cite the collection from the bottom 10 cm
portion of cultural deposit found in Trench 1 at Isampur. It is a limestone
assemblage consisting of 13,043 specimens – 169 specimens being shaped
implements and the rest simple artefacts. The shaped implements include
handaxes (48), cleavers (15), knives (18), chopping tools (14), discoids (3),
scrapers (65), perforators (5) and one indeterminate example (Fig. 1.14). 23
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig.1.14: Lower Acheulian artefacts from Isampur, Karnataka: 1) core; 2&3) cleavers;
4&5) handaxes; 6) perforator; 7) knife; 8) hammerstone

The Late Acheulian is characterised by the use of soft hammer (wood or bone)
technique, leading to the preparation of implements with thinner sections, smooth
surfaces and less sinuous working edges. There is an increase in the number of
cleavers and flake tools. Oval and triangular forms are common among handaxes.
The assemblages from Bhimbetka and Raisen complex in Madhya Pradesh,
Sihawal II in the Son valley, Gangapur in Maharashtra, Mudnur X and Lakhmapur
in Karnataka, and the Rallakalava complex in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh
are good examples of this stage. Some of the artefacts from the Ratnapura
assemblages of Sri Lanka show Late Acheulian traits. Finished tools (all of
quartzite) from III F-23 rockshelter excavation at Bhimbetka comprise handaxes
(55), cleavers (150), side-scrapers (368), end-scrapers (108), backed knives (163),
truncated flakes and blades (87), notches (111) and denticulates (78) (Fig. 1.15).
In many ways the Late Acheulian tradition already foreshadows the flake-tool
assemblages of the succeeding Middle Palaeolithic cultural stage.

24
 Lower Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig.1.15: Developed Acheulian artefacts from III F-23 rock shelter at Bhimbetka, Madhya
Pradesh: 1 to 4) handaxes; 5 & 7) cleavers; 6) convex scraper; 8) notched tool;
9) denticulate; 10) end-scraper

1.9.2.3 Hunting and Foraging

We have already noted that the entire Palaeolithic stage was characterised by a
simple economic organisation consisting of hunting of wild animals and gathering
of wild plant foods. Based upon the widely accepted premise that the various
ecological or geographical zones of India supported rich animal life and vegetation
in the Pleistocene periods we can safely infer that a wide spectrum of animal and
plant foods was available for exploitation by the Stone Age groups. The
archeological record does give us some interesting clues in this regard.

Since the middle of the last century large collections of fossil fauna of mammals
have been obtained along with stone tools from the Narmada, Godavari, Krishna
and other rivers. These findings gave rise to interpretations that Early Man was
exploiting wild cattle, deer and other mammals for food purposes. This
interpretation is now supported by the recovery of dental and post-cranial bone
pieces of wild cattle and deer species, dental remains of wild horse and tusk
pieces of wild elephant from primary Acheulian sites at Isampur, Teggihalli,
Hebbal Buzurg and Fatehpur in the Hunsgi and Baichbal valleys, Chirki-Nevasa
in Maharashtra, Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu and other sites. Cut-marks and
other taphonomic marks found on these bones indicate that these pieces formed
part of food-processing and consumption. These skeletal remains either belonged
to hunted prey or else were partly scavenged from kill-sites of carnivorous animals.
Further, the occurrence of turtle shell pieces at sites like Isampur suggests that
the Stone Age groups also exploited a variety of small fauna comprising insects,
birds, fishes, rodents and amphibians by adopting simple collection strategies.

25
Palaeolithic Cultures Now there is a worldwide realisation that plant foods also played an important
role in the diet of Stone Age groups. Actually speaking, D.D. Kosambi already
pointed out in 1965 that the Stone Age communities of tropical zones like India
would have extensively made use of wild plant foods like fruits, berries, seeds
and roots. Prehistorians have now realised the importance of looking for plant
remains from Stone Age sites. M.D. Kajale recovered remains of wild bread
fruit and two species of banana from Mesolithic levels (10,000 to 8,000 B.C.) of
the cave site of Beli-lena Kitulgala in Sri Lanka. Also ethnoarchaeological studies
conducted by M.L.K. Murty and D.R. Raju in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh, K. Paddayya in Hunsgi and Baichbal valleys, and V.N. Misra and Malti
Nagar in Madhya Pradesh have brought to light exploitation on a large scale of a
wide variety of leafy greens, tubers and other root crops, fruits and berries, seeds
and gums by tribal groups like the Chenchus, Yanadis and Gonds and also by the
underprivileged sections of village communities.

1.9.3 Settlement Patterns

Some of the studies undertaken in recent years have proved to be helpful in the
reconstruction of Stone Age land use patterns. The following deserve attention.

In 2004, R. Korisettar put forward the view that the sedimentary rock formations
of peninsular India, viz. the Vindhyachal, Chhattisgarh, Cuddapah, Bhima and
Kaladgi formations, were the core areas of Stone Age settlement. The principal
reason put forward by him was that these areas offered many advantages to Stone
Age groups, e.g. basin-shaped landforms, a variety of suitable rocks for tool-
making, presence of caves and rockshelters, perennial water springs, and rich
biomass with a variety of wild life and plant foods. This is a very useful proposition
but needs some qualifications. First, erosional basins are very limited in extent
in these geological formations which themselves cover very extensive areas.
Secondly, erosional basins also occur in areas covered with Archaean and Deccan
Trap formations e.g. Bhima and Ajanta basins in the Deccan Trap zone of
Maharashtra and Sandur basin in the Archaean formations of Bellary area in
North Karnataka, both containing a large number of Stone Age sites. Many such
basins are found in other areas also.

In 1970s Jerome Jacobson identified as many as 90 Late Acheulian sites in a

small valley enclosed by sandstone hills in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
These probably represent winter-season occupation and the hunting groups moved
to caves and rock-shelters of the adjacent Bhimbetka hills in the rainy season.

In 2004-2005, Ajith Prasad located a cluster of 40 Acheulian sites in a 300 km2

stretch of the middle reaches of the Orsang river in Gujarat. These are primary
context sites located in the foothill zone of hills or along the small feeder streams.
A few sites were found around natural depressions on the landscape preserving
water bodies till March. Also 70 types of wild plant foods were noted in the area.

The team led by V.D. Mishra and J.N. Pal found 17 Acheulian sites on the slopes
of hillocks and rock outcrops marking the fringe of Kaimur range and overlooking
the Belan river. Quartzite between available and rocks these are workshops where
locally available rocks were used for tool-making. Their locations were suitable
for the hominin groups to observe movement of game.

26
Pant and Jayaswal’s work in the Paisra valley (15 km2 in extent) of Bihar has Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
revealed that a two-kilometer area around Paisra village served as the locus for
camp-based activities. Many thin scatters of artefacts found in the surrounding
uplands were interpreted as resource-procurement locations. The Paisra valley
even today supports rich wild life and a variety of plant foods.

In the 1990s, R.S. Pappu and Sushma Deo investigated the Stone Age land use
patterns in the Kaladgi basin of North Karnataka. They arrived at the inference
that the Stone Age groups generally avoided the thickly forested and high rainfall
tracts close to the Western Ghats and instead concentrated their activities on
river banks and in foothill zone of hills in the middle reaches of the rivers
Malaprabha and Ghataprabha.

K. Paddayya’s three-decade long research since 1970 in the Hunsgi and Baichbal
valley brought to light over 400 Stone Age sites. These two valleys form an
erosional basin, which measures about 500 km2 in extent and is enclosed by
shale-limestone tablelands or granite hills. The Stone Age sites include 200
Acheulian sites which were investigated from the point of view of formation
processes. Data pertaining to their distribution on the basin floor, excavation at
four localities near Hunsgi, Yediyapur and Isampur, and ethnographic data about
seasonal availability of surface water sources as well as wild plant and animal
foods made it possible to reconstruct the Acheulian culture from a settlement
system perspective. This reconstruction is briefly as follows.

Two features are striking about the distribution of sites across the basin floor.
First, two major clusters of sites are noted – one near Hunsgi in the Hunsgi
valley and the second one near Yediyapur in the Baichbal valley. Each cluster
consists of 15 to 20 localities spread over a stretch of 2 or 3 km and both clusters
are associated with perennial water sources resulting form seep-springs which
emanate from the junctions of rock formations and antedate Stone Age occupation.
The remaining sites were found in a scattered way all over the basin floor.
Considering this differential distribution in conjunction with seasonal availability
of water sources as well as wild plant and animal foods, it was inferred that the
Acheulian settlement system of the area hinged upon two main seasonal resource
management strategies. These are a) dry season aggregation of all Acheulian
groups near perennial water pools (fed by seep-springs) in the two basins and
probable reliance on large game hunting; b) wet season dispersal of the population
in the form of small bands across the basin floor, dependence on shallow rainwater
pools, and exploitation of a variety of seasonally abundant plant foods consisting
of leafy greens, fruits, berries and seeds, and small fauna. It has further been
inferred that for short-term or day-to-day purposes the Acheulian population
organised itself into eight or nine groups or home ranges and occupied different
parts of the basin.

1.9.4 Non-utilitarian Behaviour

Archaeological record has also preserved some strands of evidence regarding
non-utilitarian aspects of the behaviour of Lower Palaeolithic groups such as
cognitive and artistic abilities and personal ornamentation.

Bringing tenets of genetic epistemology developed by the Swiss psychologist

Jean Piaget to bear on Stone Age technology, Thomas Wynn pointed out that the
preparation of handaxes and cleavers reflects the employment of developed
27
Palaeolithic Cultures cognitive principles of reversibility and whole-part relations. Developed cognitive
abilities are also reflected in many aspects of land use. These include the selection
of valley-like topographic settings as habitats for occupation, recognition of
seasonal availability of water sources and food resources, and identification of
certain rock outcrops as suitable spots for workshop-cum-camp sites.

Some of the handaxes in the Acheulian assemblages, particularly the thin

specimens belonging to pointed, ovate and cordate forms, are very symmetric in
shape and aesthetically pleasing. So the possibility cannot be ruled out that these
specimens were valued as such by their makers. The cupules (small cup-like
depressions) and simple engravings found on rock slabs from Bhimbetka, Daraki-
Chatan and other caves in Central India have been interpreted by some
archaeologists as artistic creations of the Acheulian groups.

There is some evidence of body decoration too. A few red ochre-like pieces were
found at the Acheulian sites of the Hunsgi and Baichbal valleys. These were
probably procured from vicinity and used for body smearing.

1.9.5 Hominin Fossil Record and Origins

Discussions about the biological identity of hominin groups responsible for the
Lower Palaeolithic traditions groups of India are hampered by the woefully
inadequate amount of fossil skeletal record available in the country till now. As
yet only one true instance of the association of human skeletal record with the
Acheulian cultural material is known. In 1982 Arun Sonakia of the Geological
Survey of India found a fossil cranial vault (calvarium) in a 3 m thick gravel
deposit of the Narmada river at Hathnora in Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 1.16). Initially
classified under the Homo erectus group, this skull cap is now treated as
representing an archaic form of Homo sapiens. Later a fossil clavicle was also
reported from this site. Some bifacial implements and fossil fauna were also
found from the gravel deposit.

Fig.1.16: Fossil skull cap of an archaic form of Homo sapiens from Hathnora, Madhya
Pradesh

28
Now a few words about the origins of the Lower Paleolithic culture in India. Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
Taking into account the high antiquity of hominin occupation in Africa and also
the possible early dates for sites like Riwat and Uttarbaini in the Indian
subcontinent, some workers have concluded that the Soanian type pebble-tool
assemblages were a part of the spread of the Oldowan tradition of East Africa
across Asia by a northern route between 1.8 and 2 million years ago. It has further
been pointed out that the initial dispersal of the Acheulian into West Asia took
place 1.4 million years ago and that its spread to South Asia occurred later either
by a coastal route along the Arabian sea or else from the Levant (Mediterranean)
zone of West Asia via a land route traversing the Iranian plateau. But there are
some scholars who, based on the early dates for sites like Isampur, proposed an
alternative hypothesis that the Acheulian culture may even have originated in
peninsular India itself and spread in both eastern and western directions beyond
the subcontinent’s borders.

1.10 SUMMARY
In a popular book entitled An Introduction to Archaeology (1991) H.D. Sankalia
summed up the whole purpose of archaeology in this statement: “… the aim is
the total picture of man in the past. There is joy or delight not only in having this
knowledge, but in its very pursuit.” This is particularly true of prehistoric
archaeology, which makes laborious efforts of all kinds to piece together various
forms of evidence as in a jig-saw puzzle. Acquisition of knowledge about the
distant Stone Age past not only calls for detective skills and a spirit of adventure
and romanticism but entails familiarity with techniques and methods of various
natural and social sciences. This hard-won knowledge is relevant in ways more
than one.

First, it is an inherent attribute of man to show curiosity about animate or inanimate

things around him. What we are as human beings and how we have come to be
what we are – human nature and human origins - are legitimate domains of
curiosity. In India even those who lack ‘read and write’ literacy do evince interest
in knowing about the past and find it fascinating that the human society as we
see it today, far from having been created on one fine morning by some
supernatural agency, is actually the end product of a long process of change
leading to more sophisticated developments in both biological and cultural
domains. This fosters an attitude of awe and respect to changing relationships
between man and nature across ages and thereby makes the human mind receptive
to the concept of change.

Secondly, prehistory, because it deals with the inordinately long phase of infancy
in human history and seeks to grasp the very genesis of human attributes,
underscores the common roots of mankind and broadens one’s world-view.
Prehistoric heritage, irrespective of its present geographical locations in different
parts of the world, forms the very bedrock on which history rests. As Jawaharlal
Nehru put it aptly in his famous book The Discovery of India, the past is an
inheritance common to the whole humanity.

Thirdly, Stone Age hunter-gatherer societies were based on subsistence economies

geared to the seasonal availability of water and food resources as provided by
nature. Surplus accumulation was an exception rather than a rule. This in fact
explains their persistence over such a long period of time, without inflicting any
29
Palaeolithic Cultures negative changes on their respective landscapes. In the world conference on
environment held in Copenhagen in 1972, Indira Gandhi aptly termed the wanton
destruction of natural environment by man in modern period as ecocide. The
study of simple hunting-gathering societies of both the past and the present have
some useful lessons to offer to the acquisitive and accumulative societies of our
times.

Lastly, prehistoric studies also warn us not to lend credence to age-old negative
characterisations of simple societies, as for example the seventeenth-century
philosopher Thomas Hobbes’ description of human life in the state of nature as
“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.” Anthropological research on some of
the existing hunter-gatherer societies clearly show that these societies have a
high calorific intake, spend only limited hours of the day for food quest, and
have much leisure time for story-telling, initiating the young into various life-
skills and other social activities.

Suggested Reading
Dennell, Robin. 2009. The Palaeolithic Settlement of Asia. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Foote, Robert Burce, 1916. The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and
Protohistoric Antiquities: Notes on Their Ages and Distribution. Madras:
Government Museum.

Gamble, Clive 1999. The Palaeolithic Societies of Europe. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Kosambi, D.D. 1965. The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India: An Historical
Outline. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

Misra, V.N. 1989. Stone Age India: An Ecological Perspective. Man and
Environment, 14: 17-64.

Mishra, Sheila 2008. The Indian Lower Palaeolithic. Bulletin of the Deccan
College Research Institute 66-67 (2006-2007): 49-94.

Murty, M.L.K. Hunter-gatherer Ecosystems and Archaeological Patterns of

Subsistence Behaviour on the South-east Coast of India: An Ethnographic Model.
World Archaeology, 13(1): 47-58.

Paddayya, K. 1978. New Research Designs and Field Techniques in the

Palaeolithic Archaeology of India. World Archaeology, 10: 94-110.

Paddayya, K. 1982. The Acheulian Culture of the Hunsgi Valley, Peninsular

India: A Settlement System Perspective. Poona: Deccan College.

Paddayya, K. 2007. The Acheulian of Peninsular India with Special Reference

to the Hunsgi and Baichbal Valleys of the Lower Deccan, in The Evolution and
History of Human Populations in South Asia (M.D. Petraglia and B. Allchin
Eds.), pp. 97-119. Dordrecht: Springer.

Pappu, R.S. 2001. Acheulian Culture in Peninsular India: An Ecological

Perspective. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.
30
Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Pune: Lower Palaeolithic Cultures
Deccan College.

Sankalia, H.D. 1977. Prehistory of India. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.

Sankalia, H.D. 1991. An Introduction to Archaeology. Pune: Deccan College.

Originally published in 1965.

Scarre, Chris (Editor) 2005. The Human Past: World Prehistory and the
Development of Human Societies. London: Thames and Hudson.

Sample Questions
1) Define prehistory and examine its origins and development in the Old World.
2) Ascertain the place of man in the evolution of Primates.
3) Give an account of the Acheulian land use patterns in India.
4) Justify the relevance of prehistory.

31
Palaeolithic Cultures
UNIT 2 MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mousterian Industry
2.3 Neanderthal Fossils
2.4 Traditions of Neanderthals
2.5 Middle Palaeolithic in India
2.6 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø describe the Mousterian Culture of Europe;
Ø understand the cultural traditions of Neanderthal man; and
Ø discus on the Middle Palaeolithic Cultures in India.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Middle Palaeolithic Culture succeeds the Lower Palaeolithic culture. We have
seen in the previous unit that the Lower Palaeolithic culture is characterised by
heavy tools like the handaxes and cleavers. The Middle Palaeolithic culture, on
the other hand, consists of a variety of tools made on flakes; and these flaks are
produced by specialised techniques. Therefore it is widely referred to as flake-
tool industry. The Middle Palaeolithic culture is best documented in the
excavations of cave sites and open-air sites in Europe, Southwest Asia (also
called the Middle East), and Africa. In these regions, the Middle Palaeolithic
culture is referred to as the Mousterian culture, named after the rock shelter of
Le Moustier in France. The human species associated with the Mousterian culture
is the extinct Homo neanderthalensis. The popular name for this hominin is
Neanderthal man. The fossil remains, that have been unearthed in the excavations
of caves and rock shelters of Europe and Southwest Asia include some complete
and several fragmentary skeletons of Neanderthal man; and these consist of a
few hundred specimens. Neanderthal man lived during the period of Wurm
glaciation (the last Ice Age/ The Great Ice Age, which is the last major glacial
epoch of the Pleistocene period, i.e. Upper Pleistocene).

2.2 MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY

As we have noted above, the culture of Neanderthal man is the Mousterian culture.
This is characterised by specific stone tool assemblages which are called as the
Mousterian industry. In other words, Mousterian industry is a Middle Palaeolithic
tradition of tool making used by Neanderthals of Europe, Southwest Asia and
Africa. This characteristic type of tool making is based on specialised techniques
of production of flakes, which are made into a large variety of tools.
The widespread occurrence of stone tool industries in which flakes are
32 predominantly used, in contrast to the handaxes and cleavers of the previous
cultural phase, begins at the close of the Middle Pleistocene period. The Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures
production of flakes heralds a technical change in the manufacture of advanced
hunting tools. In this new technique, the development is the production of
complete implement, at a single blow, from a core previously prepared so as to
ensure that flakes when detached conformed to specific pattern of tools. Moreover,
it was possible to strike off a series of flakes by reworking (or rejuvenating) the
same core; therefore the technique was economical both of labour and raw
material. Further, the flakes thus detached could easily be shaped by simple
retouch into a variety of tools. It was easy to manufacture a whole range of tools
to perform various functions. As already mentioned, stone tool industries, based
primarily on the production of flake tools struck from carefully prepared cores,
first developed in a broad zone covering North Africa and Southwest Asia to
Western, Central and Eastern Europe (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).

Fig. 2.1: Map showing Neanderthal sites in western Europe

Fig. 2.2: Map showing Neanderthal sites in Southwest Asia and Africa
33
Palaeolithic Cultures The easily recognisable product of this new mode of making tools is the “tortoise
shaped core”, from the undersurface of which a flake tool could be struck by a
single blow. These types of cores were first recognised from sites in the locality
of Levallois, a suburb of Paris. Hence the technique was given the name
“Levalloisian technique”, and this is also called “Prepared Core Technique”.
(Fig. 2.3). What is important, this flake technique makes it appearance in the
preceding handaxe-cleaver (Acheulian) cultures but it rose to predominance over
the Acheulian core tool traditions in the Middle Palaeolithic cultural phase. One
good example to illustrate this is the industry consisting of flake tools alongside
with small handaxes and well made cleavers in the culture named from the locality
of Fauresmith, in the Orange Free State of Africa (the Fauresmith culture).

Fig.2.3: Steps in the production of finished flake tool by the Levalloisian technique (after
Campbell 1979)

These flake tool industries, and for that matter an assortment of industries
characterised by the predominance of flake tools, represent the Middle Palaeolithic
cultures in different parts of the Old World. The cultural traditions of the Middle
Palaeolithic, as already mentioned, are well documented in the excavations of
caves and rock shelters in Europe, Southwest Asia (after referred to as the Middle
East), and North Africa. These are called as the Mousterian culture (after the
rock shelter Le Moustier in France, is the Mousterian). The deposits excavated
at the Le Moustier cave, which have yielded these tools in large numbers, are
dated to 55,800 Before Present (BP). The stone tool industries of the Mousterian
cultures of Western Europe are closely allied to the Levalloisian but differ in that
the cores were small and “disc-like” and shaped in such a way that a series of
flakes could be detached without reworking the core. In other words, in this
method called the “disc-core technique”, a stone is trimmed to a disc-shape, and
numerous flakes are detached until the core is almost used up. And the flakes
34
thus detached are further retouched (secondary retouch) and shaped into a variety Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures
of tools (e.g. scrapers, Mousterian points, denticulate tools etc.). The caves of
Southwest Asia, and Libya (in North Africa), on the other hand, yielded
Levalloiso-Mousterian industries sharing elements from each. There is a
significant degree of variation in the stone tools of the Mousterian industries.
For example, Mousterian industries in France were distinguished into four main
types. These are: (1) Typical Mousterian (Fig. 2.4); (2) Quina-Ferrassie or
Charentian Mousterian (Fig. 2.5); (3) Denticulate Mousterian (Fig. 2.6); and (4)
Mousterian of Acheulian tradition (Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.4: Tools of typical Mousterian from the Dordogne region of southwest France (after
Bordes 1978)

Fig. 2.5: Tools of Quina-Ferrassie Mousterian (after Bordes 1978) 35

Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 2.6: Tools of Denticulate Mousterian (after Bordes 1978)

Fig. 2.7: Tools of Mousterian of Acheulian Tradition (after Bordes 1978)

36
 Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures

Fig. 2. 8: Tools of Mousterian of Acheulian Tradition (after Bordes 1978)

In Typical Mousterian, the Levalloisian technique was used to varying extents;

percentage of scrapers varies from twenty-five to fifty-five; and points are well
developed. The Neanderthal man found at Le Moustier was associated with the
Typical Mousterian. In the Quina-Ferrassie or Charentian Mousterian (named
after its predominance in the Charente region of France), the percentage of scrapers
is very high (fifty to eighty percent); there are special type of scrapers like thick
convex scrapers with scalariform retouch, transverse scrapers, scrapers with
bifacial retouch over the whole surface (tranchoirs); a few or no handaxes; and
a few denticulates. The Denticulate Mousterian is characterised by a great
development of denticulated tools (from thirty-five to fifty-five percent) and
notched flakes; no typical handaxes; a few points; and a few backed knives. The
Mousterian of Acheulian Tradition is characterised by the occurrence of high
proportion of handaxes (eight to fifty percent); flake tools are extremely varied,
which include scrapers; points are fairly numerous, some with thinned butts,
and some partly bifacial; carefully worked denticulate tools and notched flakes
are numerous; and Upper Palaeolithic types (burins, end scrapers, borers, flakes,
and truncated blades) occur in appreciable numbers than in the other types of
Mousterian.

In Africa, the Middle Palaeolithic is designated the “Middle Stone Age”, and it
appears at 280,000 BP. The various flake-tool industries of the Middle
Palaeolithic, discussed above are called Mode III industries. The characteristic
feature of the Mode III industries is the prepared-core flake tool technique. This
technique, in Europe, begins to appear around 300,000 BP – 250,000 BP. The
37
Palaeolithic Cultures human species associated with the Middle Stone Age in Africa are also
Neanderthals, but termed variously as Home helmei, Homo rhodesiensis, Home
sapiens idalltu, or Home sapiens archaicus.

2.3 NEANDERTHAL FOSSILS

The first discovery of Neanderthal man (also referred to as Neandertal man) was
made in 1856, not far from the city of Dusseldorf, Germany, where a tributary
stream of the Rhine flows through a steep sided gorge, known as Neander Valley,
“Neanderthal” in old German.The fossil skeletal fragments of this ancient human
are given the name Neanderthal man, after this locality. The image of Neanderthal
man for many years was that these Stone Age humans were shambling, beetle-
browed lout, and grisly folk, who prowled the earth during the time of the glaciers.
Subsequent discoveries and research showed that the Neanderthals from 100,000
years ago to 40,000 years expanded into different regions of the Old World,
devised ingenious stone tools (which we have discussed above), developed a
complicated society and opened the door onto the world of supernatural.

In 1856, a cave near a town called Spy in Belgium yielded two fossil skeletons;
and palaeoanthropologists working in the Dordogne region of southwestern
France brought to light numerous Neanderthal fossil skeletal remains and large
quantities of stone tools. One of the first to turn up was the skeleton of an old
man in a cave near the village of La Chapelle-aux Saints (Fig. 2.9). A cave at Le
Moustier, nearby to the one from which large quantities of stone tools had been
excavated earlier; yielded the skeleton of a Neanderthal youth, dated to 40,300
BP. Excavations at a rock shelter at La Ferrassie (Fig. 2.9) produced adult male
and female Neanderthals and later the remains of seven children. Several
Neanderthal skeletons have been recovered in the excavations of another rock
shelter at La Quina. With the wealth of these skeletal materials from southwestern
France, palaeoanthropologists were able to reconstruct what a Neanderthal looked
like, and study the physical resemblances—or lack of them—between
Neanderthals and modern Humans. As the years passed, Neanderthal fossils were
found all over Europe, from Rumania and Crimea in the east to the western
lands of Spain and the Channel island of Jersey. In 1921, some labourers mining
lead and zinc ore in Zambia (previously Northern Rhodesia), thousands of miles
from Europe, unearthed a skull and other human bones that resembled
Neanderthals. These fossil fragments came from a cave in a knoll called Broken
Hill, north of the Zambesi River.

(a)
(b)

Fig. 2. 9: Skulls of Neanderthal man from (a) La Chapelle aux-Saints and (b) La Ferrassie
(after Campbell 1979)
38
This fossil was given the name “Rhodesian man”. Many scientists now agree Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures
that this fossil was the African version of the Neanderthal type. During 1931 and
1932, fragments of eleven individuals were dug from the banks of the Solo River
at Ngandong in Java. The fossils, collectively named “Solo man” consisted of
several skulls that were almost perfect but lacked their bases and faces, and
other bones that were badly shattered. Solo man is the Asian version of the
Neanderthals. The gap between Java and Europe was filled in 1938 by a find in
the desolate Bajsun-Tau Mountains of south-central Russia, about seventy-eight
miles south of Samarkand. A cave in a cliff called Teshik-Tash yielded the fossil
remains of a boy who was clearly Neanderthal. Neanderthal discoveries were
made during the early 1930s by a joint Anglo-American expedition in what is
now Israel, then called Palestine. These came from two of caves excavated by
Dorothy Garrod on the slopes of Mount Carmel, overlooking the Mediterranean
Sea, near the city of Haifa. These caves are Mugharet et – Tabun (Cave of the
Oven) and Mugharet es – Skhul (Cave of the Kids). The first cave yielded a
female skeleton, and from the second came the remains of ten individuals.

2.4 TRADITIONS OF NEANDERTHALS

Neanderthals very probably started some of the activities and beliefs that are
considered most characteristic of humankind. They conceived life after death.
They attempted to control their own destiny through magical rites. And they
cared for aged and handicapped individuals. In fact, they were the first humans
to display the complete spectrum of behaviour that can be considered to constitute
modern human nature.

It seems probable that Neanderthals practiced hunting magic. Apparently, they

attempted to manipulate the hidden forces of nature that controlled success and
failure in hunt. One clue for this comes from the Grotto della Basura, the “Cave
of Witches”, west of Genoa, Italy. In the depths of the cave, almost 1500 feet the
entrance, Neanderthal hunters threw pellets of clay at a stalagmite, which to this
day has a vaguely animal shape. The inconvenient location of the stalagmite
rules out the possibility that this merely a kind of game or target practice. The
fact that the Neanderthal hunters went so far back into the further reaches of the
cave to throw the pellets suggests that this activity had magical meaning of some
kind.

The evidence of a deer ceremony at a cave in Lebanon was brought to light by

Ralph Solecki in 1970. Here, about 50,000 years ago, some Neanderthals
dismembered a fallow deer, placed the meat on a bed of stones, and sprinkled it
with red ochre. The natural pigment was certainly intended as a symbol of blood.
This rite seems to represent a ritualistic or magical attempt.

The famous example of Neanderthal hunting magic is the bear cult. It came to
light in the excavations conducted at the cave of Drachenloch by the German
archaeologist Emil Bachler, between 1917 and 1923. This cave known as the
“lair of the dragons” is located 8000 feet up in the Swiss Alps. The front part of
the cave served as the occasional dwelling place for the Neanderthals. Deep
inside the cave was a cubical chest made of stones and measuring approximately
three and a quarter feet on a side. The top of the chest was covered by a single
massive slab of stone. Inside were seven bear skulls, all arranged with their
muzzles facing the cave entrance. Still deeper in the cave were six bear skulls,
39
Palaeolithic Cultures set up in niches along the walls. Another evidence for the bear cult was discovered
at Regourdon in southern France. Here was discovered a rectangular pit, covered
by a flat stone weighing nearly a ton, which contained the bones of more than
twenty bears.
The Neanderthals buried the dead and practiced death rituals. In the cave of La
Chapelle-aux Saints, which was excavated in 1908, the excavators found the
burial of man. The skeleton was found in a shallow trench, with a bison leg
placed on his chest, and the trench was filled with broken animal bones and
stone tools. These various articles might have been the provisions for the world
beyond the grave, since it was well known that many primitive peoples bury
their dead with food, weapons and other goods. The nearby rock shelter at La
Ferrassie, appears to have served as a family cemetery. It contained six Neanderthal
skeletons: a man, a woman, two children about five years old, and two infants.
This Neanderthal cemetery is dated to 60,000 BP. Almost every Neanderthal
burial site in Western Europe is associated with the tool making tradition known
as the Quina-Ferrassie (discussed above).
The most amazing Neanderthal burial of all was that in the Shanidar cave in Iraq
(Iraqi Kurdistan). Excavations conducted here by Ralph Solecki between 1935
and 1960 brought to light the remains of nine Neanderthals (Shanidar 1-9). At
the back of the cave, in a layer estimated to be 60,000 years old, was the grave of
a man (Shanidar 4) with a badly crushed skull. Analysis of the soil samples on
which the skeleton was found indicated that pollen was present in the grave in
unprecedented abundance. And pollen was found negligible in the other samples
of the cave. Analysis of the pollen from the soil beneath the skeleton indicated
that it came from numerous species of bright coloured flowers, related to grape
hyacinth, bachelor’s button, hollyhock, and groundsel. This has been interpreted
as a “flower burial”: This man was buried with bunches of these wild flowers on
a flower bed. Another skeleton at Shanidar (Shanidar 4) belonged to a forty year
old man who probably was killed by a rockfall. He suffered major injuries long
before his death: he sustained a massive blow to the right side that badly damaged
his right arm, foot and leg and a crushing fracture to the left eye that would
rendered his left eye blind, and he could not have been an effective hunter. The
fact that he survived up to the age of 40 with these disabilities indicates that he
was treated with compassion and cared for by his fellow Neanderthals. The care
shown to this cripple, who presumably had to keep close to the cave and can
hardly have participated in hunting activities, reflects a degree of humanity not
always displayed towards one another by members of civilised society.
At some of the Neanderthal burials, there is plentiful evidence of the darker side
of the Neanderthals, such as violence and cannibalism. For example, a fossil of
man found at Mugharet es – Skhul bears the traces of a fatal spear wound in his
thigh bone and the socket of hip bone. There are enough evidences to indicate
that Neanderthals, sometimes, killed their fellow beings. Mutilated remains of
about twenty Neanderthals—men, women, and children—were found, in 1899,
at the site of Krapina, in Yugoslavia. Skulls had been smashed into fragments;
limb bones had been split lengthwise, presumably for their marrow, and there
were traces of charring, hinting that the human meat had been cooked. In 1965,
another collection of charred and smashed bones, again involving twenty
individuals, was found at the cave of Hortus in France. The remains were mixed
with animal bones and food refuse, as if the ancient inhabitants of the cave had
40 drawn no distinction between human meat and that of a bison or reindeer.
The group of skulls excavated on the bank of the Solo River in Java suggests Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures
ritualistic motives. Though eleven skulls came out in the excavations, no other
skeletal parts were found, except for two shin bones. The facial bones had been
smashed off every skull, and not a single jaw or tooth was left. In some of the
skulls, the opening at the base of the skull (foramen magnum) is widened. A
practice of this kind, of widening the base of the skull, to take out the brain, is
known in the ritualistic practices of present day cannibals. In a cave at Monte
Circeo in Italy, was found a single skull, in a shallow trench that had been scooped
out of the ground, encircled by stones in an oval shapes. This skull belonged to
a 60,000 year old Neanderthal, who had been killed by a blow in the temple.
Once again, the foramen magnum had been enlarged. This mutilation and the
presence of ring of stones, indicates that a ceremony had been performed in the
cave. These rites of burials and cannibalism of Neanderthals may be only the
visible tip of an iceberg of hidden ceremonies. Practically all known primitive
peoples have special rites and beliefs and practices pertaining to key steps in
human life and it is reasonable to assume that the Neanderthals did too.

2.5 MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC IN INDIA

The Middle Palaeolithic cultural phase in India is characterised by flake-tool
industries. In 1956, Sankalia for the first time recorded and demonstrated these
flake tools occurring in association with the second aggradational deposit of the
river Pravara at Nevasa (Maharastra) and then within the same context in the
Godavari valley in north Karnataka. He called this industry Nevasian (like
Mousterian, Levalloisian etc.). Soon Sankalia organised a large group of river
valley surveys along Narmada, Son, Burhabalang, Krishna and its various
tributaries. These investigations brought to light flake-tool industries to show
that what he had provisionally called Nevasian was not a local phenomenon but
a generalised feature of Indian Stone Age cultures. In the beginning the term
Middle Stone Age was adopted for this phase in Indian prehistory. Subsequently,
the term Middle Palaeolithic has been accepted.

The Middle Palaeolithic tools are made on flakes and flake-blades

produced by flake-core, discoid core and the specialised Levallois
technique. In some regions, there is a continuity of Late Acheulian lithic
tradition with refinement in bifacial flaking, and secondary marginal
retouch, and inclusion of small sized handaxes and cleavers, recalling
the industries of Mousterian of Acheulian tradition of southwest Asia.
In many regions there is switch over in the use of raw material from
coarse grained rocks like quartzite of the preceding phase to fine grained
rocks like chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate, etc. In some regions of central
India and southeast coast, coarse grained and fine grained quartzite has
been used.

The tool types of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic are scrapers of various types—
single side, double side, side-cum-end, straight, oblique, concave, convex,
concavo-convex, notched, and core scrapers; awls; borers; simple unilateral or
bilateral points; Levallois points; tanged or shouldered points; miniature handaxes
and cleavers; and utilised flakes. Anvils and hammer stones are also found at
some of the manufacturing sites (Figs. 2.10 to 2.11). 41
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 2.10: Tools of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic

Fig. 2.11: Tools of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic

The debitage (waste products resultant of tool manufacture) comprises various

kinds of flakes—simple, end-struck, side-struck and indeterminate; core
rejuvenation flakes; chips; and flake cores. The flake cores are discoidal, globular,
pyramidal and amorphous. The techniques used for tool manufacture are stone
hammer, cylinder hammer, and Levallois. The tools are finished by secondary
retouch; and characterised by shallow and small flake scars, step flaking, marginal
secondary retouch and sharp edges. The raw materials used for the manufacture
42
of tools are medium to fine grained quartzite, chert, jasper and chalcedony. Some Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures
of the Middle Palaeolithic bifacial flake points, scraper types and retouched flake
tools show typo-technological similarities to the Mousterian core and flake tools,
recalling the Mousterian of Acheulian Tradition of Southwest Asia where the
Mousterian culture is associated with Homo neanderthalensis.

If we take into account the distribution of Middle Palaeolithic sites in different

parts of India, we find that the western dry zone is rich in occupations as at Budh
Pushkar Lake, Didwana, or some parts of the Luni valley. The Luni industry is
varied and richer in its typological content: convex and concavo-convex side
scrapers, point of various types, burins, side choppers, handaxes, cleavers and
edged blades. Upper Palaeolithic types such as retouched blades and blade cores
are very infrequent in this zone. Therefore, in all probability, these represent a
much younger variety than what has been recorded at Godavari or Narmada. The
Nevasa and northern Karnataka sites yield rather large chunky jasper of a number
of shades with several typical Levalloisian flakes in them. The point of impact
of almost all these flakes maintains pronounced positive bulbs of percussion
indicating stone hammer technique as the principal technique of manufacture.
The most predominant type among these is the side scraper. Borers form the
next frequent type while points occur with a frequency of around 10 to 15 percent.
Several of these are thin and leaf shaped and often show a rudimentary shoulder
near the butt-end. Abrupt retouching as also alternate retouching is quite common.

In Andhra Pradesh, wherever the Middle Palaeolithic industries are found in a

stratified context, they succeed the Lower Palaeolithic (Gravel I) and occur in
Gravel II. The Gravel II deposits in the river systems of the Deccan have been
ascribed to late Middle Pleistocene to early part of Upper Pleistocene on the
basis of geomorphological parameters.

Cammiade was the first to make a large collection of flake tools (which he called
series II tools) from the district of Kurnool. Subsequently, Chittoor and Nalgonda
districts were also systematically explored. Ramatirthampaye and Raigirvagu
on Krishna are two of the richer sites. The tools are prepared on fine grained
quartzite and show extensive use of cylindrical hammer technique. Many of
these tools maintain pebble cortex and at times some are prepared on cores.
There are several discoid tools or round scrapers, and elongated blades with
burin edges prepared on them. Likewise, typical end scrapers are also prepared
on such thick blades. It is significant that Levalloisian technique in these sites is
not as frequent as in Nevasa-Karnataka sites.

In Madhya Pradesh and Bundelkhand region, the Middle Paleolithic is best

represented. Besides the main Narmada deposits, the Betwa, Shivna, Chambal
and numerous other water courses in the general area have yielded rich evidence
of this cultural phase. Gonchi and Sihora on Betwa show patinated chert tools
which include side-scrapers of various kinds measuring 13 cm to 7 cm in length.
Levalloisian technique is well marked although not as much as in the western
region. Bold retouching, often in an abrupt or semi-abrupt manner, is seen in the
preparation of these types. Flakes are often flat and retouched bifacially. There
are also some burins.

As one moves into the Chhatisgarh region and finally into the Chhotanagpur
forest, the Middle Palaeolithic again tends to lose its identity and merge with the
43
Palaeolithic Cultures Upper Palaeolithic. Blade cores abound in these assemblages. Mohapatra has
recorded Middle Palaeolithic tools from almost all the Orissa rivers and shown
that both pebble choppers and blade cores abound in them. Moving northwards
across the Narmada into the Gangetic plain, we find that Middle Palaeolithic,
like the preceding Lower Palaeolithic has also a wide distribution in the Belan
valley in Allahabad district.

At Bhedaghat on Narmada near Jabalpur a section of Narmada has been exposed

in recent flood. This has been studied by Sheila Mishra. The section reveals four
distinct Quaternary phases; the lowest among these also yielded some Acheulian
types. The layers yielding Middle Palaeolithic types had a date of 25,160B.P.
The Middle Palaeolithic tools are prepared on chert and include varieties of side
scrapers besides medium sized cleaver made on chert. The evidence from
Bhimbetka right in the heartland of the Narmada zone, shows a Mousterian
industry developing from within an Upper Acheulian base. But a hundred
kilometers away, at Shivna in the main Narmada valley, Middle Palaeolithic
appears as exotic because of the complete change of raw material heralding this
phase.

The Mousterian in Afghanistan and the Zagros mountains farthest west seem to
have many similarities with our desert zone Middle Paleolithic. Bridget Allchin
suggests a period of 45,000 to 25,000B.P. for them. Maharashtra-Karnataka has
a proper Levalloisian based Middle Palaeolithic and hence comes closer to
Mousterian character. Even thin leaf-shaped tanged points are also from these
sites. The Middle Palaeolithic from Kurnool to Chhatisgarh seems to be a local
development.

A Thermoluminiscence date from Didwana (Rajasthan) dates the Middle

Palaeolithic to around 100,000 B.P. and Clark and Williams suggested that the
Middle Palaeolithic in the Son Valley (north Central India) may be 40,000 or
50,000 years B.P. There is a single radio-carbon date on molluscan shells from a
post Middle Palaeolithic context from Nandipalli in the Sagileru valley, a tributary
of the Penneru, on the southeast coast of India. This date is 23,670 ± 640 years
B.P. This date suggests that the Middle Palaeolithic in this region is older than
ca. 23,000 yrs B.P

By a review of TL, radiocarbon and Uranium/Thorium dates in a pan-Indian

context, a time-bracket of ca. 125,000 years to 40,000 years before present has
been suggested for the Indian Middle Palaeolithic by Sheila Mishra.

2.6 SUMMARY
The Middle Palaeolithic culture is widely spread in Europe, Southwest Asia,
Africa and India. In Europe and Southwest Asia, it is called as the Mousterian
culture, and the stone tool industries are termed as Mousterian industries. These
industries are based on specialised techniques of flake production, called
Levalloisian. In Europe, the Mousterian industries are divided into four major
groups called (1) Typical Mousterian; (2) Quina-Ferrassie or Charentian
Mousterian; (3) Denticulate Mousterian; and (4) Mousterian of Acheulian
tradition. The Middle Palaeolithic in Africa is called as the “Middle Stone Age”.
The Middle Palaeolithic industries in India are also based on the predominant
use of flakes which include those detached by Levalloisian and disc-core
44
techniques. It is not possible to distinguish sub-divisions or typological groupings Middle Palaeolithic
Cultures
in the Indian Middle Palaeolithic, as in Europe, but stone tools from different
parts of the country, nevertheless, variously display affinities to the Mousterian
points, Levallois points, scrapers of different types including disc-core scrapers,
and miniature handaxes and cleavers of the Mousterian of Acheulian tradition.
The Mousterian culture in Europe, Southwest Asia, and Africa is the culture of
the Neanderthals, the extinct human species called Homo neanderthalensis. The
cultural traditions of the Neanderthals include hunting magic, burial customs
and death rituals, and caring for the disabled and crippled; and on the darker
side, they showed also the traits of violence, and cannibalism.

Fossil remains of human societies associated with the Middle Palaeolithic in

India have not come to light so far. On the basis of technological and typological
affinities of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic tools to the Mousterian industries, it
can only be predicted that the authors of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic might as
well represent a South Asian variant of the Neanderthal Man.

Suggested Reading
Allchin Bridget and Raymond Allchin. 1982. The Rise of Civilisation in India
and Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bhattacharya, D.K. 1977. Palaeolithic Europe. Netherlands: Humanities Press.
Bhattacharya, D.K. 2006. An Outline of Indian Prehistory. Delhi: Palaka
Prakashan.
Bordes, Francois. 1978. The Old Stone Age (Translated from the French by J.E.
Anderson). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Burkitt, M. 1963. The Old Stone Age: A Study of Palaeolithic Times. London:
Bowes and Bowes.
Campbell, Bernard, G. 1979. Humankind Emerging (Second Edition). Boston:
Little Brown and Company.
Clark, Graham and Stuart Piggott. 1976. Prehistoric Societies. Harmondsworth,
Middlesex (England): Penguin Books Ltd.
Coles, J.M. and E.S. Higgs. 1969. The Archaeology of Early Man. London: Faber
and Faber.
Fagan, B.M. 2004. People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory.
New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Hole, H. and R.F. Heizer. 1969. An Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology.
New York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston Inc.
Larsen, C.S. 1998. Human Origins: The Fossil Record (Paperback). Illinois:
Waveland Press Inc.
Leakey, R. 1993. Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes us Human
(Paperback): New York: Anchor Books.

Lee, R.B and I. Devore (eds.). 1977. Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine Publishing
Company.

45
Palaeolithic Cultures Mishra, S. 1995. Chronology of the Indian Stone Age: The Impact of recent
Absolute and Relative Dating Attempts. Man and Environment 20(2): 11-16.
Misra, V.N. 1989.Stone Age India: An Ecological perspective. Man and
Environment. 14: 17-64.
Misra, V.N. 2001. Prehistoric Colonisation of India. Journal of Biosciences. 26(4):
491-531.
Renefrew, C. 1973. The Explanation of culture change: Models in prehistory.
London: Duckworth.
Renefrew, C. and P. Bahn. 2001. Archaeology: Theories methods and Practices.
London: Thames and Hudson.
Sankalia, H.D. 1956. Animal Fossils and Palaeolithic Industries from the Pravara
Basin at Nevasa, District Ahmednagar. Ancient India. 12: 35-52.
Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Poona:
Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute.
Sankalia, H.D. 1977. Prehistory of India. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the salient features of the Mousterian industries of Europe and
Southwest Asia.
2) Give an account of the cultural traditions of the Neanderthals.
3) Wire short notes on the following:
i) Levalloisian technique
ii) Neanderthal fossils
iii) Middle Stone Age in Africa
iv) Mousterian of Acheulian tradition
v) Shanidar cave.

46
 Middle Palaeolithic
UNIT 3 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES Cultures

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Upper Palaeolithic in Europe
3.3 Epi-Palaeolithic in Europe
3.4 Upper Palaeolithic in India
3.4.1 Stone Tool Industries
3.4.2 Bone Tool Industries
3.4.3 Subsistence Economy
3.4.4 Art
3.5 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the salient features of the Upper Palaelithic cultures in the Old World;
Ø discuss the sub-cultural phases and regional variants of Upper Palaeolithic
cultures in Europe and Southwest Asia;
Ø describe the stone, bone and antler tools of the Upper Palaeolithic cultures; and
Ø know about the Upper Palaeolithic cultures in India.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Upper Palaeolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Palaeolithic, and it
is characterised by the first great climax of human achievements. Upper
Palaeolithic cultures flourished in Europe, Southwest Asia, Africa, South Asia
and Southeast Asia during the later stages of the Upper Pleistocene, often referred
to as Late Pleistocene (Fig. 3.1).

Fig.3.1: Map showing important site of Cro-Magnon fossils and Upper Palaeolithic tools
47
in the Old World (after Campbell 1979)
Palaeolithic Cultures Very broadly, the age of the Upper Palaeolithic falls between 40,000 and 10,000
years ago. The human species associated with this cultural phase is Anatomically
Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS), the extant and the only surviving human species.
We belong to this species. Upper Palaeolithic cultures succeed the Middle
Palaeolithic Mousterian or other flake tool cultures in different parts of the Old
World.

The first discovery of the skeletal remains of Homo sapiens was made in 1868 in
Cro-Magnon, a rock shelter in the Dordogne region of southwest France, in a
deposit containing Upper Palaeolithic tools. Hence this man is called Cro-Magnon
man. He is anatomically identical to modern humans, but differed significantly
from Neanderthals. Cro-Magnon man was tall, erect and well built. The Cro-
Magnon people varied in physical type from one region to another. Bones
unearthed in the Soviet Union are different from those found in France or Africa
or China.

The Upper Palaeolithic is marked by technological advances in stone tool

manufacture by the production of parallel sided blades which are finished into a
variety of tools finished by blunting one side or backing. Blades are flakes, but
very refined flat narrow ones, elongated in shape and having parallel sides. For
producing blades, the cores are first trimmed all around to remove the roughness.
Then, by striking along the circumference of the core, using a punch, a series of
blades are removed. That means blades are produced by indirect percussion but
not by direct percussion. After the removal of the first series of blades, a second,
third and fourth series and so on are removed, until the core is exhausted. Thus,
in this blade production technique, numerous blades are removed from a single
core. These cores have a prismatic or fluted appearance; hence this technique is
called “prismatic-core technique” or “fluted-core” technique. These blades,
subsequently, are further worked and finished, by blunting one side of the blade,
into various tool forms. This kind of retouch is called backing and these tools are
called backed blade tools. These are backed points, pen knives, thick (orange
piece like) lunates and triangles. Blades are also finished, by secondary retouch,
into shouldered or tanged points, scrapers (end scrapers being most characteristic),
burins and awls. The Upper Palaeolithic industries also consist of a variety of
flake and core tools like side scrapers, ovate scrapers, notched scrapers, discoid
scrapers, and unifacial and bifacial flake points. Some of these flakes are produced
by the Levallois technique, and the discoid core technique, indicating the
persistence of the preceding Middle Palaeolithic traditions.

Some of the backed blades could have been used by hafting as barbs to harpoons.
The raw material used for the stone tools are fine-grained rocks. A variety of
bone points and harpoons with single row and double row of barbs made on
antler were found in several Upper Palaeolithic sites in southwestern France and
other parts of Europe.

Artistic work also blossomed during this period. Upper Palaeolithic art begins in
the Aurignacian culture, develops in the Gravettian and Solutrean, and blossoms
in the Magdalenian, both in the splendid decoration of ordinary objects, and in
the superb polychrome cave paintings. A large variety of paintings on cave or
rock walls and cave ceilings, and petroglyphs (engravings or line drawings on
rock or cave walls) have been found especially in France and Spain. Another
important category of art is in the form of ‘Venus Figurines’. These are small
48
statuettes of naked, and often obese or pregnant women, sculpted in mammoth Upper Palaeolithic Cultures
ivory, stone or clay. These figurines may be fertility icons or emblems of security
and success. According to some scholars, the appearance of language during this
period made these behavioural changes possible.

3.2 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC IN EUROPE

Southwestern France is considered as the “classical region” in which all these
Upper Palaeolithic developments are well preserved. The Upper Palaeolithic
sequence of south-western France is used as a model for the Upper Palaeolithic
cultural sequences because of the numerous well stratified sites. The stone tool
industries of the Upper Palaeolithic, in this classical region, show a great deal of
regional variations and sub-regional successions, which cover a time span of
40,000 – 12,000 years Before Present (BP). These industries are Chatelperronian
(35,000 – 29,000 years ago), Aurignacian (34,000 – 29,000 years ago) Gravettian
(28,000 – 22,000 years ago), Solutrean (21,000 – 19,000 years ago) and
Magdalenian (18,000 – 12, 000 years ago) (Figs. 3.2 – 3.6).

Fig.3.2: Upper Palaeolithic Tools from Southwestern France. 1) Chatelperronian knife;

2) Burin; 3) Scraper on flake; 4) Mousterian point; 5) Denticulated and truncated
blade; 6) Gravette point; 7) Multiple burin on truncation; 8) Bitruncated blade;
9) Burin on bladelet (called Noailles burin); 10) Backed bladelet; 11) Truncated
bladelet with retouch; 12) Flake scraper; 13) Backed point with a shoulder (called
Font-Robert point); 14) Dihedral burin (after Bordes 1968)
49
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 3.3: Upper Palaeolithic Tools from Southwestern France (Aurignacian type).
1) Carinated scraper; 2) Scraper on retouched blade; 3) Nosed scraper;
4) Aurignacian blade; 5) Strangulated blade; 6) Bladelet; 7) Busked burin;
8) Split-base bone point; 9) Flat nosed scraper; 10) Retouched bladelet; 11) Bone
point with a bevel; 12) Lozenge shaped bone point (after Bordes 1968)

Fig. 3.4: Upper Palaeolithic Tools from Southwestern France (Solutrean type). 1) Leaf
shaped point with one flat face; 2) Borer-end-scraper; 3) Shouldered point;
4) tanged and barbed point; 5) Shouldered point; 6) Finely retouched end scraper;
7) Point with a concave base; 8) Willow leaf point; 9) Laurel leaf point (after
Bordes 1968)
50
 Upper Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 3.5: Upper Palaeolithic Tools from southwest France (Magdalenian type). 1-2) Bone
points; 3) Transverse burin; 4) Star shaped multiple borer; 5) Denticulated bladelet;
6) Triangle; 7) Tanged point; 8) Backed bladelet; 9) Tanged point; 10) Side scraper
with abrupt retouch all around the edge; 11) Denticulated backed bladelet;
12) Backed point; 13) Tanged point; 14-15) Shouldered points; 16) Harpoon;
17) Parrot beak burin (after Bordes 1968)

Fig. 3.6: Magdalenian bone harpoons from Southwest France. Harpoons with single row
and double row (after Bordes 1968)
51
Palaeolithic Cultures Chatelperronian is the earliest industry of the Upper Palaeolithic in central and
south-western France. The Chatelperronian has been the subject of considerable
controversy since its recognition in the early twentieth century. It has also been
called the “Lower Perigordian”, “Perigordian I” and “Lower Aurignacian”.
Chatelperronian appears to have been derived from the earlier Mousterian culture.
Serious disagreement still persists about the status of the Chatelperronian.
Majority of archaeologists appear to agree that most of the assemblages labeled
Chatelperronian are the products of Neanderthals and that the industry was
geographically restricted to a relatively small area of south-western France and
northern Spain. Though Chatelperronian precedes Aurignacian technology, there
must have been a few thousand years of overlap between the Chatelperronian
and the Aurignacian.

The Chatelperronian culture is characterised by a stone tool called as the “backed

point” or “backed knife”. It is a blade having one of its edges blunted for holding
or hafting recalling a modern penknife blade. It is also called Chatelperronian
knife. The other types of this culture are pointed blades with curved backs blunted
by steep retouching, which are called Chatelperronian points; burins, made on
blades, with a chisel like cutting edge, used for working on bone and antler, and
also for engraving; end scrapers most commonly on flakes rather than on blades;
side scrapers and round scrapers on flakes; and other kinds of flake tools. There
are also bone awls, pierced teeth and bone pendants, but in general, bone tools
are meager in the Chatelperronian.

The Aurignacian culture is named after the type site Aurignac in southern France.
In France it is stratified between the Chatelperronian and Gravettian. The
Aurignacian culture is recognised by some special artifact types. These types are
“steep” and “nosed’ scrapers. The other types like different kinds of scrapers,
backed blade tools, a variety of burins, and flake tools are also common.
Aurignacian is characterised by the use of well made long narrow blades which
were expertly struck off from prepared conical cores. Aurignacian is also
recognised for its bone and antler tools such as awls, pierced antler bars used as
smoothing tools for making arrows (arrow strengtheners), flat elongated
spearheads, split-based bone points, antler and bone; and ornaments like pierced
shells and teeth, carved bone pendants, bracelets, and ivory beads. Some of the
earliest ivory carvings of animals and human figures begin to appear during this
period. Even musical instruments made on bone such as whistles and flutes have
been found at some sites. Climate during this period was very cold and dry. They
hunted herd animals adapted to cold climate such as reindeer, mammoth, wooly
rhinoceros, steppe horse and bison. Engraved figures of these animals on bone
and ivory are found at some of the Aurignacian sites. Aurignacian covers Europe,
Levant (region around eastern Mediterranean and Aegean), and it continues far
to the east into Siberia.

Aurignacian type industries are found eastwards to the Balkans, Palestine, Iran
and Afghanistan. In the Levant, the early Upper Palaeolithic culture is the Emiran
(known from the caves of Mount Carmel, Jabrud and several others), which
used backed blades, burins and a variety of scrapers including end scrapers. The
Emiran belongs to the same time period as that of the earliest Aurignacian. Another
52
culture, closely related to Emiran is the Dabba culture of north Africa and Upper Palaeolithic Cultures

Cyrenaica.

The Gravettian culture is named after the type site La Gravette in the Dordogne
region of France. It succeeds the Aurignacian. This culture is characterised by
new technological innovations for survival in the cold climate. The stone tool
industry is distinguished by a small pointed blade with one side blunted. This
blunted side has a straight back. This is known as Gravette point. The Gravettian
people were big game hunters. They used spear throwers for hunting. They hunted
bison, horse, reindeer and mammoth. They invented animal traps and fish traps
and may also have used darts to kill birds and small mammals. They were trapping
hares and foxes for their skins, which they sewed into warm clothing using ivory
needles with drilled eyes. They were making nets and baskets.

The Gravettian people are also known for their large skin tents, which were
constructed over frameworks of mammoth bones, as a substitute for wood on
the treeless steppes. Some of the Gravettian groups were dwelling in semi-
permanent villages.

Gravettian is known for Venus figurines. These are statuettes of women carved
from stone, bone or ivory, or molded in clay and fired. Gravettian culture stretched
from France to Ukraine covering Italy, Austria and Czechoslovakia. It is divided
into two regional groups—the Western Gravettian and the Eastern Gravettian.
The Western Gravettian is mostly known from cave sites in France. The Eastern
Gravettian is known from open-air sites of specialised mammoth hunters on the
plains of central Europe and Russia.

The next culture in the French sequence is the Solutrean. It is different from its
predecessors. This culture is known after the type site Solutre in eastern France.
The Solutrean is a western European culture confined to France and Spain, and
known from a few sites in England. The most striking tool-types are beautifully
made, flat, bifacially worked “leaf-shaped points” often of superb craftsmanship.
These are called “laurel leaf points” and “willow leaf points”. These are produced
by pressure flaking. Pressure flaking is the technique of edge-to-edge flaking by
applying pressure, and this required tremendous skill to create such delicate
implements. Long spear points, with tang and shoulder on one side only are the
other characteristic implements of the Solutrean. The other artifact types are
barbed and tanged arrowheads, end scrapers, flint knives and saws. Bone and
horn tools are also present. They hunted horse, reindeer, mammoth, cave lion,
rhinoceros, bear and aurochs. The Solutrean culture existed for a short period
between 21,000 to 19,000 years ago and disappeared as mysteriously as it
appeared.

The Solutrean is followed by the Magdalenian culture. It represents the

culmination of Upper Palaeolithic cultural developments in Europe. It is named
after the type site La Madeleine in the Dordogne region of France. The
Magdalenian culture was geographically wide spread in southwest France,
northeast Spain, central Europe and Siberia, and later Magdalenian sites have
been found from Portugal in the west to Poland in the east. The stone tools are a
variety of backed blade tools, burins, scrapers, borers and projectile points. The
53
Palaeolithic Cultures Magdalenian is best known for its elaborately worked bone, antler and ivory
tools and other objects which served both functional and aesthetic purposes.
These tools include a fine series of elaborate harpoons with single row and double
row, spear throwers, adzes, hammers, rods, and eyed needles which are beautifully
decorated with carved or incised patterns, or representation of animals. The motifs
on these objects are square lattices, lattice of parallelograms, spirals, geometric
designs, and carvings of heads of mostly horse and bison on bone handles. Items
of personal adornment consist of sea shells and perforated carnivore teeth, which
were possibly used as pendants for necklaces. Rock art in the form of cave
paintings reached its zenith during the Magdalenian period. The world famous
cave sites like Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain are the best known
examples of Magdalenian art which include beautifully rendered realistic figures
in polychrome. These representations are animals (mainly horses and bisons),
male and female human figures, positive and negative hand impressions, and
dots and lines.

Magdalenian groups lived in caves, rock shelters, and tents in the open. They
hunted predominantly reindeer, and Magdalenian sites also contain extensive
evidence of hunting other large mammals such as red deer, horse, bison and
other large mammals present in Europe at the end of the last Ice Age.

There is a small group of cultures known from Europe which in some cases is
either contemporary, or of a later date, to the Magdalenian, but falling in the
closing phases of the final episode of the last Ice Age. These are called epi-
Palaeolithic. These are Hamburgian, Ahrensburgian and Feddermesser-Gruppen.

The Hamburgian culture (ca. 12,400 B.C. to 12,000 B.C.) of north Germany and
Holland is a culture of reindeer hunters who lived in open sites in the summer
season. Their tools consisted of a variety of harpoons recalling those of the
Magdalenian, and a range of shouldered points made on blades finished by fine
retouch. The Hamburgian (as well as the later East Gravettian and Magdalenian)
flourished during the last main phase of the Wurm glaciation (last Ice Age). The
ice sheets of the Wurm glaciation did not withdraw evenly, and there are marked
warmer and colder oscillations. These Late-Glacial climatic events grade into
those of the post-Glacial events. In the same fashion, the epi-Palaeolithic cultures
develop into the post-Glacial Holocene Mesolithic cultures. As a matter of fact,
there is “no marker horison” for the beginning of the Mesolithic. These epi-
Palaeolithic cultures fall in between the fully developed Upper Palaeolithic and
the fully Mesolithic.

3.3 EPI-PALAEOLITHIC IN EUROPE

Ahrensburgian (ca. 10,700 B.C. to 9600 B.C.) is another epi-Palaeolithic culture.
It is a reindeer-hunter culture which is similar to Hamburgian in several ways,
but later in date than the Hamburgian. Stellmoor, near Meiendorf in Germany, is
a very important Ahrensburgian culture. Here occupations of both Hamburgian
and Ahrensburgian are found. The tools of Ahrensburgian are similar to those of
Hamburgian. These are harpoons and tanged points, and wooden arrow shafts

54
are found abundantly in the Ahrensburgian levels at Stellmoor. The Ahrensburgian Upper Palaeolithic Cultures

culture covers much of the same area as Hamburgian. It belongs to the very last
close phase of the Ice Age. Another epi-Palaeolithic culture in which the tanged
point is the most important tool is the Swiderian of Poland and Ukraine.

Further west, at the western end of north European plains, is a group of stone
tool industries which fall in the category of epi-Palaeolithic. These have been
given the collective name of Federmesser-Gruppen (ca. 10,000 B.C. to 8700
B.C.). Feddermesser is the German name for pen knife. The stone tools of the
Federmesser-Gruppen are characterised by a small backed blade which looks
like a pen knife. Tanged points are also an important part of these stone tool
industries.

Another epi-Palaeolithic culture known from Britain is the Creswellian culture.

This is known from several cave sites in Derbyshire, south Wales, Somerset and
Devon. The dominant feature of the Creswellian is the variety of backed blade
types, including points and trapezes made on sections of blades, and also end
scrapers and burins. Harpoons of Magdalenian style are found in Creswellian
levels in some of the British cave sites (Aveline’s Hole, Kent’s Cavern). A fine
bone needle, again similar to the Magdalenian is found at Cathole cave in the
south Wales.

The various epi-Palaeolithic cultures, discussed above, may be regarded as ending

with the close of Late Glacial conditions and the beginning of the warm conditions
of the post-Glacial (Holocene) phase. To say that they ended merely means that
they become merged into their more fully Mesolithic successors. The real changes
that occurred in the Mesolithic are in response to climatic and environmental
amelioration, and the growth of forests. The most prominent change in the
Mesolithic, as a response to the growth of forests, is the appearance of first true
axe for tree-felling and wood working. The first of these Mesolithic cultures is
the Maglemosian (Star Carr in Yorkshire in England is the best known site), a
culture of hunters and fishers which combined the use of flint axes with that of
microliths.

The epi-Palaeolithic cultures in Southwest Asia are late Kebaran, Zarzian and
Nebukian. These cultures have a considerable proportion of microlithic element,
including geometric triangles and trapezes, and develop into the fully Mesolithic
cultures during early Holocene. The Holocene period marks the end of Pleistocene
Ice Age and the commencement of recent period.

The Upper Palaeolithic culture in India succeeds the Middle Palaeolithic culture
and precedes the Mesolithic culture as in other parts of the Old World.

3.4 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC IN INDIA

The Upper Palaeolithic culture has a wide distribution in different physiographical
zones in India (Fig. 3.7).

55
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 3.7: Distribution of Upper Palaeolithic sites in India

It is known from Palmau (north Koel river valley) and Singhbhum (Subarnarekha
and Sanjay river valleys) districts of Bihar; Garo Hill (valley of the Rongram
river) in Assam; Allahabad, Banda and Mirjapur (Belan, Son, Tons and Yamuna
valleys) districts in Uttar Pradesh; Mandla (river Banjer, a tributary of the
Narmada) and Raisen (Bhimbetka caves) districts; Ajmer (in the vicinity of Budh
Pushkar lake) district in Rajasthan; Baroda (in the sand dunes near Visadi) district
in Gujarat; Dhulia (Kan river), Jalgaon (central Tapi Basin), Ahmednagar (Pravara
Basin), Nanded (central Godavari Basin) and Pune (Ghod valley) districts of
Maharashtra; Bijapur and Gulbarga districts of Karnataka in the tributary system
of the Krishna valley (Salvadgi, Meralbhavi, Gulbal, Benhatti and Hunsgi are
the best known sites); Karimnagar, Nalgonda, Guntur, Nellore, Kurnool,
Prakasam, Kadapa, and Chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh (several sites in the
Eastern Ghats, in the river valleys and their tributaries of the lower reaches of
the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Penneru, Kunderu, Sagileru, Cheyyeru,
Bhavanasi, Paleru, Gunjana, Rallakalava and Swarnamukhi river systems, and
56 the Kurnool caves).
The Upper Palaeolithic cultural relics in varied physiographical zones of India Upper Palaeolithic Cultures
are stone tools which are based on blade tool technology. Since most of these
sites are open-air occupations, tools made of organic materials such as bone are
not known because organic remains are prone to disintegrate in open-air situations.
However, bone tools were recovered from the Kurnool caves in which conditions
for the preservation of organic remains were favaourable (see Kurnool caves).
Radiocarbon dates for the Upper Palaeolithic obtained from different parts of
India (e.g. Bhedaghat, Dharampuri, Chandrasal, Mehtakheri, Nagda, Belan valley,
Inamgaon, Nandipalle and Patne and the Thermoluminiscence (TL) date from
the Kurnool caves indicate a time period falling in the range of 40,000 B.C. to
8,000 B.C. The faunal remains from the Kurnool caves, found in association
with the Upper Palaeolithic, also belong to the late Pleistocene age.

3.4.1 Stone Tool Industries

The Upper Palaeolithic culture in India is not marked by any sub-regional cultures
(such as Chatelperronian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Magdalenian and Solutrean
in Europe) as in Europe. However, the Upper Palaeolithic industries in India
show considerable degree of regional variation in tool types.
In Bihar and Assam the tools are made on thick broad flake-like blades. Hence,
these are called flake-blades. Therefore, these industries in which tools on flake-
blades are prominent are referred to as “flake-blade industries”. The common
tools are points, scrapers and borers. The other, less common types are backed
knives, borers, burins and small choppers. The raw materials are agate, jasper
and other siliceous rocks.
The Upper Palaeolithic industries in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and parts of Andhra Pradesh are characterised
by well defined blades and tools made on blades. The blade tool technology in
these industries is standardised. Hence, they are referred to as “blade-tool
industries. The tool types are large to small sized blades (some of the blades are
quite thick and long); backed blade tools; and scrapers, points, awls and burins
on flakes, flake-blades and blades. The occurrence of tools finished by backing,
such as the backed points, is low. Also the burins occur in a low frequency.
Variety of scrapers (convex, concave, round, and notched) on flakes and flake-
blades are most common, and also retouched blades are in significant numbers.
The raw materials are chert, jasper, chalcedony and agate. In parts of Madhya
Pradesh (e.g. Bhimbetka cave IIIF 23), coarse to medium grained quartzite is the
raw material. In Andhra Pradesh, fine grained quartzite (e.g. Sagileru, Cheyyeru,
Paleru river basins), and cherty-limestone (Kurnool caves) are also used.
In the excavations of Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi (MCG I), one of the Kurnool
caves, the blade-tool industry is found in association with a bone tool industry
and Late Pleistocene fauna. In the lower Godavari valley the sites of Wankdi and
Manikugudem (Adilabad district) have yielded considerable quantities of
intentionally broken bones of large mammals, which are fossilised, in association
with blade tools. These broken bones, in all likelihood, represent the leftovers of
animals that were hunted and eaten. Grinding slabs are associated with the blade
tool industry in the MCG I cave occupation. These grinding slabs suggest their
possible use in processing plant foods, and also for milling wild grains. Here,
large chunks of chocolate brown chert, quarried from the outcrops in the limestone
beds were brought to the cave in considerable quantities. These large nodules
57
are fire treated, by exposing to flame, for artifact production.
Palaeolithic Cultures The Upper Palaeolithic industries especially in the Belan and Son valleys
(Allahabad district) in Uttar Pradesh and in the southern belt of the Eastern Ghats
in Andhra Pradesh are characterised by distinctive backed blade tool types and
burins. Hence these are referred to as “blade-and-burin” industries. The
distinguishing feature of these industries is the predominance of blades, backed-
blade tools, and burins; a variety of scrapers (side, concave, convex, ovate, notched
and discoid) on blades, flakes and flake blades; scrapers on blade cores; bifacial,
unifacial, and shouldered points on flakes and blades, awls; and typical prismatic
blade cores. An Upper Palaeolithic site in the Belan valley has yielded a barbed
bone harpoon.

In the Belan, Adwa and Lilji river valleys, which are tributaries of the river Tons
(a major tributary of the river Ganga) in Uttar Pradesh, there is a distribution of
numerous Upper Palaeolithic and epi-Palaeolithic primary occupation sites in
close proximity to perennial water sources on either side of the Kaimur ranges.
In these sites which are called epi-Palaeolithic, in addition to regular Upper
Palaeolithic tools, there are tools of microlithic proportion including different
kinds of triangles and lunates. Some of the important epi-Palaeolithic sites in
this region are Baghaikhor, Lekhahia and Lahariadih rock shelters in the Kaimur
range; Chopani Mando in the Belan valley; and Maihar IV on a meander of Lilji
river. The raw materials are chert, chalcedony, jasper, quartz and agate. These
epi-Palaeolithic cultures reveal the transitional stage to the succeeding fully
developed microlithic industries of the Mesolithic culture of the Holocene period.

The primary occupation sites in the Rallakalava (Vedulacheruvu, Nallagundlu)

and Gunjuna (Peddarajupalli, Vodikalu, Bellu) valleys in the southern Eastern
Ghats have yielded the best known evidence of the blade-and-burin industries in
the country (Figs. 3.8 – 3.11).

Fig. 3.8: Artifacts of the blade-and-burin industry from the Rallakalava valley, near
Renigunta. 1, 4, 6, retouched blades; 2,3,5,7, simple blades (after Murty 1979)
58
 Upper Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 3.9: Artifacts of the blade-and-burin industry from the Rallakalava valley, near
Renigunta. 1-2, backed knives; 3-12, backed blade and bladelet tool variants (5
and 6 are backed pen knives); 13, awl; 14, unifacial point; 15, tanged point; 16,
blade core (after Murty 1979)

Fig.3.10: Artifacts of the blade-and-burin industry from the Rallakalava valley, near
Renigunta. 1, convex scraper: 2, 4, side scrapers; 3, ovate scraper; 5, 6, 7, end
scrapers (after Murty 1979)
59
Palaeolithic Cultures

Fig. 3.11: Artifacts of the blade-and-burin industry from the Rallakalava valley, near
Renigunta. 1-9, different types of burins (after Murty 1979)

What is most striking in these Rallakalava and Gunjana stone tool assemblages
is the variety of backed-blade tools such as straight-back and curved- back points,
points on truncated blades, pen knives, macro-lunates (as big as orange segments),
macro triangles and macro-trapezes, and burins. These backed-blade tools, burins
and scrapers display technological similarities to the Chatelperronian, Aurignacian
and Gravettian types of Europe and Southwest Asia. These macro-lunates have
damaged working edges due to use. They can be associated with working on
wood and bone, as spoke shaves, for making hafts for projectile points. The raw
material used for the manufacture of artifacts in this region is predominantly
fine grained quartzite, and occasionally lydianite. The Rallakalava and Gunjana
valley Upper Palaeolithic cultures also comprise a small proportion of microlithic
tools such as triangles and lunates. Another noteworthy feature of the Rallakalava
and Gunjana occupations is the occurrence of flat bored stones, and numerous
grinding slabs. The flat bored stones indicate that they were possibly used as net
sinkers for fishing. The grinding slabs suggest their use for processing of vegetal
foods or even wild grains. The Upper Palaeolithic occupations in the Tons and
Son valleys, and in the southern Eastern Ghats, are in close proximity to water
sources. This indicates that aquatic foods also formed an important source of
diet in these river valley occupations. Some of these occupations are extensive
ranging from 5000m to 1000m in extant indicating that they were long-term
occupations. They indicate sedentism in such habitats which provide varied
seasonal food resources. The Upper Palaeolithic cultures in the Tons and Son
valleys and in the Kaimur ranges of Uttar Pradesh and in the southern Eastern
Ghats are notable for their evidences to trace the emergence of Mesolithic cultures.
60
At the Upper Palaeolithic site of Baghor I (Son valley) in Madhya Pradesh, there Upper Palaeolithic Cultures
is evidence of worship of mother goddess. In the excavations of this site, has
been found a female anthropomorphic stone with concentric triangles at the base,
in the centre of a circle of sandstone rocks. In the vicinity of this site, there are
similar stones in rock circles, which are currently worshipped as mai (mother
goddess).

3.4.2 Bone Tool Industries

Upper Palaeolithic bone tools are known from the Kurnool cave sites. The
excavations by Robert Bruce Foote and his son Henry Bruce Foote in the Billa
Surgam caves, in the 1880s, yielded bone tools in association with Late Pleistocene
fauna. The bone tools obtained from the Billa Surgam caves constituted 1700
specimens of worked and cut bones of which 200 were implements. The bone
tools, as described by Foote, comprised awls, barbed and unbarbed arrowheads,
daggers, scraper-knives, scrapers, chisels, gouge, wedges, axe heads, and sockets.
Robert Bruce Foote observed that some of these bone tools are comparable to
the Magdalenian culture of France. The occurrence of bone tools in the Billa
Surgam caves is confirmed by recent excavations, in the 1970s by K. Thimma
Reddy. Further, excavations in the Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi cave (MCG I
and MCG II), in the 1970s by M.L.K. Murty, have yielded blade tools and bone
tools in association with Late Pleistocene fauna. The bone tools of MCG cave
comprise scrapers, perforators, chisels, scoops, shouldered points, awls, barbs,
spatulas, worked bones, and splinters (Fig. 3.12).

Fig.3.12: Bone tools from Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi Cave I (MCG I), Kurnool caves.
1) scraper; 2-3) perforators; 4-6) chisels; 7-8) spatulas; 9) tanged point;
10) shouldered point, broken; 11) bone blank; 12) bone with both ends cut (after
Murty 1979) 61
Palaeolithic Cultures In a total collection of 1652 worked bones obtained from MCG I cave, 878
(47.40%) are bone blanks, and 151 (8.15%) are crudely finished tools; the rest
representing broken bones and splinters. The MCG cave bone tools display a
crude technology. This is because the cave is a short-term occupation and the
possibility for complete representation of well finished artifacts is less likely in
short-term occupations than in permanent occupations. In the manufacture of
bone tools, in the first step, the ends of long bones selected for working are
knocked off by striking obliquely on the shaft at the ends. Long and thick bones
are transversely cut by chopping along the circumference at the desired point.
From these prepared shafts of long bones, strips of bones (bone blanks) are
removed by flaking and chipping. Some examples indicate that on a prepared
shaft, parallel groves are made along the long axis, and long strips are removed.
These long strips are further reduced in size and are finished into tools by flaking
along the margins, lateral chipping and grinding.

3.4.3 Subsistence Economy

The Upper Palaeolithic blade and backed blade tools, functionally, must have
been used by hafting in wood or bone, as composite tools. They might have been
hafted to make barbed points, harpoons, projectiles, arrows, hunting spears etc.
The variety of scrapers, burins, borers and awls indicate their use in wood and
bone working. The Upper Palaeolithic tools thus indicate the manufacture of
specialised hunting tools for hunting big and small game, and fishing. The
evidence of the animals hunted during the Upper Palaeolithic is well preserved
in the Kurnool caves. They consist of jungle cat (Felis chaus), porcupine (Hystrix
crassidens), black naped here (Lepus cf. nigricollis), wild ox (Bos sp.), wild
buffalo (Bubalus sp.), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), chinkara (Gazella
gazella bennetti), blackbuck or Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra), four-horned
antelope (Tetracerus quarricornis), sambar (Cervus unicolor), spotted deer (Axis
axis), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), mouse deer (Tragulus cf. meminna),
Indian wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus), pangolin (Smutsia gigantean), monitor
lisard (Varanus dracaena), and a few bones of birds and dermal scutes (horny
plate) of turtles. Hunting these animals is a difficult task. The hunting techniques
of varied contemporary hunting–gathering communities in different parts of India
provide us insights and analogies to envisage the prehistoric hunting practices.
Some of these communities are Van Vagris of Rajasthan; Bhil, Aheriya, Baheliya,
Kanjara and Pardhi of Ganga plains and central India; Birhor of Chota Nagpur
and Orissa; Katkari of western India; Chenchu, Yanadi, Boya and Yerukula of
the Eastern Ghats; Irulas of Tamil Nadu; Kadar of Kochin; and Mala Pantaram
of Travancore. All these groups hunt big and small game (the species mentioned
above are included), birds, and fish in the rivers, lakes and ponds. They use
specialised hunting contrivances such as a variety of traps, nets, snares, bows
and arrows for hunting and fishing. The hunting practices of these communities
point out the possibility of use of prototypes of some of these specialised aids in
the prehistoric past, without which the game would not have fallen a prey. In so
far as the exploitation of plant foods in the prehistoric past is concerned, no
evidences are as yet available. But again, drawing analogies from the communities
which are adapted to forested environments, it can be suggested that a variety of
wild plant foods such as yams and tubers, fruits, nuts, flowers, leafy vegetables,
shoots, and mushrooms; insects; and honey might have been gathered for
subsistence. From the Mesolithic rock paintings of central India, in which some
of these subsistence activities (hunting, fishing, collection of plant foods and
62
honey) are depicted, it is possible to predict that such activities were in vogue Upper Palaeolithic Cultures
during the Upper Palaeolithic times.

3.4.4 Art
Some examples of art are known during the Upper Palaeolithic phase in India.
These artistic representations can be classified as portable art (movable objects,
or art mobilier) and mural art (paintings on cave walls and ceilings, or art parietal).
Examples of portable art are mostly ostrich egg shell beads and engraved
fragments. The well known sites are Bhimbetka III A-28, Ramgar (Chambal
valley) and Khaparkheda (Narmada valley) in Madhya Pradesh; Chandresal and
Kota (Chanbal valley) in Rajasthan; and Patne in Maharashtra. Examples of
mural art are best known from the caves and rock shelters of Bhimbetka. The
rock paintings here, assigned to Period I, are ascribed to the Upper Palaeolithic.
These are linear representations in green and dark red colours of herds of huge
animals like rhinoceroses, bisons, wild buffaloes, mammoths and boars. There
are also stick-like human figures.

3.5 SUMMARY
Upper Palaeolithic cultures succeed the Middle Palaeolithic cultures and have a
wide distribution in different parts of the Old World. These are associated with
the fossil remains of Cro-Magnon man, who belongs to the species Homo sapiens,
referred to as Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS). The distinguishing
features of these cultures are (a) specialised blade tool technology, (b) bone tool
technology, and (c) art. In Southwest France, there are several regional phases in
the Upper Palaeolithic cultures known as Chatelperronian, Aurignacian,
Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian. These cultures flourished in the final
stages of the last Ice Age. These Upper Palaeolithic cultures, at the closing stages
of the last Ice Age are followed by epi-Palaeolithic cultures such as Hamburgian,
Ahrensburgian and Federmesser-Gruppen. In Southwest Asia also there are local
sub phases in the stages of Upper Palaeolithic. Upper Palaeolithic cultures in
India also have a wide distribution, but there are sub-cultural sequences as in
Europe.

Suggested Reading
Agarwal, D.P. 1981. The Archaeology of India. London: Cambridge University
Press.

Agarwal, D. P. and J. S. Kharakwal. 2002. South Asian Prehistory. Delhi: Aryan

Books International

Allchin Bridget and Raymond Allchin. 1982. The Rise of Civilisation in India
and Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bhattacharya, D.K. 1977. Palaeolithic Europe. Netherlands: Humanities Press.

Bhattacharya, D.K. 2006. An Outline of Indian Prehistory. Delhi: Palaka

Prakashan.

Bordes, Francois. 1968. The Old Stone Age (Translated from the French by J.E.
Anderson). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
63
Palaeolithic Cultures Burkitt, M. 1963. The Old Stone Age: A Study of Palaeolithic Times. London:
Bowes and Bowes.

Campbell, Bernard, G. 1979. Humankind Emerging (Second Edition). Boston:

Little Brown and Company.

Clark, Graham. 1977. World Prehistory in New Perspective. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Clark, Graham and Stuart Piggott. 1976. Prehistoric Societies. Harmondsworth,

Middlesex (England): Penguin Books Ltd.

Chandramouli, N. 2002. Rock Art of South India (With Special Reference to

Andhra Pradesh). New Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan.

Coles, J.M. and E.S. Higgs. 1969. The Archaeology of Early Man. London: Faber
and Faber.

Fagan, B.M. 2004. People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory.

New Jersey: Pearson Education.

Hole, H. and R.F. Heizer. 1969. An Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology.

New York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

Larsen, C.S. 1998. Human Origins: The Fossil Record (Paperback). Illinois:
Waveland Press Inc.

Leakey, R. 1993. Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes us Human

(Paperback): New York: Anchor Books.

Lee, R.B and I. Devore (eds.). 1977. Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine Publishing
Company.

Mathpal, Y. 1984. Prehistoric Paintings of Central India. New Delhi: Abhinav

Mathpal, Y. 1985. Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India. New

Delhi: Abhinav.

Mishra, S. 1995. Chronology of the Indian Stone Age: The Impact of recent
Absolute and Relative Dating Attempts. Man and Environment 20(2): 11-16.

Misra, V.N. 1989. Stone Age India: An Ecological perspective. Man and
Environment. 14: 17-64.

Misra, V.N. 2001. Prehistoric Colonisation of India. Journal of Biosciences.

26(4): 491-531.

Murty, M.L.K. 1968. Blade and Burin Industries near Renigunta on the Southeast
Coast of India. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 34:83-101.

Murty, M.L.K. 1979. Recent Research on the Upper Palaeolithic Phase in India.
Journal of Field Archaeology. 6(3): 301-320.

Murty, M.L.K. 1974. A Late Pleistocene Cave Site in South India. Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society. 118(2): 196-230.
64
Murty, M.L.K. 1975. Late Pleistocene Fauna of Kurnool Caves, South India. In Upper Palaeolithic Cultures
A.T. Clason (ed.), Archaeozoological Studies. Amsterdam: North Holland
Publishing Co.

Murty, M.L.K. 1981. Hunter Gatherer Ecosystems and Archaeological Patterns

of Subsistence behaviour on the Southeast Coast of India: An Ethnographic
Model. World Archaeology. 13 (1): 47-58.

Murty, M.L.K. 1985. Ethnoarchaeology of the Kurnool Cave Areas. World

Archaeology. 17(2): 192-205.

Neumayer, E. 1983. Prehistoric Indian Rock Paintings. New Delhi: Oxford

University Press.

Renefrew, C. and P. Bahn. 2001. Archaeology: Theories Methods and Practices.

London: Thames and Hudson.

Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Poona:
Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute.

Sankalia, H.D. 1979. Indian Archaeology Today. Delhi: Ajanta Publications

Sankalia, H.D. 1977. Prehistory of India. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal

Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

Sample Questions
1) What are the salient features of the Upper Palaeolithic cultures?
2) Give a review of the Upper Palaeolithic cultures in Europe.
3) Give a review of the Upper Palaeolithic cultures in India.
4) Write notes on:
i) Backed blade tools
ii) Magdalenian bone harpoons
iii) Hamburgian culture
iv) Bone tools from Kurnool caves
v) Animal remains from Kurnool caves and subsistence economy

65
Palaeolithic Cultures
UNIT 4 PALAEOLITHIC ART

Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Home Art
4.3 Cave Art
4.4 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to know:
Ø about the “home art” and “cave art”;
Ø about different kinds of Upper Palaeolithic engravings; and
Ø about different styles of Upper Palaeolithic paintings.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Art refers to human skill as opposed to nature. This skill can manifest itself in
innumerable ways which can be given individual names depending on the
channels of expression. Thus, music is as much art as perhaps poetry. It is,
however, important to note that every piece of human skill does not necessarily
become art. In order to distinguish this, we can call art as that which refers to
creation for non-biological needs.
In other words, the human skill in tool manufacturing need not be included in
the consideration of Prehistoric Art. It will, therefore, be safer to call Palaeolithic
art as visual or plastic art in contradistinction to the rest which is studied as
prehistoric technology.
Prehistoric art, as it is known today, was executed by our ancestors either on
stones or bones. At times, mud, charcoal, shell, teeth and horn have also been
used. Art work executed on such movable materials is designated as “home art”
or “Art mobilier”. Art executed on walls and ceilings of caves and rock shelters
is called “cave art” or “Art Parietal”.
Art work executed on such movable materials is designated as “home art”
or “Art mobilier”. Art executed on walls and ceilings of caves and rock
shelters is called “cave art” or “Art Parietal”.

Besides engraving and painting, there are also numerous examples of modeling
done with simple mud or bone ash mixed with it. These latter examples throw
significant light on the additional ability of the prehistoric artist. It is important
to appreciate that the skill required to represent an object by modeling is not of
the same kind required to either paint or engrave.
Interest in cave art among archaeologists grew out of a layman’s discovery, in
1880, of the famous cave site of Altamira in Spain. Don Marcelino de Sautuola
66 discovered the site when he was searching for his daughter, who because of her
small size could manage to get through a narrow crevice into this cave and thus Palaeolithic Art
came face to face with the magnificent panels of Palaeolithic Art.
Don Marcelino de Sautuola claimed prehistoric antiquity for these Altamira
paintings. Edouard Harle rejected the possibility that the Altamira paintings are
of prehistoric age. This controversy kindled enthusiasm in rock art research, and
a planned and extensive search began for caves and rock shelters. In 1902 the
first report of Les Cambarelles was published and since then more than 120
caves and rock shelters with Palaeolithic Art have been recorded.
Objects of home art, at the same time, were also coming to light in the excavations
of Upper Palaeolithic cave and rock shelter sites. The “Venus of Willendorf”
was discovered by Szombathy in 1884. By the end of the first decade of this
century eight monographs on cave paintings were published. In 1913, Reinach
made a summary of Art from the Quaternary period. Finally, in 1952, Prof.Breuil
published his classic work: Quate cents siecles d’art parietal.

4.2 HOME ART

The earliest evidences of prehistoric art are the numerous necklaces and pendants
and such other objects of personal adornment. An engraved rib from an Acheulian
level at Pechde l’Aze (France), datable to 300,000 BP, forms the earliest evidence
of prehistoric art. The engraving is in the form of a festooned serpentine figure.
A flat circular bone from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Tata (Hungary), dated to
50,000 BP, forms the earliest evidence of art from the Central Europe. It is a
circular bone of 21mm diameter and bears an engraved + sign on one of the
surfaces. It could be a charm amulet or a totemic sign.

Burnt clay, deer canine, shells and fish vertebrae were the other materials used
for ornaments. With the increase of more direct evidence from early Gravettian
onwards, it would seem that arm and leg bands as also necklaces may have been
used.

In relatively later stages, these personal adornment objects show the highest degree
of decoration engraved on them. For instance, the so-called zoomorphic ivory
lockets from Pavlov (Czechoslovakia), five pieces of open-mouthed bangles or
bands, 1cm in breadth with three holes pierced at both ends from Mezin (Soviet
Union), and one ivory pin with flattened and pierced head from Kostienki are
some examples. The Mezin arm bands carry an interesting pattern with squares
drawn in spiral continuation. At the joining portions these take the shape of
chevron designs. The decorations on these pieces show the control of hand and
perfection in technique.

The female statuettes from Central and Eastern Europe during the same period
indicate the definite use of ornaments. Burials unearthed further sustain the reality
that jewellery was used by both the sexes, may be more by males than by females
if we go by some specific evidences.

Numerous other home art objects are known from Upper Palaeolithic deposits.
Vogelherd in West Germany yielded some remarkable ivory models measuring
between 7-4cm in length. The animals shaped are horse, mammoth, reindeer,
panther and cave bear. A series of crosses engraved along the belly and the shoulder
of mammoth may indicate their specific use.
67
Palaeolithic Cultures In 1954, Reik described two more of such art objects from the site. One of these
is a pebble with a series of incision marks and eye-like depression. This has been
identified as representing the head of a cave bear.
Peterfels, another West German Upper Palaeolithic site, yielded a number of
batons with a single series of oblique or zigzag lines engraved along them. One
of them carries a series of wild horse heads while in another two reindeers are
engraved. One flat piece of coal carries a perfect engraving of a wild horse on it.
Several other charcoal pieces have been rubbed into various anthropomorphic
forms. These plain bars of coal with a curve in the centre have been identified as
“sitting silhouette”.
In Czechoslovakia, Pekarna yielded engravings of animals and some plant
representations on antler and ivory. The most significant art objects found here
include two engraved horse ribs. In one of these, two bulls are shown with heads
bent and pressing against each other in a fighting posture while a third bull is
shown charging from behind. The other rib shows a row of grazing horses
approaching another row of horses from opposite direction.
Dolni Vestonice is another site in Czechoslovakia known for its art material.
Here, within a hearth, several lumps of clay with some kind of art representation
have been found along with a female statuette. This, called “Venus”, deserves
special mention because here, unlike in other “Venus” statuettes in Euro-Asia, the
material used is mud mixed with bone ash and bone powder. The figure is 11.4 cm
long with a pair of pendulous breasts and has slits made for eyes. Deep furrows on
the back side show the mid rib and flesh folds near the waist. Four small grooves
are made on the top of the head which could have been used to fix the ornament.
The other small lumps of similar material found in this hearth represent several
animal heads. An engraved human face of ivory forms another interesting find
which led many to interpret facial paralysis of the individual. A mammoth statuette
of sand stone and several pieces of ivory lockets in the shape of a pair of breasts
are the objects recorded from this site.
Similarly, a fork shaped bone piece and another elongated piece with a pair of
hanging nodules at about a third of its length from top are taken to represent stylish
figures. Besides these art objects several coloured and pierced shells, pierced animal
teeth, small ivory cylinders with ornamental engravings and flat bones with holes
driven in at their corners form the various personal adornment objects.
In Western Europe, home art develops more noticeably around utilitarian objects
during this period. The deeply carved antler points and rods from Isturitz (France)
are two examples of the superfine workmanship of the people. The Isturitz points
are deeply curved in spiral and concentric grooves in such a manner that they
look like a miniature kind of some of the palae-Indian ceremonial poles.
The Les Trois Freres spear-thrower fragment shows two headless (or broken
when recovered) animals (which were perhaps Ibex) sitting face to face on
stretched hind legs, their body upright and forelimbs locked together in a posture
of combat. The muscles are stretched in such a posture that they have not escaped
the artist’s attention.
The engraving of a bull with an U-turned head and numerous other depictions
on the antler pieces at La Madalein indicates the tendencies of decorating mainly
68 tools in Western Europe. These kinds of decorations are not entirely unknown
from Central Europe either. Kesslerloch (Switzerland) yielded animal engraving Palaeolithic Art
on flat stones exactly in French style representing a female “silhouette”. At La
Ferrassie, several sex symbols are found engraved along with some animal heads
on a piece of flat stone.
The famous “masked men” on the batons-de-commande-ment at Abri Mege
(France) are widely known. These show a row of three vertical figures with
snout and a pair of pointed ears representing the face. The body is shown with
fur representation, and for the legs a pair of human legs slightly bent in the
anterior direction is drawn. Whether these represent masked men with furs
covering their body in some kind of a ritual dance is difficult to prove, but cannot
be ruled out.
It will, therefore, be not entirely untrue to state that these grotesque human
representations seem to be more common in home art of Western Europe. The
rest of the objects depicted by prehistoric artists are more-or-less common in
both these zones of Europe.
Another point of difference appears to be the medium chosen in the two regions.
Engravings are found on the points and needles in Central Europe as well but it
can be easily seen that utilitarian objects were not so often chosen for in this
zone. Crisscross lines or a vague outline of an animal here and there may be all
that can be recorded on them. On the contrary, the carvings of stylised figures,
animals or female forms are done with skill and imagination. The female statuettes
on the other hand, are not many from France. The maximum number of such
representations till today is known from Eastern Europe of which Kostienki
yielded 49 finished and unfinished ones and Menzin yielded 11 similar ones.
The total number of such statues from the whole of Eurasia known till today is
133. In Asiatic Russia, Malta yielded about 18 such objects. As compared to
these, Central Europe yielded only 9 statuettes. Southern coastal Europe, by far,
shows a larger number of these figures than Central Europe. France has so far
recorded a total of 16 such pieces.
It is however, important to note that sites like Brassempouy (France), Willendorf
(Austria) (Fig.4.1), Grimaldi (Italy), Kostienki, Menzin and Malta (all in USSR)
show multiple occurrence of the statuettes and hence can be considered
archaeologically significant.

Fig. 4.1: Home Art of the “Venus of Willendorf” (Source: edwardlifson.blogspot.com) 69

Palaeolithic Cultures The style of representation in all the Palaeolithic female statuettes is devoid of
feet although hands in many instances have been represented. A personal
ornament, at least in the form of a waist girdle, is shown in some instances. So
far, only a single engraving at Laussel represents a male figure, besides a female.

The details of representation of these statuettes, and also the material chosen for
their execution, vary a great deal from region to region. For instance, the
unfinished statuettes of Willendorf fail to show the exaggerated features because
they are worked on a flat ivory piece. The symbolic female representations,
likewise, seem to have been constrained by the raw material. The Petersfels
figures on charcoal and the stylised figures of Mezin may be some of the examples.

4.3 CAVE ART

Art work represented on cave walls, floors and ceilings are usually in the form of
engravings, outline drawings or paintings. Mostly animals are represented singly
or in groups of various sizes. Animals such as bison, wild cow, woolly mammoth,
reindeer, ibex or wild horse are the commonly represented ones. Sometimes,
cave bear, a solitary wolf, cat, rhinoceros or lion head are also drawn. Fish, bird
or human forms form the rarest kind represented. These are either drawn in profile
or in the so called “twisted perspective”, in a three-quarter profile. In later stages,
a third dimension to the figures is attempted by shading the contours. Similarly
motion seems to have been depicted by the representation of multiple legs.

Besides these animal representations, some abstract symbols called tectiforms,

claviforms, or blazons are also found in almost every large cave site. It is difficult
to interpret these signs, but these are apparently attempts in communicating some
kind of messages.

In addition to these tectiforms, many cave walls carry a series of hand impressions.
When the hand is dipped in colour and pressed on the wall it leaves a positive
impression. In some cases it seems that the hand has been sprayed over, thus
leaving a negative or stenciled hand impression. Many of these hand impressions
show mutilated fingers.

Les Combarelles is a cave within the limestone range in the Dordogne. The cave
was carved out by a river or stream originating from the heart of the mountain.
This is an extensive and twisting tunnel measuring 200 m in length, 1.80 in
height and 1.20 m in breadth.

The paintings start occurring from about 73 m from the opening of the cave. The
total number of representations exceeds a thousand. These are mostly engraved
and are superimposed. There are only two paintings among these. These are an
outline of an animal and a hand impression in black paint besides a tectiform.
The engravings are often covered with a smear of weathered lime which has
been taken as a proof of their antiquity.

The engravings are divided into two groups on the basis of the depth and boldness
of the engraved lines. The finely engraved lines, on comparison with other known
sites, are taken to represent a late style (Middle Magdalenian), while the heavy
engravings are taken to be of an earlier date (perhaps, late Perigordian). The
figures identified include several reindeer, ibex, horse, bison, mammoth and
70
some anthropomorphic designs. Some rather unusual representations of bear Palaeolithic Art
and lion have also been recorded. In average these figures measure between 60
cm and 90 cm in length.
In one of the best panels, a pair of mammoths is engraved in profile with their
trunks curled round. Hatched lines have been drawn on head, leg and chest of
the animal to represent the coat. In another panel, two grotesque human figures
with peculiar animal-like features are shown with extended bellies. Some scholars
described these as representations of a male following a pregnant female. Besides
these, there are several delicately engraved horses with full details of mane and
often superimposed by other animal forms.
Font-de-Gaume is another cave in the same region which has yielded valuable
evidences of Palaeolithic art. These start appearing from about 60 m from the
cave entrance. More than 50 representations were recorded from the cave. These
include a series of mammoths, dark polychrome paintings (black, red and brown
colours) of bison, reindeer, woolly rhinoceros, horses, ibex and a feline.
The art of the last period at Font-de-Gaume is best known for its highly
characteristic form and style. Among the various representations, a panel
representing some reindeer, bison and mammoths is worth noting. These are
superimposed by two complete and four incomplete tent-shaped lined figures
with colour and also engraved. Four of these signs are drawn in polychrome and
its body around the shoulder is colour washed. On this washed surface occur
outlines of a complete hut.
The reindeer, which are best represented, constitute the biggest figures in the
panel. These are drawn facing each other. One of these is a female shown kneeling
on its forelegs, the other is a male shown with a bent head nuzzling or sniffing
the head of the reindeer. Both these animals are first engraved and then a reddish-
brown wash is given to fill the inside. Black colour is finally used to give the
contour effect in the bodies. The antler of male is painted in black while the
horns of the female are painted in red. The rest of the drawings in this cave,
which represent different animals, are equally good. Lascaux (Fig. 4. 2) is the
finest of all cave-painting sites in France.

Fig. 4.2: Cave Art at Lascaux (source: lascaux.culture.fr)

71
Palaeolithic Cultures The main chamber is decorated with polychrome paintings of bulls and some
other animals. Among these also occurs the curious and much discussed painting
of the so called “unicorn with double horn”. The main chamber tapers into a
narrow 20 m long passage. Here, several single horses and a frieze of a group of
small horses and three cows are painted in black outline but with washes of red
and black for cows and brown and black for horses filling the insides.

The animals are delicately drawn, but differ in their style from the animals of the
main chamber. One of the cows is superimposed on the horses. Many broken
lances are shown pierced by a lance-head. In another, a long bull is drawn with a
menacing look. A feathered arrow or lance is drawn in front of its face.

Another passage out of the main chamber shows a large number of engraved
stags. On the floor of a shaft (called “shaft of the dead man”) from this chamber
occurs a painting on a flat protuberant rock.

This painting shows an impaled bison standing with a human figure in a position
of falling on his back facing the bison. The latter has its tail up with the hair of
the body bristling. A spear is shown pierced through its hind quarters and some
of its entrails hanging down from its belly. The human figure is schematically
drawn with single straight lines representing the body outline, hands and legs.
The head of the man is drawn like that of a bird’s head. The man has an erect
phallus. A stick with a bird on it is shown on the ground by his side.

Gargas is a cave site in the Pyrenees which has yielded the maximum number of
hand prints in black and red colour. Most of the stencils are left handed impressions
and invariably show some of the fingers mutilated.

Montespan is a small cave situated near Gargas in the Pyrenees. This cave is
famous for its clay models of animals. The most famous of these is the sculpture
of a single headless bear measuring about 90 cm in length. The animal is sitting
with its forefeet stretched in front of it. The claws of the right foot were well
preserved. There is a deep hole in the neck. A bear skull with a hole in the neck
was found lying on the foreground between the forefeet. It is surmised that the
skull was inserted in the hole on the model and the body was covered with a bear
skin for some kind of hunting ritual and /or practice.

In the Pyrenees lies another pair of interlocked caves called Les Trois Freres and
d’Audoubert. Excavations at both these caves revealed a late Upper Palaeolithic
industry with stone and bone tools. The dart thrower with a pair of ibexes in
combat, which has already been described in Home Art, forms a part of this
assemblage.

One of the most referred works of art in this cave is found in an underground
chamber reached through a vertical hole in the cave floor (nearly 3.5 m below
the floor). This is also called sanctuary because of the famous engraving of the
sorcerer in it.

The sorcerer engraving is about 90 cm tall with a human body, legs and a
prominent phallus. The figure shows queer mixture of human and animal features.
It has a long tail, ears of cat, only one branch of antler on head, small eyes and a
furry bearded mask. The legs are painted in red and the body is heavily outlined
with red colour. The rest of the body is repeatedly engraved. This entire depiction
72
is heavily superimposed by bison, ibex and horse engravings done with complete Palaeolithic Art
disregard of orientation. Another panel shows a wounded bear lying with thick
lines protruding from the nostrils, mouth and body.

The other cave, d’Audoubert has the famous pair of clay bas-reliefs of bisons,
each measuring about 61cm. These clay models are done on a fallen stalagmite
in a reclining angle. Only the dorsal side is modeled, the ventral side being the
rock. The front bison is a female, its eyes shown by depressions and its tail
shown bent up. The other bison is probably a male with protuberance eyes. The
execution of the details of the bodies shows a masterly craftsmanship.

There are some deep human heel marks also found near about these two clay
models. These are taken as the imprints of children (because of the low ceiling
over these impressions) who probably danced around on their heels as part of
some kind of initiation ceremony. On the ground, in the immediate
neighbourhood, some clay sausage-like models were found. These are taken to
be representations of the human phallus endorsing the view of initiation ritual.

Another long cave in the Pyrenees ranges in France called Niaux cave, shows
some rare and interesting paintings. These include several horses and bisons
although the ibex, by far, forms the largest number. In one of the representations,
a bison with flaring nostrils has been produced on the floor by cutting clay.
Three natural holes are formed in its body by water dripping from the ceiling.
These holes have been carefully shaped into three arrow heads, as if pierced into
the body of the animal. Another important painting represents a fish, rather a
rare object in Palaeolithic art.

In Spain, the Cantabrian ranges have yielded a large number of caves with
Palaeolithic painting in them. Of these, the best example comes from Altamira
(Fig.4.3) from the one that was first discovered at Altamira. This spectacular
cave is in the Northern Province of Santander. Cantaillhac and Breuil (1906)
were the first to report the details of the painting in this cave.

Fig. 4.3: Cave Art of Altamira (Source: markandrewholmes.com)

73
Palaeolithic Cultures This is a 280 m long cave, and the art, mostly executed in polychrome, compares
well with the Fort-de-Gaume style. A small scale excavation inside this cave
(Breuil and Obermaier, 1935) revealed Solutrean and Magdalenian layers with
numerous stone and bone tools. Besides the characteristics stone tools, these
yielded a large number of beveled points with crisscross engravings, spatulas,
wands and decorated bone fragments. Among these, a bone piece with an engraved
head of a doe appears to be remarkably comparable to a cave-wall engraving in
Castillo, another cave painting site within 20 km distance from Altamira.

Nearly ten meters beyond the entrance, the main cave passage leads into a low-
roofed, closed hall. Here the ceiling is covered with polychrome paintings of 15
bisons, some standing and some sitting with their legs curled under them. The
larger figures individually measure about 1.5 m in length and are painted on
large flat rock projecting from the roof of the hall.

The animals are painted in red and brown wash, with details of their mane, coats
and legs emphasised with heavily-applied black paint and repeated engravings.
This whole panel is taken to represent a single scene depicting a herd of bisons.
The females shown relaxing on the floor while the males appear to be guarding
the group. In other parts of the ceiling, in the same hall, occur some red painted
and stenciled hands, some possibly engraved human figures and a group of “rayed
tectiforms”. A group of tectiforms drawn with the finger on the once wet mud-
coating on the wall forms another interesting find.

In Spain, there are as many caves with prehistoric paintings as in France, but
they do not provide any additional information with regard to the “function” of
art in the life of prehistoric people. Candamo, Covalanas and Pindal are some of
the cave-sites with interesting and additional types of tectiforms and paintings
of animals.

Caves and rock shelters with prehistoric art work are known from other areas as
well, but there is a general agreement that these paintings belong to cultural
phases later than the Palaeolithic period. The Spanish, Italian, Sicilian, and Levant
and Southwest Asian finds are believed to be of the Holocene period. Another
group of paintings from the rock shelters in the Arctic regions of Euro-Asia is
believed to be even later in antiquity.

4.4 SUMMARY
The rock art, which flourished during the Upper Palaeolithic period, was one of
the fascinating achievements of the prehistoric people. Art work executed on
movable materials is called “home art” or “Art mobilier”. Art executed on walls
and ceilings of caves and rock shelters is called “cave art” or “Art Parietal”.
Examples of art on movable objects (home art), to mention some important, are
the personal adornment objects with decorations engraved on them, such as
necklaces, pendants, lockets, arm bands etc.; female statuettes; ivory models of
animals such as horses, mammoth, reindeer, cave bear; engraved horse ribs; and
carved antler points. Cave art is represented by engravings and paintings on
walls, ceilings and floors of caves and rock shelters. The paintings are in single
colour (monochrome) and multiple colours (polychrome, e.g. red, black and
brown) and mostly animals are represented singly or in groups of various sizes.
Animals which are most common in “cave art” are bison, wild cow, mammoth,
74
reindeer, ibex, wild horse, and wooly rhinoceros; the others include cave bear, Palaeolithic Art
wolf, cat, and human form.

In addition to these, representations of some abstract symbols described as

tectiforms, claviforms, or blazons are also found in most of the large caves. It is
difficult to interpret these signs, but these are apparently attempts in
communicating some kind of messages. There are also a series of hand
impressions—both positive impressions and negative or stenciled impressions.
Some of these hand impressions show mutilated fingers.

Manifestations of prehistoric art have been explained by scholars as

representations of the preoccupations of these Ice Age hunters involving
economic, religious or magical activities such as hunting magic. The animals
engraved and/ or painted in panels on cave walls (bison, mammoth, horse, bear
etc.) are those on which the Ice Age hunters depended for their food. The cave
art, according to one interpretation, is the means for gaining some control over
the wild animals on which the prehistoric hunters depended. It also shows their
ability in making authentic representations of these animals, based on lifetime’s
experience of watching the attitudes and behaviour of their victims in the course
of their hunting. According to one school of thought (as argued by Leroi-Gourhan
and his followers), cave art, far from being an adjunct of hunting magic, was
centered on the complementary nature of the male and female principals. The
animals themselves can, according to this school, be divided into “male” and
“female” moieties, and the signs symbolise the male or female sex.

Suggested Reading
Bhattacharya, D.K. 1977. Palaeolithic Europe. Netherland: Humanities press.
Coles, J.M. and E.S. Higgs. 1969. The Archaeology of Early Man. London: Faber
and Faber.
Fagan B. M. 2004. People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory.
New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Hole, H. and R.F. Heizer. 1969. An Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology.
New York: Hold, Rinehart and Winston, INC.
Renfrew, C. and P. Bahn. 2001. Archaeology: Theories methods and Practices.
London: Thames and Hudson.

Sample Questions
1) Write an essay on Palaeolithic art.
2) Discuss “home art” with suitable examples.
3) Discuss “cave art” with suitable examples.
4) Write notes on the following:
i) Dolini Vestonice
iii) Lascaux
iv) Female statuettes

75
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

6
MESOLITHIC CULTURES
UNIT 1
Mesolithic Features 5
UNIT 2
Indian Mesolithic Cultures 18
UNIT 3
Mesolithic Art 33
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor Falguni Chakrabarthy Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Dept. of Anthropology Associate Professor
Vidyasagar University, West Bengal Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Prof. Ranjana Ray (Retd.) (Unit 1) Prof. V.N. Misra (Retd.) Dr. A. R. Sankhyana
Dept. of Anthropology (Unit 2) (Unit 3)
Calcutta University Deccan College Anthropologist (Physical)
Kolkata Post-Graduate & Anthropological Survery
Research Institute, Pune of India, Kolkata

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5524-3
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 6 MESOLITHIC CULTURES

Introduction
In the past 15, 000 years, humans have undergone minimal changes in physical
characteristics; in contrast, human cultural adaptations have grown substantially
more sophisticated. The most significant of these cultural shifts relates to
subsistence, the manner in which humans obtain food and nourishment.

Upper Palaeolithic populations were probably relatively mobile, nomadic people

who followed the migrations of the herd animals they hunted.

Beginning late in the Pleistocene epoch, approximately 15,000 years ago, this
pattern of Upper Palaeolithic gradually began to change in some parts of the
world. Rather than moving around in pursuit of large animals, humans started to
make more intensive use of smaller game animals and wild plants in one area.
Fishing and gathering marine resources also yielded valuable food sources as
people became less mobile and increasingly focused their energies on the
exploitation of plants and animals within particular local environments.

Between the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene (the current geologic epoch),
a gradual warming of the earth’s temperature caused the great glaciers of the
Pleistocene to melt. Sea levels rose in coastal areas, and lands that had been
compressed under the glaciers rose. As the earth’s climate changed, many species
of plants and animals became extinct.

The reshaping of the earth’s environments prompted new patterns of technological

development. As large number of animals and kinds became extinct humans
captured smaller animals and kinds, learned how to fish, and gathered plants to
satisfy nutritional needs in a strategy that represented a subtle change, one to
broad-spectrum collecting. Because of variation in local environments, many
specialised regional patterns and technologies developed, making it increasingly
difficult to generalise about developments worldwide. These new subsistence
strategies have been referred to as the Mesolithic in Europe, Asia, and Africa and
the Archaic in the Americas.

The transition to broad-spectrum collecting began in different regions at different

times and had varying consequences. In some areas relatively permanent
settlements emerged, whereas in other regions people maintained mobile, nomadic
lifestyles. In general, however, percussion-flaked Mesolithic and Archaic tools
differ markedly from those of the Palaeolithic. Typically they are much smaller
and more specialised than Palaeolithic implements. Some of the most common
Mesolithic tools are known as microliths, small flakes of stone that were used
for a variety of purposes, including harpoon barbs and specialised cutting tools.
The bow and arrow appeared in the Upper Paleolithic, and both Mesolithic and
Archaic peoples made extensive use of this technological innovation, which
allowed hunters to kill game from a greater distance and with more accuracy
than did spears.

A new type of stone tool, ground stone, also became common in many societies.
Some of these implements were probably unintentional products of food
processing. To make seeds and nuts more palatable, people pulverised them
Mesolithic Cultures between a hand-held grinding stone and a larger stone slab or even a large rock.
This activity shaped the hand stones and wore depressions, or grooves, into the
stone slabs. Using a similar grinding process, Mesolithic peoples intentionally
made some stones into axes, gouges, and adzes (specialised tools to shape wood).
Tools with similar functions had been produced by percussion flaking during the
Palaeolithic, but ground-stone tools tend to be much stronger.

The increasingly sophisticated stone-working technology that characterised the

Mesolithic and Archaic periods allowed for a great many innovations in such
areas as the harvesting of resources and the shaping of wood for building. Although
watercraft was developed during the Upper Paleolithic, ground-stone tools made
it easier to cut down logs and hollow out the inside to make dugout canoes.
Vessels of this type improved mobility and enabled people to exploit more diverse
ocean, lake, and river resources. Ground-stone sinkers and fishhooks made from
shell, bone, or stone also attest to the importance of aquatic resources in this era.

In India in addition to their technological accomplishments, the Mesolithic people

created an impressive array of art work which includes murals in cave and rock-
shelters; petroglyphs and cupules. The murals or cave paintings may have been
drawn to celebrate a successful hunt or to ensure a better future.

4
 Mesolithic Features
UNIT 1 MESOLITHIC FEATURES

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Environment of Europe During Early Holocene Period
1.3 Tool Types and Manufacturing Techniques
1.4 Mesolithic Cultures of Europe
1.4.1 Maglemosian Culture
1.4.2 Tardenoisian Culture
1.5 Post -Pleistocene/Post-glacial/Early Holocene Ecology
1.6 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø learn about the culture that flourished in Europe during Post Pleistocene
period in Europe;
Ø know about the environmental background of the Holocene period in Europe;
Ø learn about the change in tool types and their manufacturing technique during
this period;
Ø learn about Mesolithic man and his culture; and
Ø learn about Mesolithic ecology that is the mode of adjustment of the
Mesolithic people in the changing environmental condition of early Holocene
period in Europe.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mesolithic is a cultural stage belonging to human beings who were completely
modern in their biological characteristics and are known as Homosapiens sapiens.
In fact, people lived almost in the same way as they did during Palaeolithic
stage. The main difference being they that lived in Europe at a time when the
climate was changing from what it was during the previous geological stage,
known as the Pleistocene epoch. The geological epoch which follows is known
as Holocene. Both Pleistocene and Holocene belong to the Quaternary period.
Holocene is also known as the Recent or Neothermal phase. We are living in the
Holocene phase. Holocene began around 10,000 years B. C.
In Europe, Pleistocene is considered as a period of climatic fluctuations.
Throughout this epoch climate fluctuated between warm and cold phases. At the
end of Pleistocene period, climate slowly became warmer. With the change in
the climatic environment areas which were under ice or under the influence of
cold climate became free from ice or its influence. Plant and animal gradually
changed. Faunas of the cold climate were replaced gradually by the faunas of the
warm climate. Plant cover changed from arctic to temperate types. Holocene
period seen the establishment of the geographical, climatic and biological 5
Mesolithic Cultures conditions of Europe as it is known today. Human beings adjusted with the
changing condition by changing this way of life.

The change was quite slow but the change took place mainly in response to the
change in the environment. However, in their subsistence level they were much
like the Palaeolithic hunter gatherers but their mode of hunting-gathering became
intensified. Man’s long experience through generations of interaction with plant
and animal in search of living, has led to his experience and knowledge about
them. For this reason, we find the people who lived in the Post-Pleistocene era
were still hunter gatherers but were species-specific hunter and gatherers. This
means that they favoured some species of plants and animals over others. Culture
that was produced by the people who lived in Europe during post Pleistocene
period that is early Holocene, are known as Mesolithic culture. Change of
environment was not uniform. Accordingly culture varied from one environmental
zone to the other.
Study of Mesolithic culture of Europe can best be studied from the following
points:
• Terminology
• Environment
• Tool types and techniques of manufacture
• Mesolithic cultures
• Post Pleistocene/ Post- glacial/ early Holocene ecology
Terminology
The term Mesolithic has got a long history of origin. In fact A.C. Carlyle (Brown,
1889) had coined the nomenclature on the soil of India. There was a general
belief that a cultural break existed between Palaeolithic, the Old Stone Age Culture
on the one hand and the Neolithic or the New Stone Age culture on the other
(Lubbock, 1865).

Carlyle found a large number of small stone implements from the caves and rock
shelters of Vindhyan hill regions of central India. The assemblage comprised of
small stone tools in forms of crescents, trapezoids, triangles and delicate knife-
lets. No tool was more than 1.6 cm. in length. The tools were never found in
association with polished or ground implements. Carlyle found enough
stratigraphic evidence to suggest that these small implements were lying
intermediate between Palaeolithic and Neolithic stages. The accompanying culture
connected with both the stages. Carlyle termed this intermediate stage as
Mesolithis. On the basis of Carlyle’s findings and on similar evidences from
other parts of Asia and Africa, Brown (1889) carried out his investigation in
Britain and Europe. His findings were similar. His evidence was based on data
found near about East Dean and Sussex, England. He found transitional sequence
of culture both on the basis of stratigraphy and typology. Zoologists dominated
the scientific discourse at that time, which undermined cultural capability of
men. They believed that man left Europe with the animals of the cold period. In
spite of the logic put forward by Brown, it was not until Piette’s discovery of
similar situation at Mas’d Azil in 1895, that the term Mesolithic gained any
popularity among the European scholars.

6
Clark, in 1932, established the term in its proper connotation. He substantiated Mesolithic Features
his opinion with data related geology, archaeology and ecology. His enquiry was
based on ecological understanding. Clark’s (1980) definition of Mesolithic is as
follows; “it is a culture of hunter-gatherers lying intermediate between Paleolithic
on the one hand and Neolithic on the other; recent in geochronology; followed
the same subsistence pattern as Palaeolithic but difference was emphasised in
terms of specialisation”. The end of Pleistocene is conventionally placed around
10,000 years B.C. The date for Mesolithic in Europe is fixed around 9500 years
B.C. Mesolithic is considered to have ended with the introduction of agriculture
around 6000 and 5000 years B.C. (Price, 1991).

In Asia and Africa the terminology differed. In West Asia, mainly Levant, Iraq,
Iran and Africa the period just preceeding Neolithic is called Epipaleolithic by
Garrod, Stekelis, Neuville, Kenyon, Mc. Burney and others. The genesis of the
culture lies well before Holocene period and into the terminal Pleistocene at
these places. In Africa, excepting in the Nile valley, no true Neolithic culture is
found. In these areas Mesolithic-like cultures are known by the term Late Stone
age. In India, the culture is also termed as microlithic culture.

1.2 ENVIRONMENT OF EUROPE DURING EARLY

HOLOCENE PERIOD
Europe was under the influence of glaciations during Pleistocene period. Snowline
marking the arctic tundra was extended up to present temperate zone. At the end
of Pleistocene period due to change in solar radiation, Europe was gradually
warming up. This led to mass scale change in geography, biology and human
culture of Europe. Post Glacial or post Pleistocene environment of present day
temperate Europe is better understood with the application of pollen-analysis.
Palynologists found that Post –glacial deposits can be divided into zones in which
the transformation of forests in response to the curve of temperature is recorded.
At first the temperature rose slowly, culminated into a peak and then receded to
some extent until present day condition was reached.

Mesolithic culture in Europe can be separated from Palaeolithic on the

basis of geological and palaeontological characters, although the criteria
vary from one region to the other. It can be distinguished from Neolithic on
the basis of its economy. Neolithic had a food producing economy, based
on agriculture and animal husbandry. Mesolithic people lived on hunting
and gathering. They did not know food production.

K. Jessen in 1934 divided Holocene Europe into nine basic zones based on pollen
analysis to understand its climatology. Pollen analysis provided a picture of forest
development in north and northwest Europe. Forest in Scandinavian language is
referred to as boreal. Europe was under Park Tundra condition (pollen Zone I-
III) by the end of Pleistocene. With the warming up of climate park tundra
vegetation made way for Birch-pine pollen zone (IV) of the pre-boreal period
that was a period through which forest development was taking place. The first
phase of forest development is known as early boreal (pollen zone V). This phase
was dominated by pine trees but hazel and birch were also found. This is followed
by late boreal (pollen zone VI). Pine and hazel trees dominated the forest together
with some elm and oak in its first phase and lime and alder at its later phase.
7
Mesolithic Cultures Pollen VII a is known as Atlantic period because the land bridge connecting
Great Britain to Europe was submerged and the climate of the area was exposed
to the influence of Atlantic ocean. The forest of this period is characterised by
the presence of alder-oak-elm-lime trees. This phase continues into a period
known as sub Boreal (pollen zone VII b). In it, elm declines slowly and hazel
increases. During the Atlantic period a climatic optimum occurred with annual
average temperature above 2 degree centigrade than what it is today.

Faunal changes also took place but fauna was not as sensitive as the plants.
Some of the most significant changes were gradual and eventual replacement of
reindeer by red deer and bison by bos.

Movements of the sea level, also known as eustatic movement and the land
surface movement known as isostatic movement, took place with the end of the
ice age. This has been studied in detail in the Baltic Sea region of the Scandinavian
Peninsula. Baltic was an Ice Lake by the end of the glacial period. During Pre
Boreal period with the melting of the ice, it became a sea and was known by the
name yoldia sea. It was named after the molluscan fauna yoldia artica. Land
surface rose during Boreal phase and Baltic became a fresh water lake and is
known as Ancylus Lake, with the characteristic presence of molluscs, Ancylus
fluviatilis. During the subsequent Atlantis period the sea level rose again and
Baltic became a sea known as Littorina Sea. This phase is identified with the
presence of common periwinkle shells known as Littorina littoria. Several
transgressions and regressions of sea took place in Atlantic. Some of the
transgressions are dated.

As the ice retreated there occurred a rapid spread of forest and the development
of new subsistence pattern. It is thought that in response to the development of
forest man developed new tool types, such as axes, adzes and picks in order to
deal with the new environment. The change was gradual.

1.3 TOOL TYPES AND MANUFACTURING

TECHNIQUE
Tools of Mesolithic culture are categorised into two groups, those made on stone
and those made on bone and antler. The stone tools can further be divided into
two categories, the microlith and the macrolith i.e. tiny tools and bigger tools,
respectively.

Microliths
Microliths are the predominating and common tool types of this cultural phase.
Technologically, this is a continuation of types from the Palaeolithic period.
Microliths occur at the last phase of the Palaeolithic culture but predominance
of the same is found during the Mesolithic stage. Standardisation of size
dimension is made by archaeologists and 3cm is taken as the limit for length for
determining a microlith. Moreover, the microliths of Mesolithic period were
made by highly skilled tool making technique. This is mainly reflected in
retouching of the working edge of the tool or blunting of the hafting edge of the
tool.

8
The technique employed was punch and pressure, which developed during the Mesolithic Features
Upper Paleolithic period. For this reason, identification of Mesolithic microliths
largely depend on the context of its finding and dates. Microliths were made by
a technique known as notch technique. A small notch was made on the edge of a
micro blade by means of abrupt retouch. The point of a small punch or perhaps
bone was then placed in the centre of the notch and the bulbar end of the blade
was removed by a slightly oblique blow. The bulbar end is found as a waste-
product, known as micro-burin. The rest of the bladelet was fashioned into a
microlith, also by abrupt retouch. However, some forms of microliths could
possibly have been made by retouching blades without using the notch technique.

Microliths are described in terms of geometric and non-geometric shapes.

Geometric ones are types such as trapeze, triangle, lunate or crescent. The non-
geometric types are named by the nature of blunting of the back, such, partly,
fully or obliquely blunted blades or after their functions such as scraper, point,
knife, blade, awl, burin and borer (fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1: Microliths

The tool kit of the Mesolithic people consisted of a large number of small pointed
pieces. Evidences suggest that a large proportion of these elements were employed
in composite tools for plant gathering-harvesting, slicing, grating, plant fibre
9
Mesolithic Cultures processing for lines, snares, net and traps, shell openers, bow-drill points and
awls. The pieces were hafted on wood, bone and antler. These were set in line to
give a straight cutting edge or set with slanting blades, micro-blades, broad trapezs,
notched and serrated blades in line, or lunates and triangles set vertically to give
varieties of saw edge (fig.1 ). This tradition of composite tool using must have
extended from Palaeolithic into Mesolithic.

The microlithic technique enables the maximum length of edge and number of
points to be extracted from a minimal volume of stone. The technique allows the
regular exploitation of small, nodular pebbles and even large artifacts. The
technique in turn allows permanent occupations of territories without any other
stone resources. In this way the Mesolithic people exploited extremely sharp
and hard materials like flint, chalcedony, agate, carnelian etc, which occur in
small sources. Economy of the technique is observed in the construction of
composite tools in terms of small rapidly replaceable and interchangeable,
standardised and mass produced units, which were produced in advance in large
quantity and kept in readiness for use at times of wear and tear. The procedure
was to pull out the worn out piece and plug in a fresh one in its place. A broken
Palaeolithic tool needed a complete replacement.

Macroliths
The tools which are beyond the size of microlith may be considered as macroliths.
In this category there are tools which are a continuation of the Upper Palaeolithic
types, such as, scrapers. New types are axes and picks. These are considered as
heavy duty tools. These are made on stone, mostly flint. The tools are made by
flaking and making a transverse working edge. According to the nature of working
edge these are termed as axe and adze. These are meant for wood working and
were mainly associated with cultures, which developed in the forest area. Another
type of heavy duty tool is the pick. This has a pointed working edge. There are
evidences that the axe, adze and picks were hafted in wooden, bone or antler haft
(Fig.1.2 ). These tools helped the users to cope with forest environment.

Fig. 1.2: Macroliths (Heavy duty tools)

10
Bone and Antler Tools Mesolithic Features

Bone tools are found mainly in the form of barbed harpoons. Harpoon is a type
of tool from Maglemosian culture. Harpoons vary in terms of number of barbs;
location of barbs along the shaft and in terms of nature and shape of barbs. There
are fish hooks and points. Points are grooved and made into needles or made
into leister prongs. Chisels on long bones are found. Bones were also used as
hafts for making composite tools.

Mostly shredded antlers were used for making tools. The antler were cut down
along the brow tine region and shaped into axe, adze or haft for inserting stone
axe or adze heads. Animal horn and teeth were also hafted and used as tools
(Fig.1.3).

Fig. 1. 3: Bone and antler tools. Bone tools and abraded pebble (Source: http://
www.donsmaps.com)

1.4 MESOLITHIC CULTURE OF EUROPE

Mesolithic culture of Europe exhibits dynamicity of adaptation to changing
environmental condition. Environment in Europe went through changes from
tundra park land, open steppe, forested zones and coastal environment. In all the
areas culture revealed adaptation to the local environment. According to Clark
(1980) this condition may be considered as ecological niche formation by
contemporary human beings. In the present study cultures which grew under
forest and in open grass land conditions are discussed.

1.4.1 Maglemosian Culture

The Maglemosian culture is named after the type site Maglemose. It is a Danish
word meaning “big bog”. The site is located near Mullerup, Zeeland in Denmark.
This culture is also referred to as ‘forest culture’ and is found near rivers, lake,
marshes and other low lying forested areas. The culture developed during period
II, the Boreal, that is at the time of full development of forest in northern plains
of Europe. Maglemosian culture is found in the whole plains of Europe but
richest area is Denmark and south Sweden. It appears that Maglemosian people
were especially attracted to rivers, lakes etc, which suggest that fishing and fowling
played important role in their economy.

11
Mesolithic Cultures

Fig. 1.4. Maglemosian assemblages (Burkitt 1929, p. 35)

This is confirmed by the material culture and faunal remains from the settlement
sites of Maglemosian people. Remains of pike fish are present and barbed bone
points have been found embedded in pike skulls. Faunal remains represent large
number of edible water birds, such as, duck, geese, and swan. They hunted land
mammals also for food. Important ones are auroch (wild ox), elk (deer), wild
pig, roe deer etc. Microliths of obliquely blunted type were found from the breast
region of an auroch, suggesting use of microliths in composite weapons for
hunting. There is definite evidence of use of dog for chasing the games.
Maglemosian people killed animals for fur also. Collection played an important
role in their economy. They collected nuts, berries and other fruits. Vast numbers
of hazel nut shells, broken length-wise were found.

Most of the habitation sites are on slight prominence in damp areas. Probably
they moved out from the low areas in wet season to dry zones because the areas
went under water during wet season. Settlements are small in size suggesting
small social groups.

It may be summed up that people lived in small social groups, had seasonal
migration and lived on hunting, fishing, fowling and collection.

Material Assemblages of Maglemosian Culture

Material culture of Maglemosian people shows use of diverse tool-making raw
material. These may be divided into stone, wood, amber, animal teeth, antler and
bone.

Stone tools
Most diagnostic types of tools of this culture are axes and picks. These reflect
forest environment. Those made on core outnumbering those made on flake.

12
There are numerous microliths. Commonest form of all microliths is the simple Mesolithic Features
ones blunted obliquely or down the whole of one edge. They used single microliths
as tips for arrows and more than one microlith for making inset on wood or
bone. Hollow based points, scalene triangles and crescents are found at all sites.
Presence of microburins suggests that microliths were made by notch technique.

Upper Palaeolithic types of tools are burins and scrapers. The latter are more in
proportion. Most common scrapers are horse shoe scrapers. Points and awls are
also found. Other stone tools are pebbles with countersunk hollows, pebbles
with abraded surfaces and so called mace heads with hour glass perforations
(Fig.1.1).

Antler and bone tools

Antler and bone tools are difficult to preserve. Even then a large variety of them
are found. Barbed bone points, axes or adzes of bone, spear heads, antler sleeves,
fish hook and leister prongs are characteristic types. Other bone and antler tools
include antler tines worked into sharp points, worked animal teeth, perforated
auroch phalanges, awl and bodkins and even whistles. The bone antler tools are
frequently decorated with scratched in or incised geometric designs. Stylised
animal or human figure are rare.

Wooden objects
Among the preserved wooden specimens, the important ones are: (i) ends of
rods, pointed and hardened by fire, (ii) club like objects, (iii) wooden sleeves for
inserting stone axes and adzes, (iv) wooden plaques with perforations made by
fire, (v) wooden paddle-rudder suggesting evidence of navigation of the culture,
(vi) dugout canoe made of Scottish fir tree, 6 feet long and 3 feet in breadth,
made by scooping wood out by fire. Fire was used in carpentry. The last two
items indicate navigation during boreal period.

There are fishing nets made of plant fibre, sink made of stone and float made of
plant bark.

Amber and animal teeth

Tongue shaped pendant, perforated for suspension, amber beads with conical
perforations were meant for personal adornment. Animal teeth were used both
as personal ornament and as tools. Canines of bear, otters, wild cat, and incisors
of aurock, wild boar, deer etc. were used. Wild bores tusks were set in antler
sleeves and used as adze.

Development of Maglemosian

As a result of detailed research, Maglemosian culture is divided into five

progressive chronological stages. The most significant development is found in
the microliths, axes, cores and in the ratio of flake to blade. Ancestral form of
Maglemosian culture is found in an industry called KLosterlund, which is dated
to 7250-6950 B. C. The industry is named after a place name in Denmark.

1.4.2 Tardenoisian Culture

Tardenoisian culture is named after the site of Fere-en-Tardenois at Aisne, France,
discovered by de Mortillet in 1896. The culture has a wide distribution in France,
13
Mesolithic Cultures Germany and the Iberian Peninsula. The culture seems to be concentrated around
Mediterranean basin. On the west it spread up to England and on the east up to
Poland and in southern part of erstwhile Russia. This is basically a microlithic
culture and is devoid of any heavy duty tools like axes and picks. Traces of
Tardenoisian culture is found mainly on sandy soil and on rocky surfaces. The
settlement sites showed that makers of Tardenoisian culture avoided the necessity
of adaptation to dense forest – for which their material culture was not adequate
and they lacked heavy equipment. Their main occupation was fishing, hunting
and collecting. Some kind of shelter in the form of wind break was evident in
some areas and they sometimes lived in pits. General preference was open air.
Tardenoisian men lived through pre-Boreal, Boreal and Atlantic periods. Soil of
the areas where they lived was not suitable for agriculture, so hunting gathering
way of life continued for a long time in the area.

Material Assemblages of Tardenoisian Culture

No wooden object has survived from the Tardenoisian culture. A few bone
fragments, broken at both ends have been found. Microliths were hafted on them
and used. Other bone objects were in the form of pins and points.

Microlithic tools
The only objects to survive in any quantity are microliths made on stone, mainly
flint. The industries consist of tiny stones chipped into forms of geometric shapes,
such as, triangle – equilateral, isosceles or scalene, little crescents or lunates and
at a later date, trapezes. Tools are within 3cm in length. They are mostly fine,
thin and narrow blades. Large numbers of fluted cores are found. These were
formed because blades were removed from them. A technique called notch
technique was used for blunting the backs of the blades. Blades were an important
component of Tardenoisian culture and were utilised as knives and scrapers and
more rarely as saws and awls. Scrapers are a little bigger in size than the blades
and there are a variety of scrapers found. Tardenoisian tools are both of simple
and geometric varieties. Geometric types are trapeze, triangle and crescent.
Blunting of the back is very common. These were meant for hafting and making
composite tools.

Development of Tardenoisian Culture

The development of Tardenoisian culture is found in another microlithic industry
known as Sauveterrian. The latter culture had a direct link with the Upper
Palaeolithic culture, of the region. Origin of Tardenoisian is rooted to Upper
Palaeolithic culture through Sauveterrian culture. Tardenoisian culture is divided
into three main developmental phases; Phase I or lower Tardenoisian, Phase II
or typical Tardenoisian and Phase III or final Tardenoisian. The sequential nature
of development is found at site Le Roc Allan in France. Tardenoisina culture is
found at Le Roc Martinet at Sauveterre-la-Lemance in France strigraphically
lying over a Sauveterrian industry and is having a direct link with the Aurignacian
culture of Upper Palaeolithic of Europe. The best radio carbon date so far obtained
for Sauveterrian culture is 7045+106 B. C. and date for Lower Tardenoisian is
5400+350 B. C.

14
 Mesolithic Features
1.5 POST-PLEISTOCENE/ POST- GLACIAL/
EARLY HOLOCENE ECOLOGY
Forest ecology
North of Alps and Pyrenees, the zone later occupied by the expanded temperate
forest, was initially a cool or cold corridor bounded on the north by Baltic ice
cap and on the south by glaciers of Alps and Pyrenees. It was a zone of tundra
park land and of open steppe, warmed only by the currents of Atlantic and the
Mediterranean. As conditions ameliorated, temperate deciduous forest grew up
by c. 10,000 – 9000 B. C. This gradually became an area of high biomass with a
high edible productivity exploited by numerous herds of small herbivores and
probably broken up into a mosaic of small productive Mesolithic territories. The
change in the environment is already discussed.

The birch pine forest of early Boreal phase quickly gave way to thick mixed
forest, reaching a climax in dense oak, hazel, alder, lime and elm forest in the
warm wet phase of the-Post glacial climatic optimum between 6000 and 4000
B. C. This canopy was mainly made up of deciduous plants and gave rise to
characteristic structure. This depended on the annual loss of leaves of the trees
in autumn and without any growth of fresh green for three to five months during
the long, snowy winter. Ground layer was covered by detritus formed of dead
and decaying leaves and trunks and dominated by large quantity of fungi, mosses
and liverworts, most of which were edible and available throughout the year.
Above the ground layer rose up the field layer of herbaceous plants and strands
of grasses and vegetatively propagating roots and tuber plants. The productive
field layer of roots, tubers, bulbs and rhizomes were covered by shrub layers of
hazel, berry bearing shrubs up to 15 feet height. The structure of the forest canopy
was completed by the tree crowns of oak, elm and ash rising to about 25 to 100
feet. It was broken only by outcrops, rivers, lakes, swamps and marshes. The
rich ground cover of plants also attracted such herbivorous grazing animals as
deer, auroch, and boar in large number. Mesolithic people who lived in the forest
took advantage of the vast quantity and variety of seasonal vegetal food, especially,
roots, tubers, fruits and nuts. They hunted the grazing animals. The large number
of water bodies provided with edible aquatic resources. Wide range of fishing
equipment, bone hook, fiber made lines, leister prongs, fish traps, weirs, and
fish nets and dugout canoes provided evidence for utilisation of aquatic resources.
They lived in the wooded area and took advantage of the forest with the heavy
duty tools and with fire.

Open Grassland Ecology

Mediterranean is considered as climatic and ecological buffer zone. Proximity
to equator and distance from ice cap and ameliorating influence of the sea
fashioned the climate of this region during Post Pleistocene time. The region is
marked with the continuity of stone industries from the Palaeolithic into
Mesolithic.

Between 10,000 to 7000 B. C. the cool and temperate zone at the head of the
Adriatic and Franco-Ligurian Sea was gradually colonised by warmer species of
plants. Birch pine gave way to juniper, pine and oak. Mediterranian evergreen
and drought resisting flora gradually expanded from southern Iberia, southern
15
Mesolithic Cultures Greece, southern Italy and south Balkan. The moderate annual rainfall and a late
summer drought of severe proportions at the sea level limited coastal woodlands
to mainly xerophytic and evergreen tree species, interspersed with strands of
flowers, grasses, legumes and herbs. Much of these is directly edible and could
be harvested throughout the year. Edible root plants like onion, leek and garlic
were available. European subsistence during Mesolithic in these areas was based
on gathering of pulses, bulbs, grass seeds and nuts in combination with fishing,
fowling and hunting of ovicaprids (sheep and goat), deer and auroch. Microliths
used as tips for arrows and as knives and scrapers helped the Mesolithic folk to
cope with the open grassland environment.

Fig.1.5: Reconstructed view of a Mesolithic man of Europe (Source: wesleyjohnston.com)

1.6 SUMMARY
Mesolithic is a transitional period between Paleolithic on the one hand and
Neolithic culture on the other. This culture flourished in Holocene or recent
epoch. In Europe, the environment changed gradually during early Holocene
period until the climate and environment became same as we find in Europe at
present. Prehistoric man continued with subsistence quite similar to those of
Palaeolithic men. This meant that they were still hunting and gathering food for
their livelihood but there was a vast change in the mode of subsistence in the
Mesolithic culture. They became quite specific about the animals they hunted
and plant food they collected. To this was added two new activities, fishing and
fowling. Most important feature of Mesolithic culture of Europe is the peoples’
adaptability to changing environmental condition with their tools, technology
and culture. They formed a kind of ecological niche in the specific environment
they lived in.

Suggested Reading
Brown, J. A. 1889. On the Continuity of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic Periods,
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 18: 134 –
139.

Clarke, David L. 1979. Analytical Archaeology: Studies in Archaeology. London:

Academic Press. Pp. 207 – 262.

Clark, J. G. D. 1977. World Prehistory in New Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. Pp. 11-115.
16
Fagan, B. M. 2004. People of the Earth: An Introduction to world Prehistory Mesolithic Features
(11th edition) Delhi: Pearson Education. 190 – 212.

Lubbock, J. 1865. Prehistoric Times. London: William and Norgate.

Price, T. Douglas, 1991. The Mesolithic and Hunter-gatherers :Myths and
Meanings. Man and Environment, 26(2): 101- 107. (Indian Society for Prehistoric
and Quaternary Studies, Pune).

Sample Questions
1) Definition Mesolithic culture.
2) What is the history of development of the term ‘Mesolithic’?
3) What is palynology? bring out the importance of the subject in understanding
Post-glacial environment of Europe?
4) What changes took place in the vegetation history of Europe during Post
Pleistocene period.?
5) What change took place at the level of geography of Baltic Sea?
6) What were the major tool types of Mesolithic culture in Europe?
7) What is a microlith?
8) Name some of the microlith types of Mesolithic culture of Europe.
9) What technique was employed in making the microliths?
10) What other tool types are found in Mesolithic culture in Europe?
11) Discuss how the stone axes and adzes were made?
12) Describe the material culture of Maglemosian culture.
13) Point out the special features of Maglemosian culture.
14) What are the characteristic features of Tardenoisian culture?
15) Tardenoisian is a microlithic culture. Justify the statement.
16) Give an account of the development of Mesolithic culture of Europe.
17) Discuss why Mesolithic culture in Europe reflects the dynamicity of
environmental Adaptation.

17
Mesolithic Cultures
UNIT 2 INDIAN MESOLITHIC CULTURES

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meaning and Significance of Mesolithic
2.3 Discovery of Mesolithic Tools
2.4 Nature of Archaeological Sites
2.5 Brief Description of Major Mesolithic Sites of India
2.6 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø describe the newly adapted culture and environment;
Ø write about Mesolithic tools and Archaeological sites; and
Ø discuss about the different sites of Indian Mesolithic.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Human Past or History is divided into three main periods, namely, 1) Stone Age,
2) Bonze Age, and 3) Iron Age. These are not simply technological stages implying
that tools and weapons were made of stone during the Stone Age, of bronze
during the Bronze Age, and of iron during the Iron Age. These Ages imply much
more than technology. They imply subsistence economy or ways of acquiring
food, social organisation, including caring for the weak, sick and old, mode of
disposing of the dead, art, and other aspects of life.
Stone Age is divided into three periods, namely, 1) Palaeolithic or Old Stone
Age, 2) Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age, and 3) Neolithic or New Stone Age.
The word lithic is derived from the Greek lithos, meaning stone. Palaeolithic
means Old Stone Age, Mesolithic means Middle Stone Age, and Neolithic means
New Stone Age.

2.2 MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF

MESOLITHIC
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a much shorter period than Palaeolithic,
having lasted from over thirty thousand years in Sri Lanka and parts of Africa to
only about ten thousand years in India and West Asia. Mesolithic period has
enormous culture-historical importance in Old World prehistory. The
technological hall mark of this period are tiny stone tools or ‘microliths’. In
addition, the Mesolithic people also used non-microlithic tools made of flakes
and blades.
Mesolithic people made a number of technological innovations like bow and
arrow for hunting; querns, grinders and hammer stones for grinding and
18
pulverising plant foods like roots, tubers and seeds; and regular use of fire for Indian Mesolithic Cultures
roasting meat, tubers, etc. They created a large volume of art in the form of
several thousand paintings and engravings, which not only tell us about their
aesthetic taste but also about their capability for innovating new technological
elements, modes of subsistence economy, items of material culture, social
organisation and religion.
Meaning and Types of Microlith
The term ‘microlith’ is strictly to be applied only to tools made on microblades
or bladelets (having a maximum length of 50 mm and a width of 12 mm) or
occasionally on small flakes, by blunting one or more margins by steep retouch.
Microliths comprise non-geometric forms like rectangular blunted back blades
and points, and geometric forms like crescents or lunates, triangles and trapezes.
Microliths were too small to be used as tools individually; instead, they were
used as components of tools and weapons by being hafted in bone, wood or reed
handles and shafts. A groove was cut in the handle or shaft, and a number of
microliths were arranged serially into it and were glued together by a natural
adhesive like gum or resin. Microblades were intentionally blunted on one edge
to prevent the cutting of the haft and thereby loosening of the microliths during
use of the tool or weapon.

Function of Microliths
Microliths were used as tips and barbs of arrowheads and spearheads, for forming
the cutting edge of knives, sickles, daggers and harpoons. Discoveries of hafted
microliths from many excavated sites in Europe, the Near East, Africa, Australia
and India, as also their depiction in central Indian rockshelters, testifies to the
use of microliths in this manner.

Other Tool Types of the Mesolithic Period

In addition to microliths, Mesolithic people used a variety of non-microlithic
tools made on flakes, cores and blades. These comprised choppers, scrapers,
notched flakes, borers and points, made on cores, flakes and blades.

2.3 DISCOVERY OF MESOLITHIC TOOLS

Work of A.C.L. Carlleyle
The earliest discovery of microliths and other Mesolithic tools was made by
A.C.L. Carlleyle, an Assistant to Alexander Cunningham, founder Director
General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Carlleyle was the first person to discover microliths, rock paintings, pigment
pieces with marks of grinding, human skeletons, animal bones, ash, and charcoal
pieces in rockshelters in Mirzapur District of the Northwestern Provinces of
Agra or Oudh (present Uttar Pradesh). He also discovered paintings depicting
scenes of wild animals being hunted with spears, bows and arrows and hatchets,
and living floors containing hearths with ash, charred animal bones. This was
the first discovery of the paintings portraying the Mesolithic way of life.
J.C.Cockburn, Rivett-Carnac, and Robert Bruce Foote
Subsequently, discoveries of microliths and bone tools were made by J.C.
Cockburn and Rivett-Carnac in rockshelters as well as at open-air sites in the
19
Mesolithic Cultures same area. Robert Bruce Foote, Father of Indian prehistory discovered microliths
in Kurnool caves and several other sites in South India as well as at sites on the
Sabarmati river and away from it in Baroda, Sabarkantha and Mehsana Districts
of Gujarat.

Thus Mesolithic sites are found almost all over India, except the northeast but
including the Indo-Gangetic plains where stone, the raw material for making
tools and weapons is scarce. This shows that Mesolithic hunter-gatherers had
colonised the whole country. This had happened for the first time during the
entire prehistoric period of two million years.

2.4 NATURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

Archaeological sites are of two types: primary and secondary. Primary sites are
those where cultural material is found in its original context and relatively
undisturbed condition. In such a context organic material is relatively better
preserved. Secondary sites are those where cultural material from spatially,
culturally and chronologically unrelated contexts is found buried in geological
deposits after being transported by fluvial agency. However, as most Mesolithic
sites belong to Holocene or Recent period and are only a few thousand years old,
archaeological material on them is found in a primary context either on the
surface or buried in open air or cave/rock shelter habitation deposits. At such
sites biological and dating materials are better preserved. For the reconstruction
of life ways, environment and dating, habitation sites are ideal.

State-wise names of sites excavated in India:

Rajasthan: Tilwara; Bagor ; Ganeshwar

Gujarat: Langhnaj; Akhaj; Valasana; Hirpura; Amrapur;. Devnimori;Dhekvadlo;

Tarsang

Maharashtra: Patne; Pachad; Hatkhamba

Uttar Pradesh: Morhana; Lekhahia; Baghai Khor; Sarai Nahar Rai ; Mahadaha;
Damdama; Chopani Mando; Baidha Putpurihwa
Madhya Pradesh: Pachmarhi; Adamgarh ; Putli Karar; Bhimbetka;
Baghor II;Baghor III; Ghagharia
Bihar: Paisra
Orissa: Kuchai
West Bengal :. Birbhanpur
Andhra Pradesh: Muchatla Chintamanu Gavi; Gauri Gundam
Karnataka: Sangankallu
Kerala : Tenmalai
The above excavated sites have provided us a vast amount of information
regarding technology, material remains, burial systems, anatomical remains,
customs associated with burial, art, and charcoal for dating of the sites.

The diet of the Mesolithic people consisted of leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, roots,
and tubers, flesh of wild land and water animals, and birds.

20
We have nearly sixty radiocarbon and eight Thermoluminescence (TL) dates Indian Mesolithic Cultures
from over twenty sites. These show that the Mesolithic people lived between
10,000 and 2000 B. P. In the later part of their history they came into contact
with rural and urban people. As a result of this contact the nomadic and hunting-
gathering way of life underwent modification. The majority of the hunter-gatherers
got settled, took up agriculture and other sedentary occupations and were
assimilated into caste-based Hindu society.

2.5 BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR

MESOLITHIC SITES OF INDIA
Teri
Teri sites are located on red-coloured dunes, along the eastern coast of Tamil
Nadu. They were first discovered by Robert Bruce Foote, Father of Indian
Prehistory, towards the end of the nineteenth century. These dunes were formed
during the Terminal Phase of the Last Ice Age or Upper Pleistocene, when sea
level had fallen several metres lower than the present one. Because of lowered
sea level large areas were exposed along the coast, and sand from exposed beaches
was blown by wind and deposited along the coast. Hunter-gatherer groups
occupied the surfaces of the dunes to exploit the marine resources of the shallow
sea and vegetable resources of the trees and plants growing in the vicinity of the
beach. During the post-glacial period when temperatures started rising and rainfall
increased, dunes became consolidated and were weathered to a reddish colour.
Archaeologists call them teris because they are known by that name in the local
Tamil language. While the biological material on dune surfaces has decayed due
to weathering, large quantities of stone artifacts and their manufacturing debris
have survived.

The Teri sites, particularly Sawyerpuram, one of the largest, were explored by
anthropologist, A. Aiyappan in the early 1940s. Later, in 1949, F.E. Zeuner,
Professor of Environmental Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology, London
University examined the dunes, studied the red weathering, and collected stone
artifacts from them. Zeuner took the artifacts with him to England where they
were studied by archaeologist, Bridget Allchin. Together they published a
comprehensive article on them, along with a reasoned interpretation of the climate
during and after the formation of the dunes and their occupation by man. Their
interpretation continues to be valid to this day.

Sarai Nahar Rai

The site of Sarai Nahar Rai is located in the plain of the Sai river, a tributary of
the Gomati, in Pratapgarh district of Uttar Pradesh. The flat ground outside the
village was used by the farmers for threshing of harvested crop by trampling
under oxen hooves. Because of this activity over many years, stone artifacts,
animal bones, and human skeletons buried below the surface got exposed and
came to the notice of the village people. The news spread by word of mouth and
people of surrounding villages started visiting the place out of curiosity. The
news reached the ears of Dr. Ojha, a lecturer in the Department of Ancient Indian
History, Culture & Archeology, Allahabad University and Acting Director of
U.P. State Archaeology Department. Through Dr. Ojha, it came to the notice of
G.R Sharma, Head, of Archaeology department, Allahabad University, who carried
21
Mesolithic Cultures out an excavation at the site and discovered a large quantity of stone artefacts,
clay-coated fresh water shells, animal bones, and 14 human skeletons in excellent
state of preservation. The skeletons have been scientifically studied by Prof.
Kenneth A.R. Kennedy of the Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A., and
his colleagues and students.

Prof. Sharma organised a systematic exploration in Pratapgarh and neighbouring

districts for locating more sites similar to Sarai Nahar Rai. In the course of the
next few years more than 200 sites were brought to light. The most important of
these are Mahadaha and Damdama in the same district, Chopani Mando in
Allahabad district, and Baghor II, Baghor III, and Ghagharia in the neighbouring
Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh. All these sites have been excavated by the
Allahabad University, those in Sidhi district, jointly with the University of
California, Berkeley, U.S.A. The excavations have thrown a flood of light on the
earliest human colonisation of the Ganga plains. Human skeletal material from
these sites has been studied by Prof. Keneth A.R.Kennedy and his colleagues
and students like J.R. Lukacs, J. Chiment, T. Disotell, D. Meyers, and N.C.
Lovell, and animal remains by P.K. Thomas and P.P. Joglekar of the Deccan
College, Pune.

Langhnaj
The site of Langhnaj is located on one of the numerous sand dunes in Mehsana
district of Gujarat. These dunes were formed during the hyper-arid climate of
the Upper Pleistocene and were stabilised after the monsoon revived during the
Terminal Pleistocene. The dunes form a rolling topography, and are clustered
around a depression which gets filled by runoff from the dunes during the monsoon
and retains till the next monsoon. It is a source of water for humans to wash their
clothes and for livestock to drink and be bathed. As the dunes have a thick layer
of soil formed during the sub-humid climate, they support a thick vegetation of
thorny plants, bushes and grass which provides food for grazing animals. Leaves
and fruits of trees and bushes like ker (Capparis decidua), kumat (Acacia senegal),
khejri (Prosopis spicigera), kheenp (Leptadenia pyrotechnica) provide food for
humans. Because of the pressure of human population wildlife has considerably
declined but until nilgai is still seen and herds of blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra),
chital (Axis axis), and gazelle as well as wild boar, jackal, fox, mongoose,
porcupine, hedgehog were quite common until a few decades ago. Their flesh
was a rich source of protein-rich and their skins were probably used for clothig
and covering musical instruments like drums of various sizes and shapes. With
assured source of food and water, Mesolithic human groups occupied almost all
the dunes as testified by the presence of stone artifacts, their manufacturing debris,
querns, grinders, hammerstones, and bones of wild animals.

Langhnaj was excavated by the eminent archaeologist H.D. Sankalia on several

occasions between 1941 and 1949. He invited his colleague, Irawati Karve,
Professor of Anthroplogy, and G.M. Kurulkar, Professor of Human Anatomy at
the Govardhandas Medical College, Mumbai, to join him in the excavation to
excavate the fragile human skeletons carefully. Besides the stone tool industry
of microliths and non-microlithic stone tools, the excavation yielded fragments
of querns and grinders, at least one perforated disc, small sherds of hand-made
pottery, bone and dentallium shell beads, a copper knife in the middle level of
the deposit, fragments of wheel-made pottery, an iron arrowhead and pieces of iron,
22 and charred animal bones, including a scapula or shoulder blade of a rhinoceros.
Bagor Indian Mesolithic Cultures

a) Environmental Setting
Bagor is a large village on the left bank of the Kothari river, a tributary of the
Banas, 25 km west of the town of Bhilwara in Rajasthan. The prehistoric site
lies on a large and prominent sand dune, locally known as Mahasati, on the left
bank of the Kothari, a non perennial river, about 1 km east of the village. Bagor
is located in the centre of the undulating rocky plateau Mewar east of the Aravalli
hills. Much of the plateau is covered by an open woodland of khejri (Prosopis
spicigera), babul (Acacia arabica), dhak (Butea frondosa), and khajur (Phoenix
sylvestris), and bushes of kair (Capparis decidua) and ber (Zizyphus jujuba).
Annual rainfall of 60-70 cm occurs mostly during July-September. Extensive
tracts of rocky land - what Kipling called the ‘stony pastures of Mewar’ provide
adequate pasture for cattle, sheep, goats and camels. Pastoralism is an important
part of the rural economy. Wild life comprising blackbuck, nilgai, wild boar,
jackal, fox, monitor lisard, partridge and sand grouse was plentiful fifty years
ago used s common even today.

b) Site and excavation

The site, which covers an area of about 10,000 Sq. m., was excavated by V.N.
Misra from 1973 to 1977. The dune rising to a height of six metres above the
level plain, provides a commanding view of the surrounding countryside. This
must have favoured its selection for occupation by prehistoric man. Our
estimates, based on the excavated area, show that an area of at least 80 x 80 m or
well over 6,000 sq. m. was occupied from the beginning of the settlement.

The habitation material occurs throughout within the sand, thus attesting that the
dune was under active formation when prehistoric man occupied it. Five layers
were recognised in the 1.5 m habitation deposit. Cultural material was found in
the top three of them.

c) Cultural Sequence
The excavated deposit reveals an occupation of over a period of five millennia.
During this period a culture based on stone technology and hunting-pastoral
economy underwent continuous evolution as evidenced by the appearance of
new material traits and the decline and disappearance of older ones. The most
abundant material which continued all through the occupation was the microlithic
industry. No stratigraphical and cultural break is seen in the occupation. On the
basis of changes in material culture three phases of occupation or can be
recognised.

In Phase I (c. 5000 – 2800 B.C.) microliths and animal remains were most
profuse, and economy was based on a combination of hunting-gathering and
herding. People lived in huts with stone-paved floors and wattle walls, or
sheltered behind wind breaks. The dead were buried within the settlement in an
extended position laid out east-west.

In Phase II (c. 2800 – 600 B.C.) stone artefacts and animal bones begin to
decline in quantity, but copper tools and pottery make their appearance. Pottery
is hand-made with incised decoration. The dead were still buried in the habitation
area but in a flexed position and oriented east-west. The graves were furnished
with clay pots, metal tools, ornaments and food offerings. Increased material
23
Mesolithic Cultures prosperity implies a more secure and stable economy and greater reliance on
animal domestication.

In Phase III (c. 600 B.C. – 200 A.D.) occupation was restricted to the central part
of the mound. Microlithic industry declined greatly and the animal bones were
scarce and highly fragmented. Iron tools come into use, and pottery was more
plentiful and entirely wheel made. Glass beads were added to the repertoire of
ornaments; kiln-fired bricks and tiles were used alongside stone in structures.

d) Microlithic Industry
The flaked stone industry is unusually rich, with several hundred thousand worked
pieces, and comprises the most common material at Bagor. No other site in India
has yielded microliths in comparable numbers. The finished tools and their
manufacturing debris are distributed more or less uniformly all over the inhabited
area showing that the tools were manufactured within the settlement and that
every family or social unit may have produced them for its requirement. The
highest density is found in Phase I, which contains 45 to 55 %, of the material. It
declines progressively in phases II and III. No marked typological or technological
change has been noticed from lower to upper levels. Quartz and chert were the
most common raw materials used. Although quartz predominates in the waste
material, majority of the finished tools are made of chert. The greater use of
quartz was no doubt due to its ready availability in the nearby quartz veins in
schistose rocks.
The lithic industry is truly microlithic in that it is based on the mass production
of microblades and their conversion into various microlithic forms. Non-
microlithic tools, such as scrapers and burins, made on cores and flakes, are rare.
More than forty types have been recognised of which the most common are: 01.
Blade with flat retouch; 02. Blunted back blade; 03. Obliquely truncated blade;
04. Obliquely truncated and blunted back blade; 05.Triangle, mainly scalene
and isosceles, 06.Trapeze; 07.Transverse arrowhead ;08.Rhomboid 09.Crescent;
10. Point
Besides these there are also some tools made on flakes and cores such as side,
end, and round scrapers, and burins.
The microlithic industry is essentially geometric and appears to be most suitable
for hunting. Technologically, a distinctive feature of the industry is rarity of the
use of crested guiding ridge technique for removal of blades. Although occasional
tools measure 40 mm or more in length, the majority are between 15 and 20 mm,
and some measure between 5 and 10 mm only. Most microliths, particularly
crescents, triangles are very carefully and retouched perfectly symmetric in form.
It is indeed a puzzle how such tiny pieces measuring less than 10 mm could
have been hafted and used. Another notable feature of the industry is the presence
of petit tranchet or transverse arrowheads in good numbers. This type is rare in
other Indian microlithic industries. The Bagor industry is characterised by a very
high standard of craftsmanship. The only microlithic industries which can
compare with it in typology and technology are those of the Morhana Pahar
group of rockshelters in Mirzapur district of U.P.

e) Copper Objects
Apart from fragments, five well-defined objects were found among offerings
24 with the two burials of Phase II. These include one spearhead, one thin rod, and
three arrowheads. The spearhead is broken at the basal end. Both faces have a Indian Mesolithic Cultures
distinct mid rib and the sides taper gently towards the tip. The rod is 10.3 cm
long, has a diameter of 2 mm., and is thicker near its lower tip, and the upper tip
is folded to form a loop. It could have been used as an awl or to apply kohl as eye
decoration.

The arrowheads are 22-25 mm long, 19-24 mm broad and 1.5 –2 mm thick. Two
of these have a concave crescentic base and the third has a barbed base. All three
are provided with two holes near, and parallel to the base. These must have been
meant to secure the arrowhead to the shaft with the help of a string, metal wire or
rivets.

The arrowheads are of considerable typological and cultural interest. Similar

specimens but without holes are known from a number of Harappan sites in
north Rajasthan, Sind, Punjab and Baluchistan, and from the Chalcolithic site of
Azad Nagar in Indore city in M.P. There is no evidence to show that the people
of Bagor knew metallurgy and had themselves produced the arrowheads. Most
probably they obtained them and other metal objects from itinerant metal smiths
who also catered to the metal requirements of the Harappan and Chalcolithic
people.

f) Iron Tools
Besides many amorphous bits of iron, two well-preserved arrowheads came from
the deposit of Phase III. One of them is socketed and the other tanged.

g) Pottery
Isolated bits of pottery - 1 to 2 cm in size – appear almost down to the bottom
of the deposit but they are too small to indicate any shape, and are certainly
derived from upper levels by infiltration. Thus Phase I is best regarded as devoid
of pottery. However, as this level is richest in microlithic industry and animal
remains, absence of pottery in Phase I does not indicate a lower intensity of
occupation. It is only in Phase III that pottery appears in reasonable quantity.

Two main fabrics, named A and B, can be recognised; fabric A is characteristic

of Phase II while fabric B is predominant in Phase III. A Ware is made of gritty
and micaceous clay. Both surfaces of the pot are treated with a slip of fine clay,
and in many vessels the slipped surface is burnished. Bright red slip has faded
away in most cases and survives as dull brown colour. Firing has been done at
a low temperature, rendering the pots highly fragile. There are no clear striations,
and most pots seem to have been made entirely by hand.

Over a dozen complete pots were found which, with one exception, were
associated with three burials. They include broad-mouthed jars, small lota-like
pots, large shallow basins, smaller and deeper basins, and bowls in a range of
sizes. There are also a few miniature vessels types which might have been used
for ritual purposes. Two large, deep bowls have a pair of holes on the sides,
suggesting either that they were suspended by strings for carrying food, for
protecting it from pests within the home or for tying on a lid.

Though none of the complete pots is decorated, many sherds bear designs which
are all incised and include groups of parallel bands, chevrons, herring bone
patterns, criss-crosses, groups of short strokes, and finger nail incisions.
25
Mesolithic Cultures Although absence of the use of potter’s wheel and inadequate preparation of
clay and low temperature firing, show a simple ceramic technology, the surface
treatment and forms are quite sophisticated. Indeed, several carinated forms
suggest copying in clay of shapes natural to metal, and it is clear that Bagor
pottery belongs to a mature tradition with a long evolution elsewhere.

Phase III pottery or B ware is very different from Phase II pottery and does not
develop from the latter. It is entirely wheel made. Firing in this ware has been
done at a higher temperature and pots are thinner, lighter and stronger than those
of the A ware. They have a brick red surface and a reddish or bluish core. The
common shapes are large jars and small cylindrical pots, and bowls. Decoration
in this ware is rare and the few designs present consist of simple incisions. In
general the pottery of Phase III is utilitarian and lacks any aesthetic appeal. The
pear-shaped vessel and the bowl with flat base are typical forms of Shunga-
Kushana period. They are very common in the early historic pottery from Balathal
in Udaipur District. Therefore Phase III can be described as Early Historic.

h) Structures
In Phases I and II the only structures are large floors made of schist slabs and
pebbles. In some places the stones appear to be aligned in a circular fashion
with diameters of 3 to 5m., which may represent the outer periphery of circular
huts or windbreaks. At several places small areas, 40 to 70 cm across, were
paved with tightly packed stones, and were associated with concentrations of
animal bones. These features might represent butchering floors for although there
were plenty of charred bones, no hearths or fire places. In Phase III kiln-baked
brickbats and tiles were also used in construction.

i) Disposal of the Dead

Five burials were found; one in Phase I, three in Phase II, and one in Phase III.
All of them were within the settlement, a practice now well known to have been
in vogue at Mesolithic sites in western and central India, and the Ganga plains,
and in the Neolithic cultures of Kashmir and south India, and the Chalcolithic
cultures of Maharashtra. In Phase I the body was laid in an extended position
with lower left arm resting over the trunk and with its head towards the west. No
grave goods were offered although a few animal bones found in the vicinity
might be associated with the burial. In the three burials of Phase II the body was
laid in a flexed position, with arms and legs folded as in a sleeping pose, and
with the head to the east. How far this change in the burial practice signifies a
change in the ethnic composition of the community is not possible to say as the
skeletons of both phases I and II are too poorly preserved to draw any meaningful
conclusions about their physical features. According to Kenneth A.R. Kennedy
and John R. Lukacs, who examined the Bagor skeletons for their morphology
and dentition, the only skeleton from Phase I (Mesolithic) is an adult female
while of the three skeletons from Phase II (Chalcolithic) one is a child, one is an
adult female, and one is an adult male. The only skeleton from Phase III is an
adult female. However, subsequent examination of a small square object found
on the neck of this skeleton showed the object to be a Muslim period coin. For
this reason this skeleton appears to be a very late interment and cannot be
associated with the cultural material of this phase.

26
The burials were provided with many offerings in the form of pottery vessels Indian Mesolithic Cultures
(originally no doubt containing food and water), ornaments, metal objects, and
cuts of meat. In one case as many as eight pots were arranged near the head and
on the left side of the body; two copper arrowheads were placed on the left side,
one of them right on the lower left arm, and a large animal femur lay close to the
body. In case of another burial four pots were placed near the feet and on the left
side, a spearhead and an arrowhead lay near the head, and an awl or antimony
rod (all made of copper) was placed below the abdomen. A broken terracotta
spindle whorl was kept near the feet. In addition, thirty-six beads, mostly of
banded agate and carnelian but some also of bone were found strewn on the
chest and around the neck. The beads, from their position, almost certainly were
part of a necklace which was worn by the dead person. With the third burial, that
of an 8 to 10 year old child, only a single pot was kept near the head.

The teeth of the Mesolithic specimen were free from any dental pathology. Of
the two Chalcolithic specimens for which information is available the adult one
had suffered from caries while the child was free from any dental disease.

j) Stone and Terracotta Objects

Numerous hammerstones occurred all through the deposit but were more common
in Phases I and II . All these bear tell-tale bruising marks in one or more places.
They were no doubt used in the manufacture of stone tools and for breaking and
splitting open animal bones. Some of the stones are of perfectly spherical shape
and bear pecking marks. These were probably used as slingstones. Fragments of
shallow stone querns and a number of flat rubbing or upper grinding stones were
also found in all levels.The small size of these querns and shallow depressions
on them contrast sharply with the large and deep quern so common on Neolithic
and Chalcolithic sites. This and their small number preclude a significant role
for them in food preparation. In Phase II were also found two perforated stones
of the type common at Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites and referred to in the
archaeological literature as mace heads, or as weights of digging sticks. The
only terracotta object found is a broken plano-convex spindle whorl with its flat
surface decorated with a frieze of punctured triangles. It was found associated
with a burial of Phase II.

k) Ornaments
In Phase I only a few stone beads were found. These are similar to those of Phase
II and are likely to have been derived from that level in which beads were very
common. They are mostly of banded agate, carnelian and garnet, and are of
short tubular and barrel shape. A few tiny bone beads are also present. Reference
has already been made to a necklace of stone and bone beads found on one of the
Phase II burials. In Phase III glass beads were also used and there were several
kinds of stone pendants. Pieces of geru or ochre were found throughout the
deposit. In the absence of painted decoration on pottery, pigment from these
pieces may have been used for decorating the human body.

l) Food and Economy

The only direct evidence for reconstructing the subsistence basis of early Bagor
are animal bones. These are most common in Phase I, begin to decline in Phase
II, and are scarce in Phase III. Most of them are charred and fragmentary showing
that meat was roasted on open fires and the bones broken and split open for the
27
Mesolithic Cultures extraction of marrow. The abundance of bones in Phases I and II suggests that
animal food was more important in the earlier stages of the settlement. The
remarkable correspondence in the distribution of animal bones and microlithic
industry confirms that hunting was an important activity in Phase I and to a
lesser extent in Phase II as well.

A study of the animal remains by P.K. Thomas (1975) shows the presence of
both wild and domesticated species from the very beginning. Domesticated
species include cattle (Bos indicus), buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), sheep (Ovis aries),
goat (Capra hircus aegagrus) and pig (Sus scrofa cristatus), and wild ones
comprise fox (Vulpes bengalensis), mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi), nilgai
(Boselaphus tragocamelus)¸ blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara (Gazella
dorcas), chital (Axis axis), and hare (Lepus nigricollis). D. R. Shah and K.R.
Alur, who had examined a part of the faunal collection before Thomas, have also
noted the presence of barasingha (Cervus duvauceli), hog deer (Axis porcinus),
wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus, Wagner), jackal (Canis aureus), rat (Rattus rattus),
monitor lisard (Varanus flavescens, Gray), river turtle (Lissemys punctata,
Bonnaterre), and fish.

Thus the subsistence economy of the Bagor people during Phase I was based on
a combination of hunting and herding. In phase II a decline in the quantity of
animal bones and stone tools would suggest a reduced role for hunting and by
implication a greater reliance on food production. Other evidence also points in
the same direction. First, the introduction of pottery, metal tools, and ornaments,
and richly furnished graves all reflect greater prosperity and a more stable and
secure economic basis. It should be noted that constellation of traits is otherwise
known only from sites where agriculture is established as a certainty. Secondly,
perforated stones found in this phase are often interpreted in the archaeological
literature as weights of digging sticks used in primitive agriculture.

In Phase III animal bones are scarce and more fragmentary, thereby restricting
their amenability to zoological identification. A corresponding decline in
microlithic industry would indicate a further decline in the role of hunting. Iron
tools, wheel made pottery, and use of kiln-baked bricks, tiles and dressed stones
in structures all suggest that agriculture must have been well established by this
time.

m) Chronology
Five radiocarbon dates based on bone carbonate samples have been processed
by the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai. They suggest that the
chronology of the occupation of the site by early men varies from 4,480 B.C. to
2, 110 B.C.

Bhimbetka
a) Location and Associated Sites
Bhimbetka is a name of a large hill, located near the tribal village of Bhiyanpur,
by the side of the Mumbai-Delhi line of the Central Railway, 30 km north of
Hoshangabad and 45 km south of Bhopal. The hill is a part of the deciduous
woodland-covered Vindhyan Hills of Central India. The hill, with an area of one
sq. km. is topped by disjointed monolithic rocks, which contain at their bases
and sides as also of many other rocks on the hill a complex of nearly 800
28
prehistoric rock shelters and caves, the largest concentration at one site in the Indian Mesolithic Cultures
world, in Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh. While Bhimbeka is the largest hill
in the area, several other hills, like Bhaunrewali, Kari Talai, Vinayaka and Jondra,
in its vicinity, also contain shelters of varying sizes. The shelters have been
formed by natural erosion of the Vindhyan sandstone of which the hill and the
rocks surmounting it as well as away from it are formed. While almost all the
shelters contain paintings of prehistoric to medieval periods, a few of them also
contain evidence of human occupation in the form of stone tools, pottery, copper
and iron tools, beads of stone, steatite, faience and terracotta, other objects,
animal remains, and human burials. Evidence of occupation in a few shelters
goes back to a few hundred thousand years. Because of the quantitative and
qualitative richness of its archaeological wealth, Bhimbetka has been granted
the status of a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO.

Bhimbetka, discovered by V.S. Wakankar of Ujjain University in 1957, is a

complex of nearly 1000 caves and rock shelters in the forested Vindhya
hills, 45 km. South of Bhopal and 35 km. North of Hoshangabad in Madhya
Pradesh. Over 500 shelters contain paintings of Stone Age to Late Medieval
Period, and some of them also contain habitation deposits of Lower
Palaeolithic to Early Historic period. A number of the shelters were
excavated by V.S.Wakankar and V.N.Misra, from 1973 to 1977. The
excavations yielded rich cultural evidence of the Lower Palaeolithic to Early
Historical periods and biological evidence of the Mesolithic period.

b) Environmental Setting
What is the explanation of the richness of this archaeological wealth? Bhimbetka
and its surroundings receive annual rainfall of about 1000 mm. Because of this
the hills are covered with dense vegetation. The forest in the valley as well as on
the slopes and tops of the hills contains numerous trees, plants and creepers
which have edible leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, roots and tubers. The hills also
harbour many herbivores which are a large source of meat. There are a number
of perennial springs and seasonal streams which are a source of assured water
supply for animal and human populations of the area. Numerous caves and shelters
provide ready-made protection against the elements. The hills have an
inexhaustible supply of fine-grained quartzite for making tools. A few kilometres
south of Bhimbetka there are exposures of Deccan lavas which contain veins of
quartz and siliceous minerals from which Mesolithic people made their tools
and weapons. Blessed with such abundance of all essential resources, Bhimbetka
was indeed a prehistoric paradise, and it is therefore no surprise that the
inhabitants of the shelters had enough leisure to produce one of the richest and
most beautiful corpus of prehistoric art in the world. The site was jointly excavated
by Dr. Wakankar and V.N. Misra..
c) Wakankar’s Excavation
V.S. Wakankar excavated seven shelters and V.N. Misra excavated three. In one
shelter, IIIF-24 or Auditorium Cave, Wakankar found evidence of Early Acheulian
culture and Pre-Acheulian chopper-chopping tools. In another shelter, IIIA-28,
he found a boundary wall made of large boulders to enclose the Acheulian
habitation area. In several other shelters, he came across evidence of Middle
Palaeolithic, Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Early Historic and Medieval period
occupations. In some shelters he found human bones which he believed were
fossilised. 29
Mesolithic Cultures d) V.N. Misra’s Excavation
V.N. Misra excavated three shelters: IIIF-15, IIIF-23, and IIB-33. Of these, IIIF-
23 is the most Mesolithic. The Mesolithic habitation area was partitioned into
two by a wall of stone slabs and boulders. While Pre-Mesolithic industries were
all made of quartzite. Mesolithic assemblage was made entirely of crypto-
crystalline siliceous material. Bones collected from a secondary burial were placed
on the floor of the shelter. Shelter IIIF-13 produced a lot of ash from a fireplace,
small pieces of wheel-made pottery and microliths and other stone tools.

Shelter IIB-33 had the thickest habitation deposit of 1.5 m, and it belonged
exclusively to the Mesolithic. The deposit yielded a highly developed geometric
microlithic industry, many upper grinding stones, a few ground bone and antler
pieces, and some pieces of ground red ochre. All these were associated with
several primary burials found one above the other. The deposit also produced
plenty of charcoal which was used for dating by PRL and BSIP laboratories. A
number of dates ranging from 2000 to 8000 B.P. were obtained from this charcoal.

e) Contact between Mesolithic Hunter-gatherers and Chalcolithic Farmers

All the shelters yielded evidence of contact of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers with
settled farmers. This evidence consists of copper tools, painted pottery, stone,
steatite, faience, terracotta, agate and carnelian beads, and bangles of shell,
porcelain and glass.

f) Rock Paintings
In addition to its rich and varied evidence of human occupation during the
Mesolithic period, Bhimbetka is justly famous for its spectacular wealth of rock
paintings. Almost every shelter on Bhimbetka hill contains some paintings. The
same is broadly true of shelters on the other hills. A few shelters like the Zoo
Rock, Wild Boar and Crab, IIIC-9, and Rangmahal are particularly rich in
paintings.

The paintings occur on the walls and ceilings and in the niches or hollows in
rock walls. They are made in red, white, yellow, green, and, rarely, black colours.
These colours were produced by grinding naturally occurring pigment nodules
into powder. The powder was mixed with plant sap or animal blood to form the
pigment for creating the paintings.

g) Subject Matter of Paintings

The paintings depict a large variety of wild animals which comprise oxen, gaur,
buffalo, antelopes like nilgai, blackbuck, deer like barasingha, sambhar, chital,
hog deer, and barking deer, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, hyena, wolf,
jackal, fox, porcupine, monkey and rat. They are portrayed as sitting, standing,
walking and running individually or in groups. The animals are realistically drawn
and are characterised by vitality and dynamism. Next to them are scenes of hunting
of animals by using spears, sticks, bows and arrows, traps and snares as also of
fishing and digging of rats, tubers and roots, and collection of honey. Small
animals are collected in bags or baskets, and carried to camps with the bag slung
over the shoulder or back. There are also scenes of sanctified animals like the
wild boar which is depicted in several shelters.

30
h) Importance of Bhimbetka Indian Mesolithic Cultures

Bhimbetka is thus an archaeological site of exceptional importance in terms of

the record of prehistoric technology, economy, biology, and art. When V.N.
Misra and his team conducted excavation at the site in the 1970s, access to it
was very difficult. The team had to walk over uneven and steep rocks and boulders,
and close to deep ravines. Misra’s team had to transport their camp and digging
equipment on labourers’ heads and in bullock carts for which track had to be
made every time by dislodging boulders, breaking rocks, and filling depressions
with rubble and mud.

Because of its artistic treasure the site received wide publicity through national
and international news channels, news on radio and TV, articles which Wakankar
and Misra wrote for English, Hindi, and Marathi newspapers and magazines,
hundreds of visitors from Bhopal and nearby towns, and visits of a large number
of Indian and foreign archaeologists to our excavations. The visit of the
charismatic Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Smt. Sonia Gandhi to Bhimbetka
in 1984 further boosted its image. Following this visit the Madhya Pradesh
Government built a road connecting the site to Itarsi-Bhopal highway, right up
to the top of the Bhimbetka hill, a guest house and essential facilities for tourists.
In 1978 V.N.Misra organised an international symposium on Indo-Pacific
Prehistory at Pune. Nearly a hundred archaeologists from India and over 25 foreign
countries who participated in the excavation also visited Bhimbetka. This visit
further boosted the national and international image of the site.

The central and M.P. Govt. have all along been very supportive of our research
and our efforts to bring Bhimbetka to the notice of the national and international
archaeological communities and the public. Even while V.N. Misra’s team were
excavating at the site, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) had declared
Bhimbetka a site of national importance. The building of infrastructural facilities
has boosted tourist traffic to the site.

2.6 SUMMARY
This unit describes the Middle Stone age or Mesolithic cultures, which is in
between Palaeolithic and Neolithic cultures. This stage is much shorter when
compared to Palaeolithic stage. Mesolithic period is characterised by Microliths
or the tiny tools. The diet of the Mesolithic people consisted of leaves, flowers,
fruits, seeds, roots, and tubers, flesh of wild land and water animals, and birds.
Mesolithic stage in India represented in the following states: Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.

Suggested Reading
Agrawal, D.P. J.S. Kharakwal. 2002. South Asian Prehistory: A Mutidisciplinary
Study. New Delhi: Aryan Books.

Misra, V.N. 2002. Mesolithic Culture in India, In, Mesolithic India, (V.D. Misra
and J.N. Pal (Eds.)., PP. 1-66. Allahabad: Department of Ancient History, Culture
and Archaeology, Allahabad University.

31
Mesolithic Cultures Misra, V.N. and Malti Nagar. 2009. Typology of Indian Mesolithic Tools, Man
and Environment, XXXIV (2): 17-45.

Wakankar, V.S.and R.R.R. Brooks. 1976. Stone Age Paintings in India. Bombay:
Taraporewala and Sons.

Sample Questions
1) Define Mesolithic and mention its chief characteristics.
2) List the principal Mesolithic sites of India, their location and names of their
excavators.
3) What are microliths. Mention their chief types and features. What Non-
Microlithic tools are found in Mesolithic cultures?
4) Describe the burial practices of the Mesolithic period.
5) Give an account of the art of the Mesolithic period.
6) Summarise the evidence of contact between Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and
their technologically and ecnomically more advanced neighours.
7) Discuss the economic and social consequences of contact between
Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and their technologically and ecnomically more
advanced neighours.
8) Write short notes:
9) (i) A.C.L. Carlleyle; (ii) V.A. Smith; (iii) Robert Bruce Foote; (iv) H.D.
Sankalia; (v) G.R. Sharma; (vi) B. Subbarao; (vii) Grahame Clark; (viii)
Langhnaj, (ix) Bhimbetka, (x) Bagor, (xi) Tilwara, (xii) Birbhanpur, (xiii)
Teri Sites, (xiv) Ppachmarhi (xv) Kanjars, (xvi) Baheliyas, (xvii) Bhils,
(xviii) Van Vagris, (xix) Birhors, (xx) Chenchus, (xxi) Kadars, (xxii)
Kurubas, (xxiii) Kal Beliyas.
10) Discuss the importance of the Mesolithic in human cultural evolution.

32
 Indian Mesolithic Cultures
UNIT 3 MESOLITHIC ART

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 When did First Rock Art Evolve?
3.1.2 The Rock Art Sites in India
3.2 Bhimbetka Rock Art
3.2.1 Location of Bhimbetka
3.2.2 Why the Name Bhimbetka?
3.2.3 The Bhimbetka Rock Art
3.2.4 Why were such Paintings Made?
3.2.5 Classification of Bhimbetka Rock Art Complex
3.3 Pachmarhi Rock Art
3.3.1 The Location of Pachmarhi
3.3.2 The Shelters, Paintings and Antiquity
3.3.3 Who are the People in the Paintings?
3.4 Adamgarh Rock Art
3.4.1 The Location of Adamgarh
3.4.2 The Rock-Shelters and Paintings
3.4.3 The Antiquity
3.5 Art on Ostrich Egg Shells
3.6 The Cup-marks and Petroglyphs
3.6.1 What are Cupules?
3.6.2 The Antiquity of the Cupules
3.6.3 How were Cupules Made?
3.6.4 Why were the Cupules Made?
3.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to know:
Ø how do people express ideas through art? ;
Ø why do people use images to tell stories and to communicate?;
Ø what did people use to record important events in their lives or history long
ago?;
Ø how has art been used throughout history to tell stories or to show us what
people in other times and places considered important?;
Ø how paintings and drawings help to convey significant ideas and events and
how people today understand the past from putting together stories and
history from these images?;
Ø what do you know about the life of these people shown in paintings? When
and where did they live? What animals lived when the cave people lived?
what did cave people use animals for? What tools did they have? Why do
we call them cave people?; 33
Mesolithic Cultures Ø how are their lives similar to and different from our lives today? Where do
we get our information about the cave people?;
Ø what was the period of the Lower Paleolithic, the Middle Paleolithic, Upper
Palaeolithic, the Mesolithic, Neolithic?;
Ø how to identify the images of the bison, ibex, ox, stags, mammoths, reindeer,
bears, felines, rhinoceros, birds, fish, etc., human images drawn?
Ø what were the cave artists trying to say?;
Ø why there were so many animals and not as many people in the paintings?;
Ø what can the paintings tell us about other aspects of the life of cave dwellers
or Paleolithic people?;
Ø how did mesolithic men of India make these pictures if there were no stores
to buy paint and brushes or tools for carving?;
Ø what colors are prominent in the paintings, and what natural sources might
provide these pigments if they didn’t have crayons or markers?;
Ø what challenges cave people might have encountered in painting on cave
walls and ceilings- pitch-black darkness, irregular surface of the rocky walls,
steepness and height, adherence of the pigment to the surface, etc. ; and
Ø speculate how the Palaeolithic people overcame some of these challenges-
what did they use for lighting?.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Rock Art or Palaeoart is our ancestors’ earliest signature drawn on rock surfaces
either on the open cliffs or inside the rock shelters and caves where they lived. It
can be seen in the form of rock paintings (petrographs) and / or in the form of
engravings, cupules, etc. (petroglyphs). They provide a unique opportunity to
understand the origins of human mind and serve as source for studying the material
culture of the society in its ecological setting. These along with other oral
traditions, myths and legends of the tribal people help social scientists to
reconstruct the ethno-history.

3.1.1 When did First Rock Art Evolve?

It is yet not clear whether Homo erectus, the species which preceded ours, had
developed art during the Lower Palaeolithic time, though he had made amazingly
beautiful well refined stone implements seen in Narmada valley collections which
ought to be more than utilitarian and definitely of great aesthetic value. It is
widely observed and understood that with the emergence of modern human
species, Homo sapiens, during Upper Palaeolithic time over 150,000 years ago
fast brain or neurobiological evolution of man occurred and the higher faculty of
abstraction of ideas and their expressions was achieved by our species. This
faculty heralded fast development in the next Stone Age period known as
Mesolithic which witnesses behavioural and social and cultural modernity
manifested in the creativity of visual representations, various kinds of art artistic
skills, the Mesolithic art.

34
3.1.2 The Rock Art Sites in India Mesolithic Art

Rock Art is widely distributed in Northern, Western, Eastern and Southern part
of India right from Ladakh, (J&K), Manipur and Himachal Pradesh to Tamil
Nadu and Kerala. But most of the rock art sites are in the central India, notably
in the Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. This is primarily
due to its unique geo-environmental set-up which favoured the evolution of early
human culture on the Central Indian plateau. This is therefore that the mountainous
region of the Vindhya and Satpura ranges which confine the Central Narmada
Valley where Stone Age man flourished, have the largest number of rock art
sites. The Vindhyan and Satpura ranges are fractured and elevated to such a way
which produced natural shelters and caves of the Block Mountains. These shelters
could easily be occupied by early hunter-gatherers and pastorals whose
descendants, such as Gond, Muria, Korku, Bhilala, etc. tribal communities still
thrive on incipient or marginal farming and continue with their traditional
lifestyles. Bhimbetka rock art shelters in the Vidhyan Range and the Adamgarh
and Pachmarhi in the Satpura are among the most important rock art sites in
India, beside the Daraki Chattan in Chhattisgarh and numerous in the Hazaribagh,
Giridih and Kodarmada, Chatra region of the Jharkhand several which have
become fairly known in recent years through the efforts of Dr. (Colonel) A.K.
Prasad. The rock-arts of Bhimbetka, Pachmarhi and Adamgarh have greater
antiquity since the Upper Palaeolithic though Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic
and early historic periods.

3.2 BHIMBETKA ROCK ART

3.2.1 Location of Bhimbetka
Bhimbetka rock-art-site is in the Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, located at
22o56’N: 77o36’E latitude, 45km south of Bhopal or 30 km northwest of
Hoshangabad on Obaidullaganj – Itarsi national highway. The site looks like a
huge fortified segmented ridge from a short distance. The rocky terrain covered
by dense forest at the southern edge of the Vindhyan hills. Its topmost peak is
619 meter high from mean sea level. Narmada River flows in the south of the
Vindhya and in the north of Satpura range. The lush green dense forests on a
rocky terrain and craggy cliffs appear the natural guards of Bhimbetka. In fact,
Bhimbetka cluster of shelters starts from the Shyamla hills in Bhopal as a chain
towards south along the River Betwa in a ‘S’ twisted course followed by its
tributaries; Bhimbetka hill being in middle. About half of the painted rock-shelters
of Bhimbetka are accessible but the rest are in dense forested area infested with
wildlife.

The paintings at Bhimbetka are found on the walls, ceiling and hollows in
the shelters. They are made in red and white colours and less commonly
in green, yellow and black colours derived from minerals in the rocks and
earth. The paintings can be divided into two chronological stages:
prehistoric and historic. The chief subjects of the prehistoric paintings
are scenes of wild animals, hunting, trapping and fishing. Less common
are depictions of daily life, dancing, singing, playing musical instruments,
celebrating birth, and grieving sickness and death. The scenes in historic
paintings comprise processions of caparisoned elephants and horses and
fighting with swords, shields, spears, and bows and arrows.
35
Mesolithic Cultures 3.2.2 Why the Name Bhimbetka?
The gigantic rocks of Bhimbetka owe its name to Bhima, literally the seat of
Bhima (Bhimbethak), the mighty character of Mahabharata, who along with other
Pandavas is said to have stayed in these caves. The name of the nearby places is
also Pandapur, and Bhiyanpura, which could be a distortion of Bhimpura (meaning
the town of Bhima).

Bhimbetka finds first mention in Indian Archaeological Records (1888) as a

Buddhist site, but its painted rock shelters were first discovered in 1957-58 by
an Archaeologist Dr. Vishnu Wakankar of Ujjain. Without being much aware of
the paintings the local villagers used to assemble on the hilltop for annual fair of
Shivaratri in the month of March. A Siva devotee and a medicine man, Baba
Shalik Ram Das has maintained a temple within the painted rock-shelter premises
where he has kept the tribal artefacts, such as bow and arrows.

3.2.3 The Bhimbetka Rock Art

The rock shelter complex of Bhimbetka exhibits the earliest pictorial traces of
prehistoric man’s life in Indian Sub-continent. It is a natural art gallery-complex
of prehistoric man and a land of archaeological treasures serving as invaluable
historical chronicle since the Palaeolithic through the Mesolithic until the early
history. Bhimbetka rock-shelters were also inhabited by the Middle to Upper
Palaeolithic man as is evident from stone tools, and for its quantum and quality
of rock paintings as well as for its surroundings still inhabited by primitive tribes
who continue with the Stone Age traditions, it has been declared as an important
World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the year 2003.

Photographs by
Dr. A.R. Sankhyan

Fig. 3.1: Bhimbetka & Adamgarh Rock-Shelters of India & Rock Paintings

According to Yasodhra Mathpal and Somnath Chakraverty, there are about

estimated 6214 rock art motifs in Bhimbetka predominated by zoomorphs (animal
art) and a combination of them with human figures (anthropomorphs). A series
36
of hunting scenes of archers are remarkable in Bhimbetka representing inter- Mesolithic Art
group conflicts and probably within the group clashes as well. The paintings of
the later period have human figures and designs in geometric pattern as well as
other ritualistic/ religious symbols and conch–shell inscriptions. There are
paintings of dance scenes and horse-riding warriors with umbrella-like head gears,
scenes of honey collection and fishing, hunting of the wild boar, etc. There are
depiction of musical instruments of horns, pipes, drums and tom-toms. We can
also notice palm prints, thumb impressions, hand stencils and finger markings.
On the whole they bear similarities with the subsistence patterns of the
surrounding contemporary marginal cultivators and food-gatherers.

The paintings show different overlapping layer in red and white. The paintings
in green are considered the earliest though the haematite (red ochre) was also
quite common. The earliest layer mostly represents large figures of wild animals
either depicted in red ochre or in white/ grey colour. The black colour from
charcoal or manganese was used likely later.

3.2.4 Why were such Paintings Made?

Some of you may think that these paintings were drawn to decorate the caves
and for pleasure. K. L. Kamat observed that many of them are not planned or
organised nicely; not have taken the trouble even to erase the older paintings and
drawings. There are several overlaps of layers of sketches on one another. We
can separate them through colour and style differences. Most probably, these
were created as a means of escape from suffering and as devotion to supernatural
entity since there are red, green, and white colours in all hues and varieties used
to decorate the dead. Some paintings appear made with finger, some with brushes
of feathers, wood and peacock feather stems or porcupines needles as per the
style and the texture. With full freedom of expression the prehistoric man
expressed life in a simplified way, drawing the animals and birds in just two or
three strokes, and then using symbols; some are single line sketches whereas
some are finished with a fair stroke. Interestingly, the engraved figures in
Bhimbetka are almost non-existent unlike Pachmarhi, and several other sites in
Central India.

3.2.5 Classification of Bhimbetka Rock Art Complex

Yashodar Mathpal and other scholars consider about nine successive
developmental phases in Bhimbetka rock art complex as follows:

A) Prehistoric
Phase 1: Large size animals (buffaloes, elephants, wild bovids and big
cats), outlined and partially in-filled with geometric and maze patterns; no
humans.

Phase 2: Diminutive figures of animals and humans, full of life and

naturalistic; hunters mostly in groups; deer dominant; colours red, white
and emerald green- the latter is with the humans in dancing, S-shaped bodies.

Phase 3: Large size animals with vertical strips and humans.

Phase 4: Schematic and simplified figures.

37
Mesolithic Cultures Phase 5: Decorative; “large-horned animals” drawn “in fine thin lines with
body decoration in honey-comb, zigzag and concentric square pattern”.

B) Transitional (Beginning of Agricultural Life)

Phase 6: Quite different from the previous ones; conventional and schematic;
body of animals in a rectangle with stiff legs; humps on bovines, sometimes
horns adorned at the tip; chariots and carts with yoked oxen.

C) Historic
Phase 7: Riders on horses and elephants; group dancers; thick white and
red colour: decline in artistic merit.

Phase 8: Bands of marching and facing soldiers, their chiefs riding elephants
and horses equipped with long spears, swords, bows and arrows; rectangular
shields, a little curved; horses elaborately decorated and caparisoned; white
infilling and red outlining.

Phase 9. Geometric human figures, designs; known religious symbols and

inscriptions.

3.3 PACHMARHI ROCK ART

3.3.1 The Location of Pachmarhi
Pachmarhi is more famous for its rock-cut Pandav caves associated with the
Pandavas of the Mahabharata and gets its name from the seat of five Pandavas.
It is the only hill station in the central region of India, situated in the Satpura
range and Mahadeo hills at about 1100 meters height above mean sea level.
Discovered by Captain James Forsyth of the British army in 1857, it became a
hill station and sanatorium for British troops in the Central Provinces of India. It
is popular as ‘Satpura ki Rani’. Jatashankar is an important rock formation in
Pachmarhi is –a place sanctified by the Shaivite lore; its rocks are indeed shaped
like the mater hair of lord Shiva, and inside its natural cavern there is a stone
formation like the hundred-headed divine snake Seshnag. The Pachmarhi valley
is glorified by ravines and maze of gorges, deep azure pools, sculpted in red
sandstone by the wind and weather, and cascading waterfalls flash silver in the
sunshine, a natural sanctuary of wildlife and birds.

3.3.2 The Shelters, Paintings and Antiquity

Pachmarhi is an archaeological treasure-house besides being magnificently gifted
by nature. There are numerous works of early human workmanship. The cave
shelters of the Mahadeo hill are rich in rock paintings, most of which are dated
to 500 - 800 AD, but the earliest paintings are about 10,000 years old of Mesolithic
period. Most of the paintings are in white, sometimes also outlined in red. They
depict scenes from every day life and hunting as well as the warfare. There are
about 22 clusters of rock-shelters and caves within about 100 square km which
have preserved paintings. Some of the best cave shelters and groups of shelters
around Pachmarhi are: Dhuandhar, approached from the footpath to Apsara Vihar.

38
 Mesolithic Art

Photographs courtesy Dr. (Col.) A.K. Prasad & Dr. Minakshi Pathak

Fig. 3.2: Pachmarhi & Jharkhand Rock Art

At Bharat Neer (Dorothy Deep) there are animal paintings, where 1930s
excavations also yielded many potshards and Microlithic tools. Asthachal (Monte
Rosa) is another site where four shelters exist with paintings, which are linear
drawings. Along the northern side of Jambu Dwip valley there are six shelters
with paintings of animals and human figures, including a battle scene. Harper’s
Cave is another, so named for its paintings, i.e. a man seated and playing a harp
close to the Jatashankar Shrine. The Chieftain’s Cave derives its name from a
battle scene showing two chieftains on horses. A terrace that runs the length of
the South, South East and East faces of Kites Crag has some fine cave paintings,
the majority of which are in white or outlined in red.

3.3.3 Who are the People in the Paintings?

Several of the Pachmarhi rock paintings depict the traditional way of its ancient
inhabitants, and presently too Pachmarhi is an important abode of very ancient
semi-nomadic tribal people like, Gonds, Kols, Bhills, Murias, Baigas, Korkus,
Kamaras, Marias and Oraons, some of them have preserved very remarkably
their distinct way of life in isolation, hunting and shifting cultivation.

3.4 ADAMGARH ROCK ART

3.4.1 The Location of Adamgarh
Around 40 km from Bhimbetka, Adamgarh Hills are a part of the southern edge
of the central Indian plateau elevated as Satpura Range, located just 2 km from
Hoshangabad town (Madhya Pradesh) along the Nagpur national highway, quite
close to the left bank of river Narmada. Since Stone Age Man lived around
Hoshangabad, which is evident from its historical back ground revealed by the
excavations made on the nearby rivers namely; Narmada, Tawa, Doodhi,
Palakmati, Denwa, etc.
39
Mesolithic Cultures 3.4.2 The Rock-Shelters and Paintings
Adamgarh rock-shelters have the earliest known Rock art in India maintained by
the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) as is Bhimbetka. We can find numerous
stone tools of the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures at and around
Adamgarh. Mesolithic tools are tiny flakes of geometric trapezes, triangles,
lunates, etc. used in the combined way by the prehistoric man. The remains of
Stone Age in the form of cave paintings can be seen in the rock shelters of
Mesolithic was the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the
Neolithic Age. There was rise in temperature and the climate became warm and
dry. The climatic changes affected human life and brought about changes in
fauna and flora. The technology of producing tools also underwent change and
the small stone tools were used. Man was predominantly in hunting/gathering
stage but there was shift in the in pattern of hunting from big game to small
game hunting and to fishing and fowling.

At Adamgarh there are twenty painted rock-shelters scattered over a deserted

sandstone cliff within four square kilometre area. Depiction of human figures in
rock paintings is quite common in various postures — dancing, running, and
hunting, playing games, wars and quarrelling made in deep red, green, white and
yellow colours. The material and ecological changes are also reflected in the
rock paintings. Animals are frequently depicted either alone or in large and small
groups and shown in various poses; the domesticated animals include zebu cattle,
buffalo, goat, sheep, pig and dog, whereas the wild species painted are Varanus
griseus, Hystrix cristata, Equus sp., Cervus duvauçeli, Cervus unicolor, Axis
axis and Lupus nigricollis.

3.4.3 The Antiquity

Two dates have been obtained for the Mesolithic layers at Adamgarh, viz.,
2765±105 BP (TF-116) and 7450±130 BP (TF-120). The found Mesolithic tools,
called microliths, are of various types made on chert, agate, chalcedony, quartz,
jasper, carnelian, etc., and measure about one to five centimetres in length. The
life style of the Late Stone Age or Mesolithic people was primarily hunting,
fishing and food-gathering, nicely portrayed on the painted walls.

3.5 ART ON OSTRICH EGG SHELLS

The ostrich eggs are so big and strong that one can carve and cut intricate designs
into their shells. The evidences show that engravings on ostrich shell were started
as early as 60,000 years ago. A French scholar Pierre-Jean Texier discovered
about 270 eggshell fragments in a South African cave known for various
archaeological finds, and the engravings came from at least 25 separate eggs,
and displayed a very limited set of motifs — only hatched — bands like parallel
lines, intersecting lines or cross-hatching. Texier believed that the shell motifs
are enough evidence to show that these prehistoric humans were capable of
symbolic thought. Contemporary Kalahari hunter-gatherers also collect ostrich
eggs as noticed by Texier in some Bushmen groups (e.g. Kung), who used similar
graphics. Christopher Henshilwood found a slab of ochre covered in geometric
carvings as old as 70,000 years ago in a South Africa cave, Blombos.

The portable art of Indian Mesolithic is meagre. Among many ostrich eggshell
40 objects found in India the Patne (Maharashtra) specimen authenticated by Robert
Bednarik is dated to about 25000 years BP. The Patne engravings resemble those Mesolithic Art
of the Upper Palaeolithic find in Israel; similar borderlines are also seen on the
Chinese and other early Palaeoart. Another classical instance is a chalcedony
core with delicate geometric engraving found at Chandravati by V.H. Sonawane,
considered to be of Mesolithic antiquity because of its context and artefact
typology. An engraved human tooth and a few engraved bone objects described
by V.S. Wakankar were found at Bhimbetka III A-28, considered authentic by
Robert Bednarik.

3.6 THE CUP-MARKS AND PETROGLYPHS

The petroglyphs are often unpatinated or only partly patinated. Body decoration
and Petroglyphs might have preceded the visual iconic and non-iconic art. But
Robert Bednarik maintains that it is not plausible that the first form of body
decoration must have been by beads or pendants, which might or might not
necessarily been made of non-perishable materials since recent hunting societies
made most of their beads from perishable plant seeds, shell, bone or ivory
ornaments. Most body decorations, such as body painting, tattoos, cicatrices,
infibulations, headdresses, coiffures, deformation, etc. could never survive in
the archaeological record. The Neanderthals of the Châtelperronian used
ornamentation (ivory rings, perforated and incised pendants, ochre, fossils and
crystals) that is so similar to that of the contemporary Early Aurignacians.
Petroglyphs generally last longer than rock paintings, except in deep caves or
where a silica skin covered paintings. Among various types of petroglyphs that
have the greatest potential to survive include cupules and simple geometric figures.
So, the objective record of Palaeoart and related phenomena provides no
justification at all for distinct cognitive differentiation between human
‘subspecies’ in the Pleistocene, i.e. between Homo erectus and archaic Homo
sapiens, as between Neanderthals and their late contemporaries in Europe, the
pre-Cro-Magnon people.

3.6.1 What are Cupules?

The cupules are hemispherical, cup-shaped, non-utilitarian, cultural marks that
have been pounded into a rock surface by human hand. Robert G. Bednarik has
used the term “cupule” and raised it to the status of an extraordinary art form
among the earliest known prehistoric art and the most common motif type in
world rock art. He rules out the similar natural formations since the cupules
should display some microscopic signs of percussion, such as crushed particles,
and surface bruising, and must possess some non-utilitarian or symbolic function,
even though an additional utilitarian function may be present. Therefore potholes
(fluvial abrasion hollows) and lithological cupmarks (tessellated sand-stone
pavements caused by cumulative underground stresses) should be excluded.

3.6.2 The Antiquity of the Cupules

Cupules are typically found in groups, normally measuring around 1.5 to 10 cm
in diameter and about 10-12 mm in depth, often occurring on horisontal or in
many cases sloping at 45o, and also on vertical rock-surfaces. A number of them
are found on boulders, e.g., La Ferrassie Neanderthal cave in France dated between
70,000 and 40,000 BC by Bednarik. In Bhimbetka Auditorium Cave as well as
in the Daraki-Chattan in India, they occur on very hard erosion-resistant quartzite
41
Mesolithic Cultures rock, gneissic granite and even crystalline quartz dated to between 290,000 and
700,000 BC. They are regarded as the oldest cupules by Bednarik since they
occur on immobile hard surface sandwiched between a solid upper level stratum
of the Middle Palaeolithic and Acheulian cultural level of the Lower Palaeolithic.
Elsewhere too they are found to have been made by the chopping tools using
hominins like the Oldowan of Africa. Some of the cupules have been re-worked
by later artists, e.g., one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created about 7000 BC
was re-pounded about 200 AD. A large cupule reported from Sai Island (Sudan)
is thought to be about 200,000 years old, but the oldest cupule-bearing rock is in
the primordial Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, dating to approximately 1.7 million
BCE. In Australia, the Turtle Rock cupules in northern Queensland may be as
old as 30,000 or 60,000 BP. Bednarik attributes the earliest cupule-making to
Homo erectus and thinks that the cupules had clear evidence of symbolic language.

Fig. 3.3: Some Palaeoart Petroglyphs in India

3.6.3 How were Cupules Made?

Giriraj Kumar experimented with cupule-making process at Daraki-Chattan using
hammer-stone technique and after five experiments observed that different cupules
worked out to different depths required different time span. For instance Copule
1 took 8,490 blows involving 72 minutes of actual working time. Cupule 2,
worked to a depth of 4.4 mm, required 8,400 blows involving 66 minutes of
actual working time, before the tester reached exhaustion. Cupule 3 required
6,916 strikes to reach a depth of 2.55 mm; Cupule 4 took 1,817 strikes to attain
a depth of 0.05 mm (then abandoned); Cupule 5 required 21,730 blows and
reached a depth of 6.7 mm.

The experiments clearly demonstrated that pounding a cupule on a hard rock

required a colossal expenditure of energy. Given that Daraki Chattan has over
500 cupules, one can readily appreciate the serious nature of the endeavour.
Therefore, the cupule-making was no trivial exercise - at least not where hard
stone was involved.
42
3.6.4 Why were the Cupules Made? Mesolithic Art

There is yet no convincing explanation of the cultural or artistic meaning of

cupules, but they are first and foremost a pattern of behaviour common to nearly
all known prehistoric cultures around the globe. Many scholars associate the
cupules with fertility rites. For instance, Bednarik cites a report of Mountford
who witnessed making of cupules in central Australia in the 1940s as a ritual for
the pink cockatoo. The rock out of which the cupules were pounded was believed
by the Aborigines to contain the life essence of this bird, and the mineral dust
rising into the air as a result of this pounding was believed to fertilise the female
cockatoos to increase their egg production, which the Aborigines valued as a
source of food. So, Bednarik opines that the meaning and purpose of such ancient
art cannot be understood without understanding the ethnographic beliefs of their
creators.

3.7 SUMMARY
Rock is our ancestors’ earliest signature on rock surfaces in the form of petrographs
(rock paintings) and petroglyphs (engravings, cupules, etc.), which provide a
unique opportunity to understand the origins of human mind and serve as source
for studying the material culture of the society in its ecological setting. These
along with other oral traditions, myths and legends of the tribal people help
social scientists to reconstruct the ethno-history. In terms of petroglyphs, rock
art is quite old in India traced back to the Lower Palaeolithic age but it flourished
during Mesolithic time. It displays all major developmental phases all through
the early historic period, distributed to the length and breadth of the country with
special concentrations in the Plateau region of central and eastern India. The
most important Mesolithic rock art sites include Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, and
Pachmarhi, and many in the Jharkhand region. Based on the subject matter, colour,
style, encrustation and superimposition, the rock art of India is in general classified
in four broad developmental stages. The Stage 1 is represented by the hunters
and gatherers in symbols/ petroglyphs bearing Palaeolithic to Mesolithic antiquity,
whereas in Stage 2 depicts the hunters and gatherers in hunting and dancing
scenes, in addition to the symbols and geometric designs of the Mesolithic period.
The Stage 3 rock art depicts the settled agriculturist and animal keepers using
pottery corresponding to the Neolithic/Chalcolithic period. The Stage 4 rock art
represents the people of the early historic period. Among the zoomorphs, the
horses and horse-riders predominate within the anthropomorphs in which figures
of the archers and armed men/ warriors are quite frequent representing inter-
ethnic or intra-ethnic struggles especially in the Central India. The dance-styles
and certain rituals portrayed in the rock art find similarity with the contemporary
regional tribal way of life.

We have to protect the priceless heritage of humankind from various threatening

agencies, which include exposure to extreme hot humidity, the lichens and fungus,
the termites, which in fact, is a specialised task of the conservators employed by
the Archaeological Survey of India. But, we can certainly prevent the damage to
them from rampant ignorant human vandalism.

Suggested Reading
Bednarik, R. G. 1993a. Palaeolithic Art in India. Man and Environment 18 (2):
33-40. 43
Mesolithic Cultures Bednarik, R. G. 1993b. About Palaeolithic Ostrich Eggshell in India. Indo-Pacific
Prehistory Association Bulletin 13: 34-43.

Bednarik, R. G., G. Kumar, A. Watchman and R. G. Roberts. 2005. Preliminary

Results of the EIP Project. Rock Art Research 22: 147–197.

Brooks, R. and Wakankar V. S. 1976. Stone Age Painting in India, Yale.

Chakravarty, K. K. (ed.) 1984. Rock Art of India. New Delhi.

Chakravarty, K. K. and R. G. Bednarik. 1997. Indian Rock Art and its Global
Context. Delhi-Bhopal.

Chakraverty, S. 2003. Rock Art Studies in India: A Historical Perspective. The

Asiatic Society, Kolkata.

Kumar, G. 1996. Daraki-Chattan: a Palaeolithic Cupule site in India. Rock Art

Research 13: 38–46.

Mathpal, Y. 1995. Rock Art Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India. New Delhi:
Abhinav Publications.

Sample Questions

1) How do people express ideas through art?

2) Why do people use images to tell stories and to communicate?

3) What did people use to record important events in their lives or history long
ago?

4) How has art been used throughout history to tell stories or to show us what
people in other times and places considered important?

5) How paintings and drawings help convey significant ideas and events and
how people today understand the past from putting together stories and
history from these images?

6) What do you know about the life of these people shown in paintings? When
and where did they live? What animals lived when the cave people lived?
What did cave people use animals for? What tools did they have? Why do
we call them cave people?

7) How are their lives similar to and different from our lives today? Where do
we get our information about the cave people?

8) What was the period of the Lower Paleolithic, the Middle Paleolithic, Upper
Palaeolithic, the Mesolithic, Neolithic?

9) Identify the images of the bison, ibex, ox, stags, mammoths, reindeer, bears,
felines, rhinoceros, birds, fish, etc., human images drawn.

10) Why do you think that there were so many animals and not as many people
in the paintings?

44
11) What can the paintings tell us about other aspects of the life of cave dwellers Mesolithic Art
or Paleolithic people?

12) How did they make these pictures if there were no stores to buy paint and
brushes or tools for carving?

13) What colors are prominent in the paintings, and what natural sources might
provide these pigments if they didn’t have crayons or markers?

14) What challenges cave people might have encountered in painting on cave
walls and ceilings- pitch-black darkness, irregular surface of the rocky walls,
steepness and height, adherence of the pigment to the surface, etc.

45
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

7
NEOLITHIC AND CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES
UNIT 1
Neolithic Revolution 5
UNIT 2
Neolithic Regional Variants 22
UNIT 3
Chalcolithic Cultures 32
UNIT 4
Megalithic Cultures 43
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor Ranjana Ray (Retd.) Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Dept. of Anthropology Associate Professor
Calcutta University, Kolkata Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Prof. Vidula Jayaswal Dr. Queen Bala Marak Dr. Bishnu Priya Basak Dr. H.C. Mahanta
(Unit 1), Ancient Indian (Unit 2) (Unit 3) (Unit 4)
History, Culture and Dept of Anthropology Dept. of Anthropology Assistant Professor
Archeology North Easter Hill University of Calcutta Dept. of Anthropology
Banaras Hindu University University, Shillong Kolkata Dibrugarh University
Dibrugarh

Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5525-0
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 7 NEOLITHIC AND
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES

Introduction
In this block you are going to read about very important and interesting stages of
history of human culture. It is about the times when man was no longer completely
dependent on nature but had started to exploit nature to his own advantage. Earlier
to this during the last more than a million years man was getting his livelihood
from what nature produced freely. They collected wild plant food and hunted
wild animals. In course of time the long association of man with the nature
enabled him to distinguish some plants and animals which he could manipulate
according to his need. He tamed some animals and kept them in pens and took
the responsibility of producing plant food by cultivating some useful varieties.
They needed to clear forest and tilt the soil for agriculture. They also built their
houses near the agricultural fields. From nomads people became settled in villages.
New tool types made with new technique emerged. For this reason the stage
came to be known as Neolithic culture.

This was a stage of economic revolution. Food became somewhat assured and
when they became efficient in food production surplus food was produced and
stored. People could devote their time for making crafts like pottery, ornaments
and art objects. Some people became expert craftsmen. Neolithic culture was
also a period of population explosion. With the surplus food and craft
specialisation trade and commerce started.

Some people discovered the quality of metal ores and experimented with them.
They learnt to extract metal from the ore. First metal used was copper. Perhaps it
was easier to melt. They also learnt to make alloy. Bronze was the first alloy,
which was made by mixing copper with small quantity of tin or sometimes zinc.
Bronze tools were harder in texture. But remember metallurgy needs expertise.
One should know the nature of the ore, type of the fuel and the degree of
temperature for becoming a successful smith. Perhaps the skill was kept secret
on the one hand and on the other metal tools must have been dear, so the common
people still largely made and used stone tools. This stage in which both stone
and copper and other metals were used for making tools was called chalcolithic
culture.

People always were in awe of death. As you know Anthropologists who studied
religion thought that belief in soul perhaps gave rise to the earliest form of religion.
From a very early time people had carefully buried their dead and offered grave
goods to the dead for use in its afterlife. People erected monuments with huge
stones over the graves from the beginning of Neolithic culture. These stones are
called Megaliths. Megaliths were more in number in the metal using stages,
especially during iron age.

India is a land of diverse geographical features. Over this vast land culture also
varied from one area to the other. No unilinear pattern of cultural development is
found in our country. As you know that at a time, in the hills and jungles people
Neolithic and Chalcolithic continued as hunters and gatherers, while in neighbouring river valleys Neolithic
Cultures
culture flourished. Similarly you shall see that within major cultural phases like
Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Megalithic regional variations existed. You shall learn
about all the different prehistoric cultures beginning from Neolithic through
Chalcolithic to Megalithic culture in this block. You shall also be surprised to
learn that there are still people living in this country who continue with the
Megalithic practice.

4
 Neolithic Revolution
UNIT 1 NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is ‘Neolithic Revolution’?
1.3 Origins of Food Production Practices
1.4 Neolithic Remains of India
1.5 Nucleus Areas of Neolithic in India
1.6 Peripheral Areas of Neolithic in India
1.7 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø discuss the stage of human history which turned the progress of man from
savagery to civilization;
Ø describe the origin of agriculture and history of cereal cultivation in India;
Ø describe the early history of animal husbandry in our country;
Ø understand forms and production of the earliest tools and equipments of
agriculture and carpentry;
Ø discuss the beginning of the use of earthen pots; and
Ø describe the beginning of settled and organised life in India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You know that man has evolved since the last two million years. The two million
years long history of man, is divided within three main technological stages —
Stone, Copper/Bronze and Iron. Stone Age itself is classified into three, two of
which — the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic have already been covered earlier. In
this Unit, the final stage of Stone Age, the Neolithic shall be discussed. Beginning
of food production and related technologies were important events in human
history. India also contributed to this venture. The Neolithic cultures in close
succession gave rise to the metal using cultures. Use of metal, the copper of the
Chalcolithic cultures, in India developed from rural to urban stage. In the following
unit of this block, details of Chalcolithic cultures shall be discussed.
In this unit, ‘Neolithic Revolution’ shall be discussed with particular reference
to the ‘Nucleus Areas and Salient Features of Neolithic Cultures in India’. The
term ‘Neolithic’ has been explained. Also reasons for calling it a ‘Revolution’, is
included. The main characteristics of Neolithic period, the incipient farming and
pastoral practices, are mentioned with a brief outline of the tools and equipment,
nature of dwellings and settlements, thereafter.
The factors responsible for the initiation of food production are essential to know.
A brief outline of West Asia, where the origin of food producing practices is well 5
Neolithic and Chalcolithic documented is very significant for history of Noelithic culture of India. The new
Cultures
technologies originated in this region, and spread to the other parts of the world,
including India.
Neolithic Stage is known from the archaeological findings. In India, remains of
this period are found from a number of areas. The nature of Neolithic findings,
along with the main diagnostic features too is important for better understanding.
The main regions of Neolithic occupation are also identified.
The regions of Neolithic spread in India can be identified as — Nucleus and
peripheral areas. Kashmir Valley, Vindhya-Ganga region, and Deccan, are marked
as Nucleus areas of Neolithic occupation. Salient features of each have been
discussed. The findings of the other areas like Ganga plain of Bihar and Bengal,
Chhotanagpur plateau and Assam, Neolithic have been discussed under the head
Peripheral regions of Neolithic in India.

1.2 WHAT IS ‘NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION’?

Terminologies and Concept
The literal meaning of ‘Neolithic’ is New Stone Age. It is the last phase of Stone
Age. It is marked by a number of new cultural traits. Like use of new technology
for making stone tools, new subsistence, new dwelling tendency etc.
All the three distinct stages of Stone Age are characterised by stone tool-making.
In the oldest, the Palaeolithic stage, the first efforts of tool making can be seen in
very primitive forms of chopping and cutting implements. In Palaeolithic period,
the development of stone technology was in the form of decrease in the size and
increase in the efficiency of the working edges. As a result, in the succeeding
stage, the Mesolithic, large quantities of micro/ pigmy tools were being made.
This category marked the culmination of Palaeolithic technology. From the use
of the individual tools, the change was to the use of small tools in composite
forms. Tools like sickle, harpoon etc., could be made by hafting some triangles
on one base. This long practice of development suddenly reversed during the
Neolithic time. Large and heavy tools made on hard stones were produced and
used. This was a new technological stage.
Neolithic tools are also named as — ‘Polished stone axes’, ‘Ground stone axes’
etc. Two new features came to be in practice. One was making of axes and the
other was, grinding of the surfaces of tools. Grinding often resulted in polishing
of the surface. Because of these features the new stone tool making tradition was
named as above.
During the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic stages the mode of subsistence was
hunting and gathering jungle products. Animal and plant food available in natural
form was collected and consumed. Contrary to this in Neolithic stage, man for
the first time started producing food by artificial means. Two practices were
initiated at this time, — agriculture and domestication of animals. There were
some wild species of animals, such as — goat, sheep and cattle, which were
tamed. Similarly, wild variety of barley, wheat and paddy, were cropped at the
initial stage. Since this was the first stage, both these practices were in incipient
or primitive form. But, these were new and important innovations in the history
of man. Agriculture was such an important invention that a small section of the
society was able to produce food for the entire community. It was thus, termed as
6 ‘Green Revolution’ by archaeologists. V. Gordon Childe coined the term Neolithic
revolution in 1920 when he was describing the first agricultural revolution. He Neolithic Revolution
considered the beginning of food production as a revolution because food
production ushered important and significant changes in the subsistence economy
and life of the communities who started this. Surplus food production by the
farmers made it possible for large section of the society to master skills of arts,
crafts and technologies. A natural outcome of which was a rapid growth of trade
and commerce and, economic affluence.
The new subsistence also changed the dwelling pattern. The nomadic tendency
of hunting-gathering changed into ‘sedentary’ or settled life. Wandering from
one to other place in search of edibles was not required now. Instead, man’s
dwelling was governed by the preparation and use of cultivated fields.
Construction of durable structures, villages near the farming fields were inevitable.
Domesticated animals too required a shelter, which formed part of human dwelling
complex.
All the above new beginnings and a number of other cultural traits justify the
term ‘New Stone Age’ for the Neolithic. The term ‘Revolution’ is attached to it
due to the unique innovation of food production strategies, particularly agriculture.
It is therefore addressed as ‘Neolithic Revolution’.

Main Tools and Technologies of Neolithic Period

The diagnostic feature of Neolithic period is ‘Ground stone axes’ or the ‘Polished
stone axes’. The most common type of a Neolithic tool-kit is axe or celt. Shaped
almost like the present day iron axe, this was the form having one sharp cutting
edge, and a butt. The type is found in small to large sizes. Variation in shape of
the butt in the form of English alphabets V, U and with shoulders can be found.
Similar to present day, a Neolithic axe was hafted to a stick with its cutting edge
parallel to the haft (Fig.1.1 A). The other common type is adze. Almost similar
in look the edge of this tool is so that it is used by hafting it in a way that its
cutting edge is placed perpendicular to the haft/ handle (Fig.1.1 B). This is a
carpenter’s tool. The other forms are ring-stones, chisels, hoe, pick etc. All these
types are agriculture and carpentry tools.

Fig.1.1 7
Neolithic and Chalcolithic A Neolithic tool-kit is made from locally available fine grained, but hard rock
Cultures
like basalt, dolerite, schist etc. After selection of the basic lump of suitable stone,
the main form of the tool is produced by knocking off extra mass of stone by a
stone hammer (Fig. 1.2. A). This procedure is known as flaking. The initial flaking
leaves prominent ridges and depression on the surface of the tool. In the second
stage the undulation of the surface is flattened by removing very small chips
(Fig. 1.2. B). Remember, metal was not known at this stage, so this flaking too
was performed by stone or antler. The fine flaking of the second stage is named
‘pecking’. Though pecking flattens the surface of tool considerably, it still leaves
surface full of minute undulations. Thus the surfaces of the tool in the final stage
were rubbed over a block of stone covered with sand layer (Fig. 1.2.C). Such a
grinding operation made the surface completely smooth and also made it shining
at times.

Fig.1.2

1.3 ORIGINS OF FOOD PRODUCTION

PRACTICES
Background for Origins
Archaeological records for the earliest food production practices come from West
Asia. In around ninth/eighth millennium BCE (Before Common Era), agricultural
and pastoral practices were innovated. Wild animal species like sheep, goat, and
pig were tamed. Also wild varieties of wheat and barley were the first crops
which were cultivated. The question is why this innovation happened in West
Asia? A number of factors worked together prompting the initiation of food
production practices, here.

Mesolithic, the preceding stage of Neolithic, was very wide spread in Levant
Valley of West Asia. The Savanna climatic condition which prevailed in the
early Holocene period, were marked by large stretches of grass land and small
patches of jungles. In this ecological niche wild variety of cereals like wheat and
barley were plenty. Also the population of grazing animals like sheep, goat, cattle,
deer etc., was high. Mesolithic man, who had acquired all the physical capabilities
of Homo Sapiens Sapiens, had a much milder and congenial climatic conditions
8
than his ancestors. Though hunter-gatherer, he became familiar with the nature Neolithic Revolution
and behaviour of edible plants, seeds, animals etc. He got well adapted in Savanna
landscape of the post-Pleistocene arid conditions.

Activity 1
Understand tools of Neolithic Period. Make comparison of main Neolithic
tools with those of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic.
• Draw a chopper of the early Palaeolithic period.
• Draw a side scraper on a flake of Middle Palaoelithic period.
• Draw a knife made on a blade of Upper Palaeolithic period.
• Draw a triangle of the Mesolithic period.
• Draw a Neolithic axe.
While drawing mark the natural surface on the tools. Also note the number
and sizes of dressing scars on each of the tool. Make comparison of all the
drawn tools on the following:
• Size of all the five tools. Note down the tendency of the decrease and
increase of size in all select categories.
• Compare the number of flake scars on the surface of each of the five
tools. Note the difference on surface of Neolithic axe from the others.
• Note the length of working edge on the tools in proportion to their size.
Write down your observations on the difference of size, nature of surface
and edge form of Neolithic axe from the others. This will give you
understanding of features of development of stone technology, particularly
during Neolithic period.

It is a known fact that when species get adapted within an ecological niche, their
population increases. The increase of Mesolithic population in West Asia created
a situation of ‘food crises’. The natural resources of both cereal and animal began
to lessen. Because, in gathering practices, the seed/ essential part of the cereal
yield to be used for next crop was also consumed. Similarly, the hunting of
grazing animals and their younger members too was detrimental to keep balance
between the consumption and the growth. Thus, a continuous exploitation of
natural resources by hunter-gatherers created a situation of food scarcity. It is
said that necessity is the mother of invention. This proverb appears to be true in
this case. Mesolithic man was not only physically fully developed, but was also
familiar with his natural surroundings of edible plants and animals. Thus, he
could initiate food production by means of domestication of cereals and animals.
These efforts came up as agricultural and animal husbandry practices.

Origin of food production may also be considered as the outcome of ecological

niche formation as mentioned above. Human being has got the capability of
handling down of knowledge from one generation to the other. Knowledge
accumulates in every generation. Mesolithic people had an intimate knowledge
about the species of plants they collected and the species of animals they hunted.
It appeared that Mesolithic people with their knowledge about the environment
and its resources became species specific hunter- gatherers, meaning they preferred
certain species of plants and animals over others. The cereal, which we call
9
Neolithic and Chalcolithic domesticated variety are distinguished from wild varieties by a character of its
Cultures
seeds. The seeds in domesticated varieties do not fall off the stalk when ripe.
These are known as non shattering types. In case of the wild cereals after ripening
the seeds fall off the stalk and shatter around. Shattering of the seed is convenient
for natural dispersal of seed. Non shattering types are not. Non-shattering types
are mutants of the shattering types. Human beings selected the non-shattering
seed type of cereals, namely, wheat, barley, rice, millet etc. for domestication
because they could harvest and bring the cereals home with the seeds attached to
the stalk. This saved them from picking seeds one by one from the ground. They
also took charge of propagation of the cereals by planting the seeds of these
varieties near to their homestead.

West Asia, particularly Levant region, has been mainly identified as the nucleus
area for the origin and growth of Neolithic strategies. For not only was the above
geographical background available here, but also one finds individual efforts of
taming of animals and cultivation of cereals at very early date in this region.
Wheat and barley were cultivated for the first time in Levant. There are other
nuclear areas of food production as well. For example lower Yangtze valley in
China is considered as nuclear zone for rice cultivation and Mexico for the
cultivation of maize.

West Asia
Levant includes present countries of Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and Jordon.
Zagros Mountain lying north of Rivers Tigris and Euphrates mark a half moon
shaped plain of alluvium, which is known as the ‘Fertile Crescent’. During early
Holocene, this region had savanna climate. The severe post-Glacial climatic
conditions were replaced by arid and mild seasonal climatic cycles. There was
natural growth of such plants and animals in this region, which were suitable for
human consumption. The original inhabitant of the region, the Mesolithic
population got well adapted in this ecological niche, between 10, 000 and 8500
BCE. As was explained earlier, this back ground laid the foundation for the
origin of Neolithic technologies.

Many sites of Mesolithic and Neolithic period have been discovered and some
important ones have been excavated. As a result almost complete sequence of
development of Neolithic is known to us from this region. The early dates and
details of history of animal husbandry and agriculture have made this region as
the nucleus area for the origin and development of Neolithic period. Four
following stages have been identified in the history of Neolithic of West Asia.

Stage I: Advanced Mesolithic, represented by Natufian. Named after Wadi-

el-Natuf, a long strip along the eastern coast of Mediterranean in the
present day Israel, this stage was food collecting. Located at the lowest
levels of large sites like Jericho, Beidha, etc. The stage appears to
lay foundation for successive stages of food production.

Stage II: Proto-Neolithic, is a short span (8900 – 8500 BCE), with very limited
remains. This is marked by sporadic attempts of beginning of cereal
cultivation and taming of wild animals. This phase is marked at Natuf
and at Jarmo in Iraq. These are represented with the presence of
mortar and pestle – a cereal processing tool and the presence of
sickles, the harvesting tool.
10
Stage III: Archaic/ Aceramic (without pottery) Neolithic (8500 – 6000 BCE), Neolithic Revolution
is comparatively well represented. Though no pottery was used, it is
marked by settlement of permanent nature, a feature of ‘sedentary
life’. With the use of unbaked bricks (in the shape of flattened cigar),
multi-celled houses were constructed. But, the most imposing feature
in this stage was to fortify the settlement. A feature which is taken to
be a characteristic of urban centre of historical times. Stone and bone
tools, domesticated species of sheep and goat, and cultivated wheat
and barley are noteworthy finds. Domestication of cattle appears in
the last phase (around 6500 BCE). Needless to mention hunting and
gathering of food items continued.
Stage IV: Developed /Ceramic Neolithic (6000 – 4000 BCE), is marked by an
expansion in size of earlier settlements. At Catal Hüyük in Turkey
an area of 32 acre could be demarcated as settlement. An estimate of
10,000 to 8,000 people is calculated to be residing in here. Sun dried
bricks now were of bun shape and the houses rectangular. All species
of animal and cereal were being domesticated. The society was
heading towards the stage of surplus food production.
The follow up of Mature Neolithic by copper using community completed the
story of Neolithic subsistence in West Asia. However, it may be noted that in
archaeological records a hiatus, desertion of sites, is distinct, between Neolithic
and Chalcolithic horizons.

Expansion of Neolithic to the other parts

West Asia thus could be identified as the nucleus region for the origin and growth
of Neolithic practices. By 6000 to 4000 BCE, Neolithic was fully developed in
this region. Agriculture and animal husbandry through an incipient stage, could
give rise to imposing and affluent settlements, which looked similar to cities.

Soon people from Levant migrated to other parts of the world. With them spread
the food production strategies. As the evidence stands today, one branch from
West Asia migrated to west. Through Anatolia this branch reached and settled in
Europe. The other expansion was towards central and south-east Asia. It may be
mentioned here that the major crop of South and South East Asia had been Paddy.
Cultivation of rice, a complex process of agriculture appears to be of local origin
in Asia. This innovation appears to take place in more than one region – the
Spirit Cave in Thailand, Yang Sao in China and Belan Valley in India, for paddy
farming.
Activity 2
Would you not like to understand how Neolithic tools were used?
You can do it by comparing specific form of the Neolithic tool-kit with the
modern tools used in kitchen, farming and carpentry. Remember, in modern
times metal, particularly iron is used for most of the tools. While in Neolithic
period all the tools were made from stone. So compare just the form not the
medium of tools.
• Select a Neolithic axe, adze, chisel, pick, hoe, quern and Pestle.
• Draw out line, plan of each, along with cross section showing form
and position of edge.
11
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures
• Go to kitchen. Try to identify the tools and equipments of food
processing with your list of tools.
• Draw or note their similarity with your comparable type.
• Note the function of the comparable type.
• Go and repeat the same exercise with the farming tools.
• Repeat the same exercise with carpentry tools.
Draw your own conclusion on following account:
• Categorize your list of Neolithic tools within the three – kitchen, farming
and carpentry tools, on account of the comparisons you have made.
• Note down the use of identified kitchen tools of your list.
• Note the use of identified farming tools of your list.
• Note the use of identified carpentry tools of your list.
You will be able to understand major activities which were performed by
the Neolithic tool-kit.

1.4 NEOLITHIC REMAINS OF INDIA

General characteristics of Indian Neolithic
It was explained earlier that the diagnostic feature of Neolithic period is the
category of Ground Stone Axes. In India also all the Neolithic sites have yielded
polished or ground stone axes in good number. Also adze, chisel, pick, hoe etc.
form part of this tool-kit. Mace head or ring stone and stone ball form a separated
category, as these appear to be used for defensive purposes. So are the quern,
pestle, which were used for grain processing. Since all of these are made
on large stone piece and are heavy in weight, these are also called ‘heavy duty
tools’.

Besides the ground stone tools, Neolithic remains of India include earlier tools,
like microliths and blades. Microliths are diagnostic tools of the Mesolithic period.
But in many regions, these are associated with the Neolithic deposits, in small
proportion. In some regions, like Kashmir Valley, microliths are not recorded
from Neolithic deposits.

Bone and antler tools comprised needle, point, arrow head etc. Broken bones of
food refuge with point and edge were also used, as tools. At Senuwar this tendency
was very pronounced.

Use of earthen pots in large way was a Neolithic feature. But, in regions like
Baluchistan and Kashmir, Aceramic Neolithic phase has been recorded. Earthen
pots and pans were not in use in these regions. The pottery of Neolithic period
developed from simple hand made forms like bowl, to wheel turned forms of
bowls and vases. Study of tribes who make earthen pots by hands, like Sema
Nagas of the Northeastern India, suggest that bowls can by prepared by coil
method. Surface of the pots were often decorated by pressing cord or mat in
12
semi-dried condition. Grey or dull red colour of a typical early Neolithic pot is Neolithic Revolution
due to ill firing.
On the floors of Neolithic period are found remains of simple structures. The
post-holes and earthen floors indicate that shelters were constructed by the use
of perishable material, like wood, bamboo and earth. There are also examples
when under ground dwellings were used. The huts are found in archaeological
records in small clusters. These might have looked like simple and small villages.
However, in the north-western part of Indian sub-continent, durable rectangular
houses similar to the West Asian Neolithic settlements were in use. But, in other
parts of the country Neolithic settlements were in the form of small villages
made of simple huts.

Neolithic remains also comprise items of arts and crafts. Beads of semi precious
stones, like — carnelian, chert, agate, lapis, turquoise, etc. and clay figures of
animal like bull, and human, particularly portraying mother goddess, are important
categories.

Neolithic sites and regional pattern

Recognition of Neolithic in India dates back to 1852, when an axe was found in
Mysore. Many sites have been discovered, thereafter. A number of these were
also excavated. Neolithic remains are reported from almost entire length and
breadth of our country. But, the sites of the period are confined in small regional
pockets. At least six regions, — the Kashmir Valley, Assam, Vindhya-Ganga
region, Middle Ganga plain, Chhotanagpur and Deccan have yielded Neolithic
sites. All of these are marked by varying characteristics, such as, — density of
sites, date of existence, nature of subsistence and dwelling etc. Thus each region
needs to be discussed individually. However, on account of the dates and density
of sites, it is possible to divide each region of Neolithic occupation within two
main categories — the nucleus and the peripheral regions, which are as below.

1.5 NUCLEUS AREAS OF NEOLITHIC IN INDIA

Three regions in India, — Vindhya-Ganga Valley, Kashmir Valley and Karnataka
(Deccan), can be identified as nucleus areas for the Neolithic occupation. Evidence
for early beginning of food production in India comes from Vindhya-Ganga Valley.
While the northern most, the Kashmir Neolithic and the southern most, the
Karnatak group are significant, due to their diverse culture formats.

Neolithic culture of Vindhya-Ganga Valley

This region is characterised by two geological formations. One the fertile alluvial
plain of the Ganga basin and the other is the hilly tract of Vindhyas (Fig. 1.3).
The area lying within the boundaries of Uttar Pradesh is very important for the
history of Neolithic remains. A continuous sequence of Stone Age has been
recorded in the Valley of Belan, a tributary of the river Ganga. The geological
composition of this region was very suitable for the Stone Age cultures. The
Vindhya-Kaimur ranges are rich in variety of stones, and, the flat southern plain
of Ganga is very fertile. Thus the geographical back ground which is needed for
the origin of food producing strategies was available in this region. The cluster
of sites of Neolithic, pre-Neolithic, and post-Neolithic in Vindhya-Ganga region
provides evidence of origin and developmental stages of Neolithic.
13
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures

Fig.1.3
The important sites which have been excavated in this region are – Chopani-
mando, Mahgarha, Koldihwa, Pachoh and Indri. The recent findings from
Lahuradeva and the earlier excavated remains from Adamgarh rock-shelter sites
are also important to note. On account of all of these the following stages of
Neolithic of Vidhya-Ganga region can be reconstructed.

i) Advanced Mesolithic/Proto-Neolithic: This stage is reported from Period

III of Chopani-mando. It is significant to note that through a long continuous
development this stage was reached at this site. For example, during earlier
two periods size of tools had become tiny and the stone used was of fine
grained semi-precious category. But at this stage large tools made on hard
rocks like quartzite and sandstone appear. Grinding technology also appears
for the first time. Heavy duty tools were ring stone, quern, pestle, and
hammer. Microliths in good proportion continue.

Use of earthen pot was initiated at this stage. Bowl and small vase of this
phase were hand made and ill fired. A lone example of stone bead and
engraved bone piece were the other significant findings.

In Belan valley, shelters were being constructed right from the Mesolithic
times. In ‘Proto-Neooithic’, this tendency becomes pronounced. A group of
13 huts arranged in bee-hive pattern were exposed at Chopani-mando. Floor
full of tools, pot fragments and fragments of bones were covered by bamboo,
wood and earth. Post-holes suggested that the circular huts had support of
wooden frame and thatched roof. However, hearths were made out side the
huts, and were used for community cooking, as was the case during
Mesolithic times.

This stage is dated around 9th /8th millennium BCE. It was pre-food producing,
as the bones of animals included wild species of cattle and other animals.
Also, the paddy husk after analysis was identified as of wild variety. But,
the pots and the food processing equipments suggest consumption of such
species of wild cereals and animals, which could be domesticated
subsequently.

ii) Early Neolithic stage: This stage is reported from sites like Koldihwa and
Mahgarha. The most significant finding of this stage is the very early date
for the cultivation of paddy, which is seventh to 5th millennium BCE. Though
14
 there was doubt expressed for acceptance of this date-bracket, a number of Neolithic Revolution
recent sites, like Lahuradeva, confirm cultivation of rice, at this early period
in the Ganga plain. .

Remains of settlement of this period from Mahgarha, a site close to Koldiwa,

reveals that the huts were associated with cattle-pens. Small animals like
sheep and goat were kept there. But, for cattle, a large enclosure was
constructed of wooden fence. These places revealed hoof marks. In the
domesticated animal bones identification of horses are noteworthy.

Group of 20 huts were exposed at Mahgarha. These were also constructed

by use of wood, bamboo and mud. Circular in plan, the floors of these were
full of food processing equipments like pestle, muller, quern etc. Axes,
microliths, pottery, bone arrow head and animal food refuge were other
noteworthy remains.

The earthen pots discovered from this phase are developed and are of diverse
fabric. Important types were cord impressed Black-and-Red and rusticated
wares. Baking technology now was much developed. The shapes included
bowl, vase, basic and handi.

Neolithic phase of Belan Valley does not have good representation of ground
stone tools. The proportions of carpentry tools were negligible. Axes were
few, but food processing equipments were many. Bone tools included hunting
tools.

iii) Late Neolithic: The Koldihwa-Mahgarha group suggest that Neolithic in

this region continued up to 2nd millennium BCE. The later phase, date
between third and 2nd millennium BCE, evidence continuation of the earlier
culture with intrusion of Chalcolithic characteristics.

It was during this phase that there was migration of farming communities
from Belan region to east. Sites near the slope of Kaimur hills in Bihar were
occupied during the process. Excavations of Senuwar in Rohtas district
support this presumption. From the lowest level evidence for rice cultivation
is attested. This is dated to 2200 BCE. A little later, multi crop agriculture
which appears to be inspired by Harappan crops, have been identified. This
indicates a change from Neolithic to Chalcolithic subsistence in this region.

Recent archaeological evidence suggests that in Vindhya-Ganga region Neolithic

food producing practices had very early dates. At more than one place rice
cultivation was attempted. One in Belan Valley and the other inner land of the
Ganga plain, as is evident by Lahuradeva. Similarly, domestication of animal
may also have been initiated in Vindhya-Ganga region. Pasotral practices, around
6th millennium BCE, appear to spread to the hilly tracts of the Vindhyan region.
Excavation of Adamgarh rock-shelter indicates that this branch was using
microliths, but was also domesticating animals like cattle, sheep and goat for
their livelihood.

Neolithic culture of Kashmir Valley

Kashmir Valley was occupied between 3rd and mid 2nd millennium BCE, by
Neolithic communities. Main sites like Burzoham, Gufkral, Begagund,
Hariparigom, Pampur, Badatal etc., indicate that small groups of people were 15
Neolithic and Chalcolithic spread in this region. Excavations of Burzoham (16 km Northeast of Srinagar)
Cultures
and Gufkral (41 km East of Srinagar) have given to us full sequence of Neolithic
in Kashmir Valley. The Neolithic remains in this region is divisible within the
following stages —

i) Aceramic Neolithic Stage: This earliest phase of Kashmir Neolithic has

been reported from the lowest levels of Gufkral. Dated around 3rd millennium
BCE, typical Neolithic findings from this phase were ground stone axes,
adzes, chisel, muller made on schist, the local Himalyan rock. Bone tools
comprised points and needles. But a number of broken bone fragments with
points were also rubbed and used. Two beads of bone and stone paste were
noteworthy finds. But, the most significant finding from earliest levels of
Gufkral was pit dwellings. Circular or oval pits were dug. Floors of these
pits were prepared by ramming earth. Large under ground pit dwellings
measured 3 m long, 1.5 m broad and one meter deep. In the centre of this pit
was a platform, on which were located three grain storage pits. The under
ground pits were covered by thatched roof, which was supported by wooden
logs and hay. Under ground huts are suitable for the cold climate of Kashmir.

The earliest subsistence of Aceramic Neolithic of Kashmir Valley was animal

husbandry. In the remains of bones domesticated sheep and goat species
have been identified. These species were tamed from the local wild forms.
Hunting of deer, wild cattle, wolf, bear and Ibex was the supporting edible
consume.

Beginning of agriculture was introduced a little later. But, right from its
first appearance it was recorded in developed form. Since the cereal remains
recovered from the period were wheat, barley, mansur and pea. Clove (Ban-
methi) was also cultivated. It is believed that knowledge of agriculture in
Kashmir Valley migrated from out side. The seeds of the cereals for initiating
cultivation were also brought to the region during this process.
ii) Early Neolithic Stage: In view to food producing practices and also nature
of dwelling this stage was similar to the above. But, now earthen pots were
being made and used. This Cermaic Neolithic stage has been reported both
from the Period IB of Gufkral and Period I of Burzoham. Pottery is hand
made and ill fired and are of grey and ochre colour. Main forms of pots used
were bowls, vases and bases. On the flat surface of pots, was mat impressed
design.
Stone tools in this stage were large in number and also new forms like, —
quern mace-head, picks were found along with axes, adzes, chisels etc.
Similarly, in the category of bone tools, important forms were, — harpoon,
needle (eyed and with out eye), arrow-head, point scraper, etc.
The pit dwelling continued in Early Neolithic of Kashmir Valley. At
Burzoham, where good evidence for pit dwellings has come to light, two
types have been recognised. One was of circular and oval shapes and the
other of rectangular shape. These pits were dug by the use of picks. Side
walls were many times plastered by mud. For entering into the pit-huts
steps used to be dug at one corner of the hut or wooden stairs were also
used. On the living floors were found traces of small and large pits, which
were storage of edible items, like grain or also meat, roots etc.
16
 Remains of domesticated species, like sheep and goat increased. Cattle Neolithic Revolution
breeding too were added. Findings of Gufkral Period IB suggested that
cultivation of pea and clove was dropped at this stage. The economy at this
stage appears to be dominated by pastoralism, the subsistence which even
now is followed by tribes like Gaddis of Kashmir region.

iii) Late Neolithic Stage: This phase is represented by the findings from Period
IC of Gufkral and Period II of Burzohom. The subsistence though remained
similar to the earlier stage; it is marked by development in livelihood
strategies, e. g. potting technology and change in the nature of dwelling.
The list of domesticated animals now includes sheep, goat, humped cattle,
pigs, dog and buffalo. Hunting continued. So were the agricultural practices.

The most prominent feature was use of over ground huts. Remains at
Burzohom suggest that some of the pits of earlier times were filled. The
surface was plastered and used as floors. Two types of structures were
constructed. One which was only thatched with the help of erecting posts,
and in other the area of the hut was enclosed by mud or wooden screens.
Traces for the use of sun dried bricks were also noticed in the excavations.

Earthen pots were made both by hand modeling and wheel. The grey and
dull red color of these indicates less perfection of firing technique. Besides,
bowl and vase, basin and dish on stand were also found. The surface of pots
was decorated variously by impression cord, hay, matt or by incising
geometric designs.

Ground stone tools have some new forms like two pointed picks. Cloth
weaving is also attested by terracotta or stone spindle whorls. The dead
were buried in the residences in pit burials, in which animal pets like dogs
were also buried.

Increase in such items which suggest trade included beads, copper tools
like arrow head, needle, ring etc. A painted pot contained 950 carnelian
beads, which was perhaps imported from Harappan region in Baluchistan-
Pakistan. Exchange of goods or trade between far places and Kashmir Valley
is indicated by these finds.

Neolithic in Kashmir Valley appears to be migration from out side. As presence

of Mesolithic stage was not established here. Perhaps one of the groups from
West Asia had reached this Valley. The physical features of the skeletons from
Burzohom bear similarities with West Asian population. The local species of
sheep and goat, and subsequently, cattle were domesticated by these immigrants.
But, the seeds which they sowed for cultivation of cereals were brought by them
from out side. The noteworthy variation of Kashmir Neolithic was its’ Aceramic
stage and the pit dwellings.

Neolithic Culture of Deccan

The plateau of Deccan in Karnatak has a dense concentration of Neolithic sites,
such as, Maski, Piklihal, Hallur, Brahamgiri, Tekkalkotta, Snagankallu, Kopagal
etc. The southern part of Andhra Pradesh too has revealed important Neolithic
habitations, Uttanur, Nagarjunakonda, Palvaya, Rampuan etc. Extension of
Deccan Neolithic was also in north Tamilnadu, as is attested by Payampalli site.
17
Neolithic and Chalcolithic The time span for Deccan Neolithic is 2500 – 1000 BCE. The Neolithic remains
Cultures
of the region is divisible into four phases:
i) Aceramic Neolithic: Reported from the earliest levels of Sangankallu, is
composed of just flake tools.
ii) Mature Neolithic: This Ceramic Neolithic is pre 1600 BCE. Period IA of
Sangankallu and other sites have revealed this horizon.
iii) Neolitihic-Chalcolithic: Dated between 1600 and 1500 BCE, it is reported
from Sankallu Period IIB, and many other sites. The Neolithic appears to be
in close contact with Chalcolithic communities of the north.
iv) Neolithic-Megalithic: This phase is very common at sites of Deccan, where
overlap between Neolithic and Megalithic can be seen.

All the Neolithic phases of Deccan are influenced by the ecology of the plateau.
Composed of Dharwar formation, the granite and trap, the rocky terrain is drained
by rivers, which have alluvial stretch. Till the mature phase, Neolithic
communities of the region were occupying the hilly terrains, which could support
pastoral subsistence. In the succeeding phase, when these groups came in contact
with Chalcolithic communities, their villages got concentrated in the alluvial
plains. For the reason that fertile land for agriculture was available around the
water channels.

The main subsistence of the Mature Neolithic phase was animal husbandry. In
archaeological remains 80-85 % bones of animals were found to be of humpless
cattle, and buffalo. The other domesticated animals were sheep, goat and ass.
Agriculture at this stage was secondary. Only coarse grains like, Kuthali, Jowar,
lentils and gram were cultivated.

Four types of shelters have been recorded in the Neolithic period of Deccan.
1) Pit dwellings were found at Nagarjunakonda and Payampalli. These pits
were covered by thatched roof, supported by wooden posts. Smaller pits
associate the dwelling which were used for storage of edibles, discard of
garbage or burying the dead.
2) Circular huts with thatched roof supported by wooden posts have come to
light from Period I of Tekkalkotta. The wooden posts were supported by
block of stones.
3) Circular huts with walls made of wood and mud were covered by thatched
roof. Many sites including Tekalkotta have yielded this type.
4) Square and rectangle shaped huts were being constructed in the last phase.
In this case the mud walls up to half height were constructed. Over which
wood and mud walls were made. The conical thatched roof was the upper
component.

The later huts resembled huts made by Boya tribes of the region. Small cluster of
Neolithic huts perhaps looked similar to these tribal villages. Each of the hut had
cattle-shed. Also, cattle-pen, for the village was made adjacent but away from
the village. The ash mounds of Deccan Neolithic, like the one excavated at
Uttarnur, suggested that accumulation of cattle dung were burnt from time to
18
time.
Burying the dead was an important ritual practice of the Deccan Neolithic. Burials Neolithic Revolution
were made within the residential area. Two types of burials have been reported.
Pit burials, in which adults were buried along with edible items and pots. Children
were buried mostly in earthen pots. This custom appears to continue during
Megalithic times in the south.

The culture content of Deccan Neolithic was characterised by polished stone

tools which were made of local rocks – dolerite and trap. Small to medium sized
axe, adze, pick, quern, pestle, ring-stone etc., were the main types. Continuation
of earlier technology, microliths was another feature. Besides usual types a number
of flake and blade tools with serrated edge, point and scraping edge were used.
In the bone and antler tools the forms found were scraper, point and chisel.

Except for Stage I, pottery was found from all the phases of Neolithic of Deccan.
Grey and red ware pots made by hand or slow wheel were characteristic of the
region. These were often painted, grey with ochre colour, and red with purple or
dark brown. Painting included simple geometric designs.

Terracotta figures of animals like bull and birds associate the collections from
Neolithic sites of the Deccan. These forms appear to correspond with Chalcolithic
clay models. Similarly, beads of semiprecious stones also looked similar to the
Chalcolithic beads. Occurrence of lead bead in the Neolithic horizon of the late
phase may be taken to be a Megalithic trait. Similarly small copper objects which
occur in the third phase of Neolithic of Deccan, evidence Chalcolithic contacts.
Occurrence of gold ornaments, particularly earring is accepted as an important
indication of trade between the Deccan Neolithic communities with the
Harappans. For, the gold used by city dwellers of the north during 2nd millennium
BCE, was known to be coming from the Kolar mines of the southern India.

On account of the above it may be summarized that the Neolithic culture of

Deccan though retained earlier culture traits, microliths, it does not appear to
have originated in this region. As the earlier stages of Neolithic are not represented
in this region, and also the time span too is quite late.

1.6 PERIPHERAL AREAS OF NEOLITHIC IN

INDIA
The other remains of Neolithic are very late, and also sporadic in nature. There
were early farming communities in Ganga plain, — in Bihar and Bengal, —
Chhotanagpur plateau, — lying within the boundaries of Bengal and Orissa, —
and Assam.

Early Farming communities of Middle Ganga Plain

In the fertile alluvial plain of middle Ganga Valley, many sites were occupied for
many centuries. The earliest levels have been identified as Neolithic. Chirand
(Saran district), Chechar (Vaisali district) and Sahgaura (Gorakhpur district), are
noteworthy. The earliest levels at Chirand (Period IA), was pre-metal, when pit-
dwellings were used. The subsistence was characterised by multi-crop cultivation.
The cereals found were wheat, paddy, barley, gram and lentils. Also domestication
of sheep, goat and cattle were practiced. Pottery is characterised by evolved
techniques like Black-and-red ware, and polished red and black wares. Also
19
Neolithic and Chalcolithic evolved forms, like, — spouted and lipped vases associated the ceramic collection.
Cultures
Proportion of ground stone axes was nominal. But, bone and antler tools were
many. Called also as ‘Neolithic-Chalcolithic’, this phase of Chirand is dated
between 1800 and 1400 BCE.

Similar Neolithic horizons have been reported from, — Tamluk and Pandurrajar-
dhibi in Bengal. Characterised by ground stone axes and primitive pottery, all
these remains fall in the later part of 2nd millennium BCE.

Neolithic remains of Chhotanagpur Plateau

Chhotanagpur is a wide spread plateau, comprising parts of Bihar, Bengal and
Orissa. Many surface finds of ground stone axes included shouldered axe, round
butted axe, chisel, Ring-stone hammer etc., are reported from Santhal pargana,
Chakradharpur, Ranchi and Mayurbhanj districts. Only a few sites have been
excavated. These too have revealed very limited deposit of habitation.

Dated between 1200 and 800 BCE, Barudih in Bihar, revealed round butted
axes, adze, quern, muller, pestle, ring-stone etc. Also hand and wheel made pottery
were obtained. Bowls and dishes were the main forms. Like wise Kuchai in
Orissa, was a contemporary site. Near Baragaon, in Sundergarh district factory
sites of Neolithic tools have recently been discovered, which suggest production
of large quantities of stone axes and Celts in this region.

Neolithic remains of Assam

Many surface findings are reported from Assam. The ground stone tools of this
region are characterised by shouldered axe. Two sites of the region — Sarutaru
and Deojali-handing are significant. Neolthic tools and cord impressed hand
made and wheel turned pottery are reported from the excavation of these sites.
The evidence of Markdola, near Sarutaru suggests that the Neolithic way of life
in this region continued up to first century CE (Common Era).

All the finds of incipient farming from Chhotanagpur plateau, and Assam are
late to very late in date. Thus, could be accepted as late survival of Neolithic
technologies in these geographically isolated areas. It may be recalled that even
to day, Chhotanagpur plateau and eastern India are occupied by tribal population,
who live in cultural isolation.

1.7 SUMMARY
The Neolithic period was the first stage of food production in man’s history. In
India this period is well represented by beginning of agriculture and animal
husbandry. The main regions from where sites of this period are reported are
marked by diverse climatic conditions. Accordingly, the cultures of these regions
differ in time and contents. The earliest Neolithic culture, with rice cultivation
comes from Vindhya-Ganga region. While the other nucleus regions, the northern
and southern parts were of late date. In Kashmir, domestication of animals and
agriculture of the first stage was associated with the immigrants, who were pit-
dweller. The Neolithic communities of Deccan were pastoral. Neolithic of both
of these regions were almost contemporary to Chalcolithic cultures of the north-
western part of the sub-continent. The other regions like the Chhotanagpur plateau,
the middle Ganga plain of Bihar and Bengal and north east, were such areas
20
where Neolithic way of livelihood survived very late, and may not be classified Neolithic Revolution
in the category of true Neolithic.

Suggested Reading
Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Pre-And-Proto-History of India and Pakistan. Poona:
Deccan College.
Thapar, B.K. 1985. Recent Archaeological Discoveries in India. UNESCO
Singh, P. 1991. The Neolithic Origins, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Vidula Jayaswal, 1992. Bharatiya Itihas ka Nava-Prastar Yuga (Hindi). Delhi:
Swati Publications.
Sample Questions
1) Explain the term ‘Neolithic’.
2) How was a Neolithic axe made?
3) What does ‘Aceramic Neolithic’ mean?
4) What is the diagnostic subsistence of Neolithic period?
5) How do Neolithic food obtaining strategies differ from earlier Stone Ages?
6) What role did ecology play in the origin of food producing practices of
Neolithic period?
7) What is the significance of findings of Period IA at Gufkral?
8) What was the main subsistence of Neolithic communities of Deccan?
9) What was the evidence for the origin of Neolithic in Belan Valley?

21
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures UNIT 2 NEOLITHIC REGIONAL VARIANTS

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Neolithic Cultural Complexes in India
2.3 Finds from Northern India
2.4 Finds from Southern India
2.5 Finds from Eastern India
2.6 Finds from North-Eastern India
2.7 Finds from the Ganges Valley
2.8 Pre-Harappan Sites from the Subcontinent
2.9 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø define the characteristic features of Neolithic complexes in India;
Ø state the regional variation inherent among them;
Ø discuss why these characteristic cultures arose in the regions it did; and
Ø describe how it is a connecting link to the Chalcolithic and later cultures in
India.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already learnt that over a time of a million or more years during the
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods there was a steady but slow technological
improvement as evidenced by artifacts and other occupational debris. However
the mode of subsistence continued to be based on hunting, fowling, fishing and
wild food gathering. This continued till around 10,000 years ago in the vast
stretches of mountainous environment in the east coast of the Mediterranean to
the eastern edge of the Baluchistan plateau, an area referred to as the “Fertile
Crescent” and the nuclear area of cultivation of cereals. This new economy based
on food production — the first animals domesticated being dog, cattle, sheep
and goat, and first plants cultivated being wheat and barley — had a lasting
impact on human culture and environment. Meanwhile, sometime around 7,000
BC in Southeast Asia, cultivation arose. The new plants domesticated included
cereals such as rice and millet, and animals such as the pig. It is also believed
that certain plants such as beans, cabbages and root crops were first cultivated
here.

The advent of food production led to an assured food supply, inclusive of plants
and animals, which ultimately led to sedentarianism and settlement of villages.
This had a great impact on the cultural life of man. In the new economy men,
women and children of varied ages contributed to production, which had not
22
happened in the economies of the earlier cultural phases. The food supply, based Neolithic Regional Variants
on production, at times led to a surplus, thus enabling many to follow other
occupations such as basketry, pot-making, masonry, carpentry etc., thereby leading
to diversification in economic and occupational practices. Sedentarianism also
had its effect on material culture, the biggest contribution being made to the
erection of structures and houses, which were more or less permanent in nature.
Besides this, there was an improvement in stone tool technology with the
development of grinding and polishing technique, and introduction of pottery
making. The technique of grinding and polishing gave rise to the re use of the
tool. As the tool became blunt after use, it could be re sharpened by grinding and
polishing. Earlier a mistake in flaking and breakage at the time of use would
lead to the discarding of the unfinished tool and /or the broken tool, and the
knapper would have to start all over again by manufacturing another tool. The
technique of the Neolithic was free from such limitations. Religious beliefs
increased during this period, with the dead being buried along with weapons,
pottery, food and drink in their graves. Although such burials were found
sporadically in the earlier periods, its importance and use increased in the Neolithic
period.

In India, the beginnings of this “revolution”, as V. Gordon Childe defines it,

were seen in different parts of the country. In this unit we will look into the
different Neolithic cultures observed from different parts of the country on the
basis of archaeological evidences from some specific sites. Additionally, we will
see whether there is any regional variation among them. Towards the end of this
unit we should be in a position to state how this culture developed and played an
important role in the evolution of succeeding cultures in the country.

2.2 NEOLITHIC CULTURAL COMPLEXES IN

INDIA
In India, hundreds of Neolithic sites have been discovered, however a single and
uniform Neolithic culture has never been witnessed. This phenomenon led
scholars to try and find out the patterns visible in the Neolithic context. As early
as 1959, V. D. Krishnaswami studied the Neolithic cultures in India and concluded
that four geographical zones corresponding to specific cultural traits could be
seen. These included the northern zone comprising of Kashmir, eastern zone
comprising the states of Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam, central and
western zone comprising Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, and southern zone
comprising the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It was
observed that the northern zone was characterised by pit-dwellings and pointed-
butt celts, while the eastern zone was characterised by shouldered celts. The
central and western zone featured microliths and potsherds more in comparison
to celts, while the southern zone showed the evidence of broad butt-end celts.

In 1962, another well-known scholar H. D. Sankalia tried to look into the Neolithic
complexes in India. He opined that in the country two clear-cut complexes could
be seen: Pure Neolithic and Neo-Chalcolithic. Pure Neolithic was seen in states
such as Assam, Bihar and Bengal. Here shouldered ground axes and very little
pottery were found. On the other hand, Neo-Chalcolithic cultures show a
combination of both Neolithic and Chalcolithic traits. It was observed that many
sites in the country did not show a pure Neolithic nor a pure Chalcolithic, but
23
Neolithic and Chalcolithic rather a combination of the two. This mainly comprised the central, western and
Cultures
southern zones of Krishnaswami. This is a culture mostly seen in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu where ground stone tools, microlithic
blades, handmade pottery, round huts and one or two pieces of metal were found.
Early Baluchi cultures, for instance that found in Kili Ghul Muhammad, where
hand and wheel made pottery, ring stones, saddle and quern and celts were found,
together with Bagor in Bhilwara where microliths, copper arrowheads, pottery
and huts with wooden posts were found, were also included in the Neo-
Chalcolithic culture.

At present, due to the discovery of newer sites and systematic work undertaken,
more specific culture-based zonation is witnessed. This zonation is however
broadly based on the earlier works of Krishnaswami and Sankalia. These various
cultural complexes are so called since it reveals some characteristic traits or
features in the region where it is found. Interestingly, these complexes correspond
to various geographical regions in India, viz., north, south, east, north-east and
the Ganges valley. These different cultural complexes will be dealt in the next
section.

Activity 1: Take a map of India and plot out the cultural zones as given by
Krishnaswami and Sankalia. Reason what might have been the mitigating
factors which led to the zone-specific cultures.

2.3 FINDS FROM NORTHERN INDIA

In the north, the most important sites come from the Kashmir valley. Here over
forty Neolithic sites have been discovered, of which the most important ones are
Burzahom and Gufkarl. The word burzahom in Kashmiri refers to “birch”, and
is an indication that a large number of birch trees grew in this region. Two phase
of the Neolithic culture is found here – early Neolithic and late Neolithic. In
early Neolithic, sixteen dwelling pits were recovered, with dimensions such as
circular or oval at the top and square or rectangular at the bottom. Hearths and
storage pits were also recovered inside the pits indicating the use of fire and
possible use of cereals. The largest pit measured 2.7 metres at the top, 4.6 metres
at the bottom and at a depth of 4 metres, with stairs leading into it. These were
no doubt that the Neolithic people lived and pursued their daily work inside the
pits. However, you would be surprised that hearths and storage pits were also
found outside near the covered area, indicating that they also lived outside the
pits. How could this have happened? Does it mean that some people lived inside,
while others lived outside the pits? It can be however conjectured that the same
group of people lived inside the pits in the biting cold of Kashmir, and preferred
to sleep and work outside in the warm summers. Some of the important material
evidences found includes pottery of grey colour, evidently handmade, coarsely
finished and ill-fired. In all probability pottery was made by coil method, husk
and grass having been used as tempering material. Celts were also found which
included axes, wedges, chisels, adzes, hoes, picks, ring stones, querns and
harvesters. Bone tools included harpoons, eyed needles, points and arrowheads.
No evidence of domesticated plants was found.

There occurred a change in residential pattern in late Neolithic, when pits were
abandoned, filled, rammed and sprinkled with red ochre. Presence of post holes
suggests that probably houses were made of mud. A large rectangular
24
superstructure with forty-two post holes was also seen, probably used as a Neolithic Regional Variants
community assembly hall. Same types of pottery continued, while a new variety
called the burnished black ware was introduced. Evidence of human burials in
flexed position is witnessed. Interestingly, evidence of trepanning of skull is
also seen.

In a neighbouring site called Gufkarl, three phases of Neolithic culture could be

seen. Neolithic IA was an aceramic phase comparable to Burzahom. Here
underground pits were found together with a large variety of stone tools such as
points, scrapers, axes, drills, picks, pounders, querns and mace heads. Bone tools
such as needles and points were also found. In Neolithic IB, handmade pottery
with mat impressions makes an entry while all other tools continue. In the final
Neolithic IC, ground stone celts, querns and pounders appear together with
terracotta spindle whorls.
Radiocarbon dates places the Neolithic culture in Kashmir at 2400 to1500 BC.

Activity 2: What do you think was the purpose of trepanning as found in

Kashmir?

2.4 FINDS FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

One of the most critical evidences of the new subsistence economy comes from
peninsular India, from northern Karnataka and western Andhra Pradesh, and a
few sites located in southern Karnataka, coastal Andhra Pradesh and northern
Tamil Nadu. Important sites are many and include Palavoy, Utnur and
Nagarjunakonda from Andhra Pradesh; Halur, Maski, Parval, Tekkalokotta, T.
Narsipur and Sangankallu from Karnataka; and Piyampalli, Dailaimalai and
Mullikadu from Tamil Nadu, among others. Results obtained from all these above
mentioned sites are similar with a few exceptions. In the earlier Neolithic phase,
handmade coarse pale red ware with microliths and ground stone tools were
seen. In the later phase, handmade, dull burnished grey ware, ground stone tools
like axes, adzes, wedges and chisels, bone points and beads and terracotta are
seen. Burials were in extended exhumation with stone grave goods for adults,
and urn burials for infants.

The most important finds from this region are the ash mounds (accumulation of
burnt cow dung) found in Utnur situated at Mahbubnagar in Andhra Pradesh.
What do you think these ash mounds, made up of burnt cow dung, indicate?
Well, it indicates that the Neolithic people reared cattle, and that cattle herding
was an important component, if not the only one, of their economy. Many authors
consider it as a direct evidence of stockade and cattle penning. They are found
closely associated with habitation sites thereby giving credence to the evidence
of the role of cattle herding in the economy. It is likely that dung from cattle pens
was allowed to accumulate and periodically set ablaze in a ceremonial way. This
conjecture can be made by observing the present scenario in many places in
south India, where during annual cattle festivals; accumulation of dried cow
dung is ceremonially set ablaze. The study of the ash in the mounds showed that
it had several distinct layers; in some layers it is soft and loose and in others
heavily vitrified, suggesting that cow dung was burnt at varying temperatures. In
the ash mounds were also found artifactual evidences such as stone and bone
tools, animal bones and pottery. At Budihal at Gulbarga district in Karnataka,
25
Neolithic and Chalcolithic hoof impressions of cattle have been found beneath the cow dung, which again
Cultures
shows evidence of cattle penning. Budihal has also produced evidence of a
butchering floor. Evidently and proven conclusively, animal husbandry was the
mainstay of the economy of the Neolithic people in the peninsular region.
However the presence of rubbing stones and querns in the habitational debris
suggests that some form of grain cultivation or collection was also done.

The Neolithic people lived in circular or rectangular wattle-and-daub huts with

floors having stone paving. Interestingly, large stones were supposedly placed
around the huts on the outside. Why do you think it was done so? It has been
suggested that this particular structural feature relates to an attempt at protection
of the huts from winds. Besides the use of stones, and wattle and daub, the
people used thatch for a roof as evidenced by a burnt hut from Sangankallu. The
Neolithic people buried their dead, both children and adults in clay urns beneath
the floors of their houses. The urns contained sometimes double or multiple
burials.

This particular culture in southern India specially those with cattle pastoralism
is dated by radiocarbon dating from 3000 to1000 BC.

2.5 FINDS FROM EASTERN INDIA

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, Eastern India, comprising the states
of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal, has also yielded a number of Neolithic sites.
Most of tools from these sites are surface collections. In fact there is no dearth of
surface occurrence of Neolithic tools, and apparently many manufacturing sites
have also been found but dates and stratigraphy pose a serious problem. The
Neolithic tools include pointed-butt celts (axes), chisels, bar celts, shouldered
celts, hammer stones and perforated discs found in the Chhotanagpur plateau.
Direct evidence on agriculture was rarely found. Mostly indirect evidence is
gathered from potsherds from Singhbum showing evidence of straw in the paste,
except for a site called Barudih, in Singhbhum, which was excavated by Dharani
Sen of Calcutta University and had yielded burnt rice grains in a small pot. All
these suggest that Neolithic people in eastern India subsisted on cultivation of
rice.

In the last decade, a few sites from eastern India were excavated partially. These
include sites such as Kuchai in Mayurbhanj district, Golbai Sasan in Khurda
district, Kuanr in Keonjhar district and Sankarjang in Angul district in Orissa
which have provided more evidence about the Neolithic culture of this region.
Kuchai is a stratified site that yielded evidence of Neolithic culture after a long
sequence of earlier cultures. This site has yielded pointed-butt celts and cord
impressed pottery. Golbai Sasan is also a stratified site even though the excavated
area is very limited in extent. Here, period I appear to be Neolithic and show a
range of dull red and handmade pottery with cord or tortoise shell impressions in
association with a few worked pieces of bone and traces of floors and post holes.
Additionally, stone celts and an extended human burial have also been recovered.
The succeeding period is Chalcolithic since it yields copper objects together
with polished stone and bone tools. Similarly, Kuanr has yielded pointed-butt
celts, evidence of wattle and daub structures and copper bangles. From Sankarjang
too several human burials were excavated in association with bar celts and copper
artefacts. Ground stone tools are also very common as surface finds in Dhenkanal
26
and Keonjhar districts. They also include miniature celts which were probably Neolithic Regional Variants
intended for some ritual function.

Radiocarbon dates from Barudih, Golbai Sasan and Sankarjang suggest duration
of 2200 BC to 700 BC for the Neolithic culture.

2.6 FINDS FROM NORTH-EASTERN INDIA

Reports of Neolithic tools from North eastern part of India came out since the
pre-independence period. Garo Hills in Meghalaya is reported particularly to be
rich in Neolithic sites. As many as eighteen sites have been discovered and studied.
These include, Selbalgre, Misimagre, Tebrongre, Rongram, Chitra Abri, Didami,
Makbil Bisik, Matchakholgre, Ganolgre and others. Besides these, numerous
tools have been reported from the states of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya,
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura as well. In many of these regions,
Neolithic tools have been found as surface finds. Some of these are reportedly
factory sites for manufacturing of tools. How can one say whether a site is a
manufacturing or quarry site, or not? Evidently, it is possible to infer so, from
the presence of a large number of cores, unfinished and discarded tools and
large quantity of waste materials which came out while manufacturing of tools.
In the Neolithic context, a large number of grinding stones were also found.
The tools found from this region include ground stone celts of shouldered and
splayed varieties collected mostly as surface finds. These along with cord
impressed pottery found in the excavations of Daojali Hading and Sarutaru in
Assam, and Selbalgre in Meghalaya, form important material evidences for
Neolithic culture. The pottery is handmade and made of impure clay. These might
have been made by coil or ring method. Many sherds carry impressions of cord
or string and grooved wooden mallets on their surface suggesting that the vessels
were enlarged and shaped by beating with a wooden mallet wrapped with a cord.
Daojali Hading is a stratified Neolithic site from North Cachar Hills, Assam. A
large number of household appliances like corn grinders, mortar, pestle, querns
and mullers are present at the site. These provide indirect evidence of food
production by Neolithic inhabitants of the area. Large quantities of grinding
stones and by-product flakes have been found here too. Sarutaro, another
excavated site located in south eastern corner of Kamrup district, Assam, showed
ground stone celts, pottery and charcoal. Pottery was handmade, coarse, gritty
and brown, pale brown or grey in colour. The site is quite late in date as is found
by Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. At Parsiparlo, an excavated site from
Kamala valley in Arunachal Pradesh, Neolithic cultures preceding the Iron Age
is found. Mostly pecked and ground stone implements together with a few sherds
were found. The sherds were beaten in such a way that square-grid and honey
comb grids were impressed upon them. Few fire places with deposition of ash
and charcoal were found. However no structural remains (like post holes) were
seen suggesting that Parsiparlo was an open-air site. Selbalgre, the site from
Garo Hills in Meghalaya turned out to be a stratified site, with the Neolithic
phase overlying geometric and non-geometric microliths. The Neolithic phase
yielded handmade pottery, very coarse and grey or dull brown in colour.
No radiocarbon dates are available for the Neolithic culture in north-east India.
However H. D. Sankalia inferred that the Neolithic cultures in the region could
have been within the time frame of 5000 BC to 1000 BC. 27
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures 2.7 FINDS FROM THE GANGES VALLEY
South of the Ganges, ground stone tools have been reported as surface finds
widely from the hilly tracts of the northern Vindhyas, particularly in Rewa and
Sidhi districts of Madhya Pradesh and Banda and Mirzapur districts of Uttar
Pradesh. However important sites that were excavated include the sites of Chirand
in the middle Ganga plains, Koldihawa and Mahagara in the Vindhyas among
others. This is a strategically located area where evidence of the use of rice is seen.

Chirand, situated in district Chhapra in Bihar is a stratified site with Neolithic

preceding Chalcolithic and Iron Age. Tools found include bone and antler tools,
microliths (blades, lunates and points), picks, scrapers, eyed-needles, bodkins,
pierced batons, ground celts, pestles and querns. Pottery used was red, grey,
black and red wares, made on a turntable. Terracotta objects, beads, bangles,
wheels, bulls, birds and serpent figurines were also found. The use of rice is
evidenced from paddy husk impressions on burnt clay. Besides rice, they might
have also grown wheat, six-row barley, lentil and green gram such as masur and
moong dal. Evidently they lived in houses that were circular with a diameter of
2 metres, and made of bamboo and mud plastered walls, and paved floors.

Koldihawa, situated towards the south of Allahabad and on the right bank of
Belan river, showed a three-fold sequence, namely, Neolithic, Chalcolithic and
Iron Age. The people here also lived in circular huts marked by post holes. They
used ground stone tools and handmade cord-impressed ware. A cattle pen with
post holes at the corners and hoof impressions on the floor were found. The
animals domesticated included sheep, goat and cattle as analysed from the faunal
remains and hoof impressions. Evidence of an irregular cattle pen also comes
from Mahagara, a site on the left bank of the Belan River. This irregularly
rectangular cattle pen (12.5 x 7.5 m) was fenced by 20 posts, with wider space
for opening. No pottery and tools were found within. Large number of cattle
hoof marks was found within. Outside the pen, sheep and goat hoof marks were
present. Evidently, Mahagara Neolithic people also lived on stock raising.

Interestingly, rice husks were found in Koldihawa in the paste used in pottery-
making. Palaeo-botanical analysis of this rice showed that it belonged to a
domestic variety. Radiocarbon dates place it at 7000 BC to 5000 BC. This provides
the earliest evidence for rice cultivation in the sub-continent.

Activity 3: List the artifactual evidences from different regions. Make a

comparative chart.

2.8 PRE-HARAPPAN SITES FROM THE

SUBCONTINENT
Whenever we discuss Neolithic culture in India, we very rarely touch upon the
pre-Harappan Neolithic sites. The Neolithic cultures of the Indus valley are
actually of great importance as they are the fore-runners of the Indus valley
civilization. For this reason, these Neolithic cultures are often called pre-Harappan
while the Indus valley civilization is labelled as Harappan. Some of the important
pre-Harappan sites include Amri, Kot Diji, Gumla and Mehrgarh, which will be
dealt with in detail in another lesson. Amri, a site situated in modern day Sind in
28
Pakistan, showed evidence of well-planned houses. Some of the houses were Neolithic Regional Variants
rectangular and of various sizes, while others were small cells probably used for
storage purposes. About 55 per cent of pottery was seen to be wheel-made. In
this site, jar burials were also noticed. On the other hand, Kot Diji showed very
interesting pre-Harappan features with defensive walls, well-aligned streets and
houses, large communal fire-places, wheel-made pottery, terracotta toys etc. In
Gumla, which lies to the northwest of Dera Ismail Khan in Baluchistan, a bullhead
deity or a horned deity made of terracotta was found.

For several decades, agriculture-based Neolithic settlements in the subcontinent,

which used only stone tools, have been known from sites like Kili Ghul
Muhammad and Rana Ghundai in the hilly terrain of Baluchistan. Their beginning
has been dated to around 4000 BC. However, later excavations at Mehrgarh
have pushed back the antiquity of settled village life in the subcontinent to 7000
B.C.

Mehrgarh is known to be the oldest agricultural site in the Indian subcontinent.

This is a site which is located near the Bolan Pass, Baluchistan. At this site about
seven cultural layers were found, of which the earliest three were Neolithic. The
first Neolithic phase (IA) in Mehrgarh showed the evidence of tools such as
polished stone tools, microliths and bone tools. There was no pottery at this
stage but baskets coated with bitumen were used. Hunting, together with stock-
breeding and plant cultivation were the economies of this region. Cattle, sheep,
goat and water buffalo were reared while the cultivated plants comprised several
varieties of wheat and barley. The houses were made of mud and mud-bricks.
Multiple rooms without doors were believed to have been used for storing grain.
The dead were buried under the floors of the houses where people lived. Some
of the skeletons which were buried have been found sprinkled with red ochre.
Necklaces of micro-beads of steatite along with beads of semi-precious stones
such as turquoise, lapis lazuli and sea shell were found in the graves. Stone axes
and microliths have also been found as grave goods. In two cases, bodies of
young goats were also discovered. The next phase (IB) saw the appearance of
pottery. The third Neolithic phase datable to 5000 B.C., is divided into three
sub-periods on the basis of changes in ceramic technology. In IIA - handmade,
basket-impressed coarse ware was used. Quality seemed to have improved in
sub-period IIB. In IIC, wheel-made pottery was introduced. The vessels of buff
to reddish colour were painted in black pigment with simple straight and curved
lines, rows of dots and criss-crosses. One of the interesting finds of this site is
cotton seeds. This find is of great importance since it suggests the possibility of
the use of this fibre for textile manufacture. Neolithic III saw a marked increase
in the size of the settlement and remarkable development in ceramic industry.
Vessels were decorated with paintings of birds and animals as also with geometric
designs. Oats and another variety of wheat were added. There is evidence of
stone bead manufacture and copper smelting at the site too. Architectural remains
include a large granary with multiple rectangular cells, much larger than the
granaries of the preceding periods.

2.9 SUMMARY
As we come to the end of this lesson, it is very clear that there are different
cultural traits as far as Neolithic in India is concerned. Interestingly two different
29
Neolithic and Chalcolithic features are witnessed. At one level, the differences are many and varied while at
Cultures
another level, some traits are similar even though they fall in different geographical
zones. It is therefore unlikely that climatic changes and shifting of floral and
faunal boundaries at the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene,
when Neolithic started, are directly related to the origin of agriculture in India. It
was probably the environment and the exploitative technology, combined with
adaptability that was more or less largely responsible for the transition from the
food-gathering to the food-producing economy. Such a transition came at different
periods in different parts of the country, as evidenced from the difference in
dates procured. This brings us to the point that India seemed to have witnessed a
very fluctuating Neolithic in terms of the great difference in time, for instance,
between the pre-Harappan sites vis-a-vis the eastern sites.

In terms of relationships, it would seem that with the exception of the

Chhotanagpur region which may have some connections as yet unidentified with
the south, the early farming communities in each region were distinct from each
other. Of these the Indo-Pakistan community seems to be inspired from west
Asia, the north from northeast, the Ganges valley from south, and northeast from
south-east Asia and vice versa. In fact, northeast India which is very strategically
located in the borderline of Southeast Asia and south Asia has been touted by
many as the nuclear area of early rice cultivation. However, this fact is yet to be
ascertained.

At the same time it is observed that there is an apparent time lag between the
manifestations of the Neolithic economy in the Indian group of regions and their
counterparts in the nuclear areas earlier mentioned. In fact, in India it makes its
appearance after thousands of years have elapsed. One of the main issues herein
is the mechanism of diffusion and its extent which are yet to be ascertained.
Therefore, the appearance of the early farming communities or the transition
from food gathering to food producing in India is shown to have come about
palpably later than in west Asia and southeast Asia which is rather conditioned
by several factors including the level of exploitative technology, environment,
late continuance or survival of the Mesolithic economy etc. It is also partly due
to the fact that we have as yet not investigated the antecedent stages of the food-
producing economy especially with reference to the domestication of animals
and plants, climate, soil, relief etc., which could, in the light of the present
approach to the problem, push the story of early farming in India backwards.

Suggested Reading
Agrawal, D.P. 1982. The Archaeology of India. New Delhi: Select Books
Syndicate.

Allchin, B and R. Allchin. 1983. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan.
New Delhi: SBS.

Bhattacharya, D.K. 1989. An Outline of Indian Prehistory. New Delhi: Popular

Prakshan

Chakrabarti, D.K. 1999. India An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic

Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations. New Delhi: OUP.

Sankalia, H.D.1974. The Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan.

30
Pune: DCPRI. Neolithic Regional Variants

Subba, T. B and S. C. Ghosh. 2003. The Anthropology of North-East India: A

Textbook. New Delhi: Orient Longman.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the Neolithic Culture of Northern and Eastern India.
2) Why Neolithic is called revolution not evolution? Comment on it with
suitable Indian Neolithic examples.
Write a note on the following
i) Chirand
ii) Daojali Hading.

31
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures UNIT 3 CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Ahar Culture
3.3 Kayatha Culture
3.4 Malwa Culture
3.5 Jorwe Culture
3.6 Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) Culture
3.7 Painted Gray Ware (PWG) Culture
3.8 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the regional diversity of Chalcolithic cultures in western and
central India;
Ø understand the significance of the chronology of these cultures;
Ø understand how the Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) culture and the Painted
Gray ware (PWG) culture are distinctively different; and
Ø grasp the problem of how the entire cultural landscape in north, western
and central India remained devoid of full-fledged urbanism for almost
thousand years following the Harappan decline.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In post-independent period an interest developed among the scholars for the
systematic study of social organisations and political and economic institutions.
This was apparent in writings of scholars like D.D. Kosambi. A similar interest
influenced the archaeological work during this time when, spearheaded by
scholars like H.D. Sankalia, there appeared an effort to reconstruct the past ways
of life in different regions. Detailed exploration of Chalcolithic sites followed,
particularly in central and western India, with excavations at a few chosen sites.
Multi-disciplinary studies at sites like Inamgaon in Maharashtra threw substantial
light on past subsistence, religious practices and social organisation. The
Chalcolithic culture of a region was defined according to certain salient features
seen in ceramics and other cultural equipments like copper artifacts, beads of
semi-precious stones, stone tools and terracotta figurines. Migration and diffusion
of population groups were often cited as causes for the origin of these cultures,
as seen for example, in the idea of an Aryan ‘people’ being the bearers. Often
linkages of archaeological sites were sought with names of places mentioned in
the Puranas and epics which were believed to have been located in the same
geographical region. Many of these ideas have been critiqued in recent years,
e.g. defining a culture on the basis of pottery types and explaining change by
32 factors of diffusion and migration (Panja 2002).
On the other hand the Ochre Coloured Pottery, commonly known as OCP, seen Chalcolithic Cultures
at over one hundred sites in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh, presents a different problem. Opinions are still divided about the
authorship of OCP ‘cultures’. The dates assigned are diverse, ranging from 2800
BC to 900 BC. The PGW phase, marked by the deluxe ware of the same name
has evoked many queries regarding its status. Its association with iron at some
sites has been the subject of much scholarly discussion.

The Chalcolithic cultures such as Ahar, Kayatha, Malwa, Jorwe, Ochre

colored Pottery and Painted Gray are discussed in this unit.

3.2 AHAR CULTURE

The Ahar culture –also known as the Banas culture, the latter term derived from
the name of the valley in which most of the sites of this culture are located—is
among the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of India. This is seen from the calibrated
radio-carbon dates available from many of the sites. The culture has been named
after the type site Ahar, in District Udaipur, Rajasthan which was excavated in
1961-62 by H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College, Pune. South eastern Rajasthan,
where the Ahar culture sites are found, is known as Mewar. Within this region,
the sites are located in the eastern plain and the southeastern plateau, two of the
terrains that mark the physiographic condition of Rajasthan. This region is rich
in mineral deposits, and archaeologists postulate from available evidence that
this region also supplied copper to the Harappan sites.

More than sixty sites of the Ahar culture have been discovered so far, of which
the most extensively excavated sites are Ahar and Balathal. The sites of Gilund,
Bagor and Ojiyana have also been excavated, while section scraping at Marmi
and Tarawat was undertaken to ascertain the culture sequence and chronology.
Excavations at Ahar revealed a two-fold sequence of cultures of which the first
period (Period I) is Chalcolithic and the second (Period II) is early Historic.
Available radio-carbon dates (calibrated) suggest a time bracket of 2025 BC—
1270 BC for the Chalcolithic phase. The ancient mound of Balathal is located on
the eastern fringe of the village Balathal in Udaipur district, on the west bank of
a river locally known as Kataranadi. The excavations were conducted at the site
from 1994-2000 by Deccan College, Pune, in collaboration with Institute of
Rajasthan Studies, Rajasthan University, under V.N. Misra. This site also revealed
habitational deposits belonging to cultural periods like Ahar. A series of radio
carbon dates place the Chalcolithic culture at Balathal between the beginning of
3rd millennium BC and 1500 BC.

Balathal is perhaps the most-extensively researched site of this culture, the

ceramics having been subjected to detailed studies. Based on the material culture
of Balathal, and a comparative study with that of the other sites (Misra, 2002-
03), has divided the Ahar culture into four phases like Early Ahar/Balathal phase,
Transitional Phase, Mature Ahar phase and Late Ahar phase.

The Early Ahar phase has so far been noticed only at Balathal. It is marked by
mud and mud brick houses with hearths in some. The material culture is
characterised by eight types of wares, the potters having already invented the
inverted firing technique of black and red ware and that of reserved slip ware. In
the inverted technique at the time of firing the pots are places in an inverted
33
Neolithic and Chalcolithic manner, so that the parts, which did not get any oxygen became black, while the
Cultures
portion which had access to oxygen became red. A Sturdy Red ware and Red
Slipped ware and painted Buff ware are noticed. Beads of steatite and terracotta
have been obtained in good numbers. A few stone implements are also found.
The faunal and floral remains indicate a mixed economy. This phase is placed at
the end of fourth millennium BC.

The second phase, also identified at Balathal is a transitional one which did not
have a long time span. In the upper layers the Mature Aharian gradually became
prominent. This is evident in the ceramic types.

The Mature phase witnessed a large number of settlements and the emergence of
a few key sites and many satellite sites. A uniform settlement pattern is seen at
all sites with certain additional features at some sites like a fortified enclosure at
Balathal. Houses were now made of stone, mud and mud brick. At Balathal the
fortified enclosure is centrally located and surrounded by the residential complex.
The reasons for such a plan remain unknown till today. Features associated with
the houses are hearths, storage pits, saddle querns and small storage jars. Industrial
activities were marked in mass production of ceramics, metal works, and
development of bead industries. Beads are made in shell, bone, ivory, semi-
precious stones, steatite and terracotta. The diagnostic wares of this period are
the black and red wares, red and grey wares. Refinement of technology is seen at
this stage with the invention of fast wheel. Hallmark of this stage are the
techniques of slipping, polishing or burnishing and embellishing the vessels with
many types of decorations. A large number of new shapes and forms emerged
during this period. Sankalia and his team had discovered several copper ore
quarrying sites within the radius of 32 km of Ahar. For this reason, this region is
considered as the source of copper supply to the Harappans.

The evidence of rice has been noticed at Ahar in the form of impressions on
potsherds. The other crops cultivated during this period were wheat, barley, millet-
bajra and jawar. Faunal remains of domesticated species like cattle, buffalo, goat,
sheep, pig, dog and fowl have been recovered from excavations. The wild animals
hunted were sambhar, nilgai, chital, blackbuck and wild boar. The evidence
suggests mixed economy of cultivation and hunting gathering.

As for social organisation one cannot rule out the presence of specialised classes
of craftsmen. But, on the basis of the limited nature of evidence it is not known
whether it was a chiefdom society. The evidence of fortification at Balathal implies
that there may have been internecine conflicts. A large number of bull figurines
appearing in large number from the end of the mature Ahar phase has been ascribed
with ideological meaning, but nothing concrete can be said.

An inhospitable climate experienced during the end of the second millennium

BC led to the termination of the farming culture in southeastern Rajasthan.
Features of decline are evident in the Late Ahar phase.

Regarding the authorship of this culture opinions are sharply divided. Sankalia
had seen a West Asian link which was disputed by later scholars. Recent research
highlights the affinity between the Ahar culture and a chalcolithic culture in
Gujarat.

34
 Chalcolithic Cultures
3.3 KAYATHA CULTURE
This Chalcolithic culture was named after the type site Kayatha, in Ujjain dist.,
Madhya Pradesh. The excavation was due to the joint collaboration of Deccan
College, Pune and Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and
Archaeology, Vikram University, Ujjain. Kayatha has been identified with the
ancient Kapitthaka, birth place of the celebrated astronomer-astrologer Varaha.
Excavations revealed a five-fold sequence of cultures:
i) Kayatha culture (Ca. 2450-2000 BC.)
ii) Ahar culture (Ca. 1950-1700 BC)
iii) Malwa culture (Ca. 1700-1400 BC)
iv) Early Historic (Ca. 600 BC-200 BC)
v) Sunga-Kusana-Gupta (Ca. 200 BC-600 BC)
Over forty settlements of the Kayatha culture have been so far discovered in the
Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, most of them being located on the tributaries
of the Chambal River.
The characteristic forms of ceramics include: the chocolate slipped ware also
known as Kayatha ware. The types are bowls, high and short-necked storage jars
with globular profile and basins. Similarities are evident with the sturdy painted
pottery found at some pre-Harappan sites. A red painted buff ware, a concave
necked pot with a bulging body, with or without carination, a dish or shallow
bowl and a basin, most probably constituted table ware. Some bowls, basins and
globular pots represented combed ware. The bulk of the total yield, about 60%,
including forms like handis, basins and storage jars were coarse handmade red/
grey ware. Use of both copper and stone tools was found. A cache of copper has
been found, as well as two exquisitely made copper axes, cast in moulds. A
specialised blade industry existed as seen from evidence of mass production of
chalcedony blades in the crested guiding ridge technique. Ornaments like two
bead necklaces have been found. Beads were manufactured from semi-precious
stones. Most of these artifacts were found inside a house, which could not be
fully excavated.
People lived in small huts with well-rammed floors and wattle and daub walls
supporting a thatched roof. A mixed economy was practiced as seen from evidence
on subsistence farming, stock raising and hunting-fishing. Barley and wheat were
grown. Domesticated animals included cattle and sheep/goat. Interestingly, horse
remains have been found from the Chalcolithic level at Kayatha.
As no antecedent stages of this culture are found in the Malwa region, Dhavalikar
(1997) is of the opinion that the Kayatha culture—the earliest chalcolithic culture
in the Malwa region— had developed elsewhere. Following which people
migrated with the culture to this region. The sudden end of this culture is ascribed
to an earthquake. The presence of a sterile layer between the levels of the Kayatha
and the succeeding Ahar culture points to a hiatus between the two.

3.4 MALWA CULTURE

The Malwa culture is the most predominant chalcolithic culture of central India,
with a wide distribution of sites almost all over Malwa region. It was first 35
Neolithic and Chalcolithic identified in the excavations at Maheshwar, on river Narmada. Maheshwar was
Cultures
identified with the ancient Mahishmati of the Puranas. Navdatoli on the opposite
bank also revealed great potential and was subsequently excavated. Other
excavated sites of this culture are Nagda, Kayatha, Eran etc. On the basis of
calibrated dates the Malwa culture is placed in the bracket of 1900-1400 BC.

Malwa region lying to the east of the Banas valley and Aravalli hills forms
a distinct geographical unit, forming a link between the Indo-Gangetic
plain and the peninsular region. Two great river systems, the Chambal and
the Narmada traverse the region. A very heavy concentration of Malwa
settlements is found in the central Narmada basin, which is considered to
be a very fertile land.

Sites are mostly found on the banks of the tributaries. They were not affected by
flood, unlike those on the main river. A sort of two level settlement pattern existed,
consisting of a large number of small villages and a few large villages. Among
the latter one may include Navdatoli, Nagda and Eran, Navdatoli being perhaps
the largest. There were two parts of occupation at Navdatoli, enclosed by a
fortification wall. Perhaps in historical times the centre shifted to Maheshwar.
At Nagda, a mud rampart has been recorded- a feature also seen at Eran.

At Nagda, the houses seem to have been laid out in rows along the road and by-
lanes. The use of mud-bricks and fired bricks at Nagda is significant as they are
absent at other Malwa sites. The houses were multi-roomed with a chulah (Hearth/
oven) bearing four arms. The floors were rammed hard, and there were several
floor levels indicating periodic repair and re-laying. There were pebble platforms
as well. Two rooms enclosing squarish pits have also been found, the function of
which remains unclear. At Navdatoli, a number of structures were laid bare
belonging to four different phases of chalcolithic culture. Both round huts and
rectangular houses were found together in each phase. Pit-dwellings were noticed
in the first phase. Usually round huts were found in clusters of two, three or four.
Dhavalikar (1997) suggests each cluster represented a household, of which one
had a hearth while others served different functions. Rectangular structures were
quite spacious with thick mud walls and wooden posts supporting the thatched
roof. The floor was rammed hard. A circular structure in one of the houses was
possibly meant to be a storage bin. An extensive burnt floor has been found,
possibly used as a threshing floor.

There were a number of postholes which did not follow any sensible plan; possibly
they were stakes where domestic animals were tethered at night. A burnt house
belonging to the latest stage of the Chalcolithic phase has been recorded from
Navdatoli. Storage jars and squarish pots have been found inside this house.
Multi-roomed structures at Navdatoli are particularly evident from a house in
phase II which is marked by rows of postholes of which a double set of postholes
forms the back wall. The total extent of the settlement at Navdatoli was about 7
ha. At Navdatoli a large burnt red floor was found. It had a squarish pit in the
middle. In the four corners of the pit were found charred wooden posts which
probably supported a canopy above. Inside the pit were burnt wooden splinters.
Two high-necked pots were also found there. The function of this structure is
unknown. This pit was part of a one room house as seen from a hearth in the
northern part and a circular pot rest in the west.

36
The Malwa culture spread into Maharashtra by 1700 BC and some of the Malwa Chalcolithic Cultures
sites like Prakash in the Tapi valley, Daimabad in the Godavari valley and
Inamgaon in the Bhima valley were quite extensive. At Daimabad, the excavator
has identified craftsmen’s houses and structures with religious affiliation. The
most important structures of the Malwa period at Daimabad were House nos.
32,33 and 54 which formed one complex, located in an enclosure wall. Large
fire pits were found in house no. 54, identified as sacrificial altars; two-armed
chulahs were also identified. At Inamgaon 20 houses of the Malwa period have
been identified, they were large rectangular structures with a low partition wall
in the middle. Inside the room were low mudwalls with large fire pits and pit
silos meant for storage. Circular pit dwellings also existed at Inamgaon.

The subsistence practices and diet can be reconstructed from remains of

carbonized grains of wheat, barley, jawar, rice, legumes, oilseeds and fruits. These
are found at different sites due to ecological species types varied from site to
site. Animal flesh also formed a part of the Chalcolithic diet.

The material culture constituted chiefly of ceramic types, the Malwa ware forming
the principal type. It was essentially buff or cream slipped with painted patterns
in dark brown. A pottery kiln belonging to the Malwa period has been uncovered
at Inamgaon. Other ceramic wares were white painted black-and-red ware of the
Ahar culture, a cream slipped ware, a coarse red/grey ware and handmade storage
jars. Dhavalikar drew parallels of some forms of Malwa ware from Navdatoli
with forms found in West Asian sites. Other components of the material
assemblage were blade tools, copper artefacts and beads of semi-precious stones.
Stone rubbers, muellers, querns, grinding stones, hammer stones, sling stones
and mace heads have been found pointing to mixed subsistence practices.

Religious beliefs are reconstructed from fragmentary evidence. Terracotta female

figurines of indistinct types have been found while a few examples of more
definite forms exist. Representations of male figures in painted forms are seen in
some wares. Terracotta bull figurines were either mere toys or associated with
religious beliefs. Presence of a specific structure has been interpreted as fire
alter, evidence of fire worship.

The decline of the Malwa culture has been placed in around 1400 BC which
coincided with that of Ahar culture as well. Dhavalikar suggests climatic
deterioration for the end of these cultures.

3.5 JORWE CULTURE

The Jorwe culture is the most important and characteristic chalcolithic culture
of Maharashtra, extending almost all over the present state, excepting the coastal
strip on the west and Vidarbha in the north east. The culture is named after the
type site of Jorwe in Ahmadnagar district, Gujrat. The culture was discovered in
1950. In regions, such as, Prakash in the Tapi valley, Daimabad in the Pravara-
Godavari valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima valley large centres of this culture
were found. This is a notable feature of Jorwe culture.

Although over 200 sites of this culture have been documented so far, only a few
sites have been subjected to large scale excavations. Inamgaon and Daimabad
are two excavated sites. In understanding the settlement pattern of the Jorwe
37
Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites, ecological differences between different regions have been highlighted
Cultures
(Dhavalikar, 1997). The high concentration of sites in the Tapi valley has been
put down to the occurrence of tracts of highly fertile black cotton soil in the
region. The sparse settlement pattern of the Bhima valley, on the other hand, is
explained by the fact that the whole basin is practically a dry area. Following
regional approaches in archaeology, environment was taken as a prime
determinant, and attempts were made to characterise different kinds of sites in
functional terms. On the basis of the limited data Dhavalikar classifies all the
Jorwe sites as regional centres, namely, villages, hamlets, farmsteads and camps
(Dhavalikar 1997).
The regional centres of Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon are extensive in area,
with a very rich material culture. The work in Inamgaon (Dhavalikar et al 1988)
was a breakthrough in Chalcolithic studies. Interdisciplinary in nature it
incorporated many disciplines which resulted in a systematic study of the past.
Several structures were laid bare at the site of which the granary and the diversion
channels may be taken as examples of public architecture. Dhavalikar unearthed
over one hundred and thirty houses belonging to both Early and Late Jorwe
phases. The Early Jorwe houses were rectangular in plan while the Late Jorwe
ones were circular. Dhavalikar ascribes the change in house plan to deteriorating
economic condition of the people in the Late Jorwe period when the climate
became more dry and arid. He also associated the two contrasting house plans to
different ways of life, the Early Jorwe rectangular houses to a sedentary pattern,
and the Late Jorwe circular houses to a semi-nomadic existence. To arrive at this
conclusion he relied on ethnographic observations on dwellings of present-day
communities in and around Inamgaon. This use of ethnographic analogy was
critiqued by later scholars (Panja, 2002). These houses revealed features like a
fire pit or chulah and storage bins.
A large number of Jorwe sites can be classified as villages, most of them being
about 2 ha in extent. A few of these were excavated. They are Songaon, Chandoli,
Apegaon and Walki (Dhavalikar, 1997). A small number of sites, not over a
hectare in extent, possibly consisting of a few households are considered as
hamlets. Sites located within 2-3 km of the major sites, and situated close to the
fields to facilitate the conduct of agricultural operations, have been defined as
farmsteads. Walki in Pune district, lying mid-way between Pune and Inamgaon,
is an important example. Threshing floors were identified at this site. Transitory
camps are not easy to identify but Dhavalikar identified one of these at Pachad,
at the foot of Raigad fort near Mahad on the western coast in Maharasthra.
Based on an analysis of organic remains the subsistence base was reconstructed.
It was based on dry-farming with stock-raising and hunting-fishing as ancillary
activities. A variety of crops were grown, and the Jorwe farmers have also been
credited for practicing crop rotation. The principal crops were barley, wheat,
jowar, rice, ragi, green pea, grass pea, lentil, and green and black gram. Our
knowledge of the early subsistence patterns is mostly formed on the work at
Inamgaon. For the first time site-catchment analysis was carried out to understand
the link between Inamgaon and its immediate surroundings. The Late Jorwe
phase, however, marks the decline of agriculture. A fresh analysis of bones
recovered from the Inamgaon excavations (Pawankar, 1996) revealed that the
number of bones of wild animals increased drastically in the later levels. From
this evidence it was deduced that environmental degradation led to a change in
38 subsistence strategies from agriculture to hunting in the Late Jorwe period.
At Inamgaon the stone blade/flake industry is substantially represented, occurring Chalcolithic Cultures
at all levels. Considerable progress in ceramic technology is seen. The painted
pottery was wheel-made and well-fired. Four pottery kilns have so far come to
light through excavations. The Jorwe black-on-red painted pottery is characterised
by some forms of which the most important are the spouted jar and the carinated
bowl. Other forms include storage jars, basins, cups and an occasional channel
spouted bowl. The other important ceramic types are a coarse red/grey ware, a
handmade ware, and a handmade red ware, the latter occurring in negligible
quantities. Metal technology of the Chalcolithic people was in a rudimentary
stage. Lime making was a flourishing industry. Like in other aspects of material
culture there was a marked decline in ceramics too in the Late Jorwe period.

A noteworthy feature of the Jorwe culture is the mode of disposal of the dead. A
substantial number of burials were exposed in Inamgaon and Daimabad. Many
child burials were found in urns laid in pits. In case of adults, the portion below
the ankles was chopped off. Among the Inamgaon burials the most important
and unique is a four legged urn burial with an adult skeleton inside. Religious
beliefs were reconstructed from the presence of terracotta figurines.

By analysing these different aspects of material culture Davalikar talked of a

chiefdom society which has been critiqued (Panja, 2002).

The antecedents of this culture are seen in the preceding Malwa cultural elements.
A large number of the settlements were deserted at the end of second millennium
BC for climatic deterioration.

3.6 OCHRE COLORED POTTERY (OCP) CULTURE

The OCP or the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture is named after a ceramic type
which is extremely rolled and fragile. It has a wash of red ochre which is easily
washed off and hence its name. It was first recognised by B.B. Lal in 1951 in a
small excavation at Bisauli and Rajpur Parsu, the two sites in Uttar Pradesh
where Copper hoards were found earlier. Lal also found similar pottery in his
excavations at Hastinapura in the levels below those yielding the Painted Grey
ware (PGW). Later exploration and selected excavation brought to light several
OCP sites in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. At a majority
of sites the OCP is found in small bits, but some sites in the upper Ganga-Yamuna
doab, namely, Bahadarabad, Manpur, Bhatpura, Ambkheri and Bargaon have
yielded larger fragments which have enabled one to study the representative
forms. It appears from the better preserved specimens from sites like Ahichchhatra
that the pottery was treated with a thick slip and sometimes was also ornamented
with painted patterns in black. Incised decorations as well. At Atranjikhera there
is a variety of OCP which is decorated with incised patterns, while Lal Qila has
provided evidence of a developed OCP. Jodhpura is the only site where the
habitational deposit of the OCP had been found in the form of well made floors,
mud huts, hearth, terracotta human male figurines and bull figurines. This shows
that the OCP people led a sedentary existence, similar to many early farming
communities of this period. Remains of domesticated animals like cattle, and
evidence of cultivated crops like rice and barley further provide information on
their subsistence practices.

39
Neolithic and Chalcolithic The association of OCP with Copper Hoards found from different parts of northern
Cultures
and eastern India is one of the knottiest problems of Indian archaeology. The
Copper Hoards consist of implements of different kinds, such as, celts, rings,
harpoons, anthropomorphs, double axes, antennae etc. On the basis of their
occurrence at different sites the culture is grouped into different zones. Their
origin is shrouded in mystery. The presence of OCP and copper objects together
at many sites like Ganeswar, Saipai, Bisauli, Rajpur, Parsu, Bahadarabad, Nasirpur
and Baharia has been taken as evidence of their association. There are
diametrically opposite views regarding this. Other treat them as two completely
separate entities. Some assign the OCP either to pre-Harappans, Harappans, or
Late Harappans, while others assign this to the Aryans, still others see a tribal
association. The chronological span ranges from 2600 to 900 BC.

Although the picture is still very confusing regarding the origin, development
and authorship of copper hoards and OCP and their relationship with other
cultures, Dhavalikar tries to suggest a framework for the development of the
OCP, on the basis of the available evidence. The beginning of OCP is put down
to 2800 BC, the evidence coming from Ganeshwar-Jodhpura in Rajasthan. The
presence of hundreds of copper objects here has led Dhavalikar to argue that it
was a centre for supplying copper artefacts to the Harappans. A close examination
of the OCP from the upper Ganga basin shows that it has striking similarities
with the pre-Harappan or Early Harappan artifacts from Indus as well as sites in
the Yamuna valley. The second stage in the development of OCP is marked at
Alamgirpur where OCP shapes are represented at the cultural levels and at
Ambkheri and Bargaon where the Harappan influence is distinctly seen in pottery
forms. Dhavalikar explains this as a development of ‘symbiotic relationship.’
The third stage begins from the beginning of the second millennium, marked by
a drastic change in climate with the onset of aridity. The people of this culture
were forced to move to the upper Ganga basin, and later to middle Ganga valley
under the adverse circumstances. Possibly they buried their copper objects at
these sites when they could not survive. In the final stage they reached the middle
Ganga valley where they could not survive for long as well. Incidentally, the
OCP has not so far been reported from Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh
(except at Gungeria) where copper hoards have been found.

3.7 PAINTED GRAY WARE (PGW) CULTURE

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a very fine, smooth, and even-coloured grey pottery,
with a thin fabric. It was made out of well-worked, very high quality clay. Designs,
mostly simple geometric patterns were painted on the pots in black. The uniform
colour and texture of the pots indicates very sophisticated firing techniques. PGW
seems to have been a deluxe ware, forming a very small percentage of the total
pottery assemblage at the levels at which these were found. It occurs along with
other pottery types such as plain grey ware, Black and Red Ware (BRW) and
black slipped ware, which were perhaps used in everyday life. The dates of the
PGW culture range from 1100-500/400 BCE and the sites show a wide
geographical distribution, stretching from the Himalayan foothills to the Malwa
plateau in central India, and from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan to Kaushambi
near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. Apart from the plains it has been found in the
hilly regions of Kumaon and Garhwal. Sporadic potsherds were found at a few
places like Vaishali in Bihar, Lakhiyopur in Sind and Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.
40
The main concentration of the sites is however, in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Chalcolithic Cultures
Sutlej basin, and upper Ganga plains. There are regional variations of this culture
both in the pottery as well in associated remains. In the archaeological sequence
of the Ganga valley the PGW phase is followed by the Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW). PGW was first identified at Ahichchhatra in the 1940’s but its
full significance was understood only after excavations at Hastinapur in 1954-
55. Since then important evidence of the PGW material culture is available from
excavated sites like Alamgirpur, Mathura, Bhagwanpura, Kaushambi, Sravasti
and others. It occurs in four kinds of stratigraphic contexts. At some sites it is
preceded by a late Harappan level, with an intervening break in occupation. At
other sites there is an overlap between the PGW and the Late Harappan phase.
At some sites it is preceded by the OCP culture, with a break in between. And at
other sites the PGW phase is preceded by a BRW phase, with a break in between.
At the upper end PGW overlaps with the NBP culture. Recent excavations at
Abhaipur, Pilibhit district, Uttar Pradesh, have thrown interesting light on this
culture (Mishra 2010). It is a multi-cultural site with OCP forming the earliest
deposit, followed by the Black-and-Red Ware (BRW) phase, which is succeeded
by the PGW phase, the final phase of occupation at the site being that of NBPW.
At Abhaipur, human burials have been found, the first such occurrence at any
PGW site. However, human skeletons were also discovered in the Late Harappa-
PGW interlocking stage at Bhagwanpura.

Structural remains at PGW levels consist mainly of wattle-and-daub and mud

huts. Unbaked bricks and one baked brick were found at Hastinapura. Jakhera
represents a fairly-evolved proto-urban stage of this culture.

The PGW sites indicate a subsistence base that included cultivation of rice, wheat
and barley. Double cropping was possibly practiced. There is no actual evidence
of irrigation facilities, but a few deep circular pits outside the habitation area at
Atranjikhera are indicative of kachcha wells. Animal husbandry was also
practiced.

The association of iron with PGW has drawn the attention of archaeologists for
long. There have been a series of debates on the impact of iron technology at the
beginnings of urbanism in the Ganga valley known as second urbanization.
Regarding PGW phase, it is seen that iron is not associated with this cultural
level at all the sites. It is not present at the sites in Ghaggar-Hakra area or in the
Bikaner region. At sites like Jakhera and Kaushami iron has been found at pre-
PGW BRW levels. But in the Ganga-Yamuna doab the earliest iron objects are
usually associated with PGW. Most of the iron artefacts seem to be connected
with war or hunting, like arrowheads, spearhead, blades, daggers etc. However,
clamps, sockets, rods, rings etc. which could have been connected with carpentry
have also been found. The mature PGW phase at Jakhera has also given important
evidence of iron implements used in agriculture like a sickle, ploughshare and
hoe.

Detailed studies of settlement patterns associated with PGW phase have been
carried out. Here one could mention Makkhan Lal’s study of the Kanpur district
and Erdosy’s study of the PGW settlements in Allahabad district.

41
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures 3.8 SUMMARY
To sum up, the scenario in north, west and central India in the period spanning
from beginning of the 3rd millennium – 800 BCE speaks of a great deal of
diversity. At many times it is difficult to put the material assemblage in neatly
defined categories. A lot of overlapping of cultural traditions is noticed which
speaks of considerable vibrancy and mobility in the cultural landscape. The
regional diversity is all the more highlighted when one surveys chalcolithic
cultures in northern and eastern India, which however, fall outside the purview
of this unit.

Suggested Reading
Dhavalikar, M.K. 1997. Indian Protohistory. New Delhi: Books and Books.

Dhavalikar, M.K., H.D. Sankalia and Z,D. Ansari. 1988. Excavations at Inamgaon
Vol. I, part i & ii. Pune: Deccan College.

Mishra, A. 2010. Archaeological Investigations in Deoha River Valley with

Special Reference to Excavations at Abhaipur, District Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh
in Archaeology of the Ganga Basin Paradigm Shift. Volume I (V.Tripathi ed.),
pp. 237-257. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House.

Misra, V.D. 2002. A Review of Copper Hoards and the OCP Culture in Indian
Archaeology in Retrospect. Volume I, Prehistory: Archaeology of South Asia
(S.Settar and R.Korisettar eds.), pp. 277-286. New Delhi: Indian Council of
Historical research and Manohar.

Panja, S. Research on the Deccan Chalcolithic in Indian Archaeology in

Retrospect: Volume I, Prehistory: Archaeology of South Asia (S.Settar and
R.Korisettar eds.), pp. 263-276. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical research
and Manohar.

Pawankar, S., 1995. Man and Animal Relationship in Early farming Communities
of Western India with Special Reference to Inamgaon. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune.
University of Poona.

Singh, U. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone
Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the different types of Protohistoric regional variants.
2) What do you understand by Chalcolithic culture? Describe one very important
Chalcolithic culture.
Write a notes on the following
i) Jorwe Culture, ii) Malwa Culture, iii) Kayatha culture, iv) OCP and
PGW Cultures

42
 Chalcolithic Cultures
UNIT 4 MEGALITHIC CULTURES

Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Megaliths
4.3 Megalithic Culture of India
4.3.1 Burial Rituals and Social Organisation
4.3.2 Ethnic Affinity and Origin
4.3.3 Chronology
4.4 Erection of Megaliths by Some Indian Tribes
4.5 Iron Age Culture in India
4.5.1 Gangetic Valley
4.5.2 Painted Grey Ware Culture
4.5.3 Northern Black Polished Ware Culture and the Second Urbanization
4.5.4 Southern Zone
4.6 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able:
Ø to study the Megalithic Culture of India;
Ø to study the Megalithic types;
Ø to understand the development of Megalithic culture keeping in view the
regional variations;
Ø to briefly outline the main problems of the Megalithic Culture in India;
Ø to study the Megalithic practices among Indian Tribes; and
Ø to study the Iron Age Culture of India.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A megalith is a stone which is larger in size and has been used to construct a
monument or a structure. The monument or the structure has been constructed
either alone or together with other stones. Megalithic has been used to describe
buildings built by people living in many different periods from many parts of the
world. The construction of this type of structures took place mainly in the Neolithic
and continued into the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

4.2 TYPES OF MEGALITHS

There are large numbers of megaliths found all over world but we may group the
similar types together. The types of megalithic structures can be divided into two
categories, the “Polylithic type” and the “Monolithic type”. In polylithic type
43
Neolithic and Chalcolithic more than one stone is used to make the megalithic structure. In monolithic type
Cultures
the structure consists of a single stone. Following are the different megalithic
structures.

Polylithic types
Dolmen: This is a type of megalith which is made in single chamber tomb,
usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal
capstone. Dolmens were usually covered with earth or smaller stones to form a
barrow. But in many cases that covering has weathered away, leaving only the
stone “skeleton” of the burial mound intact.

Cairn: A Cairn is a human-made pile of stones, often in conical form. They are
usually found in uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops, or near waterways. In
modern times Cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient times they were
erected as sepulchral monuments or used for practical and astronomical purposes.
These vary from loose, small piles of stones to elaborate feats of engineering.

Cromlekh: Cromlekh is a British word used to describe prehistoric megalithic

structures, where crom means “bent” and llech means “flagstone”. The term is
now virtually obsolete in archaeology, but remains in use as a colloquial term for
two different types of megalithic monument.

Cist: A cist or kist was used as encasements for dead bodies. It might have
associations with other monuments. It would not be uncommon to find several
cists close with each other in the cairn or barrow. The presence of ornaments
within an excavated cist, indicate the wealth or prominence of the interred
individual.

Fig.4.1: Cist excavated by Sir Mortimer Wheeler at Brahmagiri

Monolithic type
Menhir: A Menhir is a stone Monolithic standing vertically. It could also exist
as part of a group of similar stones. They have different sizes with uneven and
square shapes, often tapering towards the top. Menhirs are widely distributed
across different continents viz., Europe, Africa, and Asia, but are most commonly
found in Western Europe; in particular in Ireland, Great Britain and Brittany.
Their origin dates back to pre-history. They are members of a larger Megalithic
culture that flourished in Europe and beyond.

Stone Circle: A Stone Circle is a monument of standing stones arranged in a

circle usually dated to megalithic period. The arrangement of the stones may be
44
in a circle, in the form of an ellipse, or more rarely a setting of four stones laid on Megalithic Cultures
an arc of a circle. The type varies from region to region.

4.3 MEGALITHIC CULTURE OF INDIA

In 1872, Fergusson brought out his excellent work entitled “Rude Stone
Monuments in all Countries: their age and uses. This first attracted the attention
of scholars. Although Babington (1823) had published his book, “Descriptions
of the Pandoo Coolies in Malawar” and Meadows Tylor (1873) was writing
about his observations pertaining to the “Distribution of Cairns, Cromlechs,
Kistveans and other Celtic, Druidical or Scythian monuments in the Dekhan”.
Fergusson’s work on Megaliths may still be regarded as a landmark because of
its wide scope and integrated approach.

In 1873, Breeks tried to correlate Megalithic practices with some of the

customs and rituals practiced by the tribals still living in the region of the
Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu. All earlier authors showed a strong bias
towards tracing the ancestry of the Megalithic builders to the Celts, Druids
or Scythians. Breeks, at least, was the first to show that local megalithic
bias had survived in the Nilgiris.

As with the descriptive accounts, the first excavation of Megalithic monuments

also took place more than a century ago. In the last quarter of the 19th century, Dr.
Jagor first excavated in the classic site of Adicanallur in the Tirunevelly district,
Tamil Nadu. The extensive site of Junapani, near Nagpur in Maharastra was also
excavated on a small scale by Rivett-Carnac (1879). Simultaneously, extensive
exploration in the Madras region continued, resulting in the publication of the
list of antiquarian remains in the Presidency of Madras by Sewell in 1882. At the
turn of the century, Foote (1901) brought out an excellent Catalogue of antiquities,
including megaliths.

In the later years of the 19th century, Alexander Rea (1902-03) excavated a number
of megalithic sites in South India. The classic site of Adichanallur was also re-
excavated in 1903-04 by Louis Lapicque. The remarkable variety and distinctive
natures of the Indian Megalithic cultures were then placed before the world by
Rea in 1915, when he published the Catalogue of the Prehistoric antiquities
from Adichanallur and Perumbair. A decade later, Hunt (1924) published the
result of the excavation of Megalithic graves in Andhra Pradesh.

By the end of the first quarter of the 20th century, a number of Megalithic sites
had been excavated. However, the first attempt to place the South Indian Megaliths
in a chronological framework was by Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1948), who
excavated the sites of Brahmagiri and Chandravalli in Karnataka in 1944.

In 1962, it appeared that the megaliths, that is, huge stone monuments, were a
special feature of South India. Preliminary classification had shown regional
types. Wheeler’s excavation at Brahmagiri showed that these were not as old as
once believed. This was confirmed by subsequent excavations at Sanur, Maski
and other places. While studying the Karnataka megalithic monuments A. Sundara
(1975) concluded that “the varied tomb types in different geological zones are
essentially due to the traditional affiliations rather than environmental influence.”
The megalithic builders at Hallur and further south at Paiyampalli, were not
45
Neolithic and Chalcolithic only adept at quarrying all kinds of stones, but they made a judicious use of these
Cultures
rocks. They employed a particular stone for a particular part of the tomb. Again,
these people were excellent architects-engineers. The best example is the
constructional plan of the passage chamber. Though we still do not know about
the houses and habitations of these megalithic builders, the recovery of sickles
and plough coulters of iron, rice and ragi grains from the excavations at Kunnattur
and Hallur respectively, shows that these people were probably dependent largely
upon agriculture and partly upon hunting, as proved by the hunting scenes in the
rock-paintings at Hire-Benkal. Animals such as cow/ox, goat/sheep, dogs and
horses were domesticated.

So far no evidence of literacy in the form of writing of any kind has been found
from the megaliths in Karnataka. Finally, on the question of the identity of the
megalithic builders, Sundara (1975) has shown how there was mutual borrowing
between the Neolithic-Chalcolithic inhabitants of Karnataka and the megalithic-
builders who arrived about 800-700 BC. As Kennedy has said, it is difficult to
say anything about the racial types from the study of the extant skeletal remains.
Hence, the only thing left to a culture-historian is cultural relics. Amongst these,
the only significant thing was the post-holed cist. In this regard Sundara again is
of the opinion that all the megalith-chamber types of tombs of North Karnataka
or South India, are the passage chamber type that has fundamental resemblances
with those of the Mediterranean and Western European megaliths. He further
thinks that the South Indian megaliths were derived from the Mediterranean
region via the coastal route.

Some idea of the megalithic in Coorg can be had from the work of K. K. Subbayya.
Excavation of four sites at Heggadehalli revealed some new types of burials,
which seem to be unique. Instead of the stone sides containing a simple pit or
underground cist of stone slabs, at this place, the sides contained a pit and at the
base of the pit were laid a granitic slab over which the funerary offerings were
deposited. The pit was then filled with soft earth. On this lay the large capstone.
Another megalith contained only a pit without a stone slab at the base, whereas
in the third one was a cairn side, under which was a stone chamber of large
granitic slabs, inordinately large in dimension. It also contained an underground
passage to the east outside the cist.
Except pottery, nothing else was found from the chambers. This is of the usual
kind, black-and-red ware and included bowls, tall three-legged vases and conical
vessels. Up till now, any kind of weapons have not been found at these sites.
However, the differences in the method of making these three megaliths might
indicate a kind of economic and social status their builders enjoyed in their society.
An extension of the South Indian Megaliths to Vidarbha has come to light by the
excavation at Junapani and subsequent full-fledged excavtions at Khapa and
Muhurjhari. The excavations at Khapa and Mahurjhari and another site at Naikund
have supported that the megaliths belonged to a particular section of the
community or people in each region. The evidence from Vidarbha and Tamil
nadu, particularly horse bits and several types of iron weapons suggest that these
sepulchral monuments might only belong to a warrior class.
At Khapa, situated on the left bank of the river Krishna there are a number of
megaliths in the form of stone circles, whereas on the opposite side at Takelghat
there is a habitation site. Both were dug in 1968-69 by Nagpur University. Out
46
of the nine megaliths, Megalith-1 which was the largest of all having a diameter Megalithic Cultures
about 25-26 metres, yielded interesting evidence like pots and pans of black-
and-red ware, micaceous red ware, and coarse red ware, utensils and weapons of
iron and copper, copper bangles and beads of carnelian and bones, possibly of
the horse. Among the other interesting objects must be mentioned the copper
dish and a copper lid each with a bird motifs, the copper bell and a chain of
copper rings. The excavation of the habitation site on the opposite side at Takalghat
gave some idea of the houses these people lived in. The floors are well made
with rammed brown clay, and coated with lime, whereas the walls are made of
mud, with supports of wood/bamboo posts for roof. This, at present on the
evidence of C-14 date from Takalghat, is placed around 556 B.C. Takalghat
megalithic culture is believed to be similar to that of Hallur in Karnataka.

Compared to Khapa, Mahurjhari from Nagpur is considered as a megalithic haven.

With Junapani, it is said to have more than 300 stone circles. Altogether three
localities have been identified at Mahurjhari.

In Locality-I, megaliths yielded iron axes, daggers, copper bowls, bells, bangles,
numerous beads of semi-precious stones, black-and-red pottery and gold leaves.
In Locality-II, the megaliths yielded several copper bangles, iron axes, chisels,
gold spiral, iron nails etc. This locality seems to be more important because a
human skeleton found associated with large number of objects and painted black-
and-red potsherds, which were placed near the various parts of the interred body.
The other antiquities recorded from the site are gold ornaments with punched
decoration, and pottery lids with the goat and bird motifs, in addition to the
usual iron and copper objects.
In Locality-III, megaliths yielded full length human skeletons with iron and copper
objects, including those for the horse. Gold ornaments and painted pottery
belonged to a family or persons who were rich and important- probably warriors
of a high status. The pottery particularly the painted black-and-red ware is said
to be similar to those found at Takalghat and Khapa.
The megalithic monuments found in Pune district might be just memorial
structure. Megalithic monuments had already been reported near Pune in the last
century. They, when re-examined in 1940-41, turned out to be memorials to the
dead, but not funerary in nature and devoid of any pottery and dateable objects.
A new dimension to the megalithic problem in India was revealed with the
discovery of megaliths in the districts of Banda, Allahabad, Mizapur and Varanasi
located in south-eastern Uttar Pradesh. The monuments called as cairns and cists
are comparatively sparsely distributed near the junction of the northeast slope of
the Vindhyas, and in the Ganga plains. The east-west dimension of this region is
about 320 km. There are differences in the materials used for constructing the
structures. This is obviously due to vast extent of territory in which the megaliths
are distributed. It has been found at all excavated sites at Varanasi, Allahabad,
Mirzapur and Banda, that their makers dug fairly deep pits, deposited the funerary
goods and covered them with hemispherical cairns of boulders bounded by stone
circle. The funerary goods, though varying in other essentials, had a black-and-
red ware. In case of a cist, a similar pit was dug and a box-like chamber was
prepared with orthostats. The box was packed with small stones, and covered
with massive single stone slab resting directly on the four uprights.
47
Neolithic and Chalcolithic Interestingly, unlike in the south, the Allahabad megaliths reflect the cultural
Cultures
change. The basic types- cairns, stone circles and cists-remain the same, but the
grave goods consist, instead of microliths, iron objects like sickle, adze, arrow-
head and dagger. There was a significant variation in the livelihood pattern
between the two zones. Iron had replaced stone and copper and, as the evidence
from Kotia in Allahabad shows, these were made local iron smiths.
On the opposite bank of the River Belan at Koldihwa and Khajuri megaliths
belonging to chalcolithic cultures were found, lying between cultures of Varanasi
and Kotla of Allahabad. In the former iron is absent, and microliths are scarce
while in the latter fragments of iron are associated with microliths. These types
of megalithic cultures have also been observed in Mirzapur and Banda districts.
It is interesting to note that in spite of the local variations, the inhabitants used,
right from the beginning up to the end, a Black-and Red Ware. For nearly 1500
years the technique of making of pottery, its decoration and firing did not change
and the way of life of the people remained the same.
Megaliths have also been discovered at Waztal, about 12 kms from the Matau
Spring, and Brah, about 9 kms from Martand in Kashmir. At both the sites a
number of huge standing stones were found. But these are scattered around
without any regular plan.
Habitation sites are rarely found in association with the megaliths, excepting at
Maski, Tekalghat, Paiyampalli and a few others. Recently, a large habitation site
along with scores of stone circles has been discovered at Naikund near Nagpur
in Maharastra. However, the ratio of habitation sites to burial sites still remains
exceptionally low. This posses problems for the study of settlement patterns,
and it is high time that excavation of the few habitation sites are undertaken on
a priority basis, before the megaliths are blasted by local bodies for road building.
Despite the fact that as early as 1960 an International Commission for the study
of megaliths was instituted by the Second International Congress of Archaeo-
Civilisation, no planned and conscious efforts have been made in India towards
understanding of the settlement patterns of the megalithic people. Further studies
must also be undertaken to define the main regional complexes of the Indian
Megalithic cultures. The above descriptions are of the South Indian, Northern
and Northwestern Megalithic cultures. It is obvious that these complexes are not
exclusive of each other. Some common elements can be traced among the cultures.
Similarities and dissimilarities of ceramic fabrics and typology, presence and
absence of iron, and concentration or otherwise of certain megalithic types in
certain regions are all problems for which widely diverging views are available.
They can be solved only if planned work is carried out, and it is futile and
dangerous to generalise on the basis of sporadic and meagre data.

4.3.1 Burial Rituals and Social Organisation

The above description of the megalithic culture shows that the megalithic
communities were dominated by religious and supernatural beliefs. This is evident
from the elaborate objects associated with the burials. Different burial tradition
could indicate different social and ethnic groups, but so far no fixed regional
conventions regarding orientation of the bodies or the graves have been observed.
The burials vary from total to only fractional types. In the Vidarbha region horses
were buried with the dead, possibly after sacrifice, and this may have been a
48 local ethnic tradition.
The social organisation of the Megalithic people of India can be worked out only Megalithic Cultures
in a sketchy manner, and data on settlement pattern are virtually absent. However,
it appears that communities may have comprised different professional groups,
such as smiths, warriors, goldsmiths, agriculturists and carpenters. This may be
deduced from the types of grave goods offered. Even burial must have involved
community effort because setting of such huge stones in a Circle or erection of
a gigantic Menhirs, or the placing of massive stone slabs on a Dolmen is not
possible by one or two individuals.

4.3.2 Ethnic Affinity and Origin

The origin of Megalithic culture in India is not clear. No satisfactory answer is
yet found. Some early European scholars put forward a view that the builders
were Celts or Scythians. Rivett-Carnac related them to Central Asian tribes. Other
scholars tried to relate them to the Dravidians. Practice of erection of megaliths
are still found among some tribes in India in the southern, central, eastern and
northeastern parts of the country.

The skeletal remains found especially from Brahmagiri, Yeleswaram and

Adichanallar show that people were of a mixed racial type. According to Sarkar
(!960), the Brahmagiri skeletal remains were probably of Scythians or Iranian
stock. Gupta and Dutta (1962) concluded that similar trend is noticed for
Yeleswaram remains but Adichanallur skull, however, show different affinities.

4.3.3 Chronology
Apart from the ethnic affinities and possible migration, the chronology of
megaliths in India still poses certain problems. Wheeler (1948) assigned a date
for the megalithic culture approximately to the 2nd Century B.C. Gordon and
Haimendorf (as quoted by Srinivasan and Benerjee 1953:114)propsed dates
between c. 700 to 400 B.C. Seshadri (1956) dated them between 6th century B.C.
to 1st century A.D. Sundara (1969-70) proposed a date at c. 1100 B.C. for Terdal
in Karnataka. Sundara and Aiyappan (1945) extended antiquity of the megaliths
as far back as the Indian Neolithic times. The Chalcolithic-megalithic contact
period in Maharashtra goes back to c. 700 B.C. Megaliths of Vidarbha is dated
to the 6th or 7th centuries B.C. While the question of date of the megaliths cannot
be easily settled, well-organised attempt be made to understand the political,
social and economic background of the megalith-builders, be it in Vidarbha,
Andhra, Karnataka or in Tamilnadu. It seems almost certain that no ordinary
family or individual could erect such huge megaliths. Community effort and
activity must have been involved in the erection of such huge structures. Such
community involvement is noticed among the tribes of the present-day who are
still practicing erection of megaliths.

4.4 ERECTION OF MEGALITHS BY SOME INDIAN

TRIBES
The custom of erecting megaliths on a large scale is seen among different
communities from the Neolithic times right up to the Bronze Age and the Early
Historic period. However, the tradition of erecting megaliths is still found among
the tribals living in Northeastern, Eastern, Central and South India. The reasons
behind the erection of megaliths are not very clear. In this situation, we can
49
Neolithic and Chalcolithic derive some clues on the megaliths’ associations by observing the practices of
Cultures
the tribes who still include megaliths in their religious beliefs, for example, the
Gadabas, Gonds, Kurumbas, Marias, Mundas, Savaras, Garos, Khasis, Nagas,
Karbis, Tiwas, and Marams. These groups still construct megalithic manuments
for the dead. ‘Megalithism’ may be considered as a living tradition.

The Gonds, Kurumbas, Morias and Savaras plant and worship stone menhirs
and sometimes erect wooden pillars. Some of these wooden pillars are curved
with a rounded projection at the top to represents the human head. These tribes
consider the stone menhirs and the wooden posts to represents their gods, or
occasionally, the spirit of the dead. The beliefs of the various tribes differ with
respect to the stone and wooden menhirs erceted in connection with the death
rites. The Gonds believe that the spirit of the dead resides in a stone.Thus the
wooden pillars and stone menhirs are believed to contain the soul of the dead.

The veneration of the wooden and stone pillars is evident in the practices of the
Morias who apply turmeric and oil on them. They sacrifice a buffalo and offer
rice and worship these stones in the belief that the spirit of the dead resides in
them. The Savaras, before sowing, present the seeds in front of the pillars and
sacrifice animals to promote the fertility of the seeds. Similarly, the Kurumbas
approach the megalithic monuments of their ancestors whom they implore to
help them tide over their difficulties. The Gonds mention three reasons for erecting
pillars and dolmens: “first, the spirit of the dead not to wander after death; second,
they must not worry or harm the descendants; third, they must help by bringing
rain and driving away the harmful spirits”.

The practices of the tribal people mentioned above indicate their belief that the
spirit of the dead resides in the stone or wooden pillars, which they erect. These
pillars are venerated and worshipped with various offerings. If the spirits are
satisfied they can grant boons and on the other hand they can cause harm, if they
are not satisfied (Rao, 2000).

At Mottur in Tamilnadu, a ‘headless’ anthropomorphic statue was noticed in the

middle of a megalithic site. The local people call the megalith Valiyar Vadu
(house of Valiyar) and the anthropomophic statue Valiyar Daivam (god of the
Valiyars). There is a very interesting tradition about the Valiyar current in this
locality. According to the tradition, the Valiyars were pygmies of 10 to 15 cm in
stature. They used to plough the fields with the help of rabbits. On one occasion
they came to know that there would be rain of fire. If they stayed there they
would be perished. To escape the fate of burning to death, they decided to leave
the place, and requested their god to accompany them. When their god refused
to come along, they cut off his head and took it with them. For this reason the
statue stands headless. This tradition suggests that some communities consider
the megalithic, anthropomorphic statue to represent their god.

The Savaras of Orissa construct a miniature hut over the place where the dead
are cremeted or the bones are buried. They keep wooden figures in the huts to
accommodate the soul of the dead till the mortuary rite known as Gaur ceremony
is performed. Interestingly, figures with female features are used, if the ‘soul
house’ is meant for women. During the elaborate Gaur ceremony, which is
conducted by the whole community of a particular village or a group of villages,
menhirs are erected to represent the dead, who are believed to have reached the
50
‘Under World’. That is why during the Gaur ceremony “the stones are washed Megalithic Cultures
with water-so that the dead can get bath in the Under World-and oil and turmeric
are used so that they can anoint themselves and do their hair. For whatever is
given at the Gaur goes straight down to the Under World” (Elwin 1955:360).

The above mentioned practices and beliefs of the tribal communities indicate
that wooden and stone statues are mainly meant to represent their ancestors. At
Mottur alone, the local people believe that the anthropomorphic statues represent
the god of the ancestors. Further, where statues with feminine features are erected
they would represent a female member who has passed away.

The erection of megaliths, both commemorative and burial, though is prehistoric

in origin, are still practised by many hill tribes of Northeast India and in the
Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar (Burma), Indonesia and Thailand. The
custom of erecting menhirs or alignments of stone slabs and dolmen in honour
of the dead is practised by the Khasis and Garos of Meghalaya, the Tiwas and the
Karbis of Assam, the Morams of Manipur and the Nagas of Nagaland. There is
another interesting example of meglithic tradition found among the Garos of
Meghalaya. They erect a forked wooden curved post of ‘Y’ shape in front of
their houses in mamory of the dead member (s) as in Indonesia and Oceania.
People erect the ‘Y’ shaped forked wooden post with the belief that they will be
protected from the dangers of life, the fertility of the family will increase, they
will escape god’s punishment and so on.

Fig. 4.2: Dolmen

The Khasis of Meghalaya, who are matrilineal tribes, erect Megalithic structure
in accordance with their traditional religion. Upright stones (Menhir), large and
small, horizontal table stones (dolmen or cromlech), cist and cairns are seen all
over the Khasi Hills but full and precise information about them have never
been recorded and is hard to obtain. The Khasi megaliths are memorial stones,
called ‘Kynmaw’, literally meaning “to mark with a stone”. In Khasi language it
refers to “remember”. The Khasi megaliths are cenotaphs, the remains of the
dead being carefully preserved in stone sepulchers, which are often at some
distance apart from the memorial stones.

51
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures

Fig. 4.3: Menhir of the Khasis of Meghalaya

Though there are some observable similarities between the megaliths of the past
and those of the living tribes, yet it is very difficult to bridge the gap between the
past and the present continuum of the traditions. It is well known that the structures
built by the contemporary tribal folk are generally linked with the commemorative
purpose, whereas those of the past are mostly graves. The porthole opening, a
special feature of many of the megalithic cists, is not found in any of the megalithic
graves made by the contemporary tribes. It is possible that the people have given
up the tradition of making portholes in course of time.

Although all megaliths found all over the world are associated in one way or
another with the cult of dead it does not provide sufficient ground to establish a
common origin for any two megalithic cultures.

The memorial stones of the Ho and Munda of Chhotanagpur would appear to

resemble greatly the Khasi Menhirs. The funeral ceremonies of the Ho and Munda
tribe are similar to those of Khasi. Both first cremate the body, collect ashes and
bones after cremation and put them in to a grave. They also offer food to the
spirit of the deceased. They also have a common linguistic resource in the form
of ‘Mon-Khmer Family’.

There are other tribes in Northeast India, who erect memorial stones. They are,
Karbis and the Tiwas of Assam and certain Naga tribes of Manipur and Nagaland.
The Karbis erect Menhirs and Dolmens in honour of their deceased similar to
the Khasis of Meghalaya. Similar to Khasis, the Karbis dig a small tank for
purification purpose before erecting the memorial stones and give feast after the
memorial stones are erected. Anal Nagas and Morams of Manipur and Angami
Nagas, Lothas and Konyak Nagas of Nagaland erect memorial stones to show
reverence to the memories of deceased ancestors. The Anal Nagas traditionally
believed to occupy a site of an ancient market place known as Nortiang (some
26 km Northeast of Shillong), which is an important megalithic site of Meghalaya.
In the stone monuments of the Anal Nagas and Angami Nagas, the female principle
is represented by a flat stone, lying on the ground, while the male is represented
52
by an upright stone (menhir). These typical clan mortuaries are same like those Megalithic Cultures
still associated with the Khasis and Syntengs of Meghalaya. Haimendorf (1945)
was of the opinion that the ritual associated with megaliths of Northeast India is
to gain prestige for the living and to establish links with the soul of the dead.
This also is at the root of the megalithic cultures of Indonesia. On the basis of
this, he suggested a unity in the megalithic complex in the zone extending from
the Nagaland and Khasi Hills up to Nias in Southern Sumatra. He further
expressed that the Meghalaya complex found in Northeast India and many other
parts of Southeast Asia appeared not as an accidental aggregation of various
cultural elements, but as a well coordinate system of custom and beliefs, a
philosophy of life and nature.

4.5 IRON AGE CULTURE IN INDIA

We study the Iron Age culture here because Megalithic culture is very much a
part of Iron Age. The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeded the Late
Harappan culture. The main divisions of Iron Age in India are the Painted Grey
Ware (PGW) culture (1100 to 350 BC) and the Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW) culture (700 to 200 BC). Iron Age in India brings one to the threshold
of ancient history. This culture had recorded history. Literary accounts of the
contemporary period are recorded in Vedas, Upanishads and other Brahmanic
literatures. A combination of archaeological evidences and such literary accounts
have become a standard method of dealing with Iron Age culture in India. The
origin of iron in our sub-continent still remains a matter of dispute among
specialists. It is important also to remember that some tribes of India, such as,
Agarias of Madhya Pradesh, prepare iron tools from surface ores with indigenous
techniques and trade their finished products among the local villagers. It can be
assumed that these communities must have had their knowledge for a time, may
be for several thousand years.

The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur
of Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu at around 1000 BC. Technical studies on
materials dated c. 1000 BC at Komaranhalli (Karnataka) showed that the smiths
of this site could deal with large artifacts, implying that they had already been
experimenting for centuries (Agrawal et al. 1985: 228-29). Sahi (1979: 366)
drew attention to the presence of iron in Chalcolithic deposits at Ahar, and
suggested that “the date of the beginning of iron smelting in India may well be
placed as early as the sixteenth century BC” and “by about the early decade of
thirteenth century BC iron smelting was definitely known in India on a bigger
scale”.

Historical kingdoms of the Iron Age:

Iron Age India 1200-272 BC

Maha Janapadas 700-300 BC

Magadha Empire 648-424 BC

Nanda Empire 424-321 BC

Maurya Empire (Pre-Ashoka) 321-272 BC

53
Neolithic and Chalcolithic With the exception of the earliest phase of the Rigveda, most of the Vedic period,
Cultures
falls within the early part of the Indian Iron Age around 12th to 6th centuries BC.
The development of early Buddhism takes place in the Magadha period around
5th to 4th centuries BC.

The edicts of Ashoka, 272-232 BC suggest that the North Indian Iron Age can be
taken to end with the rise of the Maurya Dynasty and the appearance of literacy,
indicating gradual onset of historicity. South India simultaneously enters historic
age with the Sangam period, beginning in the 3rd century BC. From the 2nd
century BC, the cultural landscape of Northern India is transformed with lasting
effect with the intrusion of the Indo-Scythians and Indo-Greeks. The kingdoms
succeeding these periods, up to the medieval Muslim conquests are conventionally
grouped as Middle kingdoms of India.

4.5.1 Gangetic Valley

The colonization of Ganga basin by iron users can be taken as one of the best
evidence of second urbanization in India. Urban centres, which mushroomed
around Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries during 2600 BC to 1500BC were
generally deserted after this time. Understanding of the second colonization in
this region needs a consideration of the changes that can be witnessed further
west. In Baluchistan, the earliest evidence of copper has been noted at Mehargarh.
The occupation at this area was abandoned even before the development of mature
Harappan culture but around the same region one can witness the transition of
the post Harappan phase at Pirak. Initially Harappan influence can be
demonstrated in this occupation centre but very soon and perhaps around 1370-
1340 BC first pieces of iron appeared here. The cultural continuity from pre-iron
phase is so remarkable that an invasion by iron users as a possibility also can’t
be entertained. Here the houses are prepared of mud bricks like the pre- Harappan
stage. The pottery is coarse with appliqué bands and finger tips impressions.
Terracotta figurines become more in frequency of occurrence than the preceding
period and they include horse, camel and human figures. The most important
feature of this phase is barley and rice cultivation in this zone. Evidence of full-
fledged adoption of iron, however, is not seen until another 2 to 3 centuries. Iron
Age in the west of the Indus broadly belongs to the time bracket of 1100-900
BC. In the northwest another culture developed. This culture is known from the
Gandhara sites. There are large complexes of graves and the culture is entirely
known and defined from the accompanying grave goods. Taxila, Charsada and
Timargarha are some of the important sites from this complex. The pottery is a
red burnished type. City structures in this region are not identified till about 500
BC. Similar to Pirak in south west, in Gandhara iron emerged without any change
in the earlier culture in the area. Furthermore these pre-existing cultures are unique
in character and does not bear any resemblance to the widely distributed Harappan
features.

4.5.2 Painted Grey Ware Culture

You have already read about this culture in another Unit in connection with
chalcolithic phase. This cultural phase is interesting because it has the use of
tools made both from stone and metal. Early phases of this culture are associated
with copper and bronze. The phase, which corresponds with Northern Black
Polished ware phase in Genga valley, has yielded iron tools but stone tools also
continued. The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age culture of
54
Gangetic plain, lasting from roughly 1000 BC to 600 BC. It is contemporary to, Megalithic Cultures
and is a successor of the Black and red ware culture. It probably corresponds to
the later Vedic period. It is succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware from ca.
500 BC.

Although you are already familiar with the PGW culture, a few words may be
added here to establish its relevance in the Iron Age cultures of India. PGW
culture is named after the pottery of the same name. This ware was first found at
Ahicchatra in Bareilli district of Uttar Pradesh during excavations in 1944 but
its importance was fully realised only after its discovery by B.B.Lal in the
excavations at Hastinapura during 1950-51.

The first large-scale and effective use of iron in India is associated with this
culture. The PGW culture is found in the Indo-Gangetic Divide and the upper
Ganga-Yamuna doab, the ancient Aryavarta and Madhyadesa.

The PGW was produced from well-lavigated clay and manufactured on a fast
wheel. A thin slip was applied on both surfaces and the ware was baked at a
temperature of 600 degree celcius under reducing conditions, which produced
the smooth ashy surface and core (Hegde, 1975). The distinctive shapes are dish
with curved sides and bowls with straight sides. The vessels are painted in black
pigment on both surfaces with geomatric patterns like dots, groups of vertical
lines, concentric circles, bands, and strokes of vertical and slanting lines, dashes,
chains, loops, spirals, sigmas and swastikas. Naturalistic patterns like lotuses,
leaves, bunch of flowers and the sun are also occasionally found.The PGW people
cultivated rice and wheat and lived in wattle-and-daub houses. They were the
first people to have definitely used the domesticated horse.

4.5.3 Northern Black Polished Ware Culture and the Second

Urbanization
The Northern Black Polish Ware (NBPW) Culture in India is a definite Iron Age
Culture, succeeding the Painted Grey Ware Culture. Iron technology accelerated
colonization of the middle and lower Ganga valley by farmers around 700 BC
onwards. The characteristic pottery of this period is Northern Black Polished
Ware. The NBP period saw the emergence of cities and first political entities
known as Mahajanapadas in the Ganga plains in the 600 BC.

The NBP region is also the locale of the second major Hindu epic, the Ramayana,
and of the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. This period witnessed the second
urbanization of India. By 600 BC a number of these Mahajanapadas had been
assimilated into the first Indian empire known as the Magadhan Empire with its
capital at Pataliputra being located at the place where modern Patna in Bihar is
situated. The Magadhan Empire was succeeded by the Mauryan Empire in the
400 BC. The best known Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, expanded the empire up to
Karnataka in the south, Bangladesh in the east and Afganistan in the northwest.
He also patronized Buddhism and promoted its spread within the country as
well as outside in Sri Lanka and other countries of Asia. After the long gap
between first and second urbanization, lasting about 1500 years, writing again
appeared during this period. The script is known as Brahmi. Buddhist and Jains
literatures were in Pali language. The pillar and rock edicts of emperor Ashoka
were written in Brahmi script. Coinage in the form of silver punch-marked coins
appeared in this period.
55
Neolithic and Chalcolithic 4.5.4 Southern Zone
Cultures
This is the area, which developed a fairly consolidated regional character during
1500-1300 BC. Iron Age in this area does not develop any special characteristic
of its own like what has been observed in Western Uttar Pradesh.

The Iron Age in South India till today is known entirely from a large variety of
burials and their accompanying grave goods. Since these graves are mostly
megalithic in nature the cultures are traditionally known as ‘Megalithic Culture’.
Further, the ‘Megaliths of India’ may also refer to the memorial and sepulchral
stones erected by the tribals living in various parts of India in the historic period.

You have already learnt about megalithic types. Following is the brief information
on Iron Age Megalithic types of South India. The Megalithic burials found so far
with iron were from South India particularly from Deccan. They can be grouped
as follows:
• Large urns with bones collected from previously excarnated dead bodies in
them. These urns are kept with grave goods in a pit. The pit after covering
can be marked by a circular demarcation made of stones.
• Cists made out of slabs of stones and may at times be covered with a similar
flat stone on top. These are sometimes with portholes curved out on one of
the chamber wall slabs.
• Legged-urn or sarcophagi used to encase the body before actual burial is
another important pattern of these Megaliths.
• Sometimes chambers have been cut out in the compact lateritic floor and
the body was placed inside the chamber.

Fig.4.4: Urn burial (Museum spcimen in Southern India)

56
Large numbers of variations are seen in the pattern of disposal of the dead in the Megalithic Cultures
region. The Megalithic arrangement on the ground to mark the grave also can
vary from one kind of burial system to the other. In all Iron Age sites of Deccan
India Black-and-Red ware is seen as the common feature of Iron Age and
Megalithic culture. The pottery types include carinated vessels, bowls with
pedestals and spouted dishes. A conical shaped lid is found often provided with
a loop on the top. The iron implements which are common to all megalithic sites
are flat axes with crossed straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spear heads, lamps,
multiple lamp hangers and arrow heads.
The Megalithic builders appears entirely exotic in the pre-existing cultural canvas
of the region. And this led many scholars to visualize a new population movement
from west. The traditional homeland of Chalcolithic culture, i.e. West Asia, does
not show the practice of Megalithic burials and hence cannot be considered as
the source of dispersal of the iron using megalithic builders. Instead the coastal
regions of South Arabia and the Levant show sarcophagi and cist graves during
Iron Age. They probably came by sea route to enter into Deccan India. Apparently,
these people did not create any urban settlements, the likes of which we have
witnessed in the Harappan period or during the phase of second urbanization in
the Ganga valley. Megalithic builders might have maintained isolated gypsy like
tented colonies where they might have bred and grazed horses to be traded with
the newly rising political centres around the middle Ganga valley. Megalithic
Iron Age in Deccan India remained so much self-centred that it did not take
much effort for the northern centres of power to spread their dominance into this
region within a span of 500 to 600 years.

4.6 SUMMARY
Prehistoric Megaliths or large stone constructions dating before the advent of
written history are found in huge numbers in all parts of India. The monuments
are usually found in granitic areas. We still do not know exactly who the megalithic
people were, whether they represent an immigrant group, or a local development.
Since similar monuments are found in many places around the world, right from
Ireland, Malta, West Asia, Baluchistan to Southeast Asia it is possible they
represent a single group which spread all over the world. Among the possible
groups are the Celts originating from Central Asia, who later became great
seafarers: some group from West Asia like the ancient Elamites of Mesopotamia:
the Central Asian “Scythians”, who roamed all over the world: a group of early
Aryan tribes: and more fanciful, the Atlanteans who washed off far and wide.
The facts are known from archeology: the detailed explanations are yet to come.
Suggested Reading
Deo, S.B. 1973. Problem of South Indian Megaliths, Dharwar: Karnataka,
Kannada Research Institute.
Deo, S.B. 1978.The Megalithic Problem: A Review. in Recent Advances in Indo-
Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the International Symposium held at Poona,
1978, p.447.
Rao, K.P. 2000. Megalithic Authropomorphic Statues: Meaning and Significance.
Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin, 19:110-114.
Sankalia, H.D. 1979. Indian Archaeology Today. Delhi: Ajanta Publications
(India). 57
Neolithic and Chalcolithic Sample Questions
Cultures
1) What is Megalithic Culture? Discuss the Megalithic Culture of India with
special reference to Northeast India.
2) Give an outline of Painted Grey-Ware Culture of India with special reference
to the excavated sites.
3) How would you classify the megalithic types? Describe the different types
of Megalithic monuments found in India.
4) Megalithic is a living tradition among many Indian tribes. Elaborate your
answer with proper examples.
5) Discuss the main features of Indian Iron Age.
6) ‘Megalithic Culture of South India means iron age’. Discuss.
7) Write short notes on the following:
i) Cairns, ii) Monolith, iii) Northern Black Polish Ware, iv) Living
Megaliths, v) Painted Grey Ware, iv) Dolmen.

58
 MAN-002
Archaeological
Indira Gandhi
Anthropology
National Open University
School of Social Sciences

Block

8
INTERPRETATION AND EXPLANATION OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD
UNIT 1
Early Urbanization 5
UNIT 2
Applied Aspects 18
UNIT 3
Cultural Resources 32
Expert Committee
Professor I. J. S. Bansal Professor S.Channa
Retired, Department of Human Biology Department of Anthropology
Punjabi University, Patiala University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor K. K. Misra Professor P. Vijay Prakash
Director Department of Anthropology
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Dr. Nita Mathur
Professor Ranjana Ray Associate Professor
Retired, Department of Anthropology Faculty of Sociology
Calcutta University, Kolkata SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Professor P. Chengal Reddy Dr. S. M. Patnaik
Retired, Department of Anthropology Associate Professor
S V University, Tirupati Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Professor R. K. Pathak
Department of Anthropology Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
Professor A. K. Kapoor
University of Delhi, Delhi
Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi, Delhi Faculty of Anthropology
SOSS, IGNOU
Professor V.K.Srivastava
Dr. Rashmi Sinha, Reader
Principal, Hindu College
University of Delhi, Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das, Assistant Professor
Dr. Rukshana Zaman, Assistant Professor
Professor Sudhakar Rao
Department of Anthropology Dr. P Venkatramana, Assistant Professor
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor

Programme Coordinator: Dr. Rashmi Sinha, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator: Dr. P. Venkatramana, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor
Professor K. Krishnan Dr. Mukesh Ranjan
Dept of Archaeology and Ancient History Associate Professor
The Maharaja Sayajirao Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
University of Bardoa, Vadodara
Blocks Preparation Team
Unit Writers
Prof. Vasant Shinde Dr. Madhulika Samanta Prof. Dilip K. Medhi
(Unit 1) (Unit 2) (Unit 3)
Deccan College Post- Assistant Professor Dept. of Anthropology
Graduate & Research Post Graduate Department of Gauhati University
Institute, Pune History & Archaeology Gauhati
Tumkur University
P.G. Centre, Karnataka
Authors are responsible for the academic content of this course as far as the copy right issues are concerned.

Print Production Cover Design

Mr. Manjit Singh Dr. Mitoo Das
Section Officer (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Asstt. Professor, Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU
August, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN-978-81-266-5526-7
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi. New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Director, School of Social Sciences.
Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi
Printed at :
BLOCK 8 INTERPRETATION AND
EXPLANATION OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Introduction
The purpose of this block is to introduce the students to early urbanization in the
Indian subcontinent, the cultural resources and its management. It is divided
into three units, which deal with early urbanization, applied aspects and cultural
resources. The first urbanization of the subcontinent was brought to light through
the accidental discovery of the sites of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Subsequent
archaeological excavations at these places followed by explorations and excavations
within its neighbouring and distant regions made us understand the intricacies
of the Indus Valley Civilizations, its rise, internal developments and fall. These
works have resulted in situating Indus Valley Civilization in the global context
and brought India within the global map of Ancient World Civilizations. Although
termed commonly as Indus valley Civilization, it is also known through the names
Harappan Culture/ Harappan Civilization or Indus – Saraswati Civilization. The
sites datable to the Harappan civilization exhibit an enormous degree of uniformity
and at the same time diversity with regards to its features and other characteristics
depending on the region it is found. It may be noted that the sites of this
Civilization are spread out in the northwestern frontiers of modern India, whole
of Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan. More than ninety years of research on the
Harappan civilization are focused on their town planning, crafts, trade, script,
economy, agriculture, society, water management systems and religion. Some of
its details are highlighted in this unit. The full picture of this civilization however
remains unknown and the arena of Harappan remains are open for further research
and discussion. The second unit dealing with applied aspects speaks on the
importance of cultural heritage and the need to conserve them. It throws light on
the various excavated sites important for the antiquity of Indian Civilization and
the need to preserve and conserve the ever diminishing heritage, monuments
and cultural assemblages. The third unit on cultural resources and its management
emphasises on the importance of interpreting archaeological record so as to
promote the importance of cultural heritage and promote cultural tourism. This
unit also demonstrates how knowledge of archaeology aids in understanding the
cultural heritage and in turn helps in promoting tourism and heritage walks.
Tourism today is considered to be one of the major sources for generating revenue.
Economies of certain nation states today such as Sri Lanka, Singapore and Puerto
Rico are entirely dependent on tourism. Interpretation of archaeological record
also plays a significant role in understanding societal formations, town planning
etc. As archaeological records throw light on basic features of ancient civilizations,
it also works as a model for present day architects, political and social thinkers
towards building our future. It further aims to educate the readers about the
organisations working for the preservation of cultural heritage and the importance
of heritage sites and archaeological records. In addition, it also tends to understand
the relationship between cultural heritage and the citizens of the same cultural
zone. On the basis of this attachment, degree of preservation and conservation
can also be understood.
Interpretation and
Explanation of
Archaeological Record

4
 Early Urbanization
UNIT 1 EARLY URBANIZATION

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origin and Extent
1.3 Ecological Setting
1.4 Chronology
1.5 Origin and Development of the Harappan Culture
1.6 The Harappan Urbanization and Standardization (2500-2000BC)
1.7 Religion
1.8 The Harappan Society and Polity
1.9 Decline of the Harappan Civilization
1.10 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø discuss the characteristics of Civilization;
Ø understand the Harappan Culture as early civilization in Indian sub-continent;
Ø describe the rise and fall of Harappan Civilization; and
Ø discuss the continuity of the Harappan tradition in modern India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The period between the Stone Age and the Early Historic period was considered
to be the “Dark Age” in Indian History. However, the discovery of the Harappan
Civilization, the first Bronze Age Culture of South Asia, in the twenties of
twentieth century pushed back the antiquity of the settled life in India by two
thousand years at one stroke. This was considered to be the greatest archaeological
discovery of the twentieth century in the Indian subcontinent. The development
and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in South Asia are complex phenomena
that have taken place over the course of more than 9000 years. “First light on a
long forgotten Civilization” was probably the first reference to the discovery of
the today well known “Harappan Civilization” of the Indian Sub-continent by
John Marshall in his article in the Illustrated London News dated September 20th
1924 to the western world. However, today this Urban Civilization known for
its unique town planning, script, trade contacts with the Mesopotamians, well
developed craft techniques etc. is the focus of popular academic debate not just
within the sub-continent but international academic circles especially since even
today we have not been able to decipher their writings.

1.2 ORIGIN AND EXTENT

The earliest excavations and scholars (Mackay, 1928-29; Marshall, 1931; Vats,
1940) interpreted the rise of the Harappans as a result of a Near Eastern or external
5
Interpretation and stimulus based on simple diffusion models (Fairservis, 1956; Gordon and Gordon,
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
1940; Piggott, 1950; Sankalia, 1974; Wheeler, 1947, 1968). However, today
ideas of indigenous development (Durrani, 1986; Jarrige and Meadow, 1980;
Mughal, 1974b; Shaffer, 1982b) as a result of regional interactions among the
existing earlier groups of people is believed to be the cause for the development
of this civilization covering an area of 2.5 million sq. km nearly four times the
size of its contemporary Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations. The
northernmost site is Manda on the River Beas in Jammu while Bhagtrav on the
Tapti in Maharashtra forms its southern boundary. Alamgirpur on the Hindon
river near Delhi and Sutkagendor on the Arabian sea shore near the Iranian border
form its eastern and western periphery respectively. Today the Harappans are
believed to be a complex of many ethnic groups (Mughal, 1990; Possehl, 1982,
1990b; Shaffer and Lichtenstein, 1989; Thapar, 1979), representing several
cultural identities with large regional urban centers like Harappa (Punjab), Mohen-
jodaro (Sindh), Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira (Kutch/Gujarat) and
Ganweriwala (Cholistan) (Fig. 1.1) supported by numerable craft centers, and
smaller village settlements practicing agriculture which supported this urban
and international trading economy.

Fig. 1.1: Map showing the spread of the Bronze Age (Harappan) Culture of South Asia
and the locations of important sites
6
 Early Urbanization

The Indus valley civilization was first discovered and recorded in the 1800s
by a British army deserter, James Lewis.

1.3 ECOLOGICAL SETTING

The environmental setting of the Harappan Civilization includes two major river
systems and its flood plains, the Indus and the Ghaggar-Hakra (now dry); the
highlands and plateaus of Baluchistan to the west, and the mountainous regions
of northern Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India to the northwest and north. These
geographical regions include highlands and lowlands, coasts and interior with
distribution of land suitable for agriculture and pastoralism, the location of specific
resources the procurement of which influenced the patterns of social and economic
interaction and helped define social status.

1.4 CHRONOLOGY
The Harappan culture cannot be studied as a homogeneous cultural phenomena
as the cultural assemblages are varied, and include the Pre/Early-Harappan
between 3500-2500 BC; Mature Harappan between 2500-2000 BC and the Post/
Late Harappan after 2000 BC. A date of 2600 B.C. marks the approximate
beginning of the urban fabric of the Harappans with the unification of the urban
settlements, the use of writing, weights, Harappan-type ceramic designs, civic
planning, etc. and is believed to have disintegrated by 2100-1900 B.C. (Shaffer,
1991).

1.5 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE

HARAPPAN CULTURE
The earlier hypothesis that the Mesopotamian civilization that flourished in the
confluence of Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq was directly responsible for the
origins of the Harappan Civilization is no more valid. The excavations carried
out at the site of Mehrgarh at the Bolan pass in Baluchistan in seventies and
eighties have produced sufficient evident to indicate that the origin is indigenous
in the Indian subcontinent. There has been a gradual growth from the beginning
of settled life at Mehrgarh around 7000 BC, which ultimately culminated in the
formation of the Harappan Civilization. At Mehrgarh, seven developmental stages
have been identified and in each stage is evident introduction of some Harappan
elements.

The favourable climatic conditions, strong agricultural base in the Indus and
Ghaggar and Hakra basins and Saurashtra, rich sea-coast and desert for natural
resources were responsible for the development of the Harappan culture. Also
the society was becoming ready for such a change.

7
Interpretation and
Explanation of 1.6 THE HARAPPAN URBANIZATION AND
Archaeological Record
STANDARDIZATION (2500-2000 BC)
The urban or the mature Harappan Phase includes a wide range of urban and
non-urban rural sites that are varied in size and function but are inherently known
for several features like the town planning with defensive walls with impressive
gates around the site, two or more divisions of the settlement at the site, drains,
baked brick structures, brick size (4:2:1 ratio), pottery, script, similarity in craft
products and techniques (etched carnelian beads, copper-bronze artefacts, lithic
blades), seals, weights and measures, evidence of external trade etc which help
identify and denote them as a Harappan settlement irrespective of their size or
urban/rural character. Some of these features have been touched upon in the
following section.

Town planning
From excavated remains, it is clear that the Harappan Civilization possessed a
flourishing urban architecture laid out on a grid pattern with provisions for an
advanced drainage system and the most important innovation was the
standardization of the bricks in a size ratio very close to 4:2:1. The citadel, defense
walls, dams etc prove to the existence of monumental architecture. Mohenjo-
Daro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira were by far the largest urban centers
of the Indus civilization evidently as important political and administrative
regional centers. The metropolitan centers were internally divided into two or
more parts: the Citadel for rulers and the Lower Town for the common people.

The private houses were oriented towards a central space, with access from the
street by an entrance that blocks the view of the interior of the house. A group of
houses are associated with one or more private wells and approximately 700
wells have been identified in the core area of Mohenjodaro (Jansen, 1989). The
number of wells and their association with neighbourhoods could indicate a need
for discrete and relatively private water sources.

The large public structures have open access or provide a thoroughfare from one
area of the site to another like the “Great Bath” of Mohenjodaro, and the
“granaries” at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The “Great Bath” is a large, water-
proof tank but its exact purpose remains unknown. The so-called granaries at
Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal are today massive foundation platforms for
a superstructure no longer evident.

The cities and smaller settlements also had carefully designed and well maintained
drainage systems. Wells and bathing platforms were lined with bricks, and small
drains carried water away from the wells or living area to larger street drains
(Fig. 1.2). The street drains were equipped with sump-pits and the streets had
bins for non-liquid waste, which was presumably collected and dumped outside
the settlement.

8
 Early Urbanization

Fig. 1.2: Recent evidence of town planning excavated at the site of Farmana in Haryana
State of India
The sites were laid out on a rectangular grid of main streets and smaller lanes
with an efficient drainage system. The grid-like arrangement of the streets and the
stark uniformity of the houses suggest rigid state control, the first instance of town
planning in the world. Such a layout is not indicative of a town that has developed
from village beginnings; rather, it is the sign of a newly conceived, or relocated,
settlement (c.f. Gupta, 1997). The citadel was raised on high mud platforms and its
architectural units may have functioned like a palace complex combining the
functions of defense stronghold, meeting place, storage area, ceremonial centre,
and perhaps the site of community feasting. In the major cities a defensive wall
made of mud-brick protected the citadel and often the lower towns as shown by
the excavations at Dholavira (Bisht, 1993; Gupta, 1997).

Subsistence and Economy

The economy was largely based on agriculture, animal husbandry and trade with
specialised exchange networks for the procurement and distribution of raw
materials and manufactured items within and beyond the civilization in existence.
All the evidence indicates that the subsistence base of the economy remained
much as it had already developed at Mehrgarh some two millennia earlier. The
Harappan civilization apparently evolved from their predecessors, using irrigated
agriculture with sufficient skill to reap the advantages of the spacious and fertile
Indus River basin while controlling the formidable annual flood that
simultaneously fertilizes and destroys (Kenoyer, 1991).

Even though most settlements were located in semi-arid areas with winter rainfall
their wealth was based on a subsistence economy of wheat and barley. These
winter crops, together with chickpeas, mustard, and field peas, were the staples.
The other crops grown were rice, dates, melons, green vegetables (primarily
legumes), and cotton. Cotton, a summer crop, was grown for fibre. The Harappans
cultivated a variety of grains and harvested two crops a year. Fishing and hunting
supplemented the diet. The Harappans developed an elaborate water management
system and at the site of Dholavira in Kutch a network of dams, canals and
reservoirs were used to manage the meagre and crucial water resources (Bisht,
1993).
9
Interpretation and Industry
Explanation of
Archaeological Record The Harappan civilization boomed with industrial activity and a wide range of
mineral resources were worked at various sites notably marine shells, ivory,
carnelian, steatite, faience, lapis lazuli, gold, and silver. Craftsmen made items
for household use (pottery and tools), for public life (seals), and for personal
ornament (bangles, beads, and pendants) for elite markets and long-distance trade.
The crafts were seen as producing standardized artifacts that were distributed
throughout the Indus region. Often there is evidence of specialised crafts being
segregated in specific sites (Shortugai, a lapis lazuli mining and processing center,
Nageshwar, a shell-working site) and also specific areas of the sites (Chanhu-
daro had many groups of artisans involved in the production of elite status items
such as seals, long carnelian beads and copper objects). The standardization of
crafts is attributed to centralised control of production, organised by a state-level
organisation (Piggott, 1950; Wheeler, 1968) or the result of a conservative
ideology (Fairservis, 1984a; Miller, 1985).
Terracotta Art
Harappan pottery is perhaps the finest in India and is betokening of the
achievement of the Harappan potter. It is made of extremely fine, well-levigated
clay, free from impurities, and is uniformly well fired. The surface is treated
with a red slip over which designs are executed in black. The painted patterns
are rich in variety and the characteristic ones include intersecting circles, fish
scales, the pipal leaf, etc. but the bulk of the pottery is plain. Typical Mature
Harappan shapes include S-shaped jars, the dish-on-stand and perforated
cylindrical jars.
Terracotta figurines of humans and animals are an important part of the cultural
assemblage of a Harappan site along with beads.
Copper/Bronze Metallurgy
Use of copper and bronze for shaping tools, vessels and ornaments was a
characteristic feature of the Harappans. Most of the artifacts found are tools of
everyday use such as axes, adzes, knives fish hooks, chisels (Fig. 1.3) including
pots and pans and items of personal use such as jewellery in form of bangles,
beads, diadem strips, while relatively few weapons of war have been found. Though
the technique of manufacture of these objects is advanced, we do not witness any
elaborate ornamental decorative aspects to these items and were at large of a
simplistic and modest style probably very typical to the Harappan ideology.

Fig.1.3. Some of the copper/bronze artefacts of the Bronze Age Culture

10
Interestingly most copper artifacts have been found at larger and economically Early Urbanization
developed settlements in comparison to small agricultural settlements which
indicates that it was not in popular use and could have been a symbol of wealth
and status. However, most copper artifacts including ornaments and vessels have
been found in a non-hoard context which include burials (out of 168 total copper/
bronze ornaments 130 were found in non-hoard context) as against other metal
objects especially gold and silver (largely hoards and catches), though some
copper vessels and beads in hoards cannot be ignored completely. Also the amount
of copper/bronze artifacts found at Harappan sites (burial, on sites and hoards) is
much less in comparison to the contemporary civilizations, probably as an object
of scarce availability and a symbol of wealth and status it was passed over from
one generation to another and also recycled as is the case today in the region
(Agrawal, 2007).
The source for this copper has yet not been identified but the Khetri mines on the
Aravalli is the most plausible option. Some scholars have also identified the
copper mines in northern and southern Baluchistan, Afghan Seistan as an
important source since the Harappans seem to have established flourishing trade
relations with the Helmand tradition of this region. The Oman peninsula with
evidence of Harappan artifacts and short term Harappan settlements is a candidate
for the source of Harappan copper as well. Agrawal (2007) considers the Aravallis
as the most likely source for the Harappans especially as the Ganeshwar complex
sites have yielded more than 5000 copper objects, with some typical Harappan
types like thin blades, arrow-heads etc. Besides Mesopotamians imported copper
from Melluha which is traditionally identified as the Indus region and hence the
idea of a local source holds stronger ground than import from an outside source
though the other mentioned sources could also have been tapped for recasting,
fabricating and then export to Mesopotamia. However, Kenoyer and Miller argue
that there is no direct evidence of Harappan phase mines or smelting sites in the
Aravalli copper source areas, even though the area has been explored by numerous
scholars (Piggot, 1999) and hence we are still at no particular consensus as far as
the source for Harappan copper is concerned.
The Harappans are referred to as a Bronze Age culture, though they seemed to
have preferred use of pure copper since a larger repertory of the artifacts are
made of pure copper. Copper alloying though was a common aspect of metallurgy
within the contemporary civilizations of the Harappans, only 30% of the 177
copper artifacts analysed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro indicate tin, arsenic,
nickel or lead alloying, of which tin is the most common. The amount of tin
ranged from 1-12% in the bronze artifacts studied.
The manufacture of copper/bronze objects involves two- three levels of industry.
The first and the foremost is obtaining the metal from its ore through smelting
for which we do not have any direct evidence in form of slag or the ore at either,
the settlement sites or at the Khetri mines the so-called source for Harappan
copper. Hence, right from the outset we are at a loss for the source of this metal
and it has to be put forth that most likely the Harappans obtained the metal from
outside as ingots which could be worked by casting through melting and shaping
the molten metal through a stone, terracotta or sand mould or direct fabricating
or forging and shaping the metal through heating and beating techniques. There
is evidence of plano-convex disc shaped ingots with an uneven puckered top
surface from Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Harappa and Lothal which it seems
was further worked by the copper smiths for producing the objects required. 11
Interpretation and A detailed analysis of the copper artifacts indicate that the Harappans were aware
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
of the lost wax process or cire perdue as the two dancing figurines and a covered
cart without its wheels and another complete with the driver from Chanhudaro
are manufactured using this closed casting technique. According to Mackay
(1938), a large number of blade axes were manufactured using closed casting
technique and “were so faulty and full of blow holes as to be unusable except for
re-melting”. However the absence of moulds at any site except Lothal (not
accepted by Agrawal, 2007) is suggested as a result of use of sand based moulds
which disintegrate when exposed to nature and hence create a vacuum in the
archaeological context.
Several other objects especially the flat celts and axes indicate open mould casting
with slow and controlled cooling of the cast metal.
However the maximum objects are of the forged category which is basically the
shaping and modification of non-molten metal using the force of a hammer on
hot or cold metal. Forging helps shape and hardens the objects and hence is an
important aspect of manufacture of edged tools of every day and industrial use,
which are the most common finds at Harappan sites (of 521 objects for
Chanhudaro, 645 are tools, 26% are ornaments, 7% were vessels and 3% percent
included the miscellaneous objects). The most common example is the Harappan
chisel which was forged from a cast copper bars, while thin razors were cut from
copper sheets and then forged to form a sharp cutting edge. Most of the copper
vessels were also manufactured by beating the copper sheet into the required
shape.
Besides copper the Harappans worked with gold, silver and lead as is exhibited
from the artifactual evidence.
Shell
Gujarat was one of the main centres for production of shell objects from the
Turbinella Pyrum which was cut and worked using a bronze saw. Nageshwar,
Bagasra, Kuntasi etc have been identified as important shell working centres for
procuring raw material and processing finished goods like bangles, beads,
pendants, decorative inlay pieces, spoons and ladles etc.

Stone
Various types of stone was worked for different purposes which varied from
lithic tools made of chert and chalcedony, seals carved of steatite for public
utility to objects of personnel use especially ornaments like beads, bangles
pendants etc made of, technologically altered and transformed materials like
faience, carnelian, paste. Some of this was not only for the local but the
international market as well since Harappan carnelian beads have been found at
the royal cemetery of Ur.

The Harappans and their crafts have been identified as a technologically

innovative group with an indifference towards the regular precious stones like
lapis and turquoise. Jarrige sums up their attitude by saying that “they didn’t like
them because they couldn’t play with them” (Agrawal, 2007:323) while Vidale
goes on to say “ the Indus people are noteworthy of their cultural expression of
not power of conquering, but rather power of creating; from abstract universe
created in their urban organisation to artificial stone of their microbeads ”
12 (Agrawal, 2007:323).
Trade Early Urbanization

The evidence for trade/exchange is primarily artifacts made from raw materials
with regionally restricted sources, such as marine shell, agate, carnelian, lapis
lazuli, turquoise, coloured cherts and jaspers, serpentine, steatite and copper.
Transport of objects was probably overland by human porters, cattle carts, and
on the backs of sheep, goat, cattle etc. The locations of major settlements were
related to the importance of riverine or sea transport as is the case with settlements
like Lothal, Balakot, Sutkagendor etc. (Ratnagar, 1981; Jansen, 1989).

Evidence from sites in Mesopotamia suggests that the Harappans (Meluhha)

exported wood, shell, ivory, gold, decorated carnelian beads, lapis lazuli and
perishable items like textiles, cotton and food grains; and much of this trade
would have been routed via the Gujarat coast due to its strategic location at the
delta of the Indus River. Other goods found are indicative of the trade networks
include gold from southern India or Afghanistan, silver and copper from Oman
or Rajasthan, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and turquoise from Iran and
Afghanistan. It is believed that trade existed between Egypt and the Harappans
on the basis of two terracotta mummies from Lothal. Also the blue colour used
by the Egyptians is said to have come from Indigo cultivated in India (Zarins,
1992), evidence of which is found at Rojdi. Trade with the west seem to have
received a major boost around 2300-2200 BC, and this is when the Harappans
set-up small industrial centres all along the resource and coastal regions for
promoting their trade. However by 1900 BC trade with Mesopotamia started to
decline and by 1700 it had completely disappeared (Dhavalikar, 1997). The
presence of cubical weights of precise measures and impressions of seals
(sealings) also point to a well-developed and structured system of trade with
control and distribution methods. The well developed though undeciphered script
was probably also an integral part of this network.

The Harappan script

The urban Harappans can be easily differentiated from their predecessors and
successors on the basis of their use of writing which was used for identification
of ownership of goods or economic transactions, accounting, the recording of
socio-political or ritual events (Fairservis, 1983; Parpola, 1986). The origins of
this writing system is not clear and till date has not been deciphered due to the
lack of a bilingual text and also because the inscriptions are very short, usually
only of about five discrete symbols (Parpola, 1979).

However this has not restricted academic debate and linguists suggest affinities
with Proto-Dravidian or Indo-Aryan language (Fairservis, 1983; Parpola, 1986)
without any consensus or proof. Though now it is generally agreed that writing
was from right to left and is most commonly found on the intaglio seals, made of
carved and fired steatite, steatite, clay or faience tablets and numerous incised
tools and ornaments and often on pottery before or after firing, stamped on pottery,
terra-cotta cakes or terra-cotta cones (Joshi and Parpola, 1987).

These writings or symbols regardless of its understanding by the modern scholars

do represent a shared belief and ideology that was distributed over an extremely
large area which was undoubtedly a key factor in the integration of the urban and
rural populations spread over varied ecological settings.

13
Interpretation and
Explanation of 1.7 RELIGION
Archaeological Record
Wheeler (1968) emphasised that religious and secular activities were indivisible
concepts, and this fact applies not just to ancient past but even today as can be
often seen from the religious symbolism of modern Indian sub-continent. Even
today several tools and toys used in secular form acquire a “ritual status” with
changing contexts. Many objects and symbols have been seen as representing
Harappan “religious” beliefs and practices and include seals, horned male deities,
Mother Goddess figurines, fire-altars, etc. However all attempts to correlate these
objects and scenes to Indian mythology and religion or to the contemporary
Mesopotamian religious belief have failed due to lack of deciphered text (Allchin,
1985; Ashfaque, 1989; Dhavalikar and Atre, 1989; Fairservis, 1975, 1984b;
Parpola, 1984, 1988).

Religious traditions and beliefs are also witnessed in the death rituals and
Harappan burials also indicate localised patterns (Kennedy and Caldwell, 1984).
The cemeteries are small and do not appear to represent the entire society, hence,
it is possible that certain groups practiced burial while others used cremation or
exposure while variation in the mode of burial and the quantity of grave goods
also indicate difference of social and religious norms.

Wheeler (1968) had put forth local cults and a state religion) n, which is similar
to what he witnessed in the living traditions of numerable local cults and a larger
religious ideology indicating a pantheon which is-all inclusive. Fairservis (1986)
proposed that cities such as Mohenjodaro were primarily ceremonial centers and
that “religion” was an integrating factor using a complex system of shared beliefs
and rituals legitimizing the economic and political control.

1.8 THE HARAPPAN SOCIETY AND POLITY

It is still impossible to do more than a guess about the social organisation or the
political and administrative control implied by this vast area of cultural uniformity.
The evidence of widespread trade in many commodities, the apparent uniformity
of weights and measures, the common script, and the almost common currency-
of seals, all indicate some measure of political and economic control probably
originating from the large regional centres. The presence of status objects
throughout the Indus region indicates a strong socio-political and religious system
of beliefs that demanded and prompted the acquisition and use of such items. A
sufficient supply would have been ensured by economic networks and the spread
of specialised artisans and technologies to major sites and interestingly there is
no evidence for acquisition by force which is obvious in the near absence of
weapons of war. The acquisition of exotic goods must be seen as the accumulation
of grain or livestock surplus - in an increasing status differentiation between
those who have and those who have not.

There is no clear idea about the composition of Harappan population in spite of

the fact that a number of their grave-yards have been excavated. The sites like
Harappan, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Farmana (Shinde et al. 2009) (Fig.
1.4) have produced separate cemeteries, but due to lack of sufficient scientific
analyses such as DNA, Isotope and Trace Element, etc features like genetic
aspects, health and dietary habits of the people are not sufficiently known yet.
14 However, social stratification is evident in their burials.
 Early Urbanization

Fig.1.4: Burials of the Bronze Age culture excavated at the largest Necropolis discovered
at Farmana, Haryana State of India

1.9 DECLINE OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

The decline of the Harappan civilization commenced from around 2000 BC.
Wheeler had hypothesized in sixties on the basis of human skeletal remains in
the upper levels at Mohenjodaro that the Harappans were massacred by the Aryan
god Indra. However, subsequent scientific studies on the human skeletal data
revealed no injury marks and hence his theory was discarded. Recent research
on this aspect revealed that climatic factor was the most important for the decline
of the Harappan Civilization. The data on rainfall pattern gathered from all over
the globe clearly indicated that the climate had gone dry considerably, which
affected their agriculture. The Ghaggar/Hakra, the most important river for the
Harappans, went dry and the Harappans had to move away from the river banks to
the inland areas. The Indus river was blocked near the site of Mohenjodaro creating
huge pools around, which buried its most of the satellite settlements. The sea level
went down considerably which rendered most of the Harappan ports useless
affecting severely its international trade with Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. All
these factors combinely led the downfall of the Harappan Civilization.

After the downfall, the Harappan culture disintegrated and broke into a number
of small local cultures. They continued the Harappan tradition upto 1500 BC.
The Harappans almost deserted the core region and began to move towards the
periphery part. In UP, they came in contact with the local OCP culture, in Central
India with Malwa and in the Deccan with the Jorwe culture. Slowly but surely,
they became part of the culture they came in contact with. However, the Harappan
elements survived through these cultures to the modern times. The Harappan
legacy is evident in their structures, agricultural technology, food habits, etc. A
modern house in Punjab and Haryana is based on a typical Harappan plan. The
shapes of the modern vessels used by the farmers are similar to that of the
Harappans, the only difference being in the medium. The agricultural tools used
today are based on the Harappan tools. This clearly suggests that though the
Harappan culture has disappeared their legacy has still survived.
15
Interpretation and
Explanation of 1.10 SUMMARY
Archaeological Record
To sum up, a short survey of the Harappan cultural material indicates a sufficiently
advanced socio-economic and technological fabric capable of developing a
complex economic infrastructure and political organisation which involved
international relations. As technologically and economically advanced people
they were able to expand into a number of ecozones with different environmental
variables and economic potential as shown by the location of most of the sites in
areas of importance such as resource areas or on trade routes. The Harappans
were traders par excellence, which to a certain extent formed the basis of their
urbanised status through trade contacts.

Suggested Reading
Agrawal, D.P. (2007). The Indus Civilization an Interdisciplinary Perspective,
New Delhi: Aryan books International.

Bisht, R.S. 1993. Harappan Civilization in Recent Perspective ed. G.L Possehl,
New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publications.

Fairservis, W. A. 1975. The Roots of Ancient India. (2nd ed., revised). Chicago:
Univ. of Chicago Press.

Gupta SP, 1996. The Indus-Saraswati Civilisation, Origins, Problems and Issues.
New Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan.

Kenoyer, J. M. 1991. Ornament Styles of the Indus Tradition. Paper presented at

the American Committee for South Asian Art, Washington, D.C.

Possehl GL, 2003. Indus Civilization a Contemporary Perspective, New York:

Alta Mira Press.

Ratnagar, S. 1981. Encounters, The Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization.

Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the factors responsible for the origins and growth of First
Urbanization in South Asia.
2) Describe the distribution of the Early Harappan Cultures in northwest India.
3) Evaluate various theories about the Origins of the Harappan Civilization
and the evidence from the site of Mehrgarh.
4) What is a Civilization? Discuss various characteristic features of a
Civilization.
5) “SorathHarappan” in Saurashtra is a regional manifestation of the Harappan
Culture. Discuss elaborately.
6) Describe various phases of the Harappan Culture based on the excavations
at the site of Harappa.
7) Discuss the Harappan hinterland trade and trade mechanism.
8) Describe the Harappan burial custom with special reference to the evidence
16
from the site of Farmana.
9) “Harappan international trade was one of the most important factors for the Early Urbanization
development of the culture”. Discuss.
10) What are various theories about the decipherment of the Harappan script?
Discuss the recent theory in detail.
11) How do you compare Harappan Religon with their counterparts in
Mesopotamia and Egypt?
12) Elaborate on the functional aspects of Harappan seals and weights.
13) Discuss classical Harappan pottery from technological and functional point
of view.
14) Evaluate the evidence from Harappan sites in respect to the Socio/political
organisation.
15) What are the causes and consequences of the decline of the Harappan
Civilzation?
16) Discuss the characteristic features and settlements of the Late Harappan
culture of Gujarat.
17) “The Harappan Legacy continues till the modern times”. Elaborate.
18) Discuss the interaction between the Harappans and their contemporaries the
Chaclolithic cultures.

17
Interpretation and
Explanation of UNIT 2 APPLIED ASPECTS
Archaeological Record

Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Applied Archaeology
2.3 Cultural Heritage: Values and Identities
2.4 Conservation and Preservation of Cultural Heritage
2.5 Laws, Charters, Conventions, Declarations and Recommendations
2.6 Role of International Organisations in Preservation of Cultural Heritage:
UNESCO
2.7 World Heritage Sites
2.8 Cultural Heritage and Tourism
2.9 Ethics of Archaeological Tourism
2.10 Visitors, Infrastructure and Management
2.11 Sustainable Tourism
2.12 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to
Ø define the nature of “Applied Archaeology”;
Ø demonstrate the relationship between “archaeological record” and “cultural
heritage”;
Ø interpret the role of institutions in heritage studies; and
Ø analyse the idea of “Archaeological Tourism”.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will discuss about the usage of “archaeological record “by human
societies and individuals. The usage of “archaeological record’/knowledge of
ancient materials and applying the same to interpret archaeology of a society is a
complex process and is completely dependent on time, place and population
associated with it. Archaeological records are basically composed of material
objects which cannot speak for themselves. Meanings of these objects are assigned
to them by individuals or societies and such meanings ultimately influence all
other following actions such as applications of archaeological knowledge in
different contexts of modern human life. Thus, the interpretation of archaeological
record occupies the central place in all archaeological studies.

To comprehend the process mentioned above, we have to understand the roles

played by explanatory or interpretative methods in defining archaeological record.
Archaeological records were created by people in the past and the knowledge
18
gathered from it, is intended for the public of the present and future generations.
Archaeological knowledge is mainly governed by three basic questions (Gamble Applied Aspects
2002:73):
§ Who do we want to know?
§ What can we know? and
§ How do we know?
Is it the individual or the group? Is it possible to reach individuals of past societies
through archaeological record? Is Archaeology only capable of acquiring
fragmentary knowledge on group behaviours? Is there a pattern in all human
activities which can be explained if you follow a distinct method of investigation?
This dilemma is faced by all researchers and archaeological site managers. One
of the best examples in this context is the problem of interpreting archaeological
records at Stonehenge (United Kingdom) (see Box 1) to the public and
academicians.

Box 1: Stonehenge, United Kingdom

Stonehenge is one of the best known prehistoric monuments of England,
located in the English county of Wiltshire. The site has huge stones standing
freely in space, arranged in an unfinished double circle and contains a
large number of Neolithic as well as Bronze Age burials. Archaeologists
believe that these stones were assembled in the third millennium BC but
their exact purpose is still unknown to us. There are many hypotheses
regarding their usage, ranging from astronomical calculations to druidic
practices. These kinds of situations create great difficulties and at the same
time give liberties to the site managers in interpreting, conserving and
preserving the site. (Source: http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/
properties/stonehenge/history; as accessed on 27.11.2010)

Gathered archaeological knowledge about Stonehenge is mainly about group

activities where the role of individuals has been lost in the mist of unknown
past. But there are other instances where information on individual choices have
also been acquired from archaeological records such as individual taste in
arrangement of furniture in a room or preference of a certain material over another
etc. Each material object contains some intrinsic as well as extrinsic meanings.
The importance given to one sort of meaning over another depends on the choice
of the researcher and often influenced by intended audience. Therefore, the
meaning of archaeological record does not remain static and this has been reflected
in all areas of “Applied Archaeology”.

2.2 APPLIED ARCHAEOLOGY

The field of “Applied Archaeology” denotes the usage of archaeological record
or knowledge for the benefit of public. Archaeology’s role as a contributing
discipline to the body of human knowledge is probably the most significant aspect
of its applicability. Apart from this basic usage, which is common for all
knowledge-building systems, the field of “Applied Archaeology” has been
developed as an emerging discipline with a lot of financial implications.
Archaeological knowledge has been utilised in the field of landscape studies,
industrial studies (Industrial Archaeology), community and public studies
including museum studies (Public Archaeology and Museology), in the field of
19
Interpretation and built environment, planning and development studies, entertainment industry
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
and last but not the least in tourism and other associated disciplines. All these
aspects are subject matters of Applied Archaeology.

Archaeology acts as the key resource in understanding the development of human

settlement patterns over the ages, environmental impact on these patterns and
subsequent changes. Landscape has been viewed as a basic economic resource
and the utilisation processes of this resource can be benefited from ancient
wisdoms. Ancient land-use system and efficient use of natural resources are key
areas which have been emphasised by archaeologists and planners alike. One of
the finest examples of archaeological knowledge on efficient usage of natural
resources can be seen at the Harrappan city of Dholavira (see Box 2).

Box 2: Dholavira, India

The city of Dholavira is spread over an area of 100 hectares with huge
remains of fortified settlements, townships for lower and middle economic
groups and an advance system of water management. Kutch area of modern
Gujarat is known for the scarcity of water where Dholavira is located. The
city existed for nearly one thousand and five hundred years in an
environment which was not much different from present times and
successfully carried out trade and other activities over a vast area of land
mass. The water management system (with at least six reservoirs) of
Dholavira may act as a knowledge base for developers and planners in
Kutch (Source: http://asi.nic.in/asi_exca_2007_dholavira.asp ; as accessed
on 27.11.2010)

Planners have thought about similar use of archaeological knowledge of raised

field system – found in the Titicaca Basin of Peru and Bolivia, which was earlier
known as a mere waste land.

Industrial Archaeology is another sub-discipline of Applied Archaeology,

developed in the 1950s in Britain. The aim of this branch is to study the remains
of industrialisation which requires development of new techniques – besides
those old ones - used in other branches of Archaeology. This branch has provided
important inputs on the impact of industrialisation over landscape and human
beings. Stephen Hughes of the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical
Monuments (UK) has shown the relationship between transport and power
systems to mines, quarries and iron work (Shaw and Jameson 1999: 306). The
centre for Applied Archaeology, University of Salford, considers Industrial
Archaeology and built environment studies as integral parts of Applied
Archaeology (http://www.sobe.salford.ac.uk ).William Rathje’s Garbage Project,
set up in Tucson, Arizona, United States, is one important experiment in this
subject where archaeological methods were used to understand the pattern of
consumption of modern urban population (Renfrew and Bahn 1996:13). The
knowledge gathered from these kinds of experiments can easily be utilised by
business houses for developing marketing strategies, advertisement campaigns etc.

Community and public studies as well as Museology are other fields where
archaeological records or knowledge are often used. Involvement of communities
in archaeological work or conservation/preservation of heritage or working
towards the dissemination of archaeological knowledge among general public –
20 has been developed as a separate branch of Archaeology i.e. Public Archaeology.
It involves working in public interest to conserve artifacts, sites, built environment, Applied Aspects
enforcement of heritage legislation, managing museum collections, presentation
of the past to the public and assessing as well as reducing the impact of building
and construction projects on archaeological remains (Renfrew and Bahn
2005:219).

Museums are no longer considered as simple storage of archaeological records.

Museum collections are increasingly targeting educated and uneducated public
alike for dissemination of knowledge as well as providing entertaining
experiences. Displays are not restricted to the artifacts or ecofacts only but
extended to the presentation of archaeological sites as museums where artifacts
can be viewed “in action”. Indira Gandhi Rastriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
is such a museum, known for its innovative display techniques and efforts towards
wholesome visitor experiences.

Archaeological knowledge is often used in fictions, movies and TV serials. The

realm of the past always creates huge public interest that has been aptly utilised
by authors, actors or film makers. Indiana Jones Franchise is a famous example
of such usage where the discipline of Archaeology takes the center-stage in a
series of movies (see www.indianajones.com). There is a whole genre of computer
games, based on Archaeology such as “Lara Croft Tomb Raider” or “Diving me
Crazy” – highly popular among the public. There is a danger in such usages as
complete imaginations may take over the place of archaeological facts and chances
of misrepresentation of archaeological knowledge increase thereof.

Public Archaeology often adds elements of ethics in areas of planning and

development. The direct outcome of such ethical perspectives is the “conservation
movement”. The past has been considered as a limited resource which should be
preserved for posterity. Therefore, all development activities should take
cognizance of archaeological heritage at its planning stage. It has become
mandatory in many countries to get archaeological clearance before the start of
any development or construction activity. Public agencies or private commercial
farms work in tandem with planners in such projects, on the basis of contracts
and this arrangement has been termed as “Contract Archaeology”. Development
studies, is another field which is utilising archaeological record and knowledge
in a positive way. It has been recognised now that archaeological remains can
attract tourists and investment in large amount. The use of Archaeology in
development sector, promotes sustainable growth practices through community
participation. Public attachment to these resources has made archaeological
tourism a thriving service- sector industry. It is no wonder that the Taj Mahal is
one of the top tourist destinations in India which attracts more than 3 million
tourists every year.

The current discussion has demonstrated how Applied Archaeology ensures

healthy negotiations between academics and lay people in a fruitful manner.

2.3 CULTURAL HERITAGE: VALUES AND

IDENTITIES
As we have just discussed, the significance of archaeological record or knowledge
lies in its usage by general public. We have already explored different possibilities
of using archaeological records and now we know that the key to the success of
21
Interpretation and conservation and preservation efforts in archaeological heritage lies in informed
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
participation of lay people. If an emotion of belonging develops towards an
archaeological heritage, it ensures certain degrees of attachment of the public to
that object or site and it also generates awareness about its values. Such emotions
of belonging create the ideas of cultural affiliation of a particular object which in
turn becomes a valuable treasure for a human group or their culture. These types
of cultural treasures are known as “Cultural Heritage” which connects people
with their past and provide specific identities to different communities. People
now look at Archaeology for finding their cultural roots. Searching for cultural
identity has become an extremely relevant quest for post colonial new nation
states (such as Zimbabwe).
Not every aspect of heritage is valued and the merit of any aspect of cultural
heritage is judged on the basis of contemporary sense of its worthiness and
identities it creates. Now “culture” has become a subject of debate rather than a
field of consensus. Values added to an archaeological object in most cases (not
always) give it a cultural significance. Cultural significance of archaeological
heritage can work at different levels such as aesthetic, religious, political,
economic etc. The attribution of values to any piece of cultural heritage may be
defined in three levels: intrinsic (attached with the place or object – in reality, it
is subjective and contextual), institutional (derived from the work of agencies)
and instrumental (values measured in terms of economic and social benefits).
All these values belong to two types of processes, namely, valuing (appreciating
existing value or intrinsic value) and valorizing (giving added values). The entire
valuation process of cultural heritage and especially valorizing is guided by power
equations. The values assigned to an object by powerful groups (like academics)
generally get preference over the values considered important by weaker sections
(illiterate population). What should be construed as cultural heritage and what
should not, is guided by valorizing processes. These valuation processes are
influential in attaching heritage objects to a particular human group which often
moulds their concepts of identity. An infamous example of identity crisis as well
as valorizing process, associated with cultural heritage, is the destruction of
Bamiyan Buddha statues in Afghanistan (see Box 3).

Box 3: Bamiyan Buddha

The Bamiyan valley of Afghanistan, encircled by high mountains of
Hindukush range, became a flourishing centre of Buddhism in the 3rd
Century BC and continued to remain an important trading station till the
13th Century AD. The area is known for its beautiful sculptures of Gandhara
School of Art, monasteries, sanctuaries and fortifications of the Islamic
period. The most famous edifices of Bamiyan were two colossal Buddha
images, measuring 55 and 37 meters – all carved into a mountain cliff.
The Taliban government of Afghanistan shocked the entire world by
destroying these statutes in 2001. They declared that the existence of these
statutes is sinful as they promote the practice of idolatry - forbidden in
Islam. Undoubtedly, these sculptures were created locally and signified a
direct cultural link between the ancient Afghan civilization and the modern
one. The act shows a certain level of detachment of the contemporary
Afghanistan from its own cultural heritage. They lost a link to identify
themselves with these sculptures and attached only negative values to
them. (Source: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/208 ; as accessed on
22 28.11.2010)
The above mentioned incident notifies the value of interpretation in preservation Applied Aspects
and conservation of cultural heritage. The entire field of conservation and
preservation of cultural heritage is known as Cultural Resource Management
(CRM) in United States or Archaeological Heritage Management in Europe and
elsewhere. “Conservation” has been visualized as processes of “looking after a
place so as to retain its cultural significance “ while “Preservation” is defined as
a process “for maintaining the fabric of a place in its existing state and retarding
deterioration” (Article 1.4 & 1.6; Burra Charter 1999).

2.4 CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION OF

CULTURAL HERITAGE
Conservation and preservation of heritage objects starts with their identification
by stakeholders and subsequent valorizing processes. The philosophy of these
actions are guided by conservation ethics and composed of various technical
responses for maintaining status quo in heritage objects and space. However
there is an inherent contradiction in every conservation and preservation effort
as all new initiatives in these directions require further interpretations of the
heritage values. Therefore conservation scientists try to consider “all aspects of
cultural and natural significance without unwarranted emphasis on any one value
at the expense of the others” (Article 5; Burra Charter 1999).

Conservation and preservation of cultural heritage give special emphasis to the

principles of minimum intervention, reversibility and authenticity. These
principles are parts of internationally accepted regulations, laws, charters and
recommendations, specially formulated for the preservation and conservation of
cultural heritage.

2.5 LAWS, CHARTERS, CONVENTIONS,

DECLARATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The last one hundred and fifty years document is a slow progress of the legislature
in cultural heritage preservation. The history of cultural heritage laws, regulations,
charters, conventions or recommendations reflect the political as well as economic
considerations that prevailed at the time of their compilation. Either these laws
have jurisdiction over a certain nation only or they enjoy wide international
acceptance.

The word “Conventions” denotes international legal documents that need

ratifications by member states of Inter-governmental organisations such as
UNESCO or EU etc. Member states generally enact, modify and implement
these conventions at their national level. “Charters” are declarations by a group
of experts under the sponsorship of international professional organisations
such as ICOM (International Council of Museums) or ICOMOS (International
Council on Monuments and Sites) and ratified by sponsoring organisations.
“Recommendations” and “Declarations” are similar to charters, but do not enjoy
similar level of organisational support.

India has one of the earliest legislative measures in the field of cultural heritage.
The first Indian legislation for cultural heritage preservation is known as the
Indian Treasure Trove Act of 1878. After the independence, the Indian government
23
Interpretation and formulated several acts for conservation and preservation for cultural heritage
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
such as the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947; the Ancient Monuments and
Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR); the Antiquities and Art
Treasure Act, 1972. The AMASR Act of 1958 has recently been amended and
validated in 2010. These acts are aimed at protecting, conserving and preserving
cultural heritage of national importance and recognise the Archaeological Survey
of India, Government of India as the legal custodian of these properties. Each
state of India has separate laws, besides those above-mentioned ones, for the
protection of other heritage properties, not considered as “sites of national
importance” which are located in respective states.

In comparison to the international conventions, charters or recommendations,

national laws on cultural heritages have more power over the heritage properties
as respective governments can punish the offenders while formers are toothless
in this aspect even though they enjoy a larger area of jurisdiction. A few important
international conventions, charters, recommendations for the preservation of
cultural properties are as follows:
• Charter of Athens for the Restoration of Historic Monuments 1932
• Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of
Armed Conflict 1954
• The Venice Charter: International Charter for the Conservation and
Restoration of Monuments and Sites 1964
• Norms of Quito: Final Report of the Meeting on the Preservation and
Utilisation of Monuments and Sites of Artistic and Historical Value
(Organisation of American States and ICOMOS 1967)
• Recommendation of Tunis on Conservation, Restoration and Revival of
Areas and Groups of Buildings of Historical Interest 1968
• Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (UNESCO1972)
• The Nara Document on Authenticity 1994
• The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural
Significance (the Burra Charter;4th Edition 1999)
All of these regulations or recommendations reflect the policies of international
organisations including intergovernmental organisations (UNESCO, Council of
Europe), professional organisations e.g. ICOMOS, ICOM, UNWTO (United
Nations World Tourism Organisation), membership organisations (WAC: World
Archaeological Congress, Europa Nostra) or one off ministerial conferences (joint
dealing of a particular theme).

2.6 ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL

ORGANISATIONS IN PRESERVATION OF
CULTURAL HERITAGE: UNESCO
As we have discussed above, the national policies of different states on cultural
heritage, often get influenced by the principles of international organisations.
Though these organisations have hardly any implementing power over the
sovereign countries, they may exert their authority by mobilizing international
24
opinion against the defaulters. Inter-governmental organisations (like UNESCO) Applied Aspects
are especially effective in this respect as member states are voluntary signatories
of their conventions. UNESCO or United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation, is at the forefront of all international initiatives on cultural
heritage preservation. In November 1945, thirty seven countries founded
UNESCO and it came into force following the ratification of its constitution by
20 countries on 4th November 1946. Presently, this organisation has 197 members
and seven associate members. The main objective of UNESCO is to create a
space for dialogue among civilizations, cultures and people, based on shared
values to achieve sustainable development. UNESCO recognises diverse forms
of culture as found in tangible and intangible heritages and works for their
protection and conservation to promote cultural diversity.

Besides UNESCO there are other professional international organisations which

are working actively in this field. ICOMOS is a professional organisation which
works for the conservation and protection of cultural heritage sites. Currently it
has 9500 members through out the world.

2.7 WORLD HERITAGE SITES

The General Conference of UNESCO adopted the “Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” in 1972. The convention
encourages international understanding of cultural heritage of “outstanding
universal value” to the humanity as a whole. It invites the member states to
submit an inventory of their heritage properties which includes sites of national
cultural and natural heritage, to be included in a list of World Heritage sites.
These inventories are known as tentative lists of World Heritage sites. The sites
have been divided into three categories namely, cultural, natural and mixed.
UNESCO’s “Operational Guidelines for Implementation of the World Heritage
Convention” specifies ten criteria to nominate sites for inscription in the final
World Heritage list. Protection, management, authenticity and integrity of
properties are also important considerations.

Once a site is inscribed to the list of World Heritage it receives international

recognition for its heritage values and the owning nation often gets assistance
for safeguarding that property. Nearly US $ 4 million is annually available for
assisting the member states in identifying, preserving and promoting the World
Heritage sites. Emergency assistance is also provided to the countries to repair
the damages caused by man-made or natural disasters. These damaged sites are
enlisted in the “List of World Heritage in Danger” which enables them to get
attention of the international community for catering to their particular
conservation needs.

By signing this convention the state parties agree to protect not only the World
Heritage sites but other national heritage properties, situated within their
territories. The states report regularly on the conditions of these World Heritage
sites to UNESCO which reviews and assesses these reports to decide on site
specific conservation needs and probable solutions for recurrent problems.

The current World Heritage list includes 911 properties - forming part of cultural
and natural properties of humankind which the World Heritage Committee
considers as having “outstanding universal value”. India is an active member of
25
Interpretation and the World Heritage Convention since 1977 and presently has 27 world Heritage
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
properties which include some famous tourist destinations like Taj Mahal, Rock
Cut Caves of Ajanta, Churches and Convents of Goa, Kaziranga National Park
etc. The Archaeological Survey of India is the nodal agency for all World Heritage
properties in the country.

The declaration of properties as World Heritages has its own problems too. Often
these properties become targets of man made damages, done knowingly or
unknowingly. The very reason of inscribing one property to the World Heritage
list is the cause for attracting millions of tourists to a heritage property.
Undoubtedly this influx of tourists boosts local economy and creates new ways
of development. But such endeavors also test the carrying capacity of a site in
question, definitely mold its characters and influence its authenticity. One of the
major challenges faced by UNESCO today is not only making the national
authorities, private sector and civil societies realise that the World Heritage
convention is not merely a tool for enhancing cultural and biological diversity
but also a significant means for sustainable development.

2.8 CULTURAL HERITAGE AND TOURISM

Arguably, tourism is the biggest money spinning industry associated with cultural
heritage. “Cultural Tourism” has been considered as a subset of tourism proper
which includes archaeological tourism. However, a closer inspection will reveal
that all types of tourism, where the objective is pleasure, are forms of “Cultural
Tourism” only. UNWTO defines “Cultural Tourism” as:

“………..movements by people motivated by cultural intents such as study tours,

performing arts, festivals, cultural events, visits to sites and monuments as well
as travel for pilgrimages. Cultural tourism is also about immersion in and
enjoyment of the lifestyle of the local people, the local area and what constitutes
its identity and character”.

Naturally, archaeological heritage constitutes the central part of all such tourism
activities. A list of top ten tourist destinations in the world in 2007 by Forbes
(http://www.forbestraveler.comstory.html) shows, that every entry in this list is
actually a cultural monument or a site (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Most Visited Attractions by Domestic and International Tourists in
2007 (Top 10 Tourist Attractions)
World Tourist attraction Location Country Number of
ranking visitors
(in million)
1 Times Square New York United 35
City States
2 National Mall and Washington, United 25
Memorial Parks D.C. States
3 Walt Disney Orlando United 16.6
World Resort’s States
Magic Kingdom,
Lake Buena Vista

26
 Applied Aspects
4 Trafalgar Square London United 15
Kingdom
5 Disneyland Anaheim California United States 14.7
6 Niagara Falls Ontario & Canada & 14
New York United States
7 Fisherman’s Wharf San Francisco, United States 13
& Golden Gate California
8 Tokyo Disney Tokyo Japan 12.9
land & Tokyo
Disney Sea
9 Notre Dame de Paris Paris France 12
10 Disney land Paris Paris France 10.6

These sites easily qualify as “attractions representing human cultural dimensions

“ (that makes Niagara a “Cultural Tourism” destination too) but only a few of
them can really claim to be of profound archaeological importance.

Besides “archaeological tourism”, there are several subsets of cultural tourism

like “heritage tourism” or “cultural heritage tourism” – all of which have really
fuzzy boundaries. The National Trust for Historic Preservation, USA included
all historic, cultural and natural attractions in the field of “cultural heritage
tourism”. The ambiguity of the term creates confusions in understanding its proper
role in any given context.

UNWTO notes that in 2008, the international tourism grew by 2% which

generated a profit equal to 30% of the world’s export service in that year. At a
seminar on sustainable development in South Africa 2002, the Secretary General
of UNWTO declared that the basic aim of his organisation is to eliminate poverty
through tourism.

It is no wonder that tourism has been closely linked with World Heritage sites.
UNESCO has noticed an upsurge in tourism activities at every site after its
nomination as a World Heritage property. Materialising the potential benefits of
tourism at these sites require careful planning and well thought-out management
strategies. The maintenance of authenticity and integrity of a site is essential for
the sustenance of tourism at that particular place and backbone of any management
plan. These demands of sustainability force all stakeholders to follow ethics of
tourism.

2.9 ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL TOURISM

We have already discussed about the limited nature of archaeological resources
which can not be regenerated or replaced. Therefore all tourism activities should
take care of maintaining the “fabric” of archaeological treasures so that the level
of tourist interest to a particular heritage property does not get diminished. Ethics
of archaeological tourism concentrates on responsible tourism practices and
promotes active participation of all stakeholders in conservation activities. Such
participations include the involvement of general public as well as non-
governmental organisations in conservation and preservation drives.
27
Interpretation and UNWTO has formulated the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (GCET) as a set
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
of references for responsible and sustainable development of the World Tourism.
This code is intended to be a living document which targets it reader for its
circulation and the implementation of good tourism practices. Ethics of tourism
try to minimise the negative impacts of tourism sector over the cultural heritage.
All nine articles of the GCET speak about the rules of responsible tourism while
the tenth article provides a mechanism for redressal of grievances and enforcement
of tourism regulations.

Article 4 of this code of conduct especially deals with archaeological and cultural
heritage. Tourism has been visualized here as a user of cultural heritage and a
contributor to its enhancement. It recognises the right of mankind and particular
communities over a cultural heritage. In addition to these rights, UNWTO
recognises the need of participation of all stakeholders in management of cultural
properties. The code emphasises the necessity of conservation of such properties
and also the responsibility of the site managers in providing “meaningful and
considerate access to as many visitors as the site can allow”. All of these ethical
practices are intended for better visitor experiences which are dependent on
supportive infrastructures – built on sustainable management practices.

2.10 VISITORS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND

MANAGEMENT
Anybody is a potential visitor to a cultural heritage site and all heritage properties
are ultimately intended for wholesome visitor experiences. A visitor travels to a
site for gaining pleasure in a variety of manners. Ethics of tourism restrict visitors’
freedom at a cultural heritage site to conserve it for future generations. Visitors
ensure recognition of a site, help in developing the infrastructure and create
employment opportunities for the local people. A successful management strategy
helps visitors in interpreting the sites through proper conservation initiatives,
guidance and ultimately creates a feeling of belongingness to the site in the mind
of the tourist/visitor.

Visitor arrivals have negative impacts on the sites too. It is an act of external
intrusion to the local life which creates local imbalance and may cause a concern
for the security of the site (international smuggling of artefacts is a serious threat
to archaeological monuments and sites). The alien domain of other past cultures
often gets mingled with present cultural conditions which influences certain
expectations of the tourists from the local communities (the concepts of objective
authenticity = museum version; constructive authenticity = something that can
emerge beyond the objective authenticity or acquire social recognition as authentic
– are important here. Cole 2007:944).

Reflection and Action on 2.3 and 2.4

How does the interpretation of an archaeological site affect its management
strategies? Reflect and analyse.

These visits may prove to be financial burdens to the site management authorities
as visitor influx requires proper investment in infrastructure development. To
establish a balance between visitor influx and conservation efforts, visitor
28
movements in cultural heritage properties are restricted through the Applied Aspects
implementation of proper management strategies like fixing of opening and
closing hours, controlled visitor movements, limiting the number of visitors per
day and raising entrance fee etc.

The infrastructure for roads, accommodation, food and communication are basic
needs of every site to cater to the demand of tourism. Investments for these
activities are not easily available in developing economies. The amount of money
spent at a site is often the major deciding factor in measuring the strength of the
infrastructure and the carrying capacity of a site. The amount of expenditure on
a site is generally influenced by its importance among the tourist destinations
and the relationship between these two factors is basically cyclic in nature. If
money is not spent, a proper tourism infrastructure will not be built. The absence
of infrastructure will reduce the number of tourists at that site. If the number of
tourists at a site gets reduced, it will loose its importance as a major tourist
destination and will attract less amount of investment and so on.

A good management plan makes arrangements for all these factors and develops
policies after considering the values, resources and constraints of the sites. All
management plans are aimed at managing changes, identifying possible solutions
and making decisions in informed contexts. A successful management plan is
vigilant on conservation ethics, participatory in nature and promotes sustainable
development practices.

2.11 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Constant influx of more than optimum number of visitors (the maximum number
of tourists a site can contain) deteriorate its environment and may prove harmful
to the future prospects of the site. It creates pressure on the infrastructure and
makes it vulnerable to future failures. The publicity initiatives like advertising
to attract tourists, sometimes add woe to the sites too. The pressure of tourism at
the famous rock cut caves of Ajanta, India (a World Heritage Site), seriously
damaged the site that forced the conservators to suggest restricted tourist inflow
at this place. Costly measures to check further damages are not easy to perform
in cash-strapped developing economies. UNESCO, Bangkok is studying the
impact of tourism on cultural heritage sites in Asia for the last couple of years
and suggests “controlled tourism” as a measure for restricting further damage.

In this context of growing threats to heritage sites, the World Conference on

Sustainable Tourism created a charter in 1995 to protect heritage sites from such
damages. It is known as the Charter for Sustainable Tourism. It describes the
positive and negative aspects of tourism and calls for planning and management
of tourism for the conservation and protection of heritage properties. The charter
visualizes the objectives of sustainable tourism to be ecologically bearable,
economically viable, socially equitable for local communities and sustainable to
the future. The Charter advises to assess the impact of tourism on cultural and
natural heritage and recommends special assistance to the areas that have been
degraded by tourism activities. Now UNWTO promotes the idea of sustainable
tourism in all of its activities.

29
Interpretation and
Explanation of 2.12 SUMMARY
Archaeological Record
In the present unit we have tried to cover all major aspects of Applied Archaeology.
The discussion moved around the basic concept of archaeological record, its
meaning and utilisation. Now we understand the powerful role of “interpretation”
in applications of archaeological knowledge which guides all other “valorising”
processes and makes objects or places culturally significant to different
communities. The communities in turn develop a feeling of belongingness to
these properties and thrive for their conservation and protection. The role of
intergovernmental organisations such as UNESCO is important in this respect
which was instrumental in enacting the World Heritage Convention and its
implementation. This convention helps in creating World heritage properties and
promotes them for tourism. Culture of archaeological tourism has its own benefits
and problems too. It is crucial for development initiatives but at the same time,
diminishes the values of these properties. The basic aim of all cultural tourism
activities is to create general awareness about ethical tourism practices and provide
means for sustainable tourism. Cultural heritage is a limited source and it should
be accessible to all and preserved for future generations to come and cherish.

Suggested Reading
Agnew, N. and J. Bridgland (Eds). 2006. Of the Past, for the Future: Integrating
Archaeology and Conservation. Proceedings of the Conservation Theme at the
5th World Archaeological Congress, Washington, D.C, 22-26 June 2003.Getty
Conservation Institute. Los Angeles.
Aplin, G.2002. Heritage: Identification, Conservation and Management. South
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Bahn, P. and C. Renfrew. 1996. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice.
London: Thames and Hudson.
Bahn, P. and C. Renfrew (Eds). 2005. Archaeology: The Key Concepts. New
York: Routledge.
Cole, S.2007. Beyond Authenticity and Commodification. Annals of Tourism
Research 34(4):943-960.
De la torre, M (Ed).2002. Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage. Getty
Conservation Institute: Los Angeles. Download as pdf from http://getty.edu/
conservation/resources/reports.html
Gamble, C. 2002. Archaeology: The Basics. London and New York: Rutledge.
Guide Books: World Heritage Series. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
Roy, S.1996. The Story of Indian Archaeology 1784-1947. New Delhi:
Archaeological Survey of India.
Shaw, I. and R. Jameson (Eds). 1999. A Dictionary of Archaeology. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Useful Links
The Archaeological Survey of India: http://www.asi.nic.in
The Getty Conservation Institute: http://www.getty.edu/conservation/
30
ICOMOS: http://www.icomos.org Applied Aspects

ICCROM: http://www.iccrom.org
UNESCO: http://www.unesco.org
UNESCO World Heritage Centre: http://www.unesco.org/whc/
UNWTO: http://www.unwto.org

Sample Questions
1) What is Public Archaeology? Discuss the role of public Archaeology in
heritage Management.
2) What do you know about UNESCO World Heritage Sites? Reflect on the
problems of maintaining a World Heritage Site.

31
Interpretation and
Explanation of UNIT 3 CULTURAL RESOURCES
Archaeological Record

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cultural Resource Management (CRM)
3.3 Exposition of Cultural Resource by Exploration and Excavation
3.4 Legislation and Salvage Archaeology
3.5 Managing of Archaeological Sites
3.6 Compliance Process
3.6.1 Conservation
3.6.2 Management Versus Academic Research
3.6.3 Research Design
3.6.4 Safeguarding and Public Participation
3.6.5 Pubic Archaeology
3.6.6 People Related to Archaeological Resources
3.7 Importance of Indian Archeological Heritage Sites
3.8 Archaeological Museums
3.9 Researches into the Heritage Cultural Resources at Museums
3.10 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives
&
Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø discuss the definition of Cultural Resource vis-à-vis Cultural Heritage/
Heritage Culture;
Ø understand the initial sources of Cultural Resource;
Ø describe the subsequent sources of Cultural Resources;
Ø explain the cultural Resource Management (CRM); and
Ø understand the legislation towards protection of Cultural Resources.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Cultural resources refer to both tangible and intangible heritage. The present
lesson focuses on tangible heritage. In simple words it includes both man-made
and natural features associated with human activities. Cultural resources are the
heritage of mankind and therefore such evidences require our attention. They are
all unique, non-renewable resources and comprise of sites, structures/monuments,
features and artifacts significant in human history. As a matter of fact, history of
mankind has been reconstructed with the help of varieties of cultural resources,
which were left behind by our early ancestors. Tangible variables of human culture
in most parts of the Old World and in the New World occur in the form of some
objects that draw the attention of modern man, and such archaeological remains
32
help in the reconstruction of history of mankind.
 Cultural Resource
Here in this sub-unit on Cultural Resource Management, we will learn the
definition of “Culture”, ‘Cultural Resources’ and “Cultural Resource
Management”.

With a series of evolution on the positioning of thumb and big toe, enlargement
of his cranial capacity, he adopted bipedalism and realised the needs to develop
tools for his day-to-day activities. A tool is the smallest unit of cultural resource.
As this Cultural Resource is a reflection of his thoughts and actions, it may be
viewed as incorporating both tangible and intangible traits of man.

3.2 CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

(CRM)
Today, CRM is understood in terms of taking care of the archaeological remains
and in management of the cultural resources. It deals with the application of
management skills to conserve cultural heritage for the benefit of the public and
future generations. The idea of Cultural Resource Management (CRM) came
into existence in the mid 1970s and brought an end to the anxieties of
archaeologists and folklorists over the destruction of archaeological remains,
historical buildings and paved a way to look into the dimensions of intangible
variables.

3.3 EXPOSITION OF CULTURAL RESOURCE BY

EXPLORATION AND EXCAVATION
Modern man got acquainted with antiquities from different parts of the world
during his travels which was necessitated by trade and missionary activities. He
collected objects which appeared queer to him with an intention to decorate his
sitting room or his drawing room, and on certain occasions collected such objects
to demonstrate them before scholars. During the renaissance movement in Europe
there was a great demand for antiquarian objects from the new world. The
widespread interest and demand for these objects led to the looting and smuggling
of antiquities in order to cater to this demand. In the initial stages, objects of
cultural and antiquarian significance was collected by man merely to satisfy his
curiosity which later became important as humans understood that the objects
they collected represent activities of their ancestors. This slowly became an
organised exercise and came to be known as exploration followed by unearthing
the buried past known as excavation. Since ancient times, thieves and thugs had
been looting antiquity-rich places for buried or hidden treasures.
Heinrich Schliemann, a German businessman in 1873 discovered around seven
cities in Greece including Homer’s legendary city of Troy. Being a wealthy
merchant at St. Petersburg, Russia, he started the first digging in search of the
city of Troy at Hissarlik, with a manpower of 150 workers. Owing to the
unsystematic nature of his work, Schliemann destroyed more evidence compared
to the discoveries he made and out of his interest towards the great gold treasures,
which he allowed his Greek wife to wear on her neck, which was ‘unethical’ in
today’s terms and in this process he destroyed the upper layers.
Fox Pitt-Rivers later formulated a formal procedure of scientific excavation with
historical tradition. Augustus H. Lane Fox was a military General, later changed
33
Interpretation and his name to Augustus H. Lane Fox Pitt-Rivers, and inherited Rivers Estate in
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
southern England after he retired from military service in 1880. Finally, he became
popularly known as Pitt-Rivers who pioneered methods of elaborate and
painstaking procedures of excavation that the archaeologists undertake today.
Flinders Petrie was one of his contemporaries and contributed a lot to the
development of archaeological methods. No doubt excavation is rightly called
the destruction but what it retrieves forms the base to reconstruct the cultural
history of a locality. The excavation what we see today is a further modified
version of the earlier by several people, particularly Sir Mortimer Wheeler.

3.4 LEGISLATION AND SALVAGE ARCHAEOLOGY

In order to prevent merciless and massive destruction of human heritage, certain
rules restricting the damage of sites, structures and artifacts relevant to history or
archaeology were necessary. In India, under an act called, Antiquity Preservation
Act, 1904, which was later amended in 1947 with certain modifications gave
powers to the State and Central Government authorities to safeguard, protect
and preserve the cultural heritage. Legislation was enforced not only to conserve
the remains but also towards conservation of the sites at the Government level.
The remains of Indus Valley Civilization was first discovered accidently while
constructing a railway line in Northwest India during British rule. The Government
immediately went ahead with its excavations followed by the conservation of its
ruins.

Cultural Resource Management (CRM), in most cases is an affair of the

Government who will take note of different discoveries in its country and take
adequate steps towards protection and conservation of the site along with its
ruins. Upon urgent demand of an endangered site, action to protect the site will
be undertaken under the purviews of Salvage archaeology. There are many
examples in this regard and UNESCO’s project of re-locating the Abu Simbel
temple in Egypt is the first of its kind. When Abu Simbel temple was endangered
in the wake of construction of the Aswan High Dam resulting in rise of water
level of Lake Nasser, UNESCO undertook the Salvage operation. A similar project
of 15 years’ duration was undertaken in Andhra Pradesh at the Nagarjuna Sagar
or Nagarjuna Konda.

All the famous historical remains in India, particularly in the Northern and North-
western India such as the Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Lal Quila and others are
looked after by Archaeological Survey of India. There are many monuments of
these kinds in other parts of India. In Assam, all the historical sites belonging to
Ahom Kingdom at Sibsagar and its Royal burial grounds at Charaideo, famous
Khaspur ruins near Silchar, world renowned Shaktipith- the Kamakshya temple
at Guwahati, Surya Pahar at Marnai in Goalpara are some of the remains under
the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India. In other parts of the World
there are private agencies that work in this direction on contract basis.

3.5 MANAGING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

In India in addition to the Archaeological Survey of India, all the State
Governments have Departments of State Archaeology together with Historical
and Antiquarian Study Departments responsible for undertaking surveys to trace
34
the existence of antiquities in the form of sites, monuments and similar structures Cultural Resource
in their respective States. Upon receiving information, the Registering Officer
from the said agency visits the locality and identifies the heritage structures.
After it is entered in the National Registry, the concerned authority brings it to
the notice of the State/Central Government for taking appropriate steps to protect
the heritage. Sites and other remains are brought to the notice of the Government
with information from the concerned public and also from the sources of
construction agency engaged in developmental works. Ambari, a historical site
in Assam at the heart of Guwahati City came to public notice and also to the
State Museum of Assam when the Reserve Bank of India selected the site for
construction of its building. Huge cultural remains were discovered at the site
and later the Government of Assam protected the site. On the other hand,
protection of Ambari site led local people of the region, engaged in construction
of their residential buildings to hide information regarding the cultural finds and
the occurrence of any kind of archaeological materials to the authority with an
apprehension of the site being taken over by the Government. This is not the
only isolated case, in parts of Assam, there are plenty of information of such
kind of attitude on the part of the public to conceal the available information of
heritage under their residential buildings.

Under the prevailing situations in our country, the conservationists and the
archaeologists have to jointly think of overall strategies, conservation priorities,
and field-research designs to ensure close linkage between the latest
methodological and theoretical approaches followed by salvage excavation i.e.
application of salvage operations in the field. In urban localities, it should be
made mandatory for all concerned, who want to undertake new constructions, to
carry out a survey at their proposed construction sites. After all, we have to
conserve our heritage with utmost priority.

3.6 COMPLIANCE PROCESS

Compliance involves the question of formulating a practical solution for the
continuous loss of cultural heritage materials in our country, and therefore there
is a growing need to create a general consciousness and awareness among all
sections of population. During the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the world
famous statues of Buddha at Bamian were blown to dust with a total disrespect,
irrespective of appeals from all over the World not to demolish the structures.
Can we suspect the attitude of a new authority or a community after their
conversion to a different religion to ignore the already existing heritage of that
place? In fact, it cannot be a situation at all in a secular country like India. It
should be the sentiments of the general people to uphold and respect all sorts of
archaeological remains in our country irrespective of religious status and identity.
However, we must carefully proceed with the policy of conservation of historical
and archaeological ruins.

First, an overall assessment of the cultural resources of our country is necessary,

followed by an option to make a public appeal, to make the people aware of their
cultural heritage in different regions of our country. Accordingly, sites and
archaeological remains should be identified for the benefit of the nation for alerting
its population about the past heritage of the country. In this kind of compliance
process, it may be accepted as a project of awareness and therefore there will be
35
Interpretation and a necessity of continuous role on the part of the archaeologists and people
Explanation of
Archaeological Record
concerned to tirelessly work towards the preservation of the heritage resources
of the country at the State and Central level. It appears not an easy task because
it involves so many hurdles to be crossed in the process of negotiating with the
Government agencies.

3.6.1 Conservation
Brian M. Fagan (1991) writes, Ethics in archaeology demand conservation of
many sites as far as possible. In this respect, sites which are not threatened by
modern infrastructure development, are ideally suitable. However, any
investigator involved in such endeavour has to develop a research design based
purely on scientific considerations. Nevertheless, many other issues like budget,
public interest, possible design alternatives in the development project, and
mitigation cost come into play when sites are threatened by imminent destruction.
Then, there is the problem of “secondary impacts”, when unexpected spin-offs
of the main project destroy resources outside the main project area.

3.6.2 Management Versus Academic Research

Resource Management and academic research in archaeology enter into apparent
conflicting dilemma in any project, which is managed, controlled and carried
out by Governmental agencies, unlike in a developed country, which has a
procedure of giving an archaeological survey or any authorized agency a contract
of preservation. In such situations contracting agencies consider archaeology as
an inductive science that comes under normative view. The normative view
ascribes a descriptive approach to culture, which can be used to describe culture
during one time period or throughout time. Archaeologists view that the surviving
artifacts, such as potsherds in regard to their style, its form and its changes are
the manifestations of human behaviour over the period of time. Culture-historical
reconstruction is a useful organisational tool that has added some descriptive
order to world archaeology. Inductive method is useful in general exploratory
research that is carried out in case of many large survey areas.

The decade of 1970s saw increase in the utility of deductive research in

archaeology when archaeologists began viewing fieldwork and excavation
activities (or exploration and excavation) as a problem oriented to testing
hypothesis.

3.6.3 Research Design

Formulation of a research design is also a primary requirement in cultural resource
management or heritage management. An outline of the proposed research with
a nomenclature, together with the nature of the project, its methodology needs to
be chalked out. The following part involves collection of data, its analyses and
finally writing an analytical report. Conservation and Preservation of the same
may follow the report submission. A site under immediate threat or a locality
selected for developing a project needs to be attended immediately.

A senior archaeologist along with experts in relevant disciplines is ideally suited

to undertake a CRM project. However, a large number of hands may be required
in such projects and in such situations new entrants may also be trained.

36
3.6.4 Safeguarding and Public Participation Cultural Resource

Local population around the cultural remains is the best agency to be chosen to
entrust with its protection. Owing to their close proximity to the remains, the
local population develops a sense of belongingness to the antiquarian site. These
people revere the remains. Further, people in the vicinity also report its existence
to the Government or equivalent authority for undertaking the conservation of
the site and its remains. Once the site is conserved and preserved, its importance
can be spread to the surrounding regions through the means of Public Archaeology
and tourism.

3.6.5 Public Archaeology

‘Public Archaeology’ is a branch of archaeology that deals with creating awareness
about the cultural wealth and the importance of preserving them. It also encourages
archaeologists to understand how a layman views his immediate or distant past.
Certain ruins are connected to the people of a locality since time immemorial,
and it is closely connected to them in the form of a living practice. The concerned
community undertakes certain festivity in close connection with the remains at a
particular time of the year. Further, the thoughts and respect for such remains
encourage people to initiate social customs. To cite an example, the Megalithic
monuments of different shapes and sizes of the Karbis of Karbi Anglong of
Assam, since ancient times, are available in plenty. To commemorate this ancient
practice of Megalithism, Dilip Medhi (2002) organised three different public
functions in the name of ‘Megalithic Monument Conservation Day’ at
Tengralangso and Kamarpha in 1997, at Tika in 1998 and at Nongjrong in 1999
with active cooperation of the local people. Thus, Public Archaeology spread
the message of conservation of cultural heritage and resources among the public
who become actively involved in safeguarding the archaeological remains and
cultural sites. Naga communities hold a stone pulling festival to commemorate
the Megalithic practice amongst them.

3.6.6 People Related to Archaeological Resources

Ruthann Knudson, points out ‘ownership issue’ of archaeological sites (1986)
with regards to their owner and finds. It may be noted that even in cases when an
archaeological site falls within a private property, the ownership of the remains
are with the Government as all the material remains belong to either the nation
or the world.

3.7 IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN

ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE SITES
Starting with the initial discoveries of archaeological evidences during the British
regime in India, archaeological evidence began to be incorporated by the historians
and archaeologists. Bruce Foote’s discovery of handaxe at Pallavaram near Madras
in 1863 was an eye opener to South Asian Prehistory. Later V.D. Krishnaswami
(1938) reported a very rich and varied Lower Palaeolithic assemblage from the
Kortalayer valley in the Chingleput District of Tamil Nadu. Further the discovery
of the Indus Valley Civilization at the time of the Railway construction project
in Northwest India was a major eye opener to the first urbanization of the
subcontinent.
37
Interpretation and
Explanation of 3.8 ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUMS
Archaeological Record
Archaeological Museums are the places where antiquities are displayed
chronologically. There are a number of museums all over the world and the
United States of America is famous in this respect because apart from public
museums, almost each and every Department of Anthropology and Archaeology
has an associated museum.

The British Museum was established in the 18th Century. However, the Danish
archaeologists were the pioneers in the establishment of a museums of
antiquities.Its first curator C. J. Thomsen put forwarded the concept of ‘Three
Age System’ on the basis of its antiquities. In fact, it was an outstanding endeavour
of a few Danish elites interested in antiquities, comprising of Rasmus Nyerup,
Vedel-Simonsen, Sven Nilsson, J. J. Worsaae and Christian Jurgensen Thomsen
who set up the ‘National Museum of Danish Antiquities’ in 1806 with the small
collection of antiquities from the University of Copenhagen. Initially classification
of the antiquities were not possible, however, Thomsen initiated it and came up
with the Three Age System which meant that the entire history of manknnd
passed through Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age, which was later confirmed
by the excavation of Pitt Rivers.

In India, there are a number of museums either at the State or at the National
levels, and today the Department of Culture under the Ministry of Human
Resources has given many of them the status of ‘National Museum’, prominent
among them being National Museum at New Delhi and Indian Museum at
Kolkata. Apart from the National Museums, there are some ‘Site Museums’ in
our Country and the one at Nagarjunakonda is famous in this regard. Japanese
Open Air Museum at its former capital in ‘Nara’ is one of the famous museums
in Asia. There are many such museums in the Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam.

3.9 RESEARCHES INTO THE HERITAGE

CULTURAL RESOURCES AT MUSEUMS
Museum exhibits are the objects of cultural resources of human past. They are
static in nature but are the suitable objects to speak the dynamic cultural evolution
of mankind in the past. As mentioned earlier in the case of ‘National Museum of
Danish Antiquities’, researches undertaken at a museum may reveal meaningful
and suitable information on certain aspects of cultural history of humankind.

3.10 SUMMARY
Studies into the Cultural Resource vis-à-vis Cultural Heritage make people aware
of their past and brings the knowledge regarding what kind of culture the people
of a region had in the past. Therefore the Government of a Country on its own
and also with the help of education-cum-research Institutes along with suitable
learned agencies always works on preservation of the archaeological sites.
Government of each and every country, including India, all over the world has
different kinds of rules and regulations in this regard and also enact State
Legislation for conservation of Cultural Resources of respective State.

38
Suggested Reading Cultural Resource

Fagan Brian M. 1991. In the Beginning. Glenview, Illinois Boston and London:
Foresman and Company.

Herskovits Melville J. 1955. Cultural Anthropology. Calcutta, Bombay and New

Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.

Knudson Ruthann. 1986. Contemporary Cultural Resource Management.

American Archaeology, Past and Future (David J. Meltzer et al edited): 395-
413. Washington DC. Smithsonian Institution Press.

Krishnaswami V. D. 1938. Prehistoric Tools Around Madras. Indian Academy

of Sciences, 3:32-35.

Medhi Dilip K. 2002. Archaeological Research in Karbi Anglong, Assam (1991-

2000): 48-65. Man and Environment in Northeast India, Vol II. New Delhi:
Omsons Publications.

Sankalia H..D. 1974. Prehistory of India and Pakistan. Poona: Deccan College
Postgraduate and Research Institute.

Tylor Edward Burnett, 1874. Primitive Culture (In 2 Volumes: 1st American and
2nd English edition). New York.

Wheeler Mortimer, 1954. (1968 Reprint) Archaeology from the Earth. London:
Cox and Wyman Ltd.

Sample Questions
1) How will you define Cultural Resource Management and its importance in
Indian Archaeology?
2) Write short answers for the following
i) What is Museum?

39