INTRODUCTION

Introduction
The topics covered in this book ranges from arithmetic and algebra to set theory, probability and permutation &
combination. This accelerator has been designed keeping in view the requirement to build concepts as well as
speed. In all the chapters, emphasis has been laid on basic concept building and faster calculation techniques,
which are the winning criteria for scoring well. Students are advised to go through the basics of a chapter before
coming in for the class of the same. Discussions in the class by the faculty will help them to clarify their doubts, if
any, about the concepts elaborated in the accelerator. Students are also advised to further practise from their home
assignment to consolidate their knowledge.
Best of luck!
The BIBS Team.

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 CONTENTS

Contents
Page No.
Number System 5

Logarithm 24

Identities & Equations 25

Sequence & Series 31

Set Theory 35

Clocks 41

Calendar 45

Geometry

Lines 47

Angles 47

Triangles 49

Polygons 57

Quadrilaterals 59

Circles 63

Mensuration

Triangles 73

Regular Polygons 75

Quadrilaterals 75

Circles 77

Solid Figures77

Summary of Formulae 84

Co-ordinate Geometry

Rectangular Axes 86

Straight Lines 89

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 Triangles 94

Parallelograms 96

Circles 96

Ellipses 96

Trigonometry 98

Permutation & Combination 101

Permutations 103

Combination105

Probability 108

Ratio & Proportion

Ratio 114

Proportion 117

Variation 117

Partnership 119

Alligation 121

Percentage 125

Profit & Loss 129

Simple Interest & Compound Interest 132

Average 136

Time & Distance 139

Time & Work 147

Stocks & Shares 151

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NUMBER SYSTEM

Number System
Introduction
NUMBERS

Real Numbers Imaginary Numbers

Irrational NumbersRational Numbers

Surds Irrational Numbers

(√2, 3√5) other than surds

(e = 2.718,
= 3.14159 … etc)
π

Integers Fractions that are

not integers

Positive integers Zero Negative integers

Real Numbers :
The set of all rational and irrational numbers forms the set of real numbers.
2 2
⮚ –3, –5, √2, √3, 0, /3, – /9, 440, etc.

Rational Numbers :
A number that can be expressed in the form of x/y where x and y are dissimilar integers and y 0, is a rational number.

Rational numbers have terminating decimal representation or non–terminating but recurring decimal expressions.

⮚ 4/10 = 0.4, 0/1 = 0 (Terminating)

1/3 = 0.333… (Recurring)

Irrational Numbers :
Numbers that cannot be expressed in the form x/y where x and y are integers and y 0, are known as irrational numbers.

⮚ √5, √7, √2, π, e

These numbers when expressed in decimal form result in an answer where digits after the decimal point are non ending and non recurring.

Integers :
{– …–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … + } These numbers form the set of integers. They are rational numbers which when reduced to the lowest form, do not

contain a fractional part.

Non–integers :
Non–integers are rational numbers which when reduced to their lowest forms, contain a certain fractional part.

⮚ 2/3, 5/3, 7/9, – 16/21, etc.

Natural Numbers :
The set of all positive integers form the set of Natural Numbers.
i.e. {1, 2, 3, ……… }

Whole Numbers :

5
The set of all natural numbers and zero (0), form the set of whole numbers.
i.e. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……….. }

Even Numbers:
All numbers that are divisible by 2 are called even numbers. The numbers would end in one of the following digits: 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8. Even numbers are denoted by the
expression 2z, where z is an integer.

Odd Numbers:
All numbers that are not divisible by 2 are called odd numbers. Odd numbers are denoted by the general expression 2z + 1.

Concept of i :
The square root of (–1) is denoted by i
i.e. i = –1
2
i = (–1)
4 2 2
i = i × i = (–1) × (–1) = 1

Imaginary Numbers :
th
If the n root of negative numbers are not real, such numbers are called imaginary numbers.

⮚ = × = x 8 = 8i

Prime Numbers :
Numbers that are only divisible by themselves and one (1) are called Prime Numbers

⮚ 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ….

Note : ‘1’ is not considered to be a prime number

Co–Prime Numbers :
Two numbers are said to be co–prime it they are mutually prime to each other, i.e. they don’t have a common factor between them except for one. The co–prime numbers
may be either prime numbers or composite numbers.

⮚ 15, 16 though not prime themselves, are mutually prime to each other. Hence they are co–prime numbers.

Note: Two prime numbers are always co–prime to each other.

Complex Numbers :
Numbers which have an imaginary part are known as complex numbers. i.e. the imaginary part is non–zero.

⮚ 2 + 3i, 4 – 5i

A real number is a special case of complex number having the imaginary part zero (0). A purely imaginary number has the real part zero (0).

Composite Numbers :
A number which is divisible by numbers other than itself and 1 are known as composite numbers, (i.e. non prime numbers greater than 1). Composite numbers can be
broken into a set of Prime Factors.

⮚ 15 = 3 × 5; 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3, etc.

VBODMAS
In resolving the value of a given expression the various operations must be performed in the given order.
1. Vinculum or Bar V
2. Removal of brackets in the order ( ), { }, [ ]. B
3. Of O
4. Division (÷) D
5. Multiplication (×) M
6. Addition (+) A

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NUMBER SYSTEM

7. Subtraction (–) S

⮚ 2 + 3 × 5 – 6 ÷ 2 – (30 + 40−30 ) = –26

Test of Divisibility :
1. By 2 – A number is divisible by 2 when its units place is 0 or divisible by 2. eg. 20, 138.

2. By 3 – A number is divisible by 3 when the sum of the digits of the given number is divisible by 3 eg. 288, 19272.
n n
Note : If n is odd, then 2 + 1 is divisible by 3 and if n is even then 2 – 1 is divisible by 3.
3 4
⮚ 2 + 1 i.e. 9 and 2 – 1 i.e. 15, both are divisible by 3.

3. By 4 – A number is divisible by 4 when the last two digits of the number are 0s or are divisible by 4. As 100 is divisible by 4, it is sufficient if the divisibility
test is restricted to the last two digits, eg. 145896, 128, 18400.

4. By 5 – A number is divisible by 5, if its units digit is 5 or 0. eg 895, 100

5. By 6 – A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by both 2 and 3. i.e. the number should be an even number and the sum of its digits should be divisible by 3.
It will be wise to test for divisibility of 2 before embarking on testing divisibility for 3.

6. By 8 – A number is divisible by 8, if the last three digits of the number are 0s or are divisible by 8. As 1000 is divisible by 8, it is sufficient if the divisibility
test is restricted to the last three digits e.g. 135128, 45000

7. By 9 – A number is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. e.g. 810, 92754

8. By 11 – A number is divisible by 11, if the difference between the sum of the digits in the odd places and in the even places of the number is either 0 or a
multiple of 11. e.g. 121, 65967. In the first case 1 + 1 – 2 = 0. In the second case 6 + 9 + 7 = 22 and 5 + 6 = 11 and the difference is 11. Therefore, both these numbers are
divisible by 11.

9. By 12 – A number is divisible by 12, if it is divisible by both 3 and by 4. i.e., the sum of the digits should be divisible by 3 and the last two digits should be
divisible by 4 e.g. 144, 8136. It will be a wise idea to test for divisibility of 4 before testing for divisibility of 3.

10. By 19 – If twice the units digit is added to the number formed by the remaining digits and if the resulting number is divisible by 19, then the given number is
divisible by 19.
For e.g. let us take the number 665. The units digit is 5 and when it is doubled, we get 10. The remaining part of the number is 66. If 10 (which is the units digit doubled)
is added to 66 we get 76. Since this result 76 is divisible by 19, the original number 665 is also divisible by 19.
Similarly, if we take 969, doubling the units digit gives 18 which when added to 96 gives a result of 114. Since 114 is divisible by 19, the number 969 is divisible by 19.
If we take a larger number, the same rule may have to be repeatedly applied till the result comes to a number which we can find out by observation if it is divisible by 19
or not. For example, take 456760, we will write down the figures in various steps as shown below.
Col (1) Col (2) Col (3) Col (3) + Col (2)
Number Twice the Remaining
units digit part of the number
456760 0 45676 45676
45676 12 4567 4579
4579 18 457 475
475 10 47 57
Since 57 is the last step is divisible by 19, the original number 456760 is divisible by 19.
Let us take another example, the number 37895. Follow the above process step by step till we reach a manageable number.
37895 Double the units digit 5 and add the 10 so obtained to 3789 we get
3799 Double the units digit 9 and add the 18 so obtained to 379 we get
397 Double the units digit 7 and add the 14 so obtained to 39 we get 53
Since 53 is not divisible by 19, 37895 is not divisible by 19.
11. By 25 – A number is divisible by 25, if the last two digits of the number are divisible by 25 or the last two digits are 0. e.g. 14500, 2358975

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12. By 75 – A number is divisible by 75, if it is both divisible by 3 and by 25. i.e. the sum of the digits should be divisible by 3 and the last two digits should be
divisible by 25. e.g. 375, 1725. Test for divisibility of 25 first before testing for divisibility of 3.

13. By 125 – A number is divisible by 125, if its last three right hand digits are divisible by 125 or the last three digits are 0s. e.g. 1254375, 12000. As 125 divides
1000, it is sufficient to test for the last three digits alone.

Common Fraction :

A common fraction is a part of unity or several equal parts of unity. The number, which indicates how many parts a unit is divided into, is called the denominator of the
fraction and the number indicating how many parts are taken is the numerator of the fraction.
4 2 1
⮚ /7, /3, /5 are examples of common fraction.

Here 4, 2, and 1 are the numerators and 7, 3 and 5 are the denominators respectively.

Proper Fraction :

A proper fraction is one in which the numerator is less than the denominator.
4 1 1 1
⮚ /7, /3, /7, /5 etc.

Improper Fraction :

A fraction in which the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator.

3 9 7
⮚ /2, /5, /3 etc.

Mixed Fraction :

Fraction consisting of whole numbers and fraction are mixed fractions.

⮚ 5½, 3¾ etc.

Terminating Decimals :
A number has terminating decimals if the number of the digits succeeding the decimal point is finite. Ex. 2.34, 5.9, 11.35 etc.

Non–terminating Recurring Decimals :

A number is called non–terminating recurring decimals if a certain number of continuous digits repeat infinitely after the decimal point. Ex. 0.333…., 0.2777….,
0.3454545….. etc.

Non–terminating Non–recurring Decimals :

A number is called non–terminating non–recurring decimals if a certain number of continuous digits neither repeat nor have a finite decimal representation. Ex.
2, 3, etc.

Relation between Fraction and Recurring Decimals :

A recurring decimal is written as in the form 0.333…….. = 0.3
Or 0.1777 ……… = 0.17
Or 0.057057057 ……… = 0.057
A decimal fraction in which all the figures after the decimal point are repeated is called a pure recurring decimal and one in which only some figures after the decimal
point are repeated is called a mixed recurring decimal.

⮚ 0.3 and 0.057 are pure recurring decimals where as 0.17 is a mixed recurring decimal.

To convert a Pure Recurring Decimal to a Fraction:

i) Write the value of the figure(s) under the bar as numerator.
ii) Write as many 9’s as there are digits under recurring as denominator.
Ex. 0.52 = 52/99 ; 0.078 = 78/999.

To convert a Mixed Recurring Decimal to a Fraction :

8
NUMBER SYSTEM

i) In the numerator, take the difference between the number formed by the digits after the decimal point and that formed by the digits that are not repeated.
ii) In the denominator, write as many 9’s as there are recurring digits followed by as many zeros as there are non–recurring digits.

⮚ 0.17 = (17–1)/90 = 16/90 = 8/45

0.1254 = (1254 –12)/9900 = 1242/9900 = 69/550

2.634 = 2 + 0.634 = 2 + (634 –63)/900 = 2+ 571/900 = 2371/900

Highest Common Factor

The Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.) or the Greatest Common Divisor (G.C.D.) or the Greatest Common Measure (G.C.M.) of two numbers is the greatest number that
divides each one of them exactly.

⮚ Find the G.C.D. of 16 & 56

Factors of 16 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
Factors of 56 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 28, 56
The common factors of 16 & 56 are 1, 2, 4, 8. The G.C.D. of 16 & 56 is 8.

Finding out the H.C.F. of two Given Numbers

Divide the larger number by the smaller one. Now, divide the divisor by the remainder. Keep dividing the earlier divisor by the remainder last obtained, till a remainder 0
is obtained. The last divisor obtained in this fashion is the H.C.F. of the two given number.

⮚ Find the H.C.F. of 3556 and 3444.

3444) 3556 (1
3444
112) 3444 (30
3360
84) 112 (1
84
28) 84 (3
84
×
Then the required H.C.F. = 28 ( i.e., the last divisor)

Finding out the H.C.F. of more than two Given Numbers

Say there are 3 numbers. Choose any two numbers and find their H.C.F. (say, x). The H.C.F. of x and the third number gives the H.C.F. of the three numbers.
If there are say 4 numbers find the HCF of any 2 numbers and HCF of the other 2. The HCF of their HCFs gives HCF of all 4 numbers and likewise.

⮚ Find the H.C.F. of 6851, 9061 & 18462

Take any two numbers say, 6851 & 9061, and find out their H.C.F.
6851 ) 9061 (1
6851
2210 ) 6851 (3
6630
221 ) 2210 (10
2210
0
Thus H.C.F. of 6851 & 9061 is 221.
Proceeding in a similar way we get the H.C.F. of 221 & 18462 as 17.
Thus the H.C.F. of all the given numbers is 17.

Lowest Common Multiple

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The least number which is exactly divisible by each of the given numbers is called their Least Common Multiple. (L.C.M.)

⮚ Find the L.C.M. of 8 & 18

Multiples of 8 are 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72…
Multiples of 18 are 18, 36, 54, 72…
Thus the L.C.M. of 8 & 18 is 72

Finding the L.C.M. of Given Numbers

L.C.M. of given numbers can be found by resolving each of them into prime factors and then taking the product of the highest powers of all the factors, that occur in
these numbers.

⮚ Find the L.C.M. of 24, 54 & 70

3
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 2 × 3
3
54 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 2 × 3
70 = 2 × 5 × 7
3 3
L.C.M. = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 7560

Faster Method
Divide the given numbers together by their prime factors, starting from the lowest, until all are reduced to 1. The LCM would be the product of all the divisors.

⮚ The L.C.M. of 24, 54 and 70 can be found out in the following way.

2 24 54 70
2 12 27 35
2 6 27 35
3 3 27 35
3 1 9 35
3 1 3 35
5 1 1 35
7 1 1 7
1 1 1
L.C.M. = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 7560

Calculating HCF and LCM of Decimals :

Before understanding the method, lets take one illustration. HCF of 10 and 25 is 5. If we multiply both the numbers by 2 then numbers become 20(10 * 2) and 50 (25 * 2)
and their HCF is 10. Please notice that 10, new HCF, is old HCF, 5 multiplied by 2(remember 2 is the number by which we multiplied 10 and 25.)
Let’s take one more illustration. LCM of 12 and 18 is 36. If we multiply both the numbers by 5, then numbers become 60 (12 * 5) and 90 (18 * 5) and their LCM is 180.
Please notice that 180, new LCM is old LCM, 36 multiplied by 5 (remember 5 is the number by which we multiplied 12 and 36.)
From these two illustrations emerges one general rule : When numbers are multiplied or divided by a number then LCM and HCF of those numbers is also multiplied
or divided by the respective number.
We can use this general rule for finding HCF and LCM of decimals.

⮚ Find the LCM and HCF 0.5, 0.2 and 0.8?

0.5, 0.2, 0.8 can be written as 5, 2, and 8 when multiplied by 10 (we multiplied by 10 because multiplying with 10 will eliminate all decimals. So we multiply by that
multiple of 10 which will eliminate all decimals). LCM and HCF of 5, 2, 8 is 40 and 1 respectively. So, LCM and HCF of 0.5, 0.5, 0.8 is 4 and 0.1 respectively.

Some Fundamental Applications :

⮚ A heap of coconuts is divided into groups of 2, 3, and 5 and each time no coconut is left over. Find the least number of

coconuts in the heap.

Sol. Let X be the number of coconuts desired. X must be a common multiple of 2, 3 and 5, otherwise some coconuts will be left over. Further, the number X
must be the least possible number. So X has to be the LCM of 2, 3, 5 which is 30. So the least number of coconuts in the heap is 30.

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NUMBER SYSTEM

Important: Remember we are not identifying the exact number. We are only calculating the minimum number. In fact, the actual number could

be 30 or 60 or 90 or …… any multiple of 30.

⮚ A rectangular piece of cloth has dimensions 16m × 6m. How many square pieces all of the same size can be cut out of it,

such that no cloth is wasted and the side of the square is the maximum possible for such cuts?

Sol. We want to find out the length of the edge of the square piece (largest) to be cut out of this in such a way that no piece of cloth is left over. In other words, we
have to find the largest number which completely divides the dimensions 16m and 6m (i.e. the HCF of 16, 6). This would give the side of the largest squares that satisfy
the given conditions.
HCF (16m, 6m) = 2m. There will be 16 ÷ 2 = 8 divisions along the length and 6 ÷ 2 = 3 divisions along the breadth. Therefore, total number of square pieces = 8 × 3 =
24.
This is also the minimum number of squares that can be cut out of this piece of cloth without wasting any part of the cloth.

Square Root and Cube Root:

Square Root
Square Root of a given number is that number, the product of which with itself is equal to the given number.
Ex. √4 = ±2, as (+2) × (+2) = 4 and (–2) × (–2) = 4

Square Root by the methods of factors

When a given number is a perfect square, resolve it into prime factors and take the product of prime factors, choosing one out of every pair.

⮚ Find the square root of 3969

Sol. : 3969 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 ∴ square root of 3969 = 3 × 3 × 7 = 63

⮚ What is the cost of erecting a fence round a square field of area 1000000 square meters at the rate of Rs. 10 per meter?

Sol. : Area of the field = 1000000 sq. m.

∴ side of the field = √1000000 = 1000 m ∴ perimeter of the field = 4 × 1000 = 4000 m
∴ cost = Rs. 10 × 4000 = Rs. 40000

⮚ Find the least number which is a perfect square and which is also divisible by 16, 18 & 45.

Sol. : L.C.M. of 16, 18 & 45 = 720

To get a perfect square we multiply 720 by 5 and we get the required number = 720 × 5 = 3600

Cube Root
Cube Root of a given number is that number whose cube is the given number.
3
⮚ = 3, as 3 × 3 × 3 (or, 3 ) = 27

Cube Root by the Method of Factors

Resolve the given number into prime factors and choose one out of every three of the same type.

⮚ Find the cube root of 343.

Sol. : 343 = 7 × 7 × 7. ∴ Cube root of 343 = 7

Some Facts About Prime Numbers :

1. 1 is not a Prime Number.

2. There are 25 Prime Numbers from 1 – 100.

3. Any prime no. greater than 3 is of the form 6n+1 or 6n–1,n Є N

Finding Prime Numbers larger than 100 :

Test: Let p be a given number. Find a whole number nearly greater than the square root of p.
Let k > p

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Test whether p is divisible by any prime number less than k. If yes, then p is not prime. Otherwise, p is prime.

⮚ Which of the following are prime numbers?

(i) 191 (ii) 241 (iii) 337 (iv) 391

(i) Clearly, 14 > 191.

Prime numbers less than 14 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13.

191 is not divisible by any of them. So, 191 is a prime number.
(ii)Clearly, 16 > 241

Prime numbers less than 16 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13.

241 is not divisible by any of them.
241 is a prime number.
(iii)Clearly, 19 > 337

Prime numbers less than 19 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 and 17.

(iv)Clearly, 20 > 391

Prime numbers less than 20 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,13, 17 and 19.

⮚ If a number is divisible by both 4 and 6, is it always divisible by 24?

No, since 4 and 6 are not co–prime.

36 is divisible by 6 as well as 4 but it is not divisible by 24.

⮚ Without actual division show that 52563744 is divisible by 24.

24 = 3 * 8, where 3 and 8 are co–prime.

The sum of the digits in given number is 36, which is divisible by 3.
So, the given number is divisible by 3.
The number formed by the last 3–digits of the given number is 744, which is divisible by 8.
So, the given number is divisible by 8.
Thus, the given number is divisible by both 3 and 8, where 3 and 8 are co–prime.
So, it is divisible by 3 * 8 i.e. 24.

POLYNOMIALS :
Any expression of a variable can have terms, which are associated with different powers of that variable. Such expressions are described as polynomials. For example, a
polynomial expression in x would be
n n–1 n–2
P(x) = ax + bx + cx + … where a, b and c are constants. Functions with polynomial expressions are called polynomial functions. These could be in either a single
variable or in multiple variables.
Binominal (Bi = 2) 🡪 a1x + a2 (e.g. 6x + 9)
2 2
Trinominal (Tri = 3) 🡪 a1x + a2x + a3 (e.g. 9x + 7x + 2)

Last Digits of Powers of 2, 3, 4, ……

n
Last digits of 2
🞐
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 = 2, 2 = 4, 2 = 8, 2 = 16, 2 = 32, 2 = 64, 2 = 128, 2 = 256, 2 = 512, …….
Note that the successive powers of 2 end in 2, 4, 8 and 6 and this pattern gets repeated after every fourth power.
103 103 3
Thus, in 2 , since 103 = 25 × 4 + 3, last digit of 2 is the same as the last digit of 2 , i.e. 8.
In a similar fashion, we can find out the last digits of all powers of integers. These results are given below :
x
NUMBER (N) Last digit of N , where Sequence repeated after
X = 1, 2, 3, 4, ……
2 2, 4, 8, 6, …… every 4 powers

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NUMBER SYSTEM

3 3, 9, 7, 1, …… every 4 powers
4 4, 6, 4, 6, …… every 2 powers
5 5, 5, 5, ……… every power
6 6, 6, 6, ……… every power
7 7, 9, 3, 1, …… every 4 powers
8 8, 4, 2, 6, …… every 4 powers
9 9, 1, 9, 1, …… every 2 powers
13
⮚ Find the last digit of (438)

13 4×3+1
Sol. : Last digit of 8 = last digit of 8 =8
13
Last digit of (438) =8
18
⮚ Find the last digit of (36)

18
Sol. : Since any number which ends in 6 will have respectively 6 as the last digit for all its powers, the last digit of (36 ) is 6.

Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial expression of x (say P(x)) is divided by (x – a), until the remainder does not contain x, then the remainder is the same as the original expression with “a”
being substituted for x i.e. P(a).
Thus if f(x) is divided by (x – a), the remainder is f(a).
27
⮚ Remainder when 5 is divided by 124

3 27 39
Sol. 124 = 5 –1 and 5 = (5 )
n 27 3
Since x – 1 is divisible by (x – 1) 5 – 1 is divisible by (5 – 1)
27
When 5 is divisible by 124, the remainder is 1.

Polynomial Factors
If a polynomial P(x) is exactly divisible by (x – a), then P(a) would be zero (i.e. the remainder should be zero). Conversely, in case P(a) is zero, then (x – a) would be a
factor of P(x).
3 2 3 2
⮚ If P(x) = 8x – 10x – 5x – 14, then P(2) becomes 8.(2 ) – 10.(2 ) – 5.(2) – 14 = 64 – 40 – 10 – 14 = 0 which implies that (x – 2) is a factor of P(x).

2
⮚ ax + bx + 12 is divisible by (x – 4) (x – 3), find a, b.

2
Sol. f(x) = ax + bx + 12
As it is divisible by (x – 4)
f(4) = 0 16a + 4b + 12 = 0 – (i) Similarly, f(3) = 0

9a + 3b + 12 = 0 – (ii) Solving (I) & (ii), a = 1, b = –7

Method to find the number of times a particular number divides the factorial of another number.
Case 1 : If number is Prime
To find how many times 5 divides in 102!.
5 | 10 2
5 | 2 0
5 | 4
0 20 + 4 => 24 times
To find how many times 7 divides 716!
7 | 71 6
7 | 10 2
7 | 1 4
7 | 2

13
 0 (102 + 14 + 2) => 118 times

Case 2 : When the number (divisor) can be expressed as the power of a prime.
2 4
⮚ 9=3 ; 16 = 2

2
To find the number of times, 9 divides 126! 9=3
3 | 12 6
3 | 4 2
3 | 1 4
3 | 4
3 | 1
0 (i.e. divide the sum by power of the prime number)
Hence 9 divides 126! 30 times.
4
To find how many times 16 divides 126. 16 = 2
2 | 12 6
2 | 6 3
2 | 3 1
2 | 1 5
2 | 7
2 | 3
2 | 1
0
b d
Case 3 : When numbers (divisor) can be expressed in the form a × c where a & c are prime numbers.
3 2
⮚ To find the number of times 72 divides 648! 72 = 2 x3

2 | 64 8
2 | 32 4
2 | 16 2
2 | 8 1
2 | 4 0
2 | 2 0
2 | 1 0
2 | 5
2 | 2
2 | 1
0
3 | 64 8
3 | 21 6
3 | 7 2
3 | 2 4
3 | 8
3 | 2
0

Since 161 < 215 Ans. :– 161

b d f
One can generalize this method for numbers in the form a × c × e … where a, c, e … are prime in the same manner.

Factors of a Natural Number

a bc
1. Let N = p q r …… when p, q, r are prime and let n be the number of divisors, and s be the sum of divisors of N including 1 and N. Then

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NUMBER SYSTEM

n = (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)………

( )(
pa+1 −1 q b+1 −1 r c+1 −1
)( )
s= ………

p−1 q−1 r−1

Note : The product in R.H.S. above are of finite number of terms as prime factorization of N will involve only finite number of prime powers.
2. The number of ways in which N can be expressed as the product of two factors, including N and 1 is ½ (n + 1) or ½ n accordingly as n is odd or even
m–1
1. The number of ways in which N can be expressed as a product of two co–prime is 2 where m is the number of different prime factors of N.
2 3
⮚ N = 540 = 2 ×3 ×5

Here, n = (2 + 1)(3 + 1)(1 + 1) = 24

m–1
s= 23−1 34 −1 52 −1 = 1680 m=3 2 =4
. .
2−1 3−1 5−1
Base System
The number system that we work in is called the “Decimal System”. This is because there are 10 digits in the system 0 – 9. There can be alternative systems that can be
used for arithmetic operations. Some of the most commonly used systems are: Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal.
These systems find applications in computing.
Binary system has 2 digits : 0, 1; Octal has 8 digits 0, 1, 2, ……., 7
Hexadecimal has 16 digits : 0, 1, 2, ……….., 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Note: After 9 we use alphabets to indicate digits. For instance A has a value 10, B has a value 11, C has a value 12 ……. so on.
In this section, we will broadly look at conversions of numbers from
a) (Base 10) {Decimal system} to some other Base System.
b) Some other Base System to Decimal System (Base 10).

Conversion of Numbers to Different Bases

The table below shows numbers in different bases.

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

2 10 2 2

3 11 3 3

4 100 4 4

5 101 5 5

6 110 6 6

7 111 7 7

8 1000 10 8

9 1001 11 9

10 1010 12 A

11 1011 13 B

12 1100 14 C

13 1101 15 D

14 1110 16 E

15 1111 17 F
n–1 n–2 n–n
Any number, say ‘N’, can be expressed to the base ‘r’ in the form (N)r = a1r + a2r + .. anr

15
 st nd rd
where a1, a2, a3, ……… are the digits at 1 , 2 , 3 …….. place; ‘n’ is the number of digits.
Note: a1, a2, a3, ………… is less than ‘r’. We are restricted to vary whole numbers less than ‘r’, i.e. from 0 to (r – 1).

⮚ To convert 1000 written in binary notation to its decimal equivalent.

3 2 1 0
(1000)2 = 1 × 2 +0×2 +0×2 +0×2 =8

A number, given in any base, can be converted to its decimal equivalent using the above notations. The base ‘r’ in the above expression being replaced by the base in
which the number is given.

⮚ (132)8 is a number given in Octal notation, where the base is 8. To convert it to the decimal notation, we perform the

following operation.
2 1 0
1 x 8 + 3 x 8 + 2 x 8 = 64 + 24 + 2 = 90.
90 is the decimal equivalent of (132)8.
1 0
Similarly, (22)3 = 2 x 3 + 2 x 3 = (8)10

To convert a Number from Decimal to any other Notation.

Methods of converting a decimal number to any base is by division and taking the remainders in the manner as shown.

⮚ Let 1456 be a decimal number that is to be converted to the base 8.

Step 1 Perform repeated division with the base in which the number is to be converted, until you get 0 as the quotient. Place the quotient directly below it and the
remainder to the right of the quotient.

8 | 14 5 6
8 | 1 8 2 0
8 | 2 2 6
8 | 2 6
0 2
Step 2 The required number is from the bottom to the top of the remainder list.
Hence (2660)8 is the required number in the octal notation.

⮚ (1456)10 to base 6

6 | 14 5 6
6 | 2 4 2 4
6 | 40 2
6 | 6 4
6 | 1 0
0 1
Hence (10424)6 is the required number.
In Hexadecimal (i.e. base 16), 10 is represented by A, 11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D, 14 as E, 15 as F

⮚ Convert (186)10 to Hexadecimal base.

16 | 18 6
16 | 1 1 10 A
0 11 B
The hexadecimal equivalent of (186)10 is (BA)16

⮚ Convert 1224 to pental equivalent

st
Sol. : 1 converting to decimal
2 1 0
(122)4 = 1 × 4 + 2 × 4 + 2 × 4 = 16 + 8 + 2 = 26
So, (26)10 is converted then to pental as

16
NUMBER SYSTEM

5 | 26
5 | 5 1
5 | 1 0
0 1
Hence, 1015 is the required number

Some Important Facts ! ! ! !

The sum (or difference) of a rational and irrational number is irrational.
●
e.g. (2 + √3), (3 – √5), (5/2 – √2), (–1 + √7) etc. are irrational numbers.

The product of a rational and irrational number is irrational, e.g. 2√3, –3√5 are all irrational.
●
When any number with even number of digits is added to its reverse, the sum is always divisible by 11.
●
⮚ 2341 + 1432 = 3773 which is divisible by 11.

When any number with odd number of digits is subtracted from its reverse, the absolute difference is always divisible by 11.
●
⮚ 23411 – 11432 = 11979 which is divisible by 11.

1. Product of two given numbers is equal to the product of their H.C.F. & L.C.M.

2. H.C.F. of fractions = H.C.F. of numerators/L.C.M. of denominators.

3. L.C.M. of fractions = L.C.M. of numerators/H.C.F. of denominators.

4. If a, b, c are three numbers that divide a number n to leave the same remainder r, then the smallest value of

n = (L.C.M of a, b, c) + r

5. If a, b, c are three numbers that divide a number n to leave different remainders p, q, r respectively such that (a – p) = (b – q) = (c – r) = d, then the

smallest value of

n = (L.C.M. of a, b, c) – d

6. To find the greatest number that will exactly divide x, y and z = H.C.F. of x, y and z.

7. To find the greatest number that will exactly divide x, y and z leaving remainders a, b and c respectively = H.C.F. of (x – a), (y – b) and (z – c).

8. To find the least number which is exactly divisible by x, y and z = L.C.M. of x, y and z.

9. To find the greatest number that will divide x, y and z leaving the same remainder in each case = H.C.F. of (x – y), (y – z) and (z – x).

10. LCM is always greater than or equal to the greatest of the given nos.

If the sum of two positive quantities is given, their product is greatest when they are equal.
●
Ex-1. Given X + Y = 30 ⇒ Possible (X, Y) are (1, 29), (2, 28), (3, 27) ….. and so no. Out of all these, the pair that gives the maximum product will be (15, 15).

If the product of two positive quantities is given, their sum is least when they are equal.
●
Ex-2. Given XY = 100 ⇒ Possible (X, Y) are (1, 100), (2, 50), (4, 25) …. And so on. Out of all these, the pair that gives the minimum sum will be (10, 10).

The sum of a number and its reciprocal is always greater than or equal to 2
●
i.e., (a/b + b/a) ≥ 2, (a/b + b/c + c/d + d/a) ≥ 4, [(X) + (1/X)] ≥2.

⇒ A square of a natural number cannot end with 2, 3, 7, 8 and an odd number of zeroes.

⇒ The square of an odd number is odd and that of an even number is even.

⇒ Every square number is a multiple of 3 or exceeds a multiple of 3 by unity.

⇒ Every square number is a multiple of 4 or exceeds a multiple of 4 by unity.

17
⇒ If a square number ends in 9, the preceding digit is even.

1. A number is a perfect square when all its prime factors have even powers.

⮚ Consider the numbers 78400 and 18900.

6 2 2
78400 = 2 × 5 × 7 . As the powers of 2, 5 and 7 are all even, 78400 is a perfect square.
3
= 2 × 5 × 7 = 280

2 3 2
18900 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7. As the powers of 3 and 7 are odd, 18900 is not a perfect square.

2. A number is a perfect cube when all its prime factors have powers that are multiples of

⮚ Consider the number 8000.

6 3 2
8000 = 2 × 5 . 8000 is a perfect cube as its prime factors, 2 and 5, have powers that are multiples of 3. = 2 × 5 = 20.

3. Considering the above rules, a number could be made a perfect square or a perfect cube by multiplying it with such a number so as to make the powers

of their prime factors even or multiples of 3, respectively.

⮚ By what number should 21600 be multiplied to make it

(i) A perfect square; (ii) A perfect cube.

5 3 2
21600 = 2 × 3 × 5

(i) To make it a perfect square, we need to multiply it with ‘2’ and ‘3’. This would make the powers of all the prime factors even.
6 4 2
∴ 21600 × 2 × 3 (or, 2 × 3 × 5 ) is a perfect square.

(ii) To make it a perfect cube, we need to multiply it with ‘2’ and ‘5’.
6 3 3
∴ 21600 × 2 × 5 (or, 2 × 3 × 5 ) is a perfect cube.

A number is divisible by ab only when that number is divisible by each one of a and b, where a and b are co–prime.
●
Important formulae :
2 2 2 2
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b = (a – b) + 4ab

2 2 2 2
(a – b) = a – 2ab + b = (a + b) – 4ab

3 3 2 2
a –b = (a – b) (a + ab + b )

3 3 2 2
a +b = (a + b) (a – ab + b )

3 3 3
(a + b) = a + b + 3ab (a + b)

3 3 3
(a – b) = a – b – 3ab (a – b)

Important divisibility rules for Polynomials :

n
1. x – 1 is always divisible by (x – 1)
n 2 n–1
since (x – 1) = (x – 1) (1 + x + x + ………. x )
2
⮚ 3 – 1 is divisible by 3 – 1 i.e. 8 is divisible by 2.

n n
2. Also x – a is divisible by x – a
3 3
⮚ 4 – 2 is divisible by 4 – 2, i.e. 56 is divisible by 2

n n
3. x – a is divisible by x + a, when n is even
2 2
⮚ 3 – 2 is divisible by 3 + 2 i.e. 5 is divisible by 5

x
4. n – n is divisible by x, when x is a prime number
7
⮚ 9 – 9 is divisible by 7.

Any number which ends in 0, 5, or 6 will have respectively 0, 5, 6 as the last digits for all its powers.

Divisibility Conditions

Based on the above results, some general divisibility conditions can be arrived at. These are:

1. n n
x + y is exactly divisible by x+y only when n is odd.

18
NUMBER SYSTEM

2. n n
x + y is never exactly divisible by x+y when n is even.

3. n n
x – y is exactly divisible by x+y only when n is even.

4. n n
x – y is always exactly divisible by x–y.

19
Logarithm
Logarithm and its Properties
x
logab = x a = b (a is known as the base of the logarithm)
●
Logarithm of a number is only defined for positive numbers. It is not defined for zero or negative numbers.
●
log a b is real if b > 0, a > 0, a 1
●
loga1 = 0
●
logaa = 1
●
loga(m×n) = logam + logan
●
loga = logam – logan
●

loga = –logam
●

n
logam = nlogam
●
= logam
●

logab =
●

logab × logbc = logac

●
logab =
●

=x
●
Equality and Inequality in Logarithm

logax = logay x = y

logax > loga y x > y when a > 1

x < y when 0 < a < 1

Number of Digits

20
NUMBER SYSTEM

If the characteristic ‘a’ of log x is positive then x is a number whose integral part is of a+1 digits.
●

If the characteristic a of logx10 is negative, say –b, then x is a proper fraction, in the decimal form of which there will be b–1 zeros immediately after the decimal point
before a significant digit appears.

21
Identities & Equations
Types of Terms
On the basis of the number of terms, algebraic expressions are classified as follows :

Monomial
3 4 2 2
A monomial is an algebraic expression consisting of only one term. Thus 7x y , 3xyz , 4x y are all monomials. Hence, monomials are sometimes simply called terms.

Binomial
A binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of two terms.
4 3
Thus 2x + 4y, 3x – 4xyz are examples of binomials.

Trinomial
A trinomial is an algebraic expression consisting of three terms.
2 3 2
For example, (5x – 3x + y), 3x – 5x + 2 etc.

Multinomial
A multinomial is an algebraic expression consisting of more than one term.
3 2 2 3
Thus 7x + 6y, 3x + 6x y – 7xy + 6, 7x + 5x /y – 3x /16 are all multinomials
A polynomial is an expression of variables that can only have rational coefficients.

Identities
An Identity is a statement of two expressions that are equal for all values of the variables involved. Each of the two expressions constituting an identity is called a side or
a member of the identity.
Thus, 5x = 2x + 3x is an identity, since the expression 5x and 2x + 3x are equal for all values for ‘x’.
In MAT, there are questions based on the application of certain identities and the related rules. These identities with examples are discussed here.
2 2 2 ●
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b
●

2 2 2 ●
(a – b) =a – 2ab + b
●

2
⮚ Find the value of (781)

2 2 2 2
Sol. : (781) = (800 – 19) = (800) – 2 × 800 × 19 + 19 = 640000 – 30400 + 361 = 609600 + 361 = 609961
2 2
⮚ If a + b = √7 and a – b = √3, find 8ab(a +b )

2 2
Sol. : 4ab = (a + b) – (a – b) = 7 – 3 = 4 ab = 1
2 2 2 2 2
Also a + b = (a + b) – 2ab = 7 – 2 × 1 = 5 ∴ 8ab(a + b ) = 40
3 3 2 2 3 3 3
(a + b) =a + 3a b + 3ab +b =a +b + 3ab(a + b)
●
3 3
⮚ Simplify (7.846) + 60(7.846)(1.077) + (2.154)

3 3
Sol. : Given expression = (7.846) + 3(10)(7.846)(2.154) + (2.154)
3 3
= a + 3(a + b)ab + b [where a = 7.846, b = 2.154]

22
 IDENTITIES & EQUATIONS

3 3
= (a + b) = 10 = 1000

3 3 2 2 3 3 3
(a – b) =a – 3a b + 3ab – b = a – b – 3ab(a – b)
●
3 3
⮚ Simplify: (31.43) – 5(62.86)(64.29) – (21.43)

3 3
Sol. : The given expression = (31.43) – 3(31.43)(21.43)(10) – (21.43)
3 3
= a – 3ab(a – b) – b [where a = 31.43, b = 21.43]
3 3
= (a – b) = 10 = 1000

3 3 3 2 2 2
a +b +c – 3abc = (a + b + c)(a +b +c – ab – bc – ca)
●
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c – ab – bc – ca = ½ [(a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) ]
●
2 2 2 2 2 2
⮚ If a +b +c – ab – bc – ca = 8, what is the value of (a – b) +(b – c) +(c – a) ?

2 2 2 2 2 2
Sol. : We know, a + b + c – ab – bc – ca = ½ [(a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) ]
2 2 2 2 2 2
=> (a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) = 2(a + b + c – ab – bc – ca) = 2 × 8 = 16

2 2
(a + b)(a – b) = a –b
●

⮚ Find out: 149 × 151

Sol. : 149 can be written as (150 – 1)

151 can be written as (150 + 1) (150 – 1)(150 + 1) [using the identity]
2 2
= 150 – 1 = 22500 – 1 = 22499

2 2 2 2
(a + b + c) =a +b +c + 2(ab + bc + ca)
●

2 2 2
⮚ If a + b + c = 10, ab + bc + ca = 30, what is the value of a +b +c ?

2 2 2 2 2
Sol. : (a + b + c) = 10 => a + b + c + 2(ab + bc + ca) = 100
2 2 2 2 2 2
∴ a + b + c + 2 × 30 = 100 or, a + b + c = 100 – 60 = 40
2 2 2 2 2
(a + b + c + d) =a +b +c +d + 2a(b + c + d) + 2b(c + d) + 2cd
●
3 2
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) = x + (a + b + c)x + (ab + bc +ca)x + abc
●
4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2
a + a b + b = (a + ab + b )(a – ab + b )
●

Conditional Identities
3 3 3
If a +b +c = 3abc, then either a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c
●
3 3 3
⮚ If (x – 4) + (x – 9) + (x – 8) = 3(x – 4)(x – 9)(x – 8), what is the value of x?

3 3 3
Sol. : If x – 4 = a, x – 9 = b, x – 8 = c, then the given equation becomes a + b + c = 3abc
Now a = b = c is not possible, so a + b + c = 0..

∴x–4+x–9+x–8=0 or, 3x = 21 or, x = 7

23
 2 2 2
If a + b + c = ab + bc + ca, then a = b = c,
●
3 3 3 3 3 3
and a +b +c = 3abc = 3a = 3b = 3c

3 3 3
If a + b + c = 0, then a +b +c = 3abc
●

3 3 3
⮚ If a = 0.371, b = 0.065 and c = – 0.436, find the value of a +b –c + 3abc

Sol. : a + b +(–c) = 0.371 + 0.065 – 0.436 = 0

3 3 3 3 3 3
∴ a + b + (–c) – 3ab(–c) = 0 i.e. a + b – c + 3abc = 0
5 5 3 5 5 3 5 5 3
⮚ The expression (a – b ) + (b – c ) + (c – a ) is equal to which of the following

15 15 15
a) (a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) b) 0
5 5 5 5 5 5
c) 3(a – b )(b – c )(c – a ) d) None of these
5 5 5 5 5 5
Sol. : Here A + B + C = 0 where A = a – b , B = b – c , C = c – a
Hence given expression = 3ABC i.e. (c) is correct answer.

Linear Equations
Linear equations are equations in which the highest index of the unknown quantities, or variables, is 1.
Consider the equation 3x + 5y = 9. Here, x and y are the variables. Index of both x and y is 1.
In CAT, problems on linear equations are application-based. Very rarely are the problems direct. They are usually on simultaneous linear equations.
Problems can be solved by working out the two equations extensively but they can be solved faster by applying The Cross Multiplication Method.

Simultaneous Linear Equations (in two variables)

The two equations represent two straight lines and the solution represents their point of intersection.
Ex. a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 ……………… Equation (1)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 ……………… Equation (2)
here, a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are the constants and x, y are the variables.

Quadratic Equations
Function
Any expression which involves x, and whose value is dependent on that of x, is called a function of x. Functions of x are usually denoted by symbols of the form f (x),
F(x), g(x), h(x), φ(x), θ(x), etc.
The equation y = f (x) may be considered as equivalent to a statement implying that any change made in the value of x will produce a consequent change in y, and vice
versa. The quantities x and y are called variables. x is called the independent variable while y is called the dependent variable. An independent variable is a
quantity, which may have any value we choose to assign to it, and the corresponding dependent variable has its value determined as soon as the value of the
independent variable is known.
A function is called linear when it contains no power higher than 1, for the variable; thus, ax + b is a linear function of x. A function is said to be quadratic when it
2
contains no power higher than 2, for the variable; thus ax + bx + c is a quadratic function in one variable i.e. of x.

Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factorization

A quadratic equation can be solved quickly if it can be written in the form of a product of two linear equations.
2
⮚ Solve: x – 5x + 6 = 0

2
Sol. The given equation can be written as x – 3x – 2x + 6 = 0 which can be grouped and simplified to
x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3) = 0 or (x – 3)(x – 2) = 0.
This is the product of two linear equations (x – 2) = 0 and (x – 3) = 0
The given equation (x – 3)(x – 2) = 0 can be satisfied if either of the terms in the brackets is zero, which implies that x = 2 or x = 3. Thus, 2 and 3 form the solutions of
2
the quadratic equation x – 5x + 6 = 0
This process of splitting a larger equation as a product of smaller equations is termed as factorization or middle term breaking.

24
 IDENTITIES & EQUATIONS

Since a quadratic equation can be written as a product of two linear factors as already described earlier, solving it using factorization is a quick way of arriving at the
solution. Each quadratic equation can be written in the form
(x – R1)(x – R2) = 0 where (x – R1) and (x – R2) are the linear factors and R1, R2 are the roots of the quadratic equation.

Roots of a Quadratic Equation

2 2
After suitable reduction, every quadratic equation can be written in the form: ax + bx + c = 0 and the solution of the equation is: α = –b + (b – 4ac) and β =
2–b – (b
– 4ac), where and are the roots of the equation. 2a 2a
α β

A quadratic equation cannot have more than two roots (or solutions).
2
⮚ Find the roots of the equation x +x–6=0

Sol. Roots =

st nd
1 root = 2 root =

Discriminant
2
The value given by b – 4ac (the quantity under the square root) is called the discriminant and depending upon its value we can determine the nature of the roots of the
quadratic equations.
The relationship between the discriminant and the roots is given below:
2 2 2 2
Also, if ax + bx + c > 0 then, b – 4ac < 0 & a > 0 and if ax + bx + c < 0 then, b – 4ac < 0 & a < 0

⮚ What is the nature of the roots of the following equations?

2
(i) 2x – 6x + 3 = 0
2
(ii) x + 4x + 4 = 0
2
(iii) 3x – 2x + 1 = 0
2
(iv) x +x–2=0

2
Sol. (i) b – 4ac > 0 real & unequal roots.
2
(ii) b = 4ac real and equal roots.
2
(iii) b – 4ac < 0 complex and unequal roots.
2
(iv) b – 4ac is a perfect square rational and unequal roots. (If a,b,c are rational)

Sum and Product of the Roots

2
If the roots of the quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0 are α and β, then we have

α+β=

αβ = =

2
⮚ Find the sum and product of the roots of the equation 2x – 8x + 6 = 0

2 2
Sol. Comparing 2x – 8x + 6 = 0 with ax + bx + c = 0, we have

25
 a = 2, b = –8, c = 6 + = –b/a = –(–8)/2 = 8/2 = 4 = c/a = 6/2 = 3

Formation of Equation from the Roots

Suppose we have to form the equation whose roots are α and β.
x = α and x = β since they are the roots of the equation, so (x – α) = 0 and (x – β) = 0
(x – )(x – ) = 0
2 2
x – (α + β)x + αβ = 0 i.e. x – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0.

⮚ Form an equation whose roots are 4 + √2 and 4 – √2

2
Sol. Any quadratic equation is of the form : x – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
Sum of roots = 4 + √2 + 4 – √2 = 8 Product of roots = (4 + √2)(4 – √2) = 16 – 2 = 14
2
The required equation is x – 8x + 14 = 0

Some Important Facts

Most of the times, problems on algebra are simpler to solve by plugging in the options and checking or by assigning arbitrary values to the

variables in accordance with the conditions stated in the problem.

⮚ x, y, z are distinct and real,

then, ?

a) 1 b) –1 c) 0 d) –3

Sol.: The given expression will hold good for all distinct and real values of x, y and z. We can put in the values of x, y and z as 1, 2 and 3 respectively and find out the
value of the expression.
That will be the value of the expression for all values of x, y, z.
The answer is –3 in this case.
Note:This method might not work if there is an option like “None of these” or “Can’t be determined”.

Nature of Discriminant Nature of Roots

positive discriminant
2 α & β are real and unequal roots
b – 4ac > 0

zero discriminant
2 α = β & they are real
b – 4ac = 0

negative discriminant
2 α & β are complex and unequal
b – 4ac < 0

perfect square discriminant rational and unequal roots

26
Sequence & Series
A succession of numbers a1, a2, …., an formed according to some definite rule is called a sequence or progression.

Arithmetic Progression :
A succession of numbers is said to be in arithmetic progression (A.P.) if the difference between any two consecutive terms is always constant.

⮚ a, a + d, a + 2d (where first term is a & common difference is d)

3, 5, 7, 9 :– these are separated by a common difference 2 with the first term 3. –6, –13, –20 :– this is an AP series with first term –6 and the common difference of –7.

Important Formulae :
th
► To find the n term : (tn) in an A.P.
tn = a + (n – 1)d
st
► To find the sum of 1 n terms of an A.P.

Sn =
Where a – first term of the AP
d – common difference
th
tn – the n term
 – the last term of the series
► Common Difference (d) = tn – tn–1
rd
⮚ Find the 103 term and the sum of first 50 numbers of the following A.P. 6, 15, 24…

st
Sol. : Here 1 term is 6 d = Tn – Tn–1 d = 15 – 6 = 9
rd
For 103 term n = 103 Tn = a + (n – 1 )dT 103 = 6 + (103 – 1)9 = 6 + 102 × 9 = 924
n 50
Sn = /2 (2a + (n –1)d) S n = /2(2 × 6 +(50 –1)9) = 25 × (12 + 49 × 9) = 11325

⮚ How many terms of the arithmetic sequence 24, 22, 20…….should be taken so that they add up to 150? Write the terms.

Sol. : 150=

300 = n(50–2n) n 2 –25n + 150 = 0, (n–10) (n–15) = 0 n= 10 or 15

for n = 10 : Ans. 24, 22, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 6.
For n = 15 : Ans. 24, 22, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, –2, –4.

Geometric Progression :
A progression, in which every term bears a constant ratio with its preceding term, is called a geometrical progression.
The constant ratio is called the common ratio in G.P.

⮚ 2, 6, 18, 54;

Here, First term (a) = 2 Common ratio (r) = 3

2 2 2
⮚ 2, /3, /9, /27, …

Here, First term (a) = 2 Common ratio (r) = 1

3
Important Formulae :
n–1
► tn = a.r
► Common Ratio (r) =
► If (r > 1) Sn = a .

27
► If r < 1, Sn = a. 1−r n ;
1−r
► If r < 1 and n tends to (i.e. for an infinite series) Sn =
∞
th
⮚ 2, 6, 18, 54, Find the 6 term of the G.P.

Sol. : Here the first term is 2

6
Common Ratio is /2 = 3 [ C.R. = ]
th n–1
6 term is given by ar here a = 2, r = 3, n = 6
th 6–1 5
6 term is 2 x 3 = 2 × 3 = 486
1
⮚ Find the sum of the G.P. 2, 1, ½, ¼, /8 ……..

Sol. : Here the first term is 2

The common ratio is ½
Now ½ is less than 1
S n is given by

Hence the sum is 4.

SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS

1. If a1, a2 a3….is a G.P., then log a1, log a2, log a3, ….is an A.P. In this case the converse also holds good.
For e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16…..are in G.P. the log 2, log4, log 8….will be always in A.P.
2 3
Since log 2, log 4, log 8……can be written as log 2, log 2 , log 2 ……or log 2, 2 log 3, 3 log 2… so it is an A. P. with a common difference of log 2.
2. If ‘x’ number of geometric means are to be inserted between two numbers, say ‘a’ and ‘b’
then a, m1, m2, …… mx, b are in geometric progression with ‘a’ being the first term and ‘b’ being the last term.
The means could be found out by the formula.
M1 = (‘x’ is the total no. of means) M2 = Mx =

⮚ Find 3 geometric means between 1 and 16.

Sol. If the 3 means are M1, M2 and M3, then 1, M1, M2, M3, 16 would be in geometric progression.
1/4
M1 = ; a = 1; b = 16; x = 3 = = (16) =2

1/2 3
M2 = = (16) =4 M3 = = (2) = 8

The means are 2, 4 and 8.

3. When Geometric Mean, say ‘G’ , and Arithmetic Mean, say ‘A’, of 2 numbers are given, the numbers can be found out by the formula. A ±

⮚ If geometric mean between two numbers is 9 and their arithmetic mean is 15, find the numbers.

Sol. Let the numbers be a and b. Given that geometric mean G = 9

Arithmetic mean A = 15 Using the formula, the required numbers (a, b)
=A± = 15 ± = 15 ± 12 = 27 and 3.

28
4. When the sum of an infinite G.P., say S , and the common ratio, say r, is given; sum of the G.P. upto ‘n’ terms can be found out by the formula :
n
Sn = S × (1 – r )

⮚ The sum of an infinite G.P. is 9 and the common ratio is 2/3. Find the sum to 8 terms.

Sol. Using the relation –

n
Sn = S × (1 – r ) where n = 8, r = 2/3, S = 9, Sn = S8 = ?

Putting the given values in the above relation,

Hence, the sum upto 8 terms is

Some Important Facts

⮚ If the A.P. is 6, 8, 10, 12, ….. 24

n
Sn can be found by /2[a + ],  being the last term.
Where a is 6 &  is 24
d = Tn – Tn–1

d=8–6=2

n can be found by

Tn = a + (n – 1)d

24 = 6 + (n – 1)2

or, 18 = 2(n – 1) or, n – 1 = 9

or, n = 10
n 10
∴ Sn = /2[a + ] = /2[6 + 24] = 150

⮚ Sum of first ‘n’ natural numbers:

1, 2, 3, 4, .......................................... n = n (n+1)/2

⮚ Sum of first ‘n’ odd numbers:

2
1, 3, 5, 7,................... = n

⮚ Sum of the first ‘n’ even numbers:

2, 4, 6, …… = n (n+1)

⮚ Sum of the squares of first ‘n’ natural numbers:

2 2 2 2
1 , 2 , 3 …… n = n ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1 ) / 6

⮚ Sum of the cubes of first ‘n’ natural numbers:

3 3 3 3 2
1 , 2 , 3 ….. n = {n (n + 1 ) / 2 }

29
Set Theory
Definition :
A Set is a collection or aggregate of well-defined things.
Example: A set of even numbers. The objects of a Set are called its elements or members.
If x is a member of the set A, then we write x A (x belongs to A)

Notations
Tabular Form [Roster Notation]
In this form, we enumerate or list all the elements.
Ex.
i) W (the set of whole numbers) = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
ii) Z (the set of integers) = {….. –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ……}
iii) N (the set of natural numbers) = {1, 2, 3, 4, ……}

Rule Method [Set builder Notation]

In this form, we specify the ‘Defining Property’ i.e.
A = {x : x has property p}
‘A’ is the set of elements ‘x’, where ‘x’ has the property p.
Ex.
i) W = {x : x is a whole number}
ii) Z = {x : x is an integer}
iii) N = {x : x is a natural number}

Different kinds of Sets

Universal Set
All sets under investigation in any application of set theory are assumed to be contained in some large fixed set called the universal set or universe. For example, in plane
geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane, and in human population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world. We will denote
the universal set by U, unless otherwise specified.

Empty Set (Null Set)

An empty set represented by φ or { } , is a set that contains no element.

Note : { } or φ is not the same as { 0 } as the latter contains a single element ‘0’.

⮚ The set of all odd numbers divisible by 2 is an empty set.

Finite Set
A set that contains finite number of elements is called a finite set.

⮚ A = {1, 2, 3, …….. 20 } is a set of first 20 positive integers.

Infinite Set
A set, which has an infinite number of elements, is an infinite set.

⮚ A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……….} is a set of all positive integers.

Disjoint Set
Two sets are disjoint sets if they have no elements in common.

⮚ A = { 1, 2, 3 } and B = { 4, 5, 6} are two disjoint sets.

Equal Sets

30
Two sets are said to be equal, if they contain the same elements.

⮚ A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 1, 2, 3 } then A = B

Sub Set
A is said to be a Sub Set of B (i.e. A ⊆ B) if every element of Set A is also an element of Set B.

⮚ A = { 1, 2 }, B = {1, 2, 3 }

Then A ⊆ B i.e. A is a subset of B

Proper Sub Set

Set A is a proper Sub Set of Set B, if every element of Set A is an element of Set B and at least one element of B is not an element of A. Symbolically A ⊂ B.

Note : 1. No set is a proper Sub Set of itself.

n
2. A set ‘A’, that contains n elements, has 2 – 1 proper Sub Sets.
3. The null does not have any proper subset.

Power Set
The Set of all the Sub Sets of a Set A is called the Power Set of A.

⮚ If A = { 1, 2 }, then Power Set of A = [ {1}, {2}, {1, 2}, { } ]

Equivalent Set
Two sets are said to be equivalent if they have the same number of elements or members.

⮚ If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c} then A and B are equivalent.

Venn Diagrams
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where sets are represented by enclosed areas in the plane. The universal set U is represented by the area in a
rectangle, and the other sets are represented by disks lying within the rectangle. If A ⊆ B, then disk representing A will be entirely within the disk representing B, as in

Fig. (1a). If A and B are disjoint, i.e., have no elements in common, then the disk representing A will be separated from the disk representing B, as in Fig. (1b).
On the other hand, if A and B are two arbitrary sets, it is possible that some elements are in A but not B, some elements are in B but not A, some are in both A and B, and
some are in neither A nor B; hence, in general, we represent A and B as in Fig. (1c).

Set Operations
U U U
Union :
U
The Union of two sets AB and B, A
represented as A U B, is a set that contains all the elements A
B A B
contained in A or B or both A and B
A B
⮚ A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {1, 3, 6, 5, 7, 9, 10}

Then A U B = {1, 2, 3,(1a)

4, 5,A6, B
7, 8, 9, 10} (1b) A and B are disjoint (1
Intersection: Fig. 2
Intersection of two sets A and B is a set, represented by U
A ∩ B, that contains only the elements contained in both A and B.

⮚ A = {2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} A B

Then A ∩ B = {4, 5, 6}

Complement of a Set :
–1 / Fig. 3
Complement of a Set A, represented by A or A or , is a set that contains all the elements outside

the Set A.
U

⮚ In the figure, the complement of Set A is represented by the shaded region.

A

⮚ If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and

/
U = {1, 2, … 7, 8} then A = {5, 6, 7, 8}
Fig. 4

31
Difference of Two Sets
Difference of two sets A and B, represented as A – B, is a set of all the U

elements that are present in A but not in B.

⮚ A = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, B = {2, 6, 7, 8} A B

Then A – B = {4, 5}
SOMETHING TO DO
Check the following with help of Venn diagram Fig. 5

A–B=A∩B

A – B = φ if A ⊂ B

A – B = A if A ∩ B = φ (i.e. A & B are disjoint sets)

A – B = B – A = φ if A = B

Laws of Set Theory

1. Commutative Laws A∩B =B∩A

AUB=BUA
2. Associative Laws AU(BUC) = (AUB)UC

A∩(B∩C) = (A∩B)∩C

3. Distributive Laws A U ( B ∩ C ) = ( A U B ) ∩ ( A U C ) (Fig. 6)

A ∩ ( B U C ) = ( A ∩ B ) U ( A ∩ C ) (Fig. 7)

4. De–Morgan’s Laws
/ / /A A A A
1. (AUB) = A ∩B A A A A
/ / /
(A ∪B) A ∩B
/ / /
2. (A∩B) = A UB A B
/ / /
(A ∩B) A ∪B

Cardinal NumberB ofA a Set : C B B C

A
A B
B
BC B C
B C B C B B C
The Cardinal number of a finite Set ‘A’ is the number of elements of the Set A. C
B C A (B C) A B A C
It is denoted by n (A). A B C B C)
A (B A B A C
A B A
A
⮚ If A = { 1, 2, 3 }, then n (A) = 3

if B = { a, b, c, d }, then n (B) = 4
A B A B
Set Theory – Logical Problems:
If the number of elements of two sets A and B are added, then the number of elements of the resulting set ( A U B ) is given by the following equation :
A B A B B C
n ( A U B ) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ∩ B B C

Fig. 7 (A B) (A C)
Similarly, for three sets A, B and C, the following rule holds : (A B) (A C)
Fig. 6
n (A U B U C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A ∩ B) – n (B ∩ C) – n (C ∩ A) + n ( A ∩ B ∩ C )

Fig. 8
For example :
In a survey, it was found that — Fig. 9
(i) 10 persons read A book.
(ii) 100 persons read B book.
(iii) 200 persons read C book.
(iv) 30 persons read both A & B books
(v) 20 persons read both B & C books
(vi) 50 persons read both C & A books
(vii) 50 persons read all three books.
How many people were surveyed?

32
Here n(A) = 10, n(B) = 100, n(c) = 200, n(A ∩ B) = 30, n(B ∩ C) = 20, n(C ∩ A) = 50

& n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 50

Applying the formula above

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 10 + 100 + 200 – 30 – 20 – 50 + 50 = 260

So the total number of people surveyed was 260.

Some Important Facts :

⮚ Every Set is a subset of itself.

⮚ φ is a sub set of every set, i.e. φ ⊆ A

n
⮚ If a Set contains n elements, then, the number of sub sets of A is 2 .

⮚ If A is a sub set of B, then B is called a Super Set of A. Symbolically B ⊇ A.

⮚ If two sets are equal they must be equivalent. However, two equivalent sets need not be equal.

⮚ When nothing specific is mentioned about the sets we usually take case (1c).

⮚ A U A/ = U ( Universal Set)

/
⮚ A ∩ A = { } ( NULL Set)

33
Clocks
IMPORTANT POINTS
1
The clock is divided into 60 equal minute divisions 1 1

💣 1 2

It has 12 hours numbered 1 to 12 clockwise. 9 3

∘
The minute divisions are 360 0
= 6 apart
4

💣
8
60 7 5
6
o o
Each hour number is evenly and equally separated by 5 minute divisions ( = 5 × 6 ) = 30 apart.
o
In 1 hour, the minute hand covers 60 minute divisions (or, 360 )

💣
o
In 1 hour, the hour hand covers 5 minute divisions (30 )
o o
In 1 hour the minute hand gains 55 minute divisions (55 × 6 = 330 ) over the hour hand.
o
In 1 minute, the minute hand moves one minute division (or 6 ).

💣
In 1 minute, the hour hand moves (= 60 )=½
o

300
0 0 o
In 1 minute the minute hand gains (= 6 – ½ ) = 5½ over the hour hand
o
In every clock hour, the hands coincide once, i.e. they are 0 apart. The hands will coincide after every

💣
360×2 = 5 minutes.
65
11 11
1 0 o 2 o
(Minute hand gains 5 /2 in one minute. i.e. it gains 1 in /11 minutes. Therefore it gains 360 in minutes.)

If the hands coincide in intervals less than 5 minutes, then the clock is fast or is gaining time. If the two hands coincide in
65
💣 11
time more than 5 minute, then the clock is slow or is losing time.
65
11
‘

o o
When the two hands are at right angles to each other, they are 15 minute divisions ( or 15 × 6 = 90 ) apart. This happens twice in every hour, except

💣
between ‘8’ and ‘9’ when it happens only once.
o o
When the two hands are in opposite directions, they are 30 minute divisions ( or 30 × 6 = 180 ) apart. This happens once in every hour, but before 5 to 7

💣
it occurs only once.
‘

Angle between the Hands

34
 At any given time the angle between the hands of a clock is : θ = 6

Where, θ = the angle between the hands of a clock at the given time.
x = the distance in minutes between the hands of the clock at the preceding clock hour. (If the time is 3.20 p.m. then the preceding clock hour is 3
o’clock)
m = the distance traveled by the minute hand in moving from the preceding clock hour to the position indicated by the given time.

⮚ What is the angle between the hands of a clock at 7.23 a.m?

Sol.: Here x = 35 minute division or space ( distance between the hands at 7 o’clock)
11
m = 23 minute division or space ( the minute hand has moved 23 minute spaces after 7 o’clock) = 6(35 – /12
× 23)° = 83.5°

Incorrect Clocks
An incorrect clock either gains or loses time. Therefore, the time interval indicated by such a clock will be different from the actual time.
=

(+) when incorrect clock gains time; (–) when incorrect clock loses time
In a correct (true) clock, both the hands coincide at intervals of 65 5 minutes.

11

( 5
)
However, if both the hands coincide at an interval of x minutes of correct time, then the clock is incorrect and, the total time gained/ lost = 60T ×
¿ 65
11
min. (in T hours of correct time)

⮚ A clock is set right at 1 p.m. If it gains one minute in an hour, what is the true time when the clock indicates 6 p.m. the

same day?

Sol. Time interval indicated by incorrect clock = 6 p.m. – 1 p.m. = 5 hours

Time gained by incorrect clock in one hour = + 1 minute = hour

Using the formula,

=

=> => True time interval =

= 5 p.m. + hours
True time = 1 p.m. +

= 5 p.m. + × 60 min. = minute past five.

⮚ The minute hand of a clock coincides with the hour hand at intervals of 65 minutes of correct time. How much does the clock gain or lose

in 12 hours?

35
Sol. In a correct clock, both the hands coincide at an interval of minutes.

Here they coincide at an interval of 65 minutes. Since > 65, so, the clock is gaining time.

Using the formula, Total time gained in T hours = (T × 60) minutes

minutes = 12 × 60 × minutes =

where T = 12 hours, x = 65 Total time gained in 12 hours = (12 × 60)

minutes.

Interchanging of hands
When a man goes out between any two consecutive clock hrs. ‘a’ & ‘b’ and returns between any two consecutive clock hrs. ‘b’ & ‘c’ to find the positions of minute hand
& hour hand interchanged, then –

⮚ Time at which he went out (T0) = [x + (13x – 60)/143] minutes past ‘a’ o’clock.

⮚ Time at which he returned (Tr) = [x + (13x – 720)/143] minutes past ‘b’ o’clock.

Here x represents distance in minute–spaces between the hour hand & the minute hand at ‘b’ o’clock position.

⮚ A man went out between two & three, returned between three & four and found that the hands of the watch had

interchanged original positions. At what time did he go out?

Sol. Comparing the given statement with the above formula we get ‘a’ = 2, ‘b’ = 3 & ‘c’ = 4. At 3 o’clock distance between the minute–hand & hour–hand of the
clock is 15 minute–spaces, so x = 15.
Time at which this man went out (T0)
= [x + (13x – 60)/143] minutes past ‘a’ o’clock.
= [15 + (195 – 60)/143] minutes past 2 o’clock
135
= [15 + (135/143)] minutes past 2 o’clock = 15 /143 minutes past 2 o’clock.

Some Important Facts :

⮚ The hands are in the same straight line, when they are coincident or opposite to each other.

o
Both hands Required Angle (A )
o o
To be in a straight line 0 or 180
o
To be coincident 0
o
To be in opposite directions 180
o
To be at right angles to each other 90

⮚ The hands coincide 11 times in every 12 hours. Hence, 22 times in 24 hours.

⮚ The hands point opposite to each other 11 times in 12 hours. Hence, 22 times in 24 hours.

⮚ The hands are at right angles 22 times in 12 hours. Hence, 44 times in a day.

36
⮚ The hands are in a straight line (coincide or are in opposite directions) 44 times in 24 hours.

⮚ If the above expression becomes positive, time is gained and the clock is fast.

⮚ If the above expression becomes negative, then time is lost and the clock is slow.

37
Calendar
Odd Day :
The number of days in a given period in excess of a multiple of 7 is the number of odd days.

⮚ In a year of 365 days there are 52 weeks (i.e. 364 days) and the balance is 1 odd day.

Ordinary Year :
Contains 365 days i.e. 52 weeks & 1 odd day.

Leap Year :
Contains 366 days i.e. 52 weeks & 2 odd days.
A year divisible by 4 is a leap year e.g. 1984, 1988, 1992 etc. & not 1977, 1982 etc.
In case of century years, only those divisible by 400 are leaps years e.g. 400, 800, 1200 etc. are leap years and not 100, 200, 500, 600, 700 etc. although they are
divisible by 4.

Calculation of Odd Days:

1. 100 years has 24 leap years (not 25) and 76 ordinary years
= (24 × 2) + (76 × 1) odd days

= 124 odd days

= 17 weeks + 5 odd days. [ No. of odd days are always in excess of weeks hence odd days < 7]
2. 200 years has ( 5 × 2) = 10 odd days = 1 week + 3 odd days
3. Similarly 300 years has 1 odd day
th
4. 400 years has 5 × 4 = 20 odd days + 1 odd day ( every 400 year is a leap year) = 21 odd days = 0 odd day

To find the Day of the Week on a Particular Date when no Reference Day is given.
st
Assumption : 1 January, 1 A.D. was a Monday
Steps : i) Count the no. of odd days on the given date.

ii) Write Sunday for 0 odd day

Write Monday for 1 odd day
Write Tuesday for 2 odd days
Write Saturday for 6 odd days.
(7 odd days means 0 odd day which is again Sunday)
rd
⮚ What day of the week was 3 May, 1999?

rd
Sol. 3 May 1999 means, 1998 complete years + first 4 months up to April of 1999 + 3 days of May
Now, 1998 years = 1600 years [of 0 odd days] + 300 years [of 1 odd day] + 98 years [24 leap years + 74 ordinary years][i.e. 122 odd days => 17 weeks + 3 odd days]

∴ 1998 years have (0 + 1 + 3) = 4 odd days.

January = 31 days => 4 weeks + 3 odd days
In 1999 February = 28 days => 0 odd days
March = 31 days => 4 weeks + 3 odd days
April = 30 days => 4 weeks + 2 odd days
May = 3 days => 3 odd days.
rd
∴Total = (4 + 3 + 0 + 3 + 2 + 3) = 15 odd days = 2 weeks + 1 odd day ∴3 May, 1999 was a Monday.

To find the Day of the Week on a Particular Date when the Reference Day is given
Steps: i) Find the net no. of odd days for the period between the reference date & the given date. (excluding the reference date)

38
 CALENDAR

ii) The day of the week on the particular date is equal to the number of net odd days ahead of the reference day (if the reference day was before the
date) or behind the reference day (if this date is after the reference day).

⮚ Jan 16, 1997 was a Thursday. What day of the week will it be on January 4, 2000?

Sol. There is no leap year between 1997 and 2000.

1998 and 1999 together have 2 odd days.
No. of days remaining in 1997 = 365 – 16 = 349 days = 49 weeks + 6 odd days.

∴Total no. of odd days = 2 + 6 + 4 = 12 days = 1 week + 5 odd days.

As January 16, 1997 is before January 4, 2000, hence, the required day will be 5 days ahead of the reference day, Thursday; viz. Tuesday.

39
Geometry
LINES
A line is assumed to extend indefinitely in both directions. There is one and only one line
x y
between two distinct points. A line is denoted by

A line segment is the part of a line between two points called end points. A line segment is
x y
denoted by its end points. It is denoted by

When a big segment is extended indefinitely in one direction, it is called a ray. A ray has one

endpoint. A ray is denoted by y

x

P is a point of intersection of two lines if P is a point which is on both of the lines. Two
m
different lines cannot have more than one point of intersection, because there is only one line
between two points. P

ANGLES
If two straight lines meet at a point they form an angle. The point is called the vertex of the angle and the lines are called the sides or rays of the angle. The sign for the
angle is and the different types of angles are as follows : n
∠
o
1. A right angle is an angle of 90 . B
o
2. An angle less than 90 is acute.
o o A
3. Angle greater than 90 but less than 180 is obtuse.
o
4. An angle of 180 is straight angle.
o o
5. An angle greater than 180 but less than 360 is called reflex angle. A A
o AA O O B
6. An angle of 360 is called a complete angle.
7. Two angles are adjacent if they have the same vertex and a common side and one angle is not inside the other.
Fig 4
Fig 3 Fig
Fig
BAC and CAD are adjacent
∠ ∠ B
A B
C Fig
but CAD and EAD are not adjacent Fig
∠ ∠ E
8. If the sum of two adjacent angles is a straight angle, then the angles are supplementary and each angle is the supplement of the other.
ABC and CBD are supplementary.
∠ ∠ C
A D
9. If the sum of two adjacent angles is a right angle – then the angles are complementary and each angle is the complement of the other
Fig
BAC and CAD are complementary
∠ ∠ B
A B C D
Vertically Opposite Angles
Fig
When two lines intersect, two pairs of vertically opposite angles are formed. Vertically opposite m

angles are equal.

a
A D
c and a are equal. P
b
∠ ∠ d
Fig
c
d and b are equal
n
∠ ∠

Fig

40
 GEOMETRY

o
Also, sum of all s at a point = 360
∠

o
a + b + c + d = 360
∠ ∠ ∠ ∠

Parallel Lines
Parallel lines PQ and RS are lines that are separated by a constant distance. They do not have y

any point of intersection. Any line that cuts a pair of parallel lines is called a transversal. Here xy
is the transversal. a b

Properties : P
d c
Q

a. Alternate angles are equal

d = f and c = e
∠ ∠ ∠ ∠

b. Interior angles on the same side are supplementary f

o o e
d + e = 180 & c + f = 180 h g
R S
c. Corresponding angles are equal

a = e; b = f; h = d and c = g
d. Adjacent Angles are supplementary
x
Fig
o o o o
a + b = 180 , c + d = 180 , e + f = 180 , g + h = 180
o o o o
a + d = 180 , b + c = 180 , e + h = 180 , f + g = 180

TRIANGLES
A Triangle is a figure bounded by three lines (AB, BC and CA) in a plane. A, B, C are called the vertices of the triangle. A triangle ABC is said to have six elements.
Three sides AB, BC and CA and three angles A, B & C. A triangle may also be defined as a polygon of three sides.

If any two sides of a triangle are equal it is called an isosceles triangle.

● A

When all the three sides are equal it is called an equilateral triangle.
●
A triangle with no two sides equal is called a scalene triangle.
● B C

If one of the angles of a triangle is 90° it is called a right-angled triangle.

●
If one of the angles of a triangle is more than 90° it is called an obtuse-angled triangle.
●
If all the angles of the triangle are less than 90° it is called an acute-angled triangle.
●
Incentre :
Point of intersection of all three angle bisectors of a triangle is known as the incentre of the triangle and it is denoted by I. Circle drawn with this point as centre and
touching all the three sides of the triangle is known as Incircle. Radius of this circle is known as Inradius, denoted by ‘r’. The circle so drawn is inscribed in the
triangle.
o
The angle formed by any two vertices of a triangle and the point I is equal to 90 plus a half of the
A
vertical angle.

o 1
∠BIC = 90 + /2∠A.

The incentre divides the bisector of A in the ratio of (b + c) : a.

This is true for all other angles as well. c b

Excentre : I

r
41
B C
a

I1
The point where the bisectors of any two external angles meet the bisector of the remote angle is known
as excentre (I1). The circle drawn with the excentre as the center and a radius equal to the
perpendicular distance to any of the extended sides touches both the extended sides and the third side of
the triangle.
e.g. In the figure, the bisectors of exterior angles B & C and the bisector of the remote angle A meet at the point (I1). This (I1) is the excentre of ABC.
Δ

Also, in the figure given,

o
∠BI1C = 90 – ½ ∠A.

This is true for other sides as well.

A
Angle Bisector Theorem :
A bisector of any angle of a triangle will divide the opposite side in the same proportion as the two
sides.
x x
In ABC, AP is the angle bisector of A
Δ

BP AB
=
PC AC
Median : B P C
The line joining a vertex of a triangle to the mid point of opposite side is called median. It divides the traingle into two equal halves.
Fig

Centroid :
The point of intersection (G) of the three medians of a triangle is called the centroid.
I. The centroid (G) divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1 e.g. AG : DG = 2 : 1
A

II. Each median bisects the area of the triangle.

III. The length of the median can be calculated as

2 2 1 2 2 F E
a) AB + AC = 2( /2 BC) + 2AD
G
(Appollonius’ Theorem)
2 2 2 2 2 2
b) BC + AB + AC = 3(AG + BG + CG )

Circumcentre :
It is the point of intersection of perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle. Circle drawn A C
B D
with this as the centre and passing through the vertices, is circumcircle and the radius of this
Fig 15
circle is called circumradius (R)
The angle formed by joining any two vertices with the circumcentre is twice the vertical
angle.
∠BSC = 2∠A
S
Orthocentre : A

Orthocentre is the point where the three altitudes of a triangle meet. Altitude is the
R
perpendicular dropped from a vertex on the opposite side. B C
The angle made by any side at the orthocentre
o F E
= 180 – the vertical angle
o
BOC = 180 –A FigO

To find the length of the bisector of an angle :

In figure 18, let AN be the bisector of the angle A, then, B C
2 A
AC . AB = BN . NC + (AN)
Fig
Also, = [Bisector Theorem]
AB BN
To find the
AC area NC
of a triangle :
A

42

b
c
B C
N

Fig

B C
a
 GEOMETRY

1
1. A = /2 × base × height
2. A= a, b, c = lengths of the sides
abc
R = circumradius
4R
3. A = Sr r = inradius; S =
a+b+c
4.A = S ( S – a) ( S – b ) ( S – c )
2
1
5. A = /2 Product of any two sides × the sine of the included angle
= ½ ab Sin θ A

Types of Triangles
Equilateral Triangle :
An equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all the sides are equal, and hence all angles are equal and each angle
o b
is 60 . c

Properties:
o o
1. Each angle = 60 , i.e. ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60
2. All sides are equal i.e. a = b = c
3. Height = × (side)
B D a C

Fig
2 2
4. Area = × (side) = × (height)

5. Inradius = × height = × side

6. Circumradius = × height = × side

7. Perimeter = 3 × side
8. In an equilateral triangle all the four points viz. centroid, circumcenter, incenter, orthocenter coincide. The medians, angle bisectors,
o
altitudes, perpendicular bisectors of sides are all represented by same straight lines. The angle on this point from any side is always 120 .
o
9. All exterior angles = 120
A

Right angled Triangle :

o
A triangle in which one angle is a right angle (90 ) is called a right angled triangle.

Properties :
1. The side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse (AC). It is
D
the largest side of the right angled triangle.
1
2. The median to the hypotenuse = /2 × hypotenuse. This median is also the circumradius (R) of the triangle. In figure 21, BD is the

median and

BD = ½ AC.
1
3. Area = /2 × Product of the perpendicular sides
2 2 2 B C
4. (AC) = (AB) + (BC) i.e. the square of the hypotenuse = Sum of the squares of the other two sides (Pythagoras Theorem)

5. Similarity of a right-angled triangle when BD ⊥ AC. Fig

In Δ ABC and Δ ADB,

Some Common Pythagorean Triplets :

3, 4, 5 ; 5, 12, 13; 7, 24, 25; 8, 15, 17;

9, 40, 41; 11, 60, 61; 12, 35, 37; 16, 63, 65;

20, 21, 29; 28, 45, 53; 20, 99, 101; 24, 143, 145;

13, 84, 85; 15, 112, 113; 38, 56, 65

0
In the given triangle, ∠B = 90 and BD is perpendicular to AC. This leads to three important deductions A

43
D

B C
 2
i) ΔBCD ≈ ΔABC ∴ BC = AC × DC
2
ii) ΔABD ≈ ΔABC ∴ BA = AC × AD
2
iii) ΔABD ≈ ΔBCD ∴ BD = AD × CD

Isosceles Triangle :
An isosceles triangle is a triangle where any two sides or two angles are equal. A
Properties :
1. BD = DC when AD ⊥ BC
2. Bisector of ∠A is ⊥ bisector of the base and is also the median of the

triangle.
3. Area of an isosceles triangle= a a

where b is the base BC and a is one of the equal sides.

4. The median drawn from A to BC is also the perpendicular bisector of BC.
5. In the triangle ABC all the 4 points: the centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre and the incentre lie on the altitude drawn from the
B C
vertex A to base BC. D
Isosceles Right-angled Triangle : b
r A
Hypotenuse = 2 × any of the ⊥ sides
Fig
√

In a isosceles right-angled triangle,

4
0 0
the angle measure are 45 -45 -90° D

The 2 sides and the hypotenuse are x, x,

and x√2 respectively (the sides in the ratio 1 : 1 : √2)

If D is the mid point of AC, then AD = DC = BD

4
o o o
30 – 60 – 90 Triangle : B
A
C
o o o 1
In a right angled triangle with two other angles being 30 and 60 , the side opposite to angle 30 = /2 ×

hypotenuse, and the side opposite to angle 60

o
= √3
× hypotenuse.
3

2
In a 30°-60°-90° right triangle, the sides are x, x√3 and 2x respectively (the sides in the ratio 1 : √3 : 2)

Congruent Triangles:
CONDITIONS OF CONGRUENCY 6
9
⮚ Two triangles are said to be CONGRUENT if they are equal in all respects.
B C

(a) SAS Property (Side-Angle-Side) A

Fig
Z

Triangle ABC = Triangle XYZ if AB = XY; ∠A = ∠X; AC = XZ

(Here the angle is the included angle)

(b) AAS (Angle-Angle-Side) B A C X Z Y

Triangle ABC = Triangle XYZ if ∠B = ∠Y; ∠C = ∠Z; AC = XZ.

(Here the side is NOT the included side)

(c) ASA (Angle-Side-Angle) B C X Y

Triangle ABC = Triangle XYZ if ∠B = ∠Y, ∠C = ∠Z, BC = YZ

A Z
(Here the side is the included side )

(d) SSS (Side-Side-Side)

A Z
B C X Y
44

B C X Y
 GEOMETRY

Triangle ABC = Triangle XYZ if AB = XY; AC = XZ; BC = YZ

(e) RHS (Right angle-Hypotenuse-Side)

P L
Triangle PQR = Triangle LMN if ∠Q = ∠M;

PR = LN; PQ = LM or QR = MN.

Q R
M N

45
Similar Triangles
SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES :
Similar triangles are similar in shape, equiangular, not necessarily equal, but they are always proportional

Two triangles are similar if :

i) Three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the three angles of the other triangle.

ii) Two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of the other triangle.

iii) Two sides of one triangle are proportional to two sides of the other triangle, and the included angles are equal.

Properties of Similar Triangles :

If two triangles are similar :
Ratio of corresponding sides = ratio of corresponding medians = ratio of corresponding heights = ratio of corresponding angular bisectors = ratio of corresponding radii
= ratio of corresponding circumradii.
Ratio of area = ratio of the squares of the corresponding sides.
= ratio of the squares of the corresponding heights.
= ratio of the squares of the corresponding angular bisectors.
= ratio of the squares of the corresponding inradii.
= ratio of the squares of the corresponding circumradii.

Basic Proportionality Theorem :

A line parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other sides proportionally.
A
Mid Point Theorem : A
The straight line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and equal to
half the third side. D E
Further AEF = ¼ ABC E F
Δ Δ

POLYGONS B C
Fig
Polygon is a figure, enclosing an area and having ‘n’ no. of sides.
B C
A polygon with Fig

3 sides = triangle
4 sides = quadrilateral (square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, trapezium)
5 sides = pentagon
6 sides = hexagon
7 sides = heptagon
8 sides = octagon
9 sides = nonagon
10 sides = decagon
infinite sides = circle
A polygon with all sides equal and all angles equal is called a regular polygon. A regular polygon can be inscribed in a circle.

TYPES OF POLYGONS

Convex Polygon
o
A polygon in which none of its interior angles is more than 180
is a convex polygon.

In a convex polygon each interior angle has an associated exterior angle which can be obtained by
extending any one side of the angle.


46

= Interior Angle


= Exterior Angle


Fig
 GEOMETRY

The interior and exterior angles are supplementary, i.e. the sum of the interior angle and the exterior
o
angle is 180 .

Concave Polygon
o
A polygon in which at least one angle is more than 180 .

Properties of Regular Polygons :

If the number of sides is n,

o
sum of all interior angles = (2n - 4) × 90
●
an interior angle + an exterior angle = 180°
●
area = ½ perimeter × perpendicular from centre to any side.
●
area = ½ × number of sides × radius of the inscribed circle × length of side.
●
o
n = 360 ÷ exterior angles.
●

Diagonals in a Polygon

If any two non consecutive vertices of a polygon are joined, it is called a diagonal.
For a polygon with n sides (and n vertices), the number of diagonals is given by
n
= n(n – 3)/2. (We subtract 3 because we exclude the point itself and the two adjacent vertices) = C2 – n

n
No of triangles that can be formed from the vertices of a polygon with n sides = C3 .

⮚ Find the number of diagonals in a quadrilateral.

Sol.: In a quadrilateral, which has 4 sides, the number of diagonals = 4 (4 – 3)/2 = 2.

Angles in a Polygon

In a convex polygon of n sides

o
The sum of the interior angles = (2n – 4) × 90 .
o
The sum of its exterior angles = 360 .

o
⮚ Find the number of sides of a regular polygon whose interior angle is 140 .

Sol.:Method 1
o
Let the polygon have n sides. Sum of interior angles = n × 140 .
o
Sum of interior angles is also equal to (2n – 4) × 90 . Equating we get
o o
(2n – 4) × 90 = n × 140 ⇒ 18n – 36 = 14n ⇒ n = 9.

Method 2
o o o o o
If the interior angle is 140 , then the exterior angle = 180 – 140 = 40 . Sum of exterior angles = n × 40 .
o o o
We also know that sum of exterior angles of a polygon is 360 . Equating we get n × 40 = 360 ⇒ n = 9.

Cyclic Polygon B

A
If a circle can be drawn passing through all the vertices of polygon then it is known as a cyclic polygon. In the
figure alongside, ABCD is a cyclic polygon.

TYPES OF POLYGONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

C
D
Regular Pentagon A
Side “a”
E

Fig 29
o o
108 108

47

o
o 108
108 D
B

o
108

C
A regular Pentagon is a polygon of 5 sides.
In a Regular Pentagon all the five sides are of equal length, and all the five interior angles are of equal
magnitude.
o o o
Sum of Interior angles = (2n – 4) × 90 = 6 × 90 = 540
If the side of the Regular Pentagon is “a”, then
2
Perimeter = 5a Area = 1.72a

Regular Hexagon A
Side “a”
F
A Regular Hexagon is a polygon of 6 sides.
In a Regular Hexagon all the six sides are of equal length, and all the six interior angles are of equal
magnitude.
o o o
Sum of Interior angles = (2n – 4) × 90 = 8 × 90 = 720
B o
120 E
If the sides of the Regular Hexagon is “a”, then,
Perimeter = 6a Area =

⮚ ΔABC and ΔDFE are two equilateral triangles of side 18 cm. Each side
C A
D
of the triangles are trisected by the two sides of the other triangle. Find the Fig

area of the shaded region.

Sol.: The shaded region is a hexagon of side = 6 cm. D E

sq. cm.
Area of shaded region =

C
Regular Octagon B
H Side “a” G

A Regular Octagon is a polygon of 8 sides.

In a Regular Octagon all the eight sides are of equal length, and all the eight interior angles are of equal F
A o F
135
magnitude.
o o o
Sum of Interior angles = (2n – 4) × 90 = 12 × 90 = 1080

If the side of the Regular Octagon is “a”, then B E

2 2
Perimeter = 8a Area = 4.83a = 2(√2 + 1)a

C D

QUADRILATERALS
Fig
In a quadrilateral sum of all four angles = 360°
area of a quadrilateral = (½) (one diagonal) × (sum of perpendiculars from opposite vertices).
= (½) (product of diagonals) × (sin of angle included within them).

Cyclic Quadrilateral : A
B
x
(1) The four vertices lie on a circle.

(2) Opposite angles are supplementary.

y x

E
D C
(3) If any one side is produced, Exterior angle
= Remote interior angle. i.e. ∠BCE = ∠BAD
x + y = 180

Fig 33
(4) If one pair of opposite sides are equal, diagonals are equal.

48
 GEOMETRY

(5) The quadrilateral formed by angle bisectors of a cyclic quadrilateral is also cyclic.

(6) Sum of products of opposite sides = product of diagonals,

i.e. AB . CD + AD . BC = AC . BD

Area of a quadrilateral that can both be inscribed in and circumscribed about a circle is given by √abcd where a, b, c, d are the sides of the quadrilateral.

Parallelogram : D C

Properties :

Opposite sides are parallel and equal.

●

Opposite angles are equal.

● A B
Fig

Diagonals are not equal.

●

Diagonals bisect each other but not always at right angles.

●

Sum of any two adjacent angles = 180°.

●

Bisectors of the four angles enclose a rectangle.

●

Each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two triangle of equal area.
●

A parallelogram inscribed in a circle is always a rectangle.

●

A parallelogram circumscribed about a circle is always a rhombus.

●

Straight lines joining the midpoints of adjacent sides of any quadrilateral form a parallelogram.
●

Area = Base × Height.

●

In a parallelogram the sum of the square of the diagonals = 2 × (sum of the squares of the two adjacent sides)
●

D C
Square :
Properties :

A square has all sides equal.

●

All angles are right angles. The diagonals are equal and bisect each other
●
A
at right angles. B

Fig 35
Perimeter of a square = 4a where a is the length of a side.
●

Diagonal = √2 a
●

49
 When a square is inscribed in a circle, the diagonal = the diameter of the
●
circle.

When a circle is inscribed in a square, side of the square = diameter of

●
the circle.

Rectangle :

Properties :

D C
Opposite sides are equal; all angles are right angles.
●

Diagonals are equal and bisect each other but not at right angles.
●

Perimeter = 2(+b) where  = length & b = breadth

●
A Fig B
Area = ×b
●
2 2
Diagonal = √( + b )
●

Of all the rectangles of given perimeter the square will have the maximum area.
●
2 2 2
In a rectangular box of length , breadth b and height h, the length of the longest rod that can be kept is √ ( +b +h )
●

When the rectangle is inscribed in a circle, it will have the maximum area when it is a square.
●

Rhombus :
A
Properties :

A rhombus has all the sides equal and its opposite sides are parallel.
●
Opposite angles are equal
● d
B
C
The diagonals bisect each other at right angles, but are not equal
●
d

Area = ½ d1 d2 where d1 & d2 are the two diagonals.

●
2 2 2
Side = (d1 /2) + ( d2 /2 )
● D

Area of a rhombus whose one side and one diagonal are given
● Fig

Kite : B

Properties :

50 A C

D
 GEOMETRY

A quadrilateral is called a kite, it has two pairs of equal and adjacent sides.

Two pairs of adjacent sides are congruent.

●
The diagonals intersect at right angles.
●
The longer diagonal bisects the shorter diagonal.
●
Area = × product of diagonals.
●
Fig 38

Trapezium :
D C
Properties :

M
A trapezium has only one pair of opposite sides parallel. P
●

area = ½ (sum of parallel sides) × (height) B

● A Fig 39

The median MP, is half the sum of parallel sides.

●

A trapezium inscribed in a circle is an isosceles trapezium. In an isosceles trapezium the oblique sides are
●
equal i.e. AD = BC. Angles made by each parallel side with the oblique side are equal i.e. ∠ A = ∠ B and ∠D = ∠C.

Pathway

Pathway
Let ABCD be a rectangular plot whose W
A B
length = l breadth = b
Case I: A pathway is made outside the plot b
W Pathway
Let the width of pathway = W
Area of pathway = A0 = 2W(l + b + 2W) D C
(shaded part in Fig. 40)
Rectangular Plot
Case II: A pathway is made INSIDE the plot.
Fig. 40 Outside Pathway
Let the width of pathway = W l
Area of pathway = AI = 2W(l + b – 2W)
(shaded part in Fig. 41)

W b
Parallel Path
D W C
Let ABCD be a rectangular plot
Pathway TW

whose length = l breadth = b S U

Fig. 41 Inside Pathway
SU and TV are two paths draws parallel to the length and the breadth respectively. b W

Width of each parallel path = W

V
Area of two parallel paths = W(l + b – W)
A B
(shaded part in Fig. 42)
l
Fig. 42 Parallel Path
CIRCLES
S

Some important properties :

Q
PQ = PR = Tangent.
B
O = Centre of the circle.

BC = Chord of the circle.

M
A
P O
51

R
arc QB = Secant of the circle.

M = Mid point of chord BC.

OB = OR = Radius of the circle.

OM = Perpendicular to the chord BC.

AQB = Minor Arc.

Fig

ARB = Major Arc.

In Figure 43,
Tangent is perpendicular to the radius i.e. PR is perpendicular to the radius OR.
●
Perpendicular from the centre bisects the chord i.e. OM bisects BC.
●
Tangent segments drawn from an external point are equal i.e. PR = PQ.
●
Measure of an arc of a circle means the measure of the central angle i.e. m arc
●
(AQB) = measure of the angle AOB.

Angle made at the centre by an arc is equal to twice the angle made by the arc at any point on the remaining part of the circumference i.e.
● BOQ = 2 BAQ.

● Angles inscribed in the same arc are equal i.e.

Transverse Common Tangent

The angle between a tangent

●
and a secant at the point of contact
is equal to the angle in the alternate
C
segment i.e. BQS = BAQ A B
In Figure 44.
D Direct Common Tangent
When two circles touch,
●
their centres and the point of contact are collinear i.e. A - D - B and D - B - C Fig

If two circles touch externally, distance between their centres is equal to the sum of their radii i.e. AC = AD + DC
●
If two circles touch internally, distance between their centres is equal to the difference of their radii
●
i.e. BC = CD - BD.
(i) Length of direct common tangent =

(ii) Length of transverse common tangent =

In Figure 45.

If two chords intersect externally at P,

●
(i) PA .PB = PC.PD (ii) ∠P = ½ [m(arc AC) - m (arc BD)]

If PBA is a secant and PT is a tangent,

●
2
(i) PA.PB = PT (ii) ∠P = ½ [m(arc AYT) - m (arc BXT)]

52
 GEOMETRY

If chords EF & CD intersect internally at Q, then

●
(i) QC.QD = QE.QF (ii) ∠DQE = ½ [m(arc FSC)+ m(arc DRE)]]

m(minor arc) + m (major arc) = 360°

●

Measure of a semicircle = 180°

●
Y A
Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.
●
T
Circles having the same centre but different radii are called concentric circles.
●
X F
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
●
B
Circumference of a circle = 2π r
● S

2 P
Q
Area = π r
D C
Area of a circular ring = π (r 1 + r2) (r1 - r 2) ;
● R
E

r1 = outer radius, r2 = inner radius

Fig
Distance covered by a wheel in n revolutions = n (circumference) [2 r n]
● π

Length of an arc = (θ/360) × 2 π r where θ is the angle subtended by the arc at the centre.
●
2 1
Area of sector = (θ/360) × π r = /2 × length of the arc x r
●

Circular Pathway :
The radius of the circle with center O is r. two cases are possible for the circular pathway
(i) It is inside the circle. Area of the pathway in case (i) = π × w (2r – w)
(ii) It is outside the circle. Area of the pathway in case (ii) = π × w (2r + w)

⮚ A circular grass lawn of 50 metres in radius has a path 10.5 metres wide running around it on the outside. Find the area of
A

the path. W

Sol.: Area of the pathway = π × w (2r + w) = A W

r r

⮚ A circular grass lawn of60 metres in radius has a path 7 metres wide running around it on the inside. Find the area of the

path. Fig 46 (i) Fig 46 (ii)

Sol.: Area of the pathway = π × w (2r – w) =

53
Theorems :
Theorem 1 : A straight line drawn from the centre of a circle to bisect a chord, which is not a diameter, is at right angles to the chord.

Theorem 2 : Converse : The perpendicular to a chord from the centre bisects the chord.

Theorem 3 : Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.

Theorem 4 : Two chords that are equidistant from the centre are equal.
A O C
Theorem 5 : The tangent at any point of a circle and the radius through the point are perpendicular to each other.

A O C
Theorem 6 : If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an outside point,
P then the tangents are equal.
B
Theorem 7: A
If two tangents are drawn to a circle from anAoutside
M BN
point then they subtend equal angles at the center.
O
Theorem 8 : The angle which an arc of a circle subtends at the centre is double, that which it subtends at any point on the remaining part of the circumference.
A M T BN
Theorem 9 : Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
B TO D
P P
Theorem 10 : The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
O
P B
Theorem 11 : The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary. D P Q
P
P A B
Theorem 12 : In equal circles (or, in the same circle), if two arcs are O
B equal, the chords of the arcs
D are equal. P O
P B O O
O A B
Theorem 13 : In equal circles (or, in the same circle), if two chords are equal, theQarcs
Q which they cut off are equal.

Theorem 14 : There can be two and only two tangents to a circle from
O an external fixed point.
A O B O Q
Theorem 15 : Ptolemy’s theorem : Q
A B O A
A MO QT C B NO
If ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, then AB . CD + AD . BC = AC . BD
A B

Conversely, if in a quadrilateral ABCD the above relation is true, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
AA BB CA DB
P
Some Important Facts : D

⮚ Three or more than three points are said to be collinear

A if there is a line which contains
B all these points.

Example
Q
A, B, C and D are four distinct points contained by one straight line, so these four points are collinear.

B
⮚ Three or more than three lines are said to be concurrent if there is a point A C D
G A
which lies on all these lines.
Example D C E
Four lines AB, CD, EF, and GH are concurrent because there is a point ‘O’ which lies on all these four
C D
lines. O
F
⮚ Any point C is said to lie between A and B, if

H
(i) A, B, and C are collinear B
(ii) AC + CB = AB

⮚ Any point C is an interior point of line AB if AB = AC + CB

A C B
Example
Here point C lies on line AB

⮚ Two distinct lines can not have more than one common point (i.e. point of C

intersection)
Example A K B
Two distinct lines AB and CD have only one common point K.

The lines as mentioned above strictly refers to straight lines. A line may also be a curved one, which is not the topic of our discussion. D

⮚ Let m and n be two lines that have k as a transversal.

1. If a pair of alternate interior angles are equal, then m and n are parallel.
2. If a pair of corresponding angles are equal then m and n are parallel.
3. If a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary, then m is parallel to n.

54
 GEOMETRY

⮚ Two lines which are both parallel to the same line, are parallel to each other k

l
or vice-versa.
Example m

Three lines, l, m, and n are in a plane such that k || m and l || m then k || l.

⮚ If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, then two lines are parallel to m

9
each other or vice-versa.
k
Example
k m
9

l m

so, k || l.

⮚ Two intersecting lines cannot both be parallel to another line.

l

Example
If line l and m intersect (i.e. non-parallel lines) and a third line k is given, then both l and m can not be parallel to k at the
same time.

⮚ When three lines are in the same plane, if line 1 intersects line2 and line2 is
k
k

parallel to line3, then line1 will also intersect line3

OR m

In other way, if line1 intersects line2, then line1 will also intersect all co-planar lines

parallel to line2.
Example n

k, m, n are three lines in the same plane. If line k intersects line m and line m || line n, then k will also intersect n.
[(------) lines show the point of intersection]
o
⮚ Sum of three angles is 180 .

⮚ When one side is extended, in any direction, an angle is formed with another side. This angle is called the exterior angle. There are six

exterior angles of a triangle.

⮚ An exterior angle is equal to the sum of two interior remote angles.

x
/
(z = x + y)
a b
/ o
⮚ Exterior + Interior = (z + z ) = 180

/
y z
⮚ The sum of any two sides is always greater than the third side. a + b > c z

c
⮚ The side opposite the greatest angle is the greatest side and vice-versa.
z
/ z

⮚ The side opposite the smallest angle is the smallest side and vice-versa. Fig

⮚ Difference of any two sides is always less than the third side. (a – b < c)

⮚ In any triangle, there can be only one right angle or obtuse angle i.e. a triangle must have at least two acute angles.

2 2 2
In a Δ a + b + c ≥ ab + bc + ca where a, b, c are sides.
2 2 2
If a + b + c = ab + bc + ca, then the Δ ABC is an equilateral triangle.

⮚ In a triangle ABC, if a, b & c are the 3 sides, where c is the greatest side, then,

2 2 2
(i) If c < a + b , Δ is acute.

55
 2 2 2
(ii) If c = a + b , Δ is right angle.
2 2 2
(iii) If c > a + b , Δ is obtuse.

⮚ Given the perimeter, an equilateral triangle has the maximum area.

⮚ Of all the triangles that can be inscribed into a circle, an equilateral triangle has the maximum area.

⮚ Any multiple of a triplet will also be a triplet.

Example : 3 × 2, 4 × 2, 5 × 2 i.e. 6, 8, 10 is also a triplet.

⮚ In a right angled triangle, the altitude to the hypotenuse, separates the triangle into two right angled triangles, which are similar to

each other and to the original triangle.

⮚ If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite to those sides are also equal.

⮚ If the bisector of the vertical angle of a triangle bisects the base as well, the triangle is isosceles or equilateral.

⮚ If in a right angled triangle, one acute angle is double the other, then the hypotenuse is double the smallest side.

⮚ The perpendicular is the shortest distance to a given straight line from a point outside it.

⮚ In an isosceles triangle, the straight lines joining the ends of the base to the mid-points of the opposite sides are equal.

⮚ Areas of two triangles will be equal if they lie between the same parallels and share the same base.

⮚ The term polygon generally refers to a convex polygon.

⮚ From all quadrilaterals with a given area, the square is the one which has the least perimeter.

⮚ From all quadrilaterals with a given perimeter, the square is the one which has the greatest area.

Diagonals Parallelo-gram Rectangle Rhombus Square

Bisect each other ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Bisect vertex angles ✔ ✔

Are perpendicular ✔ ✔

Form 4 equal Δs ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Form 4 congruent Δs ✔ ✔

Are equal ✔ ✔

56
 MENSURATIO

Mensuration
Units of Measurement :
Conversion of one unit to another:
-3
10 millimetres = 1 cm 1 milli. = 10 m
-2
10 centimetres = 1 dm 1 centi = 10 m
-1
10 decimetres = 1m 1 deci = 10 m

10 metres = 1 Dm 1 deca = 10 . m
2
10 decametres = 1 hm 1 hecto = 10 m
3
10 hectometres = 1 km (kilometre) 1 kilo = 10 m

1 acre = 100 sq.m.

1 hectare = 10000 sq. m.

1 litre = 1000 cc.

3 3 3
Changing from m → cm Multiply by (100)

Weight = Volume × Density

TRIANGLE :
A
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight lines.
Let ABC be a triangle such that
- A B C

- Sides a b c
c
r
- If BC is the base, then dropped on BC is the height (h) h
b

- a + b + c = 2S = perimeter of the triangle = (P)

(S = semi perimeter)
B C
Area (A) a

✔ ½ × base × corresponding height Triangle

or,

✔ ½ × any side × length of perpendicular dropped on that side

or,

✔ , where S =

Some Special Kinds of Triangles

Equilateral Triangle :
An equilateral triangle has
- all sides equal, a = b = c = a, (say)
- all angles equal ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°
- height (h) =

a
h = EMBED a

Equation.DSMT4

57 a a

Equilateral Triangle
- area (A) =

- perimeter (P) = 3 × (side)

Isosceles Triangle :
An isosceles triangle has
- two sides equal, a = c = a, say
- base = b
- height (h) =

side = side =

- area (A) = h

- perimeter (P) = 2a + b b b

Right-Angled Triangle : base

A right-angle triangle has Isosceles Triangle

- One angle = 90°, (right angle)
- h=
(Side) or

- base = b
hypotenus
height or
e (h)
- height = perpendicular = p perpendicular

- area (A) = ½ bp = ½ base × perpendicular

(p)

Isosceles Right-Angled Triangle :

base
An isosceles right-angled triangle has
- two sides equal (=a) Right-Angled Triangle

- Hypotenuse (h) = a√2

- Height = a
hypotenuse

(h) = a2
- Base = a a

2
- Area (A) = a /2

- Perimeter (P) = 2a + a 2 = a2(2 + 1) = h(2 + 1) 9

a
REGULAR POLYGON :
Area (A) of a regular polygon of “n” sides, and each side of length “s”, A =
ns 2
4 ( )
.cot 180∘
n
Isosceles Right-Angled Triangle

QUADRILATERAL
C
A quadrilateral is any figure bounded by four straight lines. D

Let ABCD be a quadrilateral such that

- A B C D p
F

- AB BC CD AD
p
- If AC = d = one of the diagonals length and DE and BF are the perpendiculars E

dropped on that diagonal AC, then DE = p1 = first offset length. BF = p2 = second offset A B

length
Any Quadrilateral
Area (A)

58
 MENSURATIO

✔ If the diagonal falls inside the figure:

Area = ½ × diagonal × (Sum of two offsets)

✔ If the diagonal falls outside the figure:

Area = ½ × diagonal × (difference of offsets)

OR

(Area of ΔADC) + (Area of ΔABC)

if lengths of four sides and one of its diagonal are known

Rectangle :
Area = length × breadth
2
Perimeter = 2 × ( + b) = 2 × √(d + 2A)

Diagonal = unit

Where  = length; b = breadth; d = diagonal; A = area b

Square :
2 2
Area = • (side) =a
a
• ½ product of diagonals =

Diagonal = a √2
a
Perimeter = • 4a
• 2d√2

Parallelogram :
Area = • base × height

• P×d
D C
• ab Sin θ

• h × DC P
a
• h
d

Where; AB = CD = base = b
A b B
AD = BC = a

AC = diagonal = d

P = perpendiculars from D on the diagonal AC.

Rhombus :
Area = • ½ product of diagonals = ½ d1×d2 = a × h
D C
Perimeter = • 4a
2 2
• 2√(d1 + d2 )
d
where ‘a’ is the side of rhombus.
a h

Trapezium :
Area = • ½ (sum of parallel sides) × distance d

D a C
between parallel sides
A a B
• ½ (a + b) h

CIRCLE : h

b
A B
59
Circumference of a circle = 2πr
2
Area = π r ; where r = radius of the circle.
2
= C ÷ 4 where C = 2πr
π

Arc of a circle:- A portion of the circumference (or a part of the

A
curved portion) of the circle.
Arc AB = , where arc AB = length of AB
AOB = and O is the center.
O

B
Sector of a circle:- The area covered between an arc, the center A
and two radii of the circle.

Area of sector AOB =

Shaded Portion = Sector AOB
B
O

Area of sector AOB = ½ × arc AB × r

2 o
Area of a sector of a circle subtending an angle θ at the centre of the circle is r . θ/2, where θ is in radians. (π radians ≡ 180 )

SOLID FIGURES :

Areas and volumes of Cuboids & Cubes :

Any thing which occupies space is called a solid. It has three dimensions length, breadth & height.

Cuboid / Rectangular Parallelopiped :

A cuboid is a rectangular solid having six faces all of which are rectangles.

Volume =  × b × h
⬥
where  = length, b = breadth, h = height

Area of 4 walls = 2( + b) × h h

⬥
Total surface area = 2 (b + bh + h)
⬥
2 2 2 b
Diagonals = √(  + b + h )
⬥
Volume of material = volume enclosed by external surface – volume enclosed by internal surface.
⬥
If , b, h are the external dimensions of a closed cuboid of thickness x, then internal dimensions are (  - 2x), (b -
⬥
2x), (h - 2x).

If the cuboid is an open cuboid then internal dimensions = (  – 2x), (b – 2x),

⬥
(h – x), assuming it to be open on top or bottom.

Cube :
A rectangular solid whose every face is a square is called a cube.
3
Volume = a where a = edge of the cube
2
Total surface area of the cube = 6a ,

Body Diagonal of a cube = a √3

Cylinder :
a
If a rectangle is revolved about its one side as an axis, the solid thus formed is called a right circular
a
cylinder.
2
Volume = π r h where r = radius of base , h = height

h
60

r
 MENSURATIO

Curved surface = 2 π rh

Total surface = 2 π r (r + h)
2 2
Volume of material in a hollow pipe = π (R - r ) L Where R = external radius

r = internal radius
2 2
Total surface of an open pipe = 2 π[Rh + rh + (R - r )] L = length of pipe

Cone :
If a right triangle is revolved about one of its sides containing the right angle as the axis the solid

formed is called a cone.

1 2
Volume = /3 π r h where r = radius of circular base,

h = height
2 2
Curved surface = π r  where  = slant height = √ (r + h ) h
Total surface = π r (r + )

Frustum (Truncated Cone) :

Lateral surface area of a frustum = π(R + r)  r
1 2 2
Volume of a frustum = /3πh(R + r + Rr) r
[h = height of frustum,  = lateral height of frustum,

r = radius of upper cross-section, R = radius of base.]

Sphere : h

When a circle is revolved about its diameter , the solid thus formed is called a sphere.
4 3
Volume = /3 π r where r = radius of the sphere
2
Surface = 4π r r
O R A

Hemisphere :
A sphere cut by a plane passing through its centre forms two hemispheres. The upper surface of a hemisphere is a circular region.
2
Curved surface area of a hemisphere = 2πr
2 2 2
Total surface area of a hemisphere = 2πr + πr = 3πr
3
Volume of a hemisphere = 2/3πr

For every non-spherical solid, No. of Faces + No. of Vertices = No. of Edges + 2
(a) A cuboid has 8 vertices, 12 edges and 6 faces
(b) A prism has 6 vertices, 9 edges and 5 faces
(c) A pyramid has 5 vertices, 6 edges and 4 faces
(d) A tetrahedron has 4 vertices, 6 edges and 5 faces

To find area of wedged regions :-

Triangle is equilateral with sides = 2r

∴ Area of triangle = √3 2
(2r) = r
2

4 √3
60 2 2 r r
Area of 3 sectors = 3 × /360 πr = ½ πr
= 2
∴Area of shaded region = r (
2 √ 3−π )
2 r r

Spherical Shell :
r r
If R and r are the outer and inner radius of a hollow sphere then, Volume of material in a
3 3
Spherical Shell = 4/3π(R – r ).

Solid Ring :
If R and r are the outer and inner radius of a solid ring (can be considered as a cylindrical rod joined end to end) then, R
2 2
Volume = π /4(R – r) (R + r)
r

61
 2 2 2
Curved Surface area = π (R – r )

Right Prism :
Right Prism is a prism where the lateral edges are perpendicular to the base

Volume = area of base × height

Lateral area = perimeter of base × altitude

Total area = lateral area + 2 × base area

A prism is said to be triangular prism, pentagonal prism, hexagonal prism, octagonal prism according to the number of sides of the polygon that form
the base.
In a prism with a base of n sides, Number of vertices = 2n, Number of faces = n + 2.

Triangular PrismPentagonal Prism

E HexagonalGPrism H I

Pyramid : F H G
O
J
O
A Pyramid whoseD base is a regularE polygon, the centre of which coincides with the foot of the perpendicular dropped from the vertex on base
L K
is called right pyramid.
J I
A pyramid is said to be tetrahedron (triangular base), square pyramid, hexagonal pyramid etc., according to the number of sides of the polygon that
form the base. h
h
O
B
Tetrahedon PyramidSquare Pyramid B a Regular
b
Hexagonal
O
/ O B b C
OO is the perpendicular height
c (h) ofathe pyramid.
A C
a c
In a pyramid with a base of n side,
O
c A D
A C e O
O
f d
Number of vertices = n + 1; Number
b of faces including the base = n + 1
E D F E
Surface area of lateral faces = ½ × perimeter of base × slant height
Total surface area of pyramid = Base area + ½ × perimeter of base × slant height h
h
1 A B h
Volume of pyramid = /3 × Base area × height
B C
Note: A cone is also a pyramid.
A C
Right Pyramid :
A D
O O
1 O
Volume = /3 × area of base × height

Lateral Area = ½ × perimeter of base × slant height

F E
B
Total Area = base area + lateral area D C

Platonic Solids :
The term “Platonic Solid” is used to denote a polyhedron in three dimensional space with the properties that

(i) all faces are regular polygons and are congruent.

(ii) the same number of faces meet at each vertex.

An example is the cube. The cube has six faces that are squares. Three faces meet at each vertex.
In all there are only five platonic solids that exist. The figures of each of them have been given with important results for each of them.

Tetrahedron
Total number of faces = 4
Total number of sides on each face = 3
Total number of vertices = 4
Total number of edges = 6

Octahedron
Total number of faces = 8
Total number of vertices = 6
Total number of
Edges = 12

62
 MENSURATIO

Icosahedron
Total number of faces = 20
Total number of sides on each face = 3
Total number of vertices = 12
Total number of edges = 30

Cube
Total number of faces = 6
Total number of sides on each face = 4
Total number of vertices = 8
Total number of edges = 12

Dodecahedron
Total number of faces = 12
Total number of sides on each face = 5
Total number of vertices = 20
Total number of edges = 30

Solids inscribed / circumscribing other solids

1. If a largest possible sphere is circumscribed by a cube of edge ‘a’ cm, then the radius of the
sphere = a.
2
2. If a largest possible cube is inscribed in a sphere of radius ‘a’ cm, then
the edge of the cube = 2a .
√3
3. If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cylinder of radius ‘a’ cm and height ‘h’ cm, then for
h>a, the radius of the sphere = a, and the radius = (for a > h)

4. If a largest possible sphere is inscribed in a cone of radius ‘a’ cm and slant height equal to the
diameter of the base, then the radius of the sphere =

5. If a largest possible cone is inscribed in a cylinder of ratios ‘a’ ‘h’ cm, then the radius of the cone
= a and height = h
6. If a largest possible cube is inscribed in a hemisphere of radius ‘a’ cm then the edge
of the cube = a .

SUMMARY OF FORMULAE

Area of Different Plane Figures

Plane/Solid Area Remarks

Triangle (any) ½bh b = base, h = height

Right angled triangle ½bh b & h are the sides containing the right angles

63
 2
Equilateral triangle ¾a a = any side

b 2 2
Isosceles triangle /4 (4a -b ) b = base, a = any of the two equal sides

Quadrilateral (any) ½ d (p1 + p2) d = diagonal, p1, p2 perpendiculars to diagonals

from opposite vertices

2 2
Square a , ½d a = any side, d = diagonal

Rectangle b  = length, b = breadth

Parallelogram bh b = base, h = height

Rhombus ½ d1 d2 d1, d2 = diagonals

Trapezium ½ h (s1 + s2) s1,s2 = parallel sides, h = height

Kite ½ d1 d2 d1, d2 = diagonals

3 2
Hexagon 3 /2 a a = any side

2
Circle πr r = radius

Cyclic quadrilateral abcd a, b, c, d = sides

Ellipse ab a = major axis, b = minor axis

π

Volume of Different Solids

Solid Volume Remarks

Prism bh b = base area, h = height

3
Cube a a = any side

Rectangular box bh  = length , b = breadth,

h = height

4 3
Sphere /3π r r = radius

1 2
Cone /3π r h r = radius of base , h = height

2
Circular cylinder πr h r = radius of base, h = height

Total Surface Area of Different Solids

Solid Surface Area Remarks

Prism ph + 2b p = perimeter of base, h = height,

b = base area

Rectangular box 2 h + 2  b + 2 b h  = length, b = breadth, h = height

Circular cylinder 2 π r(r + h) r = radius of base, h = height

64
 MENSURATIO

2
Cube 6a a = any edge

Cone π r (r + ) r = radius of base,  = slant height

Pyramid b+½p b = base area, p = perimeter of base,

 = slant height

2
Sphere 4πr r = radius

2
Hemisphere 3π r r = radius

65
Co-ordinate Geometry
Definition
Analytical or Co-ordinate Geometry is that branch of geometry where nature and properties of curves are studied with the help of algebraic equations, by

establishing the relation between the points representing the curves. The points are located in a plane and are identified by means of two real numbers called the
coordinates of the point.

RECTANGULAR AXES
Y
The figure given is called the XY Cartesian plane. The line XOX′ is called the X axis and YOY′
the Y axis.
P (x, y)
If P (x, y) is a point in the XY Cartesian plane then x is the X coordinate of P or abscissa of P
I I
and y is called the Y coordinate of P or the ordinate of P.
X
The XY plane is divided into four equal parts called Quadrants (I, II, III, IV). X
O
The sign convention for the sign to be given to co-ordinates follows the following rules:
I I
(1) “Starting from O, all points to the left of YOY′ are to have a negative X co-
Y
ordinate and all points to the right of YOY′ are to have a positive X co-ordinate.”
(2) “All points above XOX′ are to have a positive Y co-ordinate and all points Y/
(-, +) (+,
below XOX′ are to have a negative Y co-ordinate”.
I I
Table showing the sign convention for different co-ordinate points
X/ X

Quadrant I II III O IV

I I
X Co-ordinate + – – +
(-, -) (+, -)

Y/
Y Co-ordinate + + – –

⮚ The point (2,3) lies in the first quadrant as both the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate have positive values.

The following are the basic aspects of points plotted in such a system:

Two points with the same x-coordinate or abscissa lie on a line parallel to the y-axis.
●
⮚ (2, 1) and (2, 3) lie on a line parallel to the Y-axis

Two points with the same y-coordinate or ordinate lie on a line parallel to the x-axis.
●
⮚ (3, 1) and (4, 1) lie on a line parallel to the X-axis

All points having x-coordinate zero lie on the y-axis.

●
⮚ (0, 1); (0, 2) etc. lie on the Y-axis

All points having y-coordinate zero lie on the x-axis.

●
⮚ (1, 0), (2, 0) etc. lie on the X-axis

Distance between Two Given Points Y

Q( (x2, y2)
66
x2,

R
P(
(x1, y1)
x1
X
O
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

The distance between any two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) on the coordinate plane PQ =

⮚ Find the distance between the points (-5, 7) and (1, 6).

Sol. : The distance from the formula becomes = units

⮚ Are (1, 1), (4, 4), (4, 8) and (1, 5) the vertices of a parallelogram?

Sol.: We can solve the sum by using the property of parallelograms, i.e. opposite sides are equal.
We will find out the distances between the four vertices.
Let the vertices be labeled as A = (1, 1); B = (4, 4); C = (4, 8) and D = (1, 5).
AB = BC =

CD = DA =

The opposite sides are of equal length ⇒ ABCD is a parallelogram.

Section Formulae
These formulae describe how a particular point divides a line into two segments (either externally or internally).
Y
Internal Ratios : The point P(x, y) divides the line AB in the ratio of m:n i.e.
B(x2,y2)
AP/PB = m/n. The coordinates of P are
n
x = (mx2 + nx1)/(m + n); and

y = (my2 + ny1)/(m + n). m

P(x,y)
If the ratio m:n is written as k, (i.e. m/n = k) then the section formula takes the form :
x = (k x2 + x1) / (k + 1); and A(x1,y1)
y = (ky2 + y1 ) / (k + 1) Y X
External Ratios – The point P(x, y) divides the line AB in the ratio of m:n externally i.e. AP/PB = O P(x,y)

m/n. The coordinates of P are n

B(x2,y2)
x = (mx2–nx1)/(m–n); and

y = (my2 – ny1)/(m – n).

⮚
m
Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line AB ( (2,2), (8,5) ) internally in the ratio 1:2
A(x1,y1)

Sol.: The required point is: X

O
x-coordinate = (1×8 + 2×2)/(1+ 2 ) = 4
y-coordinate = (1×5 + 2×2)/(1+ 2 ) = 3

⮚ Find the ratio in which the point (2, y) divides the join of (-4, 3) and (6, 3) and hence find the value of y.

Sol.: Let the required ratio be k : 1 then, 2 =

i.e. 3 : 2 also, y =
The required ratio is

Mid-Point Formula :
Mid-point of a line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) :
1 1
[ /2 (x1 + x2), /2 (y1 + y2) ]

⮚ Find the mid-point of the line joining the points (20,4) and (10, -6)

Sol.: The required mid-point is ((20+10)/2, (4-6)/2) = (15, -1)

67
 The x-axis divides the line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the ratio y1: y2.
●
The y-axis divides the line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the ratio x1: x2.
●

STRAIGHT LINE
The straight line is the locus of points which can be represented by a first degree equation. i.e. an equation of the Y

form : X=1

ax + by + c = 0

where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are not simultaneously zeros and a, b and c are constants.
Slope of the line = Y=1

⮚ Find the equations of lines passing through A (1, 2) and parallel to the x and the y-axes.
O X

Sol. : The required equations are y = 2 and x = 1.

Shift of Origin
Sometimes the origin (0, 0) is shifted to a point (h, k) to make the equation shorter. Then the old co-ordinates (x,
/ / / / Y Y
y) of a point P will change to (x , y ), when x = x – h and y = y – k.
/ / /
XOY is the old frame of reference and X O Y is the new frame of reference.
/ / / / P
The axes O X and O Y in the new frame of reference will be parallel to OX and OY in the old frame of (x-h, y-k)
reference.
If the origin is shifted to (1, 2), the axes remaining parallel to the old axes, find the new co-ordinates of(h,
⮚ the point B(–3, –
X

7) (0,
X
Sol. : Here, (h, k) = (1, 2)
/ /
Let the new co-ordinates of B be (x ,y )
/ /
∴ x = x – h = –3 –1 = –4 y = y – k = –7 –2 = –9

∴ The new co-ordinates are (–4, –9)

Slope of a Line
The slope of a line is the tangent to least angle made by a line with the positive direction of the x-axis, taken in an anti- Y

clockwise manner. α is called the inclination of the line. Thus the slope of the line L1 is tan α.
L1
Also the equation of the line is ax + by + c = 0
Then slope = – . The slope of a line is also denoted by the term gradient and generally represented by the letter ‘m’.

 X
Two lines are parallel if their inclinations are equal O
●
Two lines are perpendicular if the difference of their inclinations is 90°.
●
⮚ What is the slope of the following straight lines (a) x = 10 and (b) y = -3?

Sol. : Since the first line x = 10 is parallel to the y-axis, its slope would be undefined. In the second case, y = -3 is parallel to the x-axis and consequently, its slope would
be zero.

⮚ What would be the gradient of the line, which has an inclination of 60° with the x-axis?

Sol. : The gradient (or the slope) of a line is the tangent of the inclination of that line. For the line, which has this angle of inclination as 60° (as given), the gradient
would be tan 60°, which is √3.

Slope of a line Joining Two Points

68
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

The slope of a line joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is: m = [(y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)]

⮚ Find the slope of the line joining the points (1, 2) and (-3, -4).

1
Sol.: The slope of the line joining the points (1,2) and (-3, -4) is [(-4 – 2)/(-3 – 1)] = -6/-4 = 3/2 or 1 /2.

Equation of a line in the Slope Intercept Form

The intercept of a line on the y-axis is the point at which the given line intersects the y-axis.
The line given in the figure alongside has a slope ‘m’ and a y-intercept ‘c’. It is represented in the form : Y
L1
y = mx + c

⮚ Find the equation of a line which makes an angle of 45° with the positive
P = (x, y)

direction of the x axis and cuts off an intercept of 8 on the y-axis.

[tan of= the
Sol.: The slope of the line would be tan 45° = 1 which is denoted by m. The intercept of the line on the y axis (denoted by c) is given as 8. The equation m] line would

be y = mx + c which becomes y = x + 8.
A = (0, c)
⮚ Find the slope and the intercept on y-axis of a line represented by 3x+4y+12=0 c

X
Sol. : The equation 3x+4y+12 = 0 can be written as y =(-3/4)x – 3. Comparing this with y = mx+c, we have the slope of the
O line as –3/4 and the intercept on
the y-axis as –3.

Condition of Parallelism of Lines

The lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2. Two lines y =
3x – 5 and y = 3x – 6 are parallel to each other. Since the slope of first line m
1 = 3 and of the second line m 2 = 3. So, m 1 = m2. This means that both lines make same angle with the x-axis but their y

intercepts are different. It is clear from the graph shown.

The equation of a line parallel to a given line AX + BY + C = 0, will be AX + BY + K = 0 where
K is a constant which can be found by any additional given condition. y = 3x – 5

⮚ Find the equation of a line passing through (-1, 4) and parallel to

= 60
y = 3x – 6

= 60
the line 3x + 2y – 7 = 0.

Sol.: The equation of a line parallel to the line 3x + 2y – 7 = 0 is of the form

3x + 2y – c1 = 0, where c1 is a constant. Since it passes through (-1, 4), we have
(-5, 0)
3 × (-1) + 2 × 4 + c1 = 0 or c1 = -5. Hence, the equation of the required line is
3x + 2y – 5 = 0 (-6, 0)

Condition of Perpendicularity of Lines.

The lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 are perpendicular if and only if m1m2 = -1.
The equation of a line perpendicular to a given line AX + BY + C = 0 will be BX – AY + K = 0, where K is a constant which can be found by an additional given
conditions.

⮚ Find the equation of a line which passes through the point (-1, 3) and is perpendicular to the straight line 4x + 3y + 1 = 0.

Sol.: The equation of any line perpendicular to the line 4x +3y + 1 = 0 is 3x – 4y + c1 = 0 … (i)
Since the required line passes through the point (-1, 3), we have 3 × (-1) – 4 × 3 + c1 = 0
or c1 = 15. Hence, the required equation is 3x – 4y + 15 = 0

Equation of a line in point-slope form

If a line has a slope m and passes through a point (x1, y1), its equation is of the form : (y – y1) = m (x – x1)

⮚ Find the equation of a line passing through the point (2,3) and making an angle of 60° with the positive direction of x-axis.

Sol.: The slope of the line (denoted by m) is tan 60° = √3. Since the line passes through the point (2,3), using the point-slope form of the equation of the line, we have (y-

3) = √3(x-2) or, x√3 –y-2√3+3 = 0 as the desired equation.

Equation of a line passing through two points

The equation of a line passing through two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is : [(y-y1) / (x-x1)] = [(y2-y1) / (x2-x1)]

69
⮚ Find the equation of the line passing through (2,3) and (3,7).

Sol.: Using the two point form, we have (y-3)/(x-2)=(7-3)/(3-2) which implies (y-3) = (x-2). 4
or, 4x-y-5 = 0

Equation of a line in Intercept Form

Let AB be a line intersecting x-axis and y-axis at P and Q respectively.
y
Then
A
OQ = (+)ve intercept on x-axis
P
OP = (+)ve intercept on y-axis
Intercept is (-)ve if it intersects on the negative side of x-axis or y-axis.
Co-ordinates of Q are given by (h, 0) and
co-ordinates of P are given by (0, k) Q
x
The equation of a line which has intercepts of ‘a’ and ‘b’ on the x- and y-axis respectively, is : (x/a) + (y/b) = 1 O

⮚ Find the equation of a line that cuts off positive intercepts on the x-axis and the y-axis with values of 3 and 2 respectively.
B

Sol.: Using the intercept form of the line, and knowing the x-axis and the y-axis intercepts are 3 and 2, the equation of the line becomes (x/3)+(y/2) = 1 or 2x + 3y – 6 =
0.

Distance (d) of a point (x1, y1) from straight line

ax + by + c = 0
d= ax 1 +by 1 +c
| |
Y

√ a +b
(x1,
2 2
d

⮚ Find the distance of a point (1, 1) from a straight line 3x + 4y + 8 = 0

Sol. : From the above formula the distance is given by

d= = 3 units ax +by + c = 0

X
O

Distance (D) between two parallel lines Y

ax + by + c1 = 0
ax +by + c1 = 0
ax + by + c2 = 0
D= c 1 −c 2
| | D

√ a2 + b2 ax +by + c2 = 0

⮚ Find the distance between the lines x + y + 5 = 0 X

O
and x + y + 13 = 0

Sol.: From the above formula, the distance is given by d = = 4√2 units.

Angles between lines having slopes m1 & m2

(1) Acute angle θ is given by tan θ = m1 −m2
| | Y
1+m1 m2
o
(2) Obtuse angle is 180 - θ where θ in the acute angle by above formula.
o
(180 - )

slope = m2
70

X
O
slope = m1
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

⮚ Find the angle between 2 lines the slopes of which are 1 & 0.

Sol.: From the above formula, we get tan θ = m1 −m2 = =1 ∴θ = 45

o

| |
1+m1 m2
⮚ Find the value of k such that the lines 2x + ky + 5 = 0 and kx + 8y + 12 = 0 would be parallel lines.

Sol.: For the given lines with equations 2x + ky + 5 = 0 and kx + 8y + 12 = 0,

the slopes are –2/k and –k/8 respectively. In order for the lines to be parallel the slopes should be equal.
2
This implies the following equation ⇒ -2/k = -k/8 ⇒ k = 16.

This implies that k = ±

4. The two lines thus should be either 2x + 4y + 5 = 0 and 4x + 8y + 12 = 0. (Both have a slope of –1/2). or 2x – 4y + 5 = 0 and –4x + 8y + 12 = 0. (Both have a slope of 1/2.).

To find the area enclosed by pair of straight lines when the equations of the lines are given.

⮚ Find the area enclosed by the straight lines x + y = 2, x = 1 and the

A
coordinate axes. (0,2) X

Sol.: Intersection between, x + y = 2 and x = 1 🡪 (1, 1).

Required area = ΔABC + Rectangle BCED B C (1, 1)
3
= ½ × 1 × 1 + 1 × 1 = ½ + 1 = /2 sq. units. (0,1)

TRIANGLE A

D E F (2, 0)
Incentre (0, 0) (1, 0)
E
The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent at a point I called Incentre.
The co-ordinates of the incentre of triangle ABC with the lengths a, b, c and vertices A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and F

C(x3,y3) is: I

I = { (ax1 + bx2 + cx3)/(a + b + c), (ay1 + by2 + cy3)/(a + b + c) }

C
Centroid
A
In a triangle the intersection of the medians is called Centroid denoted by G. The medians get split in the ratio 2 : 1 at
D
B
G.
The centroid of triangle ABC with vertices (x1,y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is:
F E
G = [ (x1 + x2 + x3)/3, (y1 + y2 + y3)/3 ] G

Area of a Triangle
y-
Let ABC be a triangle whose vertices are
A (x1,
A(x1, y1)
B D C
B(x2, y2)
C(x3, y3)
Area of ΔABC = A = [x1 (y2 – y3) + x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2)] B (x2, C (x3,

x-

⮚ Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(–1, –2), B(3, 2), C (–3, 0)

Sol. : Required Area = ½ {(–1)(2 – 0) + (3)(0 + 2) + (–3)(–2 –2)}

= ½ [–2 + 6 + 12] = ½ × 16 = 8 sq. units

Condition for Collinearity of Three Points

Three points A (x1, y1), B(x2, y2), and C(x3, y3) are Collinear, i.e. lie on the same straight line, if area of ΔABC = Zero
1 (y2 – y3) + x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2)] = 0

⮚ For what value of ‘m’ the points A(m + 1, 1), B(2m + 1, 3) and C (2m + 2, 2m) are collinear.

71
Sol. The given points, A, B, and C are collinear. So, the area of the triangle formed by these points will be zero.
(m + 1)(3 – 2m) + (2m + 1) (2m – 1) + (2m + 2)(1 – 3) = 0 2m 2
– 3m – 2 = 0
2m 2 – 4m + m – 2 = 0 2m(m – 2) + 1(m – 2) = 0 (2m + 1)(m – 2) = 0

m= or m = 2

Circumcentre of a Triangle
A (x1,
The circumcentre is the point with the triangle such that it is equidistant from all three vertices.
Let ABC be a triangle with vertices.
A (x 1, y1)
B (x 2, y2)
O
C (x 3, y3)

If O(x, y) is the circumcentre then

OA = OB = OC = circum-radius
B (x2, C (x3,
OA 2 = OB2 = OC2 (x – x 2 2 2 2 2
1) + (y – y1) = (x – x2) + (y – y2) = (x – x3) + (y – y3)
2

The above relation is used to find the unknown x, y.

⮚ Find a point equidistant from the points (6, 2), (-1, 3), and (-3, -1).

Sol. : Let P(x, y) be the required point equidistant from the given points A (6, 2), B (-1, 3), C (-3, -1)
PA 2 = PB2 (x – 6) 2 + (y – 2)2 = (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2
x 2 – 12x + 36 + y2 – 4y + 4 = x2 + 2x + 1 + y2 – 6y + 9
x + 2y = 0 (i)
2 2 (x – 6) 2 2 2 2
and PA = PC + (y – 2) = (x + 3) + (y + 1)
2 2 2 2
x – 12x + 36 + y – 4y + 4 = x + 6x + 9 + y + 2y + 1
3x + y = 5 (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) x = 2, y = -1 Hence, the required point is P(2, -1).

Conditions for a Parallelogram

If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3) and D(x4, y4) are four non-collinear points such that x1 + x3 = x2 + x4 and y1 + y3 = y2 + y4, then •ABCD is a parallelogram.

Conversely, if A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3) and D(x4, y4) form a parallelogram, then x1 + x3 = x2 + x4 and y1 + y3 = y2 + y4.
If (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) are three consecutive vertices of a parallelogram then the fourth vertex is given by (x 1 + x3 – x2,

y1 + y3 – y2).

⮚ In a parallelogram ABCD, where A(1, 0), B(2, 5), C(1, 9), find the co-ordinates of D.

Sol.: Let the co-ordinates of D be (x4, y4)

Since •ABCD is a parallelogram, x1 + x3 = x2 + x4 Also, y1 = y3 = y2 + y4

∴1 + 1 = 2 + x4 0 + 9 = 5 + y4 ∴ x4 = 0 ∴ y4 = 4

Equation of a Circle Y
P(x, y)

Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle whose centre is C(h, k) and radius is r. The equation of the circle is given
by = r. This form is called the centre radius form.

r
2 2
The general form a circle is x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
2 2 2 C(h, k)
where g = –h, f = –k and c = h + k – r
2 2 2
If the centre of the circle coincides with the origin, then the equation of the circle becomes x +y =r where r is the radius of
X
the circle.

Equation of an Ellipse
Y

72

X X
(0, 0) a
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

An ellipse is the locus of a point, which moves such that the ratio e of its distance
from a fixed point and from a straight line is a constant, less than 1. i.e., e < 1.
The equation of an ellipse in the standard form is , where a and

b are the lengths of the major and minor axis of the ellipse.
Area of an ellipse = π(ab)
●
Perimeter = π(a + b)
●
● A circle is a special case of ellipse where a = b.

Some Important Facts

π
⮚ Changing from degrees to radians: multiply degrees by /180

⮚ The equation of a straight line parallel to the x-axis is of the form y=k, where k is a constant. Similarly, the equation of a

straight line parallel to the y-axis is x=k.

⮚ The slope of a line which is parallel to x axis would be zero while that of a line
Y

Undefined slope
parallel to the y axis would be undefined (since tan 90° is undefined).

⮚ In order to find the X-intercept of a line, put Y = 0 in the equation of the line and find X.

Zero slope

⮚ In order to find the Y intercept of a line, put X = 0 in the equation of the line and find Y.

90
⮚ If three points A, B, C are co-linear, then any one of the following conditions should be true:

Area of Triangle ABC = 0

●
Slope of AB = Slope of BC = Slope of AC
●
AB + BC = AC
●

⮚ The easiest of these is condition (2). In a problem just check whether Slope of AB = Slope of BC or not.

73
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the study of triangles (and in particular, right angled triangles).
In the following chapter, we will generally assume that the right angled triangle is
ABC, right-angled at B, BCA = , and 3 sides being a, b, c
A

where for the given triangle Δ = area R = circum-radius

r = in-radius s = semi-perimeter b
c

Measuring Angles
(1) Sexagecimal system : B C

Here the angles are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. a

1 right angle = 90 degrees (90°)

1 degree = 60 minutes (60′)
1 minute = 60 seconds (60′′)
(2) Centesimal system :

1 right angle = 100 grades (100°)

1 grade = 100 minutes (100′)
1 minute = 100 seconds (100′′)
(3) Circular system :

Here the angles are measured in radians.

π radians = 180°

Change from To Multiply by

Radians Degrees 180/π

Degrees Radians π/180

In the figure alongside

Let s = length of arc AB.
= AOB expressed in radians. B

r = radius of circle = s/r

O
A
Trigonometrical Ratios:
In a right-angled triangle ABC, right angled at B, if
BCA = , then AB = perpendicular,

sin θ = Perpendicular AB
=
Hypotenuse AC

cos θ = Base BC
=
A

Hypotenuse AC

tan θ = Perpendicular AB
= Hypotenuse
Base BC Perpendicular

B C
Bas
74
 TRIGONOMETRY

cosec θ = 1
sin θ

sec θ = 1
cos θ

cot θ = 1
tan θ

(Note that tan θ = sin θ and cot θ = cos θ )

cos θ sin θ

Some Basic Identities:

2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1
2 2
1 + tan θ = sec θ
2 2
1 + cot θ = cosec θ

Values of Important Angles:

o o o o o
θ= 0 30 45 60 90

sin θ 0 1

cos θ 1 0

tan θ 0 1

Heights and Distances

Angle of Elevation – X

If point X is observed from point A and X is at a higher level than A then ∠θ is called the angle of

elevation.

Angle of Depression –
Let point X be observed from point A. If X is at a lower level than A then ∠θ is the A C B
A C B
angle of depression.

Special Right-angled Triangles –

o o o
In a 30 – 60 – 90 triangle the sides are in the ratio C

1 : √3 : 2. X

∴ If AB = x AC = √3x BC = 2x 3 2
3
If AC = y AB = y/√3 BC = (2/√3)y

If BC = z AC = √3z/2 AB = z/2 6
o o o A B
A 45 – 45 – 90 triangle is an isosceles triangles. Here the sides are in the ratio 1 : 1 : √2. 1
∴ If AB = AC = x BC = √2x C

If BC = y AB = AC = y/√2

4 2
75 1

A B
1
Permutation & Combination
Concept of Factorial
● If ‘n’ is a positive integer then the continued product of first ‘n’ natural numbers is called factorial n. It is denoted by n! or .

● Hence n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ….. (n-2)(n-1) × n. or n(n-1)(n-2) × … × 3 × 2 × 1.

● When n is negative or a fractional number, then is not defined.

● Factorial 0 is equal to 1.

⮚ 5! = 5 . 4 . 3 . 2 . 1 = 120

BASIC ADDITION PRINCIPLE :

Suppose we have 9 distinct red balls & 13 distinct blue balls, in how many ways can we choose a ball?
Since we have 9 + 13 = 22 balls and we are going to choose exactly 1 ball, we can choose a ball in 9 + 13 = 22 ways. If in addition to these 9 red and 13 blue balls we
have 8 distinct black balls, then the number of ways in which we can choose a ball out of these = 9 + 13 + 8 = 30 ways. The above illustration explains a general
principle, called the additive rule.
If an operation can be performed in ‘m’ ways and if another operation can be performed in ‘n’ ways and both the operations are mutually exclusive (i.e. only one
operation can be performed at a time – either the first or the second) then either of the two operations can be performed in m + n ways.

⮚ There are four books on Physics and five on Mathematics on display in a certain show room. In how many ways can Ram

buy a book either of Physics or of Mathematics?

Sol.: There are 5 ways of buying a book on Mathematics and there are 4 ways of buying a book on Physics. Thus Ram can buy either a Physics book or a
Mathematics book in 5 + 4 = 9 ways.

BASIC MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE

If an operation can be performed in ‘m’ different ways and if corresponding to each of these ‘m’ ways, there are ‘n’ different ways of performing another different
operation, then both the operations can be performed in m × n different ways.

⮚ There are 15 trains for going from Delhi to Bombay and 15 for going back from Bombay to Delhi. In how many ways can a

man go from Delhi to Bombay and return by a different train?

Sol.: There are 15 ways of going from Delhi to Bombay; and with each of these there is a choice of 14 trains (a different train is required) for returning. Hence the
number of ways of making the two journeys is 15 x 14, or 210. [Note that if he could have come back in the same train, then the number of ways would be 15 x 15 =
225].

⮚ Three travellers arrive at a town where there are four hotels; in how many ways can they take up their quarters, each at a

different hotel?

Sol. : The first traveller has a choice of four hotels, and when he has made his selection in any one way, the second traveler has a choice of three. Therefore the first
two can make their choice in 4 x 3 ways; and with any such choice the third traveller can select his hotel in 2 ways. Hence the required number of ways =
4 × 3 × 2 = 24.

Important Result
If there are m way of doing a thing, n ways of doing a second thing and p ways of doing a third thing, then the total number of “distinct” ways of doing all these
together is m x n x p.

⮚ Suppose, there are five routes for going from a place A to another place B and five routes for going from the place B to a

third place C. Find the number of different ways through which a person can go from A to C via B.

76 A C
B
 PERMUTATION & COMBINATION

Sol.: Since there are five different routes from A to B, person can go from A to B in five different ways. After reaching B, he has five different ways of finishing the
second part of his journey (i.e. going from B to C). Thus, for one way of going from A to B there are five different ways of completing the journey from A to C via B.
Hence, the total number of different ways of finishing both parts of the journey (i.e. A to B and then form B to C) = 5 times five different ways = 5 x 5 (no. of ways from
the first point to the second point * number of ways from the second point to the third point).

Distinction between the Additive Rule

and the Product Rule

As per the principle of multiplication, a job is divided or decomposed into a number of sub-jobs which are unconnected to each other and the job is said to be performed
if each sub-job is performed. While in the principle of addition there are a number of independent jobs and we have to perform one of them. So, the total number of ways
of completing any one of the sub-jobs is the sum of the number of ways of completing each sub-job.
In case exactly one of the specified events occurs, we apply the Additive rule. In case each of the specified event occurs in the given order, we apply the Product rule.
This will be clear from the following example.

⮚ A shop has 8 doors and 12 windows.

(a) In how many ways can a thief enter the shop, if he may enter through a door or a window?
(b) In how many ways can the thief rob the shop by entering through a window and exiting through a door ?

Sol. : Two events are involved: selecting a window and selecting a door. The first event can occur in 12 different ways and the second event can occur in 8 different
ways.
(a) Since the thief uses either a door or a window to enter the shop, exactly one of the two events occur. By the sum rule, the thief has 8 + 12 = 20 choices to enter
the shop.
(b) Since the thief enters through a window and exits through a door, both the events must occur. Therefore, by the product rule, the thief has 12 x 8 = 96 possible
ways to rob the shop.

PERMUTATIONS
Each of the arrangements which can be made by taking some or all of a number of things is called a permutation. In forming permutations, we have to consider the
order of the distinct things which make up each arrangement. For instance, the permutations which can be made by taking the letters a, b, c, d two at a time are twelve in
number, namely ⇒ ab, ac, ad, ba, bc, bd, ca, cb, cd, da, db, dc.

Number of Permutations of N dissimilar things taken R at a time

This is the same thing as finding the number of ways in which we can fill up ‘r’ places when we have ‘n’ different things at our disposal.
The first place may be filled up in ‘n’ ways, for any one of the ‘n’ things taken. When the first place has been filled up in any one of these ways, the second place can
then be filled up in (n – 1) ways, (since only n – 1 things are now left). Now when the first two places have been filled up in n(n-1) ways, n – 2 things are left, and the
third place can be filled up in (n – 2) ways.

∴The number of ways in which three places can be filled up is n(n – 1)(n – 2).
Proceeding in a similar manner, and introducing a new factor for each step, we have the number of ways in which r places can be filled as : n(n – 1)(n – 2)(n – 3) … to r
th n
factors. The r factor would be n – (r – 1) or (n - r + 1). Therefore, the number of permutations of n things taken r at a time, which is represented by Pr is :
n(n – 1)(n – 2)… (n – r + 1).
n
Using factorial notations, Pr = n!/(n – r)!

⮚ In how many ways can six persons be arranged if there are only four seats available (two persons have to stand)?

Sol.: Instead of a person choosing any of the seats to lead to an arrangement, we have to imagine a seat choosing any of the persons to lead to an arrangement.
Thus, the first seat can be filled by any of the 6 persons, the second any of the remaining 5, and so on. Consequently the answer again is 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 360. (or simply
6
P4)

⮚ How many different 6 digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1,2,3,…9 without repeating each digit more than

once?
9
Sol.: The solution is permutations of 9 different things taken 6 at a time, which is P6 = = 60480.

77
⮚ In how many ways can 6 persons be arranged in 6 chairs?

Sol. The first chair can be filled in 6 ways, the next in 5 ways and so on. So the total number of permutations
=6×5×4×3×2×1= = 720

Number of permutations of n different items taken r at a time, when each item may repeat

any number of times in any one arrangement

This is the same thing as finding the number of ways in which we can fill up r places when we have n different things at our disposal, and if repetition is allowed.
The first place may be filled up in n ways, since any one of the n things may be taken. When the first place has been filled up in any one of these ways, the second place
can then again be filled up in n ways (not n – 1, since repetition is allowed). When the first two places have been filled up in n × n way, the third place can be filled up
again in n ways. The number of ways in which three places can be filled up is n × n × n.

Proceeding in a similar manner, and introducing a new factor for each step, we have the number of ways in which r places can be filled as: n × n × n × n … to r factors.
r
Hence the required number of arrangements is n

⮚ In how many ways can 5 prizes be given away to 4 boys, when each boy is eligible for all the prizes?

Sol. The first prize can be given in 4 ways. Then any one of the remaining prizes can also be given in 4 ways (it is possible for the second prize to be awarded to
someone who has already received a prize). Thus two prizes can be given away in 4 × 4 ways, three prizes in 4 × 4 × 4 ways, and so on.
Hence, the 5 prizes can be given away in 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 1024 ways.

COMBINATION
In the previous article, we have discussed about permutation and we have already explained that in permutation the order is important but that in the case of combination
order has no meaning. For example if we say that select 2 persons out of 3 persons (A,B and C) the selections may be AB or BC or CA. Instead of this, if we say that
arrange 2 persons out of 3 persons in different manners then the arrangements should be AB, BA, BC, CB, CA, and AC respectively, thus we can say that in the case of
combination (AB or BA) and (BC or CB) and (CA or AC) have same meaning but in case of permutation (AB or BA) and (BC or CB) and (CA or AC) have a different
meaning.
Definition : Each of the different groups or selections, which can be formed by taking some or all of the them, without reference to the order are called combinations

of n things taken ‘r’ at a time (where n ≥ r)

n
It can be written in the form of formula as Cr = n! / (n-r)!r!
n n n
⮚ If C14 = C16, find C28

Sol.: From the above explained property r = (n – r) or 14 = n – 16 or n = 30

n 30 30
Therefore C28 = C28 = C2 = (30 × 29) ÷ (1 × 2) = 435

⮚ Find the number of rectangles which we can from on a chess board.

Sol.: There are 9 horizontal and 9 vertical lines on a chess board. To form a rectangle we require two horizontal and two vertical lines. Thus the number of rectangles
9 9
on the chess board = C2 x C2 = 36 x 36 = 1296.

⮚ From 7 Men and 4 Women a committee of 6 is to be formed. In how many ways can this be done if the committee contains

(a) exactly 2 women and (b) at least 2 women?

Sol. (a) :
4 7
In case (a) we have to choose 2 women out of 4 women, and 4 men out of 7 men. This can be done in C2 and C4 ways respectively. Since each of the groups can be
4 7
associated with every other we have multiplication principle giving the answer as C2 × C4 = 210.

Sol. (b) :
The committee can contain 4, 3 or 2 women.
Women Men No. of Ways
4 7
4 2 ( C4 × C2) = 210
4 7
3 3 ( C3 × C3) = 140
4 7
2 4 ( C2 × C4) = 21

78
 PERMUTATION & COMBINATION

We get the solution by using additive principle here ⇒ 210 + 140 + 21 = 371

Alternative to part b.
The problem can also be solved by taking all possible combinations
11
(no distinction between men and women is done) and then removing from them the combinations where there are 0 or 1 woman only. This can be formulated as C6 –
7 7 4
( C6) – ( C5 x C1) which is 462 – 7 – 84 = 371.

The Total number of Ways in which it is possible to make a selection by taking some or all of n

things
Each thing can be dealt in two ways – either it is taken (or selected) or it is not. Also each selection may be associated with every other selection and thus the
n
multiplication principle can be applied. The final number of ways with n things would be: 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × … to n factors which is 2 . But this would include the case where
n
all the things are left out. Rejecting this case we arrive at 2 - 1. This is also known as the total number of combinations of n things.

⮚ A man has 5 friends; in how many ways may he invite one or more of them to dinner?

5
Sol.: He has to invite 5 friends. Each may either be selected or not. So the number of ways would be 2 – 1 = 31.
Another approach can also be tried as given. The friends can either be invited in terms of 1 or 2 or 3 … upto 5. Thus he has to select 1 out of 5, or 2 out of 5, or 3 out of
5.. or 5 out of 5.
5 5 5 5 5
This formulates to C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 = 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 = 31.
The number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection by taking some or all of p + q +r … things, out of which p are alike of one kind, q are alike of
another kind and so on
The p things may be selected of in p + 1 ways; for we may take 0, 1, 2, 3, … p of them. Similarly the q things may be selected of in q + 1 ways and so on. Hence the
number of ways in which all the things may be selected of is (p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) …
However, this includes the case in which none of the things are being chosen and that has to be removed to yield a final answer of (p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1)… – 1.

⮚ How many choices can be made of selections out of 15 Physics, 10 English and 12 Mathematics books when at least one

book is to be selected?

Sol.: There are (15 + 1) ways of dealing with 15 Physics books including the case of not choosing any Physics book at all. Using similar logic, the total number of ways
of dealing with all these books would be (15 + 1) × (12 + 1) × (10 + 1) = 2288. But since at least one book should be chosen and 2288 would also include the case when

none of them is chosen, we have the final answer as 2287.

⮚ Find the total number of combinations of 5 alphabets A, B, A, B, B, taking some or all at a time.

Sol.: Here A is twice and B is thrice, so by formula, total combinations = (2 + 1) (3 + 1) –1 = 11.

Some Important Facts :

⮚ This problem can also be solved in a more meaningful manner by using combinations. First select 4 persons out of 6 who would be

the ones to sit, and later arrange these selected persons in all possible manners on the seats. However, this would require knowledge of

combinations, which is discussed later.

⮚ Number of permutations of n different things all taken at a time is

n n
1. Cr = Pr / r! = n! / (n-r)!r!

n
2. C0 = 1

n
3. C1 = n

5
4. C3 = The number of ways of choosing 3 things out of 5 things. Every time you are choosing 3 things. You are rejecting the other two.

5 5 n n
∴ C3 = C2 or, Cr = Cn-r

n n n+1
5. Cr + Cr-1 = Cr

79
Probability
Random Experiment :
A random experiment is an experiment in which
(i) all the possible outcomes of the experiment are known in advance &
(ii) the exact outcome of any specific performance of the experiment is unpredictable, i.e. depends on chance.

⮚ While tossing a coin, the possible outcomes are head and tails and we cannot predict what the outcome will be.

Sample Space :
The set S of all possible outcomes of an experiment (or observation) is called a sample space, provided no two or more of these outcomes can occur simultaneously,
and exactly one of the outcomes must occur whenever the experiment is performed.
Using the same example as before, on tossing a coin, the sample space S = (H, T). {These are the only 2 possible outcomes, while tossing a coin}

Event :
An event is a subset of a sample space.
(1) If an event contains a single point i.e. it is a singleton set, then this event is called an elementary or a simple event.
(2) An event corresponding to the empty set is an ‘impossible event’.
(3) An event corresponding to the entire sample space is called a ‘certain event’.

⮚ Let us consider the experiment of tossing two coins. We are interested in whether each coin falls head (H) or tail (T),

then the possible outcomes are:

Sample space, S = [(H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T)]

Now, the event that at least one head occurs.

E = [(H, H), (H, T), (T, H)]

Mutually Exclusive Events :

If two or more events have no point in common, then they are said to be mutually exclusive events. Thus, the events A and B are mutually exclusive events if A
B=

⮚ On tossing a coin, the occurrence of a head and a tail are mutually exclusive, as both cannot occur together.

⮚ You are asked to choose a number from 1- 10. Let event A be that the number is divisible by 2 (2,4,6,8,10) and let

event B be that the number is divisible by 3 ( 3,6,9) These 2 events are not mutually exclusive as they have 6 common.

Equally likely Events :

Two events are said to be equally likely, if one of them cannot be expected to occur in preference to the other.

⮚ On rolling a die, the appearance of any number has no preference over another. So, the event of appearance of 2 and 3

are equally likely.

Exhaustive Events :
A set of events is said to be exhaustive if no event outside this set occurs and at least one of these events must happen as a result of the experiment.
Thus, when we toss a coin, it must fall either head or tail (the possibility of standing on the edge is ruled out).Thus, the set S (H, T) is the set of exhaustive events on
the tossing of a coin.

Independent Events :
Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence of any event does not affect the occurrence of the other event.

80
 PROBABILITY

⮚ While tossing a coin, the first toss cannot affect the outcome of the second toss. i.e. say if a head appears in the first

toss, it does not affect the occurrence of a head or a tail in the second toss.

Dependent Events :
If the occurrence or non-occurrence of any event affects the happening of the other, then the events are said to be dependent events.
st
⮚ In drawing a card from a pack of cards, let the event A be the occurrence of a king in the 1 draw and B be the

occurrence of a king in the second draw. If the card drawn at the first trial is not replaced then events A and B are dependent

events.

Complementary Events :
If there exist an event in sample space S, then the set of elements in the sample space which do not belong to the event A is known as the complement of A. If A is an
event in a sample space S and A′ is the event which is not A in S such that P(A) + P(A′) = 1, then A and A′ are known as complementary events.
In the following figure, the shaded portion of S represents A’. We also call A’ as “not A”.

⮚ On rolling a fair die, let A be the event of the occurrence of an odd number (1, 3,5). Then the event ‘not A’ is (2,4,6). So,
A

A and ‘not A’ are complimentary events, as they have no element common.

S
Intersection of Events :
The intersection of two events A and B, denoted by A
B is given by the shaded
A portion i.e. the set of elements or the portion which is common to both the event A and B gives the intersection of the ev

Note that AB occurs if and only if the outcome of the experiment is an element of both A and B. In other
S words AB occurs if and only if both A and B occur simultaneously. Thus, AB also denotes the s

⮚ If set A includes multiples of 2 and set B includes multiples of 3, then during the random selection of a number from 1-
A

10, A includes (2,4,6,8,10) and B includes (3,6,9).Thus, A∩B is 6

A B

Classical Definition of Probability :

If a random experiment results in n mutually exclusive, equally likely and exhaustive outcomes out of which m are favourable to the occurrence of an event A, then the
probability of the occurrence of A, usually denoted by P(A) is given by:
P(A) = m the number of favourable outcomes
=
n the total number of outcomes
In the application of this definition, the term favourable is used rather loosely – favourable may mean that a patient may have a viral fever or a brand new television does
not work or a book published by TMH company has more than 120 printing errors.
Thus probability is a concept which measures numerically the degree of certainty or uncertainty of the occurrence of an event.
For example, the probability of randomly drawing a king from a well-shuffled deck of cards is 4/52. Since 4 is the number of favourable outcomes (i.e. 4 kings of
diamond, spade, club and heart) and 52 is the number of total outcomes (the number of cards in a deck).
If A is any event of sample space, having probability P, then clearly, P is a positive number (expressed as a fraction or usually as a decimal) not greater than unity.

⮚ In a lottery there are 8 prizes and 25 blanks (i.e. no prize for these cases). What is the chance that a person holding 1

ticket will win a prize? What is the chance that he does not win?

Sol.: The winning of the lottery is possible in 8 ways while not winning is possible in 25 ways (since there are 25 blanks). The probability of winning is thus 8 / (8
+ 25) = 8/33 and that of not winning is 25 / (8 + 25) = 25/33.

Chances of Happening of an Event :

If an event can happen in ‘a’ ways and fail to happen in ‘b’ ways and all these are equally likely, then we have defined the probability of its happening as a/(a + b).
Instead of just saying that the chance of the happening of an event is a/(a + b), it can be stated that the odds are a to b in favour of the event, or b to a against the event.

81
⮚ From a bag containing 4 white and 5 black balls a man draws 3 balls at random. What are the odds against all of these balls

being black?
9
Sol.: The total number of ways in which 3 balls can be drawn from 9 balls (without replacement) is C3 and the number of ways of drawing 3 black balls (from available
5 5 9
5 black balls) is C3. Therefore, the chance of drawing 3 black balls is given by C3/ C3 = 5/42. Thus, the odds against the event are 37 to 5.

Addition Law of Probability :

The probability that one of the several mutually exclusive events A, B, C, … will happen is the sum of the probabilities of the individual events, i.e., p = p 1 + p2 + p3 +
… where p1, p2, p3, … are respectively the probabilities of events A, B, C and so on. This rule has to be applied if one of the events A or B or C …… have to occur.
Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive events
P (A or B) = the probability of either A or B happening
And it is calculated as follows:
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
For every event A, either A happens or it doesn’t. So the events A and Not A are exclusive and exhaustive.
P(A) + P(not A) = 1 or equivalently P(A) = 1 – P (Not A)

⮚ A box contains 5 red balls, 4 black balls and 7 white balls. What is the probability that a ball drawn is either red or black?

Sol.:The number of favorable chances = 9 (5 red balls and 4 black balls).

9
The total number of ways in which a ball can be chosen = (5+4+7) =16 Hence, the answer is /16.
5 4
Alternatively, the probability of drawing a red ball is /16 while that of drawing a black ball is /16. Since these are mutually exclusive (if a red ball is drawn then it
5 4 9
implies that the black ball is not drawn and vice versa), the probability of drawing a black or a red ball is given by /16 + /16 = /16.

Conditional Probability :
The probability of the occurrence of an event E2, subject to the condition that E1 has already occurred is called the Conditional Probability of E2, and is denoted as
P(E2/E1).

Multiplication law:
This law states that P(E1E2) = P(E1) × P(E2/E1) where P(E1E2) is the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of the events E1 and E2, P(E1) is the probability of
the event E1, and P(E2/E1) is the conditional probability of E2 on the condition that E1 has already occurred.
Similarly, P(E2E1) = P(E2) × P(E1/E2)
NOTE :
If the events are independent then we have –

P(E1E2) = P(E1) × P(E2)

The following example will make it clear.

⮚ One bag contains 5 red balls and 4 black balls. One ball is drawn twice (i) with replacement & (ii) without replacement.

What is the probability that both are red in each of these cases?

Sol.: Case 1: Independent or with replacement

st
P(1 ball being red) = 5/9
nd
P(2 ball being red) = 5/9
P(Both balls being red) = 5/9 × 5/9 = 25/81

Case 2 : Dependant or without replacement

In this case probability of second ball being red depends on whether the ball drawn first is red or black so the probability will be 5/9 × 4/8 = 20/72

Non-mutually exclusive events :

If A and B are not-mutually exclusive events with respective probabilities of p1 and p2, then the probability that either A or B happens would be given by (p1 OR p2).
Note the fact that since the events A and B may not be independent and mutually exclusive, p1 OR p2 may not correspond to p1 + p2. Analogy with the set formula for
the union of sets

P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B) is useful to understand this rule. It can also be inferred that

P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A ∩ B) – P(A ∩C) – P(B ∩ C) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)

82
 PROBABILITY

⮚ There are 20 tickets marked with numbers from 1 through 20. Out of these, one ticket is drawn at random (without bias).

What is the probability that the drawn ticket would correspond to (a) a multiple of 3 or 7 (b) a multiple of 3 or 5.

Sol.: In case (a), there is no number less than 20, which is multiple of 3 as well as 7, hence the two events (getting a 3 multiple and getting a 7 multiple) are
6 2
mutually exclusive. The probability of getting a 3 multiple is /20 (the numbers 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18) while that of getting a 7 multiple is /20 (7, 14). The total probability
6 2 8 2
is thus a simple addition of these two yielding /20 + /20 = /20 or /5.
6 4
In case (b), getting a multiple of 3 is possible with a probability of /20 while getting a multiple of 5 is /20 (5, 10, 15, 20). However, here the two events are not
1 6 4 1
mutually exclusive, and can happen simultaneously (the number 15) and this is possible in /20 ways. The correct answer thus would be given by /20 + /20 – /20 =
9
/20.

Some Important Facts :

⮚ There are two faces of an unbiased coin – head and tail

⮚ There are six faces of an unbiased die – 1, 2, … 6

⮚ There are 52 cards in a pack of cards

⮚ In a pack of cards –

Honours cards : A, K, Q, J

Picture cards or Court Card : K, Q, J

Digit cards : 2 – 10

⮚ If an event E is sure to occur, we say that the probability of the event E is equal to 1 and we write P(E) = 1.

⮚ If an event E is sure not to occur, we say that the probability of the event E is equal to 0 and we write P(E) = 0.

⮚ Therefore for any event E, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1.

83
Ratio & Proportion
RATIO
A ratio is defined as the relation a quantity of one kind bears with another quantity of the same kind. The relation siy9gnifies what multiple or part

the first quantity is of the second.

The ratio q = a : b can be written as

a
a : b = /b = a ÷ b
In the ratio a : b, a and b are called the terms of the ratio, ‘a’ is the antecedent, ‘b’ is the consequent.

Properties
1. Ratio stays unaltered when the antecedent and the consequent are multiplied or divided by the same number.

a:b=

2. Both the terms a and b should be expressed in the same units

⮚ If a = 2kg and b = 1000 gms., then

a : b = 2000 : 1000 or a : b = 2 : 1 ( since 1 kg = 1000 gm)

3. To combine two different ratios expressed in different units we use compounding.

q = a : b and r = k :  => Compounded ratio (qr) = a×k

b ×λ
⮚ Tap A fills a tank by being open for 8 hours for 8 days. Tap B takes 16 hrs. for 6 days. How many taps of B would be

required to fill water at the same rate as A?

b 16
[ Hours Ratio ] k = 6 [ Days Ratio ]
Sol.:
=
a 8 ℓ 8
Compounded (Day-Hours) Ratio = a × k = 16 × 6 3
= /2 : 1

b ×ℓ 8 ×8
So 1½ pipes of the velocity of B would be required.
Addendo
a c e a c e
4. If /b = /d = /f , then /b = /d = /f =

a b
⮚ If /7 = /3 = find k.

a b 3a -2b
Sol.: /7 = /3 or /21 = /-6 (Multiplying LHS by 3 and RHS by –2)
Now using the property 3a - 2b 3a - 2b or k = 21– 6 = 15
=
21 - 6 k
a c b d
5. (i) /b = /d then, /a = /c [Invertendo]
a c a b
(ii) /b = /d then /c = /d [Alterendo]
(iii) a c
/b = /d then a+b c+d [Componendo]
=
b d

84
 RATIO & PROPORTION

(iv) a/b = c/d then a − b c-d [Dividendo]

=
b d
(v) a c
/b = /d then a+b c+d [Componendo Dividendo]
=
a-b c-d
⮚ find x.

Sol.: Using Dividendo , Numerator - Denominator Numerator - Denominator

=
Denominator Denominator
or x2 x2
=
3x - 5 2x - 7
a a
[Given that /b = /c either when (i) a = 0 or, (ii) Denominators are equal]
3x – 5 = 2x – 7 or x = -2 or x = 0

⮚ = 5, find a : b

Sol.: 3a + 5b = 5
3a - 5b 1
Using Componendo – Dividendo
6a 6 or a : b = 5 : 2
=
10b 4
6. If the number of quantities are four

If A N 1 B N2 C N 3 then,
= , = , =
B D 1 C D2 D D 3
A : B : C : D = (N1 × N2 × N3) : (D1 × N2 × N3) : (D1 × D2 × N3) : (D1 × D2 × D3) ,
st nd rd
where N1,N2 and N3 are the numerators and D1, D2 and D3 are the denominators of the 1 ,2 and 3 ratios respectively.

In this way, the relation among any number of quantities can be found.

⮚ If A/B=1/2 , B/C= 3/4, C/D= 5/6 , find A : B : C : D

Sol.: A : B : C : D = (1× 3× 5): (2×3×5) : (2×4×5) : (2×4×6) = 15 : 30 : 40 : 48

Inverse Ratio
For any ratio a : b, its inverse ratio is defined as or b : a.

For any ratio a : b : c, its inverse ratio is defined as or bc : ca : ab

Duplicate Ratio
2 2
For any ratio a : b, its duplicate ratio is defined as a : b .

Triplicate Ratio
For any ratio a : b, its triplicate ratio is defined as

Sub-Duplicate Ratio
For any ratio a : b, its sub-duplicate ratio is defined as a : b.

85
⮚ What is the sub-duplicate ratio of 16:25.

Sol.: Sub-duplicate ratio of 16:25 is 16 : 25, i.e. 4:5.

Sub-Triplicate Ratio
For any ratio a : b, its sub-triplicate ratio is defined as
√3 a : √3 b
⮚ Find the sub-triplicate ratio of 27:64.

Sol.: Sub-triplicate ratio of 27:64 is

√3 27 : √3 64 , i.e. 3:4

PROPORTION
If the ratio of two quantities is equal to the ratio of other two quantities then the four quantities are said to be in proportion. i.e. if a : b = c : d, then a, b, c, d are in
proportion.
3 1
⮚ /12 = /4, then they are in proportion.

st th
Each quantity in proportion is called ‘term’ or ‘proportional’. The first & last terms are called extremes (1 &4 proportionals) while the second and third terms are
called mean proportionals.
If a : b = c : d, then ad = bc

Continued Proportion :
Three quantities a, b, c are said to be in continued proportion if a b
=
b c
√ ac
2
b = ac b= Hence b is called the mean proportional.

Thus, 9, 6, 4 are in continued proportion because 9:6 :: 6:4. Hence, 6 is the mean proportion between 9 and 4 and 4 is the third proportion to 9 and 6

⮚ Find the value of x, if x is the mean proportional between (x – 2) & (x + 6)

2 2
Sol.: x = (x –2) (x + 6) = x + 4x – 12 => x = 3

VARIATION
1. If two quantities ‘a’ & ‘b’ are related in such a way that any increase or decrease in ‘b’ produces a proportionate increase or decrease respectively in ‘a’, then ‘a’ is
directly proportional to ‘b’.
In that case a ∝ b => a = k (constant)

b
2. If two quantities ‘p’ & ‘q’ are related in such a way that any increase in ‘q’ will bring about a proportionate decrease in p and any decrease in q bring about a
proportionate increase in p, then p is said to be inversely proportional to q.
In that case p ∝ 1/q => pq = constant.

Some Important Facts :

⮚ A ratio is a number, so to find out the ratio of two quantities, they must be expressed in the same units.

⮚ A ratio is said to be in its simplest from if the HCF of the antecedent and the consequent is 1.

For example: Consider the ratios 4/6 and 2/3. Here the HCF of the antecedent and the consequent for 4/6 is 2, and that for 2/3 is 1. Hence

2/3 is said to be in the simplest form.

86
 RATIO & PROPORTION

⮚ Some important results of variation :

1. If A ∝ B & B ∝ C, then A ∝ C.

2. If A ∝ C & B ∝ C, then A ± B ∝ C &

√ AB ∝C

3. If A ∝ BC, then A ∝B& A ∝C

C B
4. If A ∝ B & C ∝ D, then AC ∝ BD
n n
5. If A ∝ B, then A ∝ B

6. If A ∝ B & A ∝ C, then A ∝ (B ± C)

7. If A ∝ B, then AP ∝ BP, where P is any quantity, constant or variable.

87
Partnership
Partnership is defined as the association of two or more persons who put their money together in order to carry on a certain business.

Simple Partnership
Simple Partnership is the one in which the capitals of each of the partners is invested for the same time.

Gains or losses in a partnership are divided among the partners in the ratio of their investments in case of a simple partnership.
If X and Y are partners in a business, then :

Investment of X Profit of X or
=
Investment of Y Profit of Y
If X, Y and Z are partners in a business, then:
Investment of X : Investment of Y : Investment or Z
= Profit of X : Profit of Y : Profit of Z
= Loss of X : Loss of Y : Loss of Z.
Profit share : Thus, If three partners A, B, C invest Rs. X, Y, Z respectively and have a profit of Rs. P, then
Share of A = P × X Share of B = P × Y Share of C = P × Z
X +Y + Z X +Y + Z X +Y + Z
⮚ A, B, & C enter into a partnership investing Rs. 3800, Rs. 4200, & Rs. 4000 respectively. How should a profit of Rs. 1800 be

divided among them?

Sol.: Profit should be divided among the partners in ratio of their investments.
The ratio of A, B & C’s share is : 3800 : 4200 : 4000 = 19 : 21: 20

Sum of the ratios = 19 + 20 + 21 = 60

A’s share = Rs. = Rs. 570

B’s share = Rs. = Rs. 630

C’s share = Rs. = Rs. 600

Compound Partnership
Compound Partnership is the one wherein the periods of investment are unequal.

In case of a compound partnership, equivalent capitals for a unit of time are calculated by multiplying the capital with the number of units it was in business. The profit
is then divided in the ratio of equivalent capital.

⮚ In a partnership deal, A contributes Rs. 3200 for 4 months, B contributes Rs. 5100 for 3 months and C contributes Rs. 2700

for 5 months. How should they divide a total profit of Rs. 1248 among themselves?

Sol.: We calculate equivalent capitals for one month :

A’s capital for 1 month = Rs. (3200 × 4) = Rs. 12800
B’s capital for 1 month = Rs. (5100 × 3) = Rs. 15300
C’s capital for 1 month = Rs. (2700 × 5) = Rs. 13500

Sum of ratios = 128 + 153 + 135 = 416

A’s share = Rs. = Rs. 384B’s share = Rs. = Rs. 459

88
 PARTNERSHIP

C’s share = Rs. = Rs. 405

Monthly Equivalent Investment

Monthly Equivalent Investment ( MEI ) is the product of the capital invested and the period for which it is invested.
Monthly Equivalent Investment = Capital Invested × Period of Investment

If the period of investment is different, then the profit or loss is divided in the ratio to their Monthly Equivalent Investment.

⮚ If X and Y are partners in a business, then

If X, Y and Z are partners in a business, then also the similar concept is applicable.
●
If more than two persons invest money in a business then,

MEI of A : MEI of B : MEI of C = Profit for A : Profit for B : Profit for C.

⮚ A, B and C enter into a partnership. A contributes Rs. 320 for 4 months, B contributes Rs. 510 for 3 months, and C

contributes Rs. 270 for 5 months. If the total profit is Rs. 208, find the profit share of the partner.

Sol.: A’s profit : B’s profit : C’s profit

= 320 × 4 : 510 × 3 : 270 × 5 = 1280 : 1530 : 1350 = 128 : 153 : 135
=

89
Alligation
The word Alligation literally means linking. The rule takes its name from the lines or links used in working out questions on mixture.
Quite often two or more things of the same kind but of different qualities have to be mixed together in different ratios. Alligation provides us the method by which we
can determine the proportion in which different ingredients of known values are mixed to produce a mixture of a given value or, to determine the mean value of a mixture
when proportion & value of its ingredients are known.
Alligation is the rule that enables us
(a) to find the mean or average value of the mixture when the prices of two or more ingredients which may be mixed together and proportion in which they are
mixed are given. This is Alligation Medial.
(b) to find the proportion in which the ingredients at given prices must be mixed to produce a mixture at a given price. This is Alligation Alternate.

To find the ratio of two ingredients :

IMPORTANT RULE : Reduce the price of the ingredients and of the mixture to the same units and use the following formulae :-

OR
Weight of dearer quality Difference of prices of mixture and cheaper
=
Weight of cheaper quality Difference of prices of dearer and mixture
The rule given previously can also be represented according to the following working chart.

Working Chart :
Price of Cheaper quality Price of dearer quality
per unit per unit
Price of mixture
per unit
(Price of dearer quality (Price of mixture
– Price of mixture) – Price of cheaper quality)

Application of the Alligation Rule

i) When x1 quantity of ingredient A of cost C1 and x2 quantity of ingredient B of cost C2 are mixed

Cost of mixture Cm =

⮚ A merchant mixes 3 kgs of tea costing Rs. 50 per kg and 5 kgs of another variety costing Rs. 34 per kg. At what price per kg

should he sell the mixture so as to make a profit of 10% on the cost price?

Sol.: C1 = Rs. 50/kg x1 = 3 kg

C2 = Rs. 34/kg x2 = 5 kg
m= C1 x 1 +C 2 x 2 = 150+170 320 = 40
C =
x 1+ x 2 8 8

Similarly when more than 2 ingredients are mixed,

Cm =

ii) When two mixtures of quantity M1 and M2, each containing ingredient A and B in the ratio a : b and x : y, respectively, are

mixed, the proportion of the ingredients A and B i.e. qA : qB, in the compound mixture is given by :

90
 ALLIGATION

and, the quantity in which M1 and M2 is to be mixed when the quantity of A and B i.e. qA and qB in the compound mixture is known

is given by :

⮚ A vessel ‘A’ contains milk and water in the ratio 4 : 5 and the vessel ‘B’ contains the same in the ratio 5 : 1. In what

proportion should the quantities to be taken from A & B to form a mixture in which milk and water are in the ratio of 5 : 4?
st
Sol.: Let quantity taken from 1 mixture = x
nd
Let quantity taken from 2 mixture = y
4 5
x( 9 )+ y ( 6 ) 5 or or
x 5
= 16 x 20 y 25 x 5 y 15 y 9 x =
5
x( 9
1
)+ y ( 6 ) 4 + = + =
9 6 9 6 6 9 y 2

iii) When a mixture of 3 ingredients A, B and C is given, take any two ingredients such that cost of the mixture is between the

costs of the two chosen ones and find the ratio. Once again, take any other pair of ingredients and find their ratio. Then find the

combined ratio. This will give an infinite number of solutions.

The following example will make it clear.

⮚ In what ratio must a person mix three kinds of wheat costing him Rs. 1.20, Rs. 1.44 and Rs. 1.74 per kg, so that

the mixture may be worth Rs. 1.41 per kg?

st nd rd
Sol.: 1 wheat 2 wheat 3 wheat
120 144 174
following the above rule, we have,
st nd st nd
1 wheat 2 wheat 1 wheat 3 wheat
120 144 120 174
Mean Price Mean Price
141 141
144 – 141 = 3 141 – 120 = 21 174 – 141 = 33 141 – 120 = 21
st nd st rd
1 wheat : 2 wheat = 3 : 21 = 1 : 7 1 wheat : 3 wheat = 33 : 21= 11 : 7
st nd
Adding the ratios = 36 : 21 : 21 or, 12 : 7 : 7 Again, 1 wheat : 2 wheat = 2 : 14
New ratio may be = 13 : 14 : 7, and so on.

Repetitive Mixing
A vessel contains x litres of spirit. y litres of spirit is taken out of the vessel and replaced by some quantity of water. Again y litres of the mixture is taken out and replaced
by the same quantity of water. This process is repeated n times. At the end of n operations :

⮚ A container has a capacity of 80 liters and is full of milk. 5 liters of milk is taken out of it and the container is filled with

water. This process is repeated 4 times. How much milk is left in the container?

Sol.:

91
Some Important Facts :

⮚ Alligation method is applied for percentage values, ratios, rates, prices and speed, etc. and not for absolute values. That is, whenever

percent, per hour, per kg, per km, etc. are being compared, we can use alligation.

⮚ If the value of each item is increased or decreased by the same value p, then the average of the group or items will also increase or

decrease by p.

⮚ If the value of each item is multiplied or divided by the same value p, then the average of the group or items will also be multiplied or

divided by p.

⮚ The average of a group items will always lie between the smallest value in the group and largest value in the group – i.e., the average

will be greater than the smallest value and less than the largest value in the group.

92
 PERCENTAGE

Percentage
PERCENT means for every hundred. A fraction whose denominator is 100 is called a percentage while the numerator of the fraction is called the rate percent. To
convert any fraction to a percent (%) one needs to simply multiply it with hundred.
Thus, 3 = 300%, 0.25 = 25 %, 4/5 = 80%
The conversion of fractions to percentages and vice – versa is very useful for calculations. Some commonly required fractions and their conversions are as follows:

Fraction Percent Fraction Percent Fraction Percent Fraction Percent Fraction Percent

1 1 1 1 1
/1 100.00% /6 16.66% /11 9.09% /16 6.25% /21 4.76%

1 1 1 1
½ 50.00% /7 14.28% /12 8.33% /17 5.88% /22 4.54%

1 1 1 1 1
/3 33.33% /8 12.50% /13 7.69% /18 5.55% /23 4.34%

1 1 1 1
¼ 25.00% /9 11.11% /14 7.14% /19 5.26% /24 4.16%

1 1 1 1 1
/5 20.00% /10 10.00% /15 6.66% /20 5.00% /25 4.00%

The use of the above table will be made clear with the help of the following examples.

⮚ What is 14.28% of 560?

1 1
Sol.: We know that 14.28% = /7. So, 14.28% of 560 = ( /7) × 560 =80.

⮚ What is 37.5% of 720?

1
Sol.: We know that 12.5% is 1/8. So, 37.5% = (3 × 12.5%) = (3 × /8)
3
Therefore, the required answer is ( /8) × 720 = 270.
7
⮚ Express /8 as a rate percent.

7 7 175
Sol.: /8 = ( /8) × 100 = /2 = 87.5%

Important Formulae :
1. Change of Base Method:

If A is X% more than B, by what % is B less than A =

Similarly If A is X% less than B, by what % is B more than A

2. Let the present population of a town be P and let there be an increase of X% per annum. Then :

Population after n years = P

●

● Population n years ago = P

[ ]
n
X
1+
100

93
⮚ The population of a town increases by 10% every year. What will be the population after 3 years if the present population

is 10,000?

Sol.: Population after 3 years = 10000 = 10000 = 13310

If the present population was given as 13310 and you were asked to find out population 3 years ago.

Population 3 years ago =

3. If the population of a town (or value of a machine) decreases at R% per annum, then:

[ ]
n
● Population (or value of machine) after n years = P
R
1−
100
● Population (or value of machine) years ago = P

[ ]
n
R
1−
100
The percentage error =
●

⮚ After 2 successive decreases of 20%, the price of a television was Rs. 12,800. What was the original price?

Sol.: Original price = Rs. = Rs. = Rs. 20,000

4. Successive change in percentage

In a number A is increased successively by X% followed by Y%, and then by Z%. The final value of A will be.

(1+100X )(1+100Y )( 1+ 100Z )

A

⮚ If the price of petrol increases successively by 20% and 10%, what is the price if initial price was Rs. 30 per litre?

Sol.: Increased price = Rs. 30 = Rs. 39.60

5. In a similar way, at any point or stage, if the value is decreased by any percentage, then we can replace the same by a

negative sign. The same formula can be used for two or more successive changes. The final value of A in this case will be

6. Percentage change and effect on products :

Let the expenditure on a commodity (E) = Price (P) × consumption (c).

RULE :

94
 PERCENTAGE

The net percentage in the product change when two variables are increased / decreased by given percentages, say x% and y% respectively, will

be :

x+y+ xy
100
If price and consumption each are increased by 20% and 25% respectively, then New E=1.2P X 1.25C = 1.5PC = 1.5E = 50% increase.

For the same data given above, applying the rule, we get the net percentage change in expenditure

=20 + 25 + 20 × 25
=20+25+5=50 .
100
In case a given value decreases by any percentage, we will use a negative sign before that.

⮚ If the length of a rectangle is decreased by 40% and the breadth is increased by 30%, then find the % change in the area

of the rectangle.

Sol.: Area of rectangle = length × breadth (result = A × B)

Here, both the length and breadth are changed. So, to find out the % change in area, using the formula.

Net % change in result = x + y + where, x = -40, y = + 30

net % change in area of rectangle =

(-)ve sign signifies decrease.

Hence, the area of the rectangle decreases by 22%.
7. Rate change and change in quantity available for fixed expenditure :

Let the original rate of an item changes (increases/decreases) to a new rate. Since the amount of expenditure done on purchasing the item is

fixed, with the change in rate it is obvious that the quantity of item available will also change (decrease/increase) accordingly,

Let the original price = Rs. x per unit quantity, then

x(x + change in x) =

⮚ A reduction of Rs. 2 per kg enables a man to purchase 4 kg more sugar for Rs. 16. Find the original price of sugar.

Sol.: Here, expenditure is fixed (Rs. 16). The rate reduces by Rs. 2/kg and the quantity of commodity available increases by 4 kg with the same expenditure.

Let the original price = Rs. x per unit kg, then using the given formula
x(x + change in x) =

[(-)2, since rate is reduced]

x(x – 2) =

2 – 2x – 8 = 0 x 2 – 4x + 2x – 8 = 0 (x – 4)(x + 2) = 0

x = 4 or – 2 (not considered)

95
Profit & Loss
Important Points and Formulae
1. The price at which an article is bought is called Cost Price (C.P.)

2. The price at which the article is sold is called Selling Price (S.P.)

3. The overhead expenses are added to the Cost Price.

4. Profit = Selling Price – Cost Price

5. Profit and Loss are always calculated on Cost Price.

6. Marked price is the price at which an article is to be sold without taking in account the discount.

7. (a) When there is a gain in the transaction

Profit % = ( S . P .−C . P .)
×100
C. P.
S.P. = C.P. ×

C.P. = S.P. ×
(b) When there is a loss in the transaction

Loss % = (C . P.−S . P .)
×100
C. P.
S.P. = C.P. ×

C.P. = S.P. ×

SPECIAL CASES
1. For an article is sold at two different selling price,

where x1 and x2 are profit / loss percent (positive or negative

accordingly for profit or lo`ss) where S1 and S2 are the Selling Prices of the article.

⮚ An article is sold for Rs. 250 at a profit of 25% and at Rs. 180 at the loss of 10%. Find its cost price.

Sol. c= = Rs. 200

2. Two different articles sold at same selling price,

Overall percentage gain or loss =

⮚ A man sold two tables for Rs. 297 each, gaining 10% on one and losing 10% on the other. Find his total gain or loss%.

Sol.: Overall percentage gain/loss = = 100 – 99 = 1% Loss

3. Faulty balance cases,

here, x is (+)ve, or (–)ve accordingly for profit or loss. Put x = 0, if he

sells his goods at cost price; G is gain %.

⮚ A shopkeeper professes to sell 100m of cloth at cost price but uses a false scale that measures 90m. Find his profit percent.

96
 PROFIT & LOSS

1
Sol.: G= = 11 /9%

4. Use of False Scale for selling and purchasing an article,

G= where x and y are the percentage gain when he deceives the seller and the

customer respectively.

⮚ A person by means of a false balance defrauds 10% in selling goods and 10% in buying also. What % does he gain if sells

the goods at cost price?

Sol.: Let the cost of 1 kg be Rs. 100.

He buys 1.1 kg for Rs. 100 and sells 0.9 kg for Rs. 100
Cost of 0.9 kg = Rs. = Rs. 122.22
Profit % =

Using the formula : G = = = 22.21%

5. S.P. and C.P. in terms of number of articles, if S.P. of n1 articles = C.P. of n2 articles, then % loss or gain =

⮚ Selling price of 5 articles is the same as cost price of 8 articles. Find percentage profit.

Sol.: Gain Percent = = 60%

6. If two items are sold, each at Rs. X, one at a gain of p% and the other at a loss of p%, there is an overall loss given by %.

The absolute value of the loss is given by

⮚ 2 articles are sold for Rs. 100 each, one at a gain of 10% and the other at a loss of 10 %. Find the overall profit/ loss

percent.

Sol.: Loss % =

7. If CP of two items is the same and % Loss and % Gain on the two items are equal, then net loss or net profit is zero.

8. Buy x get y free i.e., if x + y articles are sold at cost price of x articles, then the percentage discount = .

⮚ A shopkeeper offers one shirt free on purchase of 3 shirts. Find out the percentage discount given by the shopkeeper.

Sol.: Percentage Discount = = 25 %.

9. In case of successive discounts a% and b%, the effective discount is %.

97
⮚ What single discount is equivalent to successive discounts of 10% & 20%?

Sol. : Single discount = = 28%

Some Important Facts :

⮚ When the percentage gain on one article = the percentage loss on the other sold at the same price, then, there is always loss.

98
 SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTEREST

Simple Interest &

Compound Interest
If a person borrows some amount of money from a source for a certain period (T), then
a) Principal is the amount of money borrowed (P).
b) Interest is the additional money to be paid (I)
c) Amount is the sum of principal and interest i.e. (P + I)
d) Rate is the interest that the borrower has to pay for every 100 Rupees per year (R).

SIMPLE INTEREST :
If a person borrows some money from someone for a certain period then the borrower has to pay some extra money called Interest (I) on the money borrowed for that
period. The money borrowed is called ‘principal’ and the total sum comprising principal and the interest is called the Amount (A). If the interest on a certain period is
reckoned uniformly only on the principal borrowed then it is called Simple Interest.

If A = Amount;
P = Principal;
I = Interest;
T = Time;
R = Rate of Interest
(i) Amount = Principal + Interest = (P + I)
(ii) Simple Interest (I) =

(iii) Rate of Interest (R) =

(iv) Time (T) =

(v) Principal (P) =

Certain Special Cases :

1. When rate of interest and time are numerically equal, each could be found out by the following formula –

R or I =

⮚ In how many years will a principal of Rs. 500 yield an interest of Rs. 125 given the rate of interest and the number of years

are numerically equal.

Sol.: No. of years = = 5 years

2. When the amount becomes N times the principal at R% rate of interest in T years; the relationship could be represented by

the following formula.

R × T = 100(N – 1)

99
This equation is helpful in finding out any one of the unknown variable when the other two are given.

⮚ In how many years at 10% p.a. will the principal became 5 times itself?

Sol.: 10 × T = 100(5 – 1) or, T = = 40 years.

3. When the repayment of debt is made in equal instalments, the formula to find out borrowed amount is –

Borrowed amount (B) =

Where, n = no. of instalments

x = amount of each instalment

r = rate of interest per annum

y = no. of instalments per annum

⮚ A certain amount of money taken on loan @ 12% p.a. is repaid in monthly instalments of Rs. 500 in two years. Find the sum

of money borrowed.

Sol.: Here, n = 2 × 12 = 24
x = Rs. 500 r = 12% y = 12
= Rs. (12000 + 5 × 276)
Borrowed amount = Rs.

= Rs.(12000 + 1380) = Rs. 13380

COMPOUND INTEREST :
Compound Interest is realized when at the end of an year or other fixed period, the interest that has become due is not paid to lendor, but added to the sum lent
and the amount thus obtained becomes the principle for the next year or period, i.e.,

[ ]
nT
Amount (A) = R
P 1+
100 × n
wheren = period at the end of which the Interest is compounded

If n = 1, interest is compounded yearly T = time in years

n = 2, interest is compounded half-yearly R = rate percent per year

n = 3, interest is compounded quarterly P = Principal

n = 12, interest is compounded monthly

{[ ] }
C.I. = nT
R
P 1+ −1
100 × n
Points to Remember :
A. When time is fraction of a year, say 4 3 years then,
,
4

[ ]
Amount = P
3
R
[ ]
4
R 4
1+ × 1+
100 100

100
 SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTEREST

[ R n
]
B. CI = Amount – Principal = P

1+ −P
100
nd rd
C. When Rates are different for different years, say R1, R2, R3 percent for 1st, 2 &3 years respectively, then,

Amount =

Time Taken for a sum of money to double – Compound Interest

The calculations would be strenuous if one were to compute the time it would take for a sum to double when invested in compound interest. There are two empirical
methods which give close approximations of the number of years it takes for a sum of money to double in C.I.
Rule of 72 : As per this empirical rule, the time taken for a sum of money to double in C.I.

n= 72 , where n is the number of years and r is the rate %.

r
Rule of 69 : As per this empirical rule, the time taken for a sum of money to double in C.I.

n = 0.35 + 69 , where n is the number of years and r is the rate %.

r
The rule of 69 gives a better approximation over the rule of 72.

Certain Special Cases :

⇒ When the amount becomes N times the principal in T years.
2
Then, it becomes N times in T × 2 years
3
it becomes N times in T × 3 years
m
it becomes N times in T × ‘m’ years
⇒ When the amount is repaid in equal instalments, the borrowed amount is –

B=

Where; a = value of each instalment

R = rate of interest per annum

n = no. of instalments per year

t = number of years.

⮚ A certain sum of money is borrowed at 10% p.a. It is repaid in 3 annual installments of Rs.1331 each. Find out the sum

borrowed.

Sol.: Here, a = Rs. 1331

R = 10% p.a. n=1 t=3

B = Rs. 1331

= Rs. 1331 = Rs. 3310

Difference between compound interest and simple interest –

The difference between C.I. and S.I. on a certain sum at a certain rate p.a. is generally asked to be calculated for 2 years or 3 years.
NOTE : C.I. and S.I. is the same for a certain sum of money at a certain rate p.a. for the first year.
A. Difference when the time is 2 years and interest charged per annum.

101
(C.I. – S.I.) = (C.I. – S.I.) =

B. Difference when the time is 3 years and interest charged per annum.

(C.I. – S.I.) = (C.I. – S.I.) =

In general, interest is considered to be SIMPLE unless otherwise stated.

102
 AVERAGE

Average
The average or mean of a set of numbers is that characteristic value that represent the whole set of numbers.
Averages is of three types :
1) Arithmetic Mean (AM), 2) Geometric Mean (GM), 3) Harmonic Mean. (HM)
The following rules are considered for set of ‘n’ values x1, x2, ….. xn

Rules :
1. (a) A (Average) = =

(b) T = A × n = ∑x =

(c) n= =

2. If all the quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by a constant ‘x’, then the average also will be added,

subtracted, multiplied or divided respectively by the same constant ‘x’.

3. The Geometric Mean of ‘n’ observations

= =

GM is used for problems concerning population, depreciation, etc.

4. If all the observations are multiplied or divided by a certain constant, then the GM of those observation also gets multiplied or

divided by the same number.

5. Harmonic Mean of ‘n’ observations

= =

The rule of harmonic mean is generally used to find the average speed.

If you go a certain distance with an average speed of x km per hour, return in the same place with an average speed of y km per hour.
Then the average speed for the whole Journey =

6. The combined average of two sets A and B =

n1 = number of observations in set A

n2 = number of observations in set B

x1 = average of set A

x2 = average of set B

⮚ Find the different means of the numbers 2, 3, 4

Sol.: A.M. = = 3 H.M. = 3 3 36 G.M. =

= =
2+ 3+4 1 1 1 13 13
+ +
3 2 3 4 12 √3 2.3.4 = 3√24
⮚ A car covers two parts of a journey at 60 kmph (V1) & 40 kmph (V2). Find out its average speed if

i) distance covered in two parts is same; ii) time taken to cover two parts is same.

103
Sol (i) : Use H.M.
2 2×40×60

[ ]
Average speed = = 48 kmph.
= 2V1 V 2
1 1 100 V=
+ V 1 +V 2
40 60
Sol (ii) : Use A.M.
Average speed = 60+ 40
2
= 50 kmph

[ V=
V 1 +V 2
2 ]
Weighted Mean
Weighted mean of a set of numbers is equal to the sum of the products of numbers and their respective weight divided by the sum of weights.
Weighted Mean = Sum of the products of numbers and respective weights / sum of weights.
Say for a set of observation, x1, x2, … xn with respective weights w1, w2, … wn the weighted mean =

Understanding the concept of weighted mean

Concept of weighted mean is just an extension of simple mean. Let’s take an example. In a class of 5 students, a test was conducted. All the students got 20 marks each
out of 25. You have to calculate the average marks obtained by the class.
Mean = (20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 20)/5 = 100/5 = 20

This is the way you calculate simple mean. You can calculate mean by one more method in this question. Instead of writing (20 + 20 + 20 + 20 +20)/5, you can write (20
× 5)/5 = 20 as mean. Now please consider that you can write (20 × 5) directly also as 5 students got 20 marks each. Here 5 is the weight as 20 has been obtained 5 times.
∴ Mean = (20 × 5)/5 = 20

Certain Special Rules

Rule 1 : When a number is added to an existing set of numbers, the new mean can be found out by the following formula.

New Mean = Old Mean +

⮚ Average of five numbers is 54. Find the new average if 66 is added to it.

Sol.: New Mean = 54 +

New Mean = 56

Rule 2 : When a number is taken away from a set of numbers, the new mean can be found out by the following formula.

New Mean = Old Mean +

⮚ Average of eight numbers is 72. What will be the new average if one number, 86 is taken away?

Sol.: New Mean = 72 +

New Mean = 70

Rule 3 : When some numbers are wrongly taken while calculating the average, the correct average can be found out by the

following formula.

Correct Average = Wrong average +

⮚ The average of 10 numbers is 48. It was later found out that two numbers had been taken wrongly. 36 was taken as 54 and

46 was taken as 32. Find the correct average.

104
 AVERAGE

Sol.: Correct Average = 48 +

Rule 4 : When the average of a group changes as a result of one element being replaced by another; the value of the element

coming in can be found out in the following way:

Value of the element coming in = Value of element being replaced + (increase in average × no. of elements)

⮚ The average of a group of 7 increases by 2 when 72 is replaced by another number. Find the value of the number being

included.

Sol.: Value of the number = 72 + (2 × 7) = 86

Some Important Facts :

⮚ From the above rule, we can conclude

Total increase or decrease of quantities = Average increase or decrease × No. of items.

⮚ A.M. ≥ G.M. ≥ H.M.

2
⮚ G.M. = A.M. × H.M.

105
Time & Distance
Important Formulae & Concepts

1. Speed (V) = => D = V.t

i) If the ratio of speeds of A and B is a : b then the ratio of the times taken by them to cover the same distance is 1 :1 or b : a

a b
ii) x km/hr = m/sec

iii) x m/sec = km/hr

iv) If a man covers a certain distance at x kmph and an equal distance at y kmph. Then, the average speed during the whole journey is 2xy kmph.

x+ y
Average Speed
2. Average Speed => Vavg =

(i) if d1, d2, d3, … dn are distances traveled in times t1, t2, t3, … tn respectively,
then average speed Va = d 1 +d 2 + d 3 +. .. .+d n
t 1 +t 2 +t 3 +. .. t n
(ii) If a body travels for times t1, t2, t3 … tn with speeds V1, V2, V3, … Vn,
then average speed Va = V 1 t 1 + V 2 t 2 +V 3 t 3 +. .. .+V n t n [since D = V.t]

t 1 +t 2 +t 3 +.. .+t n
(iii) If distances d1, d2, d3, … dn are traveled with speeds V1, V2, V3, … Vn,
then average speed Va =
d 1 +d 2 +d 3 +. . .+ d n {since t = )
d1 d2 d3 dn d
+ + +.. .+
V1 V2 V 3 Vn V
(iv) If Distance is constant i.e. d1 = d2 = d3 = … = dn = d
nd n
then average speed Va = =
d d d 1 1 1
+ +.. .+ + + .. .+
V1 V2 Vn V1 V2 Vn
If n = 2, then Va = 2 2V 1 V 2
=
1 1 V 1 +V 2
V1
+
V2
(v) If time is constant then average speed =

⮚ A man travels for 5 hrs. 15 mins. If he covers the first half of the journey at 60 kmph and the rest at 45 kmph, find the total

distance travelled by him.

106
 TIME & DISTANCE

Sol,: Let the total distance be x km. Then,

or 3x + 4x = 21 × 90 or x = 27. Hence, the required distance = 270 km.

⮚ If a person goes around an equilateral triangle shaped field at speeds of X, Y, Z kmph and reaches back to his starting

point. Then find his average speed during the journey.

A
Sol. A to B = X kmph. B to C = Y kmph. C to A = Z kmph.
Tab = D/X, TBC = D/Y TCA = D/z.
Since D is constant, average speed is HARMONIC MEAN D D

B C

Relation between time and speed ratio when distance is constant. D

When distance is constant V1t1 = V2t2 i.e. t1 V2 V1 V2 V 1+ V 2 V 1−V 2

= => = = =
t2 V1 t2 t1 t1+ t2 t 1−t 2
⮚ A is twice as fast as B and B is thrice as fast as C is. The journey covered by C in 54 minutes will be covered by B in how

much time?

Sol.: Let C’s speed = x km/hr. then, B’s speed = 3x km/hr and A’s speed = 6x km/hr.
Ratio of speeds of A, B, C = 6x : 3x : x = 6 : 3 : 1

Ratio of time taken = 1 1 =1:2:6

: :1
6 3
If C takes 6 min., then B takes 2 min If C takes 54 min, then B takes
( 26 ×54) min = 18 min.

Time early/time late

⮚ A man covers a certain distance between his house and office on scooter. Having an average speed of 30 km/hr, he is late

by 10 min. However, with a speed of 40 km/hr, he reaches his office 5 min earlier. Find the distance between his house and office.

Sol.: Let the distance be x km. Time taken to cover x km at 30 km/hr = hrs.

Time taken to cover x km at 40 km/hr = hrs. Difference between the two time taken = 15 min = hr. or, 4x – 3x = 30 or, x = 30.

Hence, the required distance is 30 km.

Shortcut :
Required distance =

Thus in this case, the required distance = = 30 km

⮚ Walking ¾ of his usual speed, a person is 10 min late to his office. Find his usual time to cover the distance.

107
Sol.: Let the usual time be x min. Time taken at ¾ of his usual speed = min

- x = 10 x/3 = 10 x = 30 min

⮚ A man covers a certain distance on scooter. Had he moved 3 kmph faster, he would have taken 40 minutes less. If he had

moved 2 kmph slower, he would have taken 40 minutes more. Find the distance (in km) and original speed.

Sol.: Suppose the distance is D km and the initial speed is x km/hr.

Then, we have

From (1) and (2) we have,

or, 2(x – 2) = 2(x + 3) or, 3x – 6 = 2x + 6 x = 12 km/hr

Now, if we put this value in (1) we get D =

Short-cut:
When time reduced in arrival (40 minutes) is equal to the time increased in arrival (40 minutes) then
Speed = = 12 km/hr.

Now, Distance = = = 40 km

Stoppage Time
Let the distance covered be d, time taken without stoppage be t1, and time taken with stoppages be t2.
1= d => t1 = d
t1 V1
V

The actual time taken with stoppage = d

V2
2 – t1 [since t2 > t1] = d d d (V 1 −V 2 )
Total stoppage time = t − =
V2 V1 V1V2
d (V 1 −V 2 )
V 1V 2 V 1 −V 2 Difference in Speed
Stoppage time/hr. = = i .e.
d V1 Faster Speed
V2
⮚ A train travels at a speed of 60 kmph between two stations A and B, 240 km apart, when it does not stop between any other

station between them. But it goes at an average speed of 40 kmph when it stops. What is the average stoppage time per hour of the

train ?

Sol.: Time taken, when it does not stop = 240/60 = 4 hrs.

Time taken, when it stops = 240/40 = 6 hrs.

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 TIME & DISTANCE

Total stoppage time = 2 hrs. Average stoppage time per hour = 2/6 = 1/3 hrs.
Short-cut :
Using the formula directly, we get 60−40 20 1
= = hrs.
60 60 3
⮚ Excluding stoppages, the speed of a bus is 54 kmph and including stoppages it is 45 kmph. For how many minute does the

bus stop per hour?

Sol.: Due to stoppage, it covers 9 km less Time taken to cover 9 km =

(549 ×60) min = 10 min

Time taken with two different modes of transport.

1. Using transport x both ways Total time = 2tx
2. Using transport y both ways t Total time = 2ty

3. Using transport x single way t Total time = tx + ty

t
+ transport y the other way
t
t2x or t2y = (tx + ty) – time lost or + time gained for using 1 or 2 instead of the other.
t
or, Time for both way transport x = (one way x + one way y) + (gain
t in time)
⮚ A man takes 8 hours to walk to a certain place and ride back. However, he could have gained 2 hrs, if he had covered both

ways by riding. How long would he have taken to walk both ways?

Sol.: Walking time + Riding time = 8 hrs … (1)

2 Riding time = 8 – 2 = 6 hrs … (2)
2 × (1) – (2) gives the result
2 × walking time = 2 × 8 – 6 = 10 hrs both ways walking will take 10 hrs.

Quicker Approach :
Two ways riding saves a time of 2 hrs. It simply means that one way riding takes 2 hrs less than one way walking. It further means that one way walking takes 2 hrs more than
one way riding.
Thus, both way walking will take 8 + 2 = 10 hrs.
Therefore, direct formula:
Both way walking = One way walking and one way riding time + Gain in time = 8 + 2 = 10 hrs

Relative Speed
1. If 2 bodies are moving in the same direction with speeds V1 & V2 respectively (V1 > V2), then their relative speed = V1 – V2
=> If there is a distance D between two bodies moving in the same direction with speeds V1 & V2 (V1 > V2) then the time taken by the faster body to catch up with the
slower one is D
V 1−V 2
2. If 2 bodies are moving in opposite directions with speeds V1 and V2, then their relative speed is given by (V1 + V2)
=> If there is a distance D between two bodies approaching each other with speeds V1 & V2, then the time after which they meet = D
V 1 +V 2
POINTS TO REMEMBER :
a) Time taken by a body x metres long in passing a signal post or a pole or a standing man

= time taken by the body to cover its own length of x metres.

b) Time taken by a body x metres long in passing a station or an object of length y meters

= time taken by the body to cover (x + y) metres.

c) If two bodies start at the same time from two points A and B towards each other, and after crossing they take ‘a’ and ‘b’ hours in

reaching B and A respectively.

109
 Then, A’s speed : B’s speed = (√b : √a)

The speed time graph in a uniform motion in a straight line

In this motion the object moves with a constant speed. The graph is a straight line parallel to the axis of time. This is true for every uniform motion in a straight line.

Position time graph for objects moving with equal speeds.

Suppose two objects A and B are moving parallel to x-axis with equal speeds 10 kmph. The data for the two bodies are given below :
S
Time (t) 0 p1 2 3 4 5
e
Position of A in km 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time
Position of B in km 25 35 45 55 65 75
The position-time graphs of both the objects are two parallel straight lines.
The lines never meet so the objects also never meet and there is always a constant distance maintained between them.

Position time graph for objects moving with unequal speeds

B
Suppose objects A and B are moving along x-axis with 20 kmph and 10 mkph respectively. Let in the beginning their positions be 10 km and 25 km respectively. Then
the positions of the objects A and B at different times are given by the following table : A
x(km)
Time (t) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Position of A in km 10 30
2 50 70 90 110
Position of B in km 25 35 45 55 65 75
1
Using these data the position time graphs of the objects can be plotted as follows :

The graphs are two straight lines inclined to each other and which meet at a particular place and time. If the speed of B is greater than that of A, the lines will never meet
for positive values of time.
The relative speed of one object w.r.t. the other, will have magnitude greater than individual
A speed of each object. This is why, for example, a train A moving with speed
x(km) 0 1 2 3 4 t(h)
of 10 kmph will cross another train B moving in opposite direction with speed 25 kmph, with a relative speed of 10 + 25 = 35 kmph which is greater than the individual
B
speed of either train.
4

BOATS 3

A Few Important Terminologies

2
The following terms will be used often while discussing boats and streams. :

Stream : 1

It implies that the water in the river is moving or flowing.

Upstream : 0 1 2 3 4 t(h)

Going against the flow of the river.

Downstream :
Going with the flow of the river.

Still water :
It implies that the speed of water is zero (generally in a lake).

Downstream (With the stream) Rowing

Flow of river
It indicates that the stream favours the man’s rowing (or boating). i.e. direction of rowing and direction of flow (stream) is same.

Upstream (Against the stream) Rowing

It indicates that the stream flows against the man’s rowing (or boating) i.e. direction of rowing and direction of stream (current) are opposite.
Boat

Downstream
Important Upstream

Let the speed of a boat (or man) in still water be X m/sec, and the speed of the stream (or current) be Y m/sec.
Boat
Speed of boat with the stream (or Downstream or D/S) = (X + Y) m/sec
●
Speed of boat against the stream (or Upstream or U/s) = (X – Y) m/sec
●

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 TIME & DISTANCE

Speed of man/boat in still water

●
X= ( X +Y )+( X −Y ) Upstream + Downstream
=
2 2
● Speed of the stream = Y = ( X +Y )−( X−Y ) = Downstream−Upstream
2 2
When downstream distance = upstream distance, then

Average speed for total journey (UP + DOWN)

●
=

Total Journey time (tup + tdown)

●
=

Some Important Facts :

⮚ 10 minutes late and 5 minutes earlier make a difference of 10 + 5 = 15 minutes. As the other units are in km/hr, the difference in

time should also be changed into hours.

⮚ 40 minutes late and 40 minutes earlier make a difference of 40 + 40 = 80 minutes = hrs.

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Time & Work
Points to remember
If the number of hours (or days) to finish a work is given, the work in one hour (or one day) =

e.g. A can do a piece of work in 5 hours

1 th
In one hour he does /5 of the work .

If the work in one hour (or one day) is given, then the time taken to finish the whole work =

1 th
e.g. If B does /4 of a piece of work in one day
He will complete the piece of work in = 1 = 4 days
1
4

⮚ A can do a piece of work in 15 days and B can do the same piece of work in 20 days. In how many days will they finish the

work, if both of them work together?

1 th 1 th
Sol.: Work that A does in 1 day = /15 Work that B does in 1 day = /20
Work that (A + B) will do in 1 day = 1 + 1 = 4+ 3 = 7 . Hence the number of days that both of them working together will take to complete the work

15 20 60 60
= 1 =
60 4
/7 = 8 /7 days
7
60
If A is thrice as good a workman as B, then:

Ratio of work done by A and B = 3 : 1, both starting and stopping at the same time.

Ratio of times taken by A and B to finish a piece of work = 1 : 3

⮚ A can do a certain job in 12 days B is 60% more efficient than A. Find the number of days it takes B to do the same piece of

work.

Sol.: Ratio of times taken by A and B = 160 : 100 = 8 : 5

1
8 : 5 :: 12 : x or 8x = 5 × 12 or x = 7 /2 days.
where M = men, D = days, V = volume of work.

⮚ If 2 men can build 4 walls in 3 days, how long will 6 men take to build 2 walls?

Sol.: Using the formula given above, 2 × 3 = 6x x = ½ day

4 2

⮚ 2 men and 3 boys can do a piece of work in 10 days while 3 men and 2 boys can do the same work in 8 days. In how many

days can 2 men and 1 boy do the work?

Sol.: M1D1 = M2D2

(2M + 3B)10 = (3M + 2B)8
20M + 30B = 24M + 16B

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 TIME & WORK

14B = 4M => 7B = 2M
(2M + 3B)10 = (2M + 1B)x
(7B + 3B)10 = (7B + 1B)x
100B = 8Bx
x= days

If A + B finish the work in T days. If A alone takes t1 days more than T and B alone takes t2 days more than T, then T =

⮚ A and B finish a work in T days. A alone takes 12 days more than T and B alone takes 3 days more than T to finish the work.

Find T.

Sol.: T = 12*3 = 6 days

⮚ If 64 men can finish 50units of work in 5 days, how many days will 80 men take to finish 75 units of work?

Sol.: Men Work Days

32 10 5
40 15 x
We need to find the number of days (x)
If 32 men take 5 days, 40 men will take less day. So, we multiply by 32/40
If 10 units of work take 5 days, 15 units will take more day. So, we multiply by 15/10
So, x = 32 15 days
5× × =6
40 10
Note: (i) 1
M∝
D
(ii) W ∝D
PIPES & CISTERNS

Inlet and Outlet :

A pipe connected with a tank or a cistern or a reservoir, that fills it, is known as an inlet.
A pipe connected with a tank or a cistern or a reservoir, emptying it, is known as an outlet.

Formulae :

1
a) If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours then part filled in 1 hour = /x

⮚ To fill a cistern, pipes A, B and C take 20 minutes, 15 minutes and 12 minutes respectively. Find the time in minutes that

the three pipes together will take to fill the cistern.

1 1 1 1
Sol.: Part filled by (A + B + C) in 1 min = /20 + /15 + /12 = /5
All the three pipes together will fill the tank = 5 minutes.

1
b) If a pipe can empty a full tank in y hours, then part emptied in 1 hour = /y

e.g : Say a pipe can empty a full tank in 4 hours, then the part emptied in 1 hour is 1/4

c) If a pipe can fill a tank in x hours and another pipe can empty the full tank in y hours (where y > x), then on opening
1 1
both the pipes, the net part filled in 1 hour = /x – /y

113
⮚ A electric pump can fill a tank in 3 hours. Because of a leak in the tank, it took 3 ½ hours to fill the tank. How long will it

take for the leak to drain out the entire tank?

1 2 1
Sol.: Work done by the leak in 1 hour = /3 – /7 = /21
The leak will empty the tank in = 21 hours.

d) Say two pipes can fill a cistern in t minutes. If the first pipe alone takes

t1 minutes more than t and the second pipe takes t2 minutes more than t, then, t= .

st
⮚ Two pipes simultaneously opened can fill a tank in ‘x’ hrs. The 1 pipe can fill the tank by itself in 9 hrs. extra while the

nd
2 pipe takes 4 hrs. extra to fill the tank by itself. Find ‘x’.

Sol.: x=

e) If a cistern generally takes X min. to be filled by a pipe, but due to a leak, it takes Y extra min. to be filled, then the

amount of time in which the leak can empty the full cistern with the inlet pipe not in operation will be

⮚ A pipe can fill a cistern in 30 mins but due to a leak, it takes 40 mins to be filled. How long will the leak take to empty the

full cistern?

Sol.: Time taken originally = 30 mins. Extra time taken = 10 mins.

Therefore, time taken = (30 )+(30×10 ) mins
=120
10
f) A cistern has a leak which can empty it in X hours. A pipe which admits Y litres of water per hour into the cistern is

turned on and now the cistern is emptied in Z hours. Then the capacity of the cistern is

⮚ A leak can empty a cistern in 6 hours. A pipe which admits 10 litres of water per hour is opened. Now the leak empties the

cistern in 9 hrs. What is the capacity of the cistern?

Sol.: According to the formula, X = 6, Y= 10, Z=9 litres

Simple Approach :
Say F1 and F2 are inlet pipes which can fill a cistern in f1 & f2 minutes alone, respectively, is kept open for t1 & t2 minutes, respectively.
And E1 & E2 are outlet pipes which can empty the full cistern in e1 & e2 minutes alone is kept open respectively for t3 & t4 minutes.
Since, Amount of (empty or fill) work done = No . of minutes opened
Alone time (empty or fill )
t1 t 2 t 3 t 4 = 1 (if cistern completely filled)= ½ (if cistern is half-filled)
+ − −
f 1 f 2 e1 e 2
= 0 (if cistern is emptied completely)

⮚ Pipes A & B are inlet pipes which can fill a tank in 3 mins & 5 mins respectively. Pipe C is an outlet pipe. Pipes A & B are

opened for 2 and 3 mins resp, and pipe C is opened for 4 mins, and the entire cistern gets filled. Find how much time pipe C will

take to empty the whole cistern, when working alone.

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 TIME & WORK

Sol.: 2 3 4 4 10+9−15 or, x= 15 mins

+ − =1 =
3 5 x x 15

115
Stocks & Shares
Share :
The means by which a company raises its capital providing a part of its profit to its buyers called share-holders.

Preference Share :
This gives a preferential right to the payment of dividend on capital.

Ordinary (or equity) share :

Share holders of this type are entitled to receive their dividend only after the dividend on preference shares are paid.

Stock :
Fully paid up shares can be converted into stock.
The principal difference between shares and stocks is that shares are transferable in whole numbers while stocks can be transferred in fractions. Example: one can buy or
2 3
sell 2 shares, 10 shares but not 5 /3 shares, while one can buy or sell 150 /4 stock. One stock usually means Rs. 100 or 100 stock.

Debentures :
It is the document showing the amount of loan raised by the company. Salient features of debentures are :
i) Each debenture is issued for fixed amount.
ii) Debentures have fixed rate of interest.
iii) Debenture holders are the creditors of the company
iv) Debenture holder received a fixed rate of interest, whether there is any profit or not, from the company.

Difference between Shares and Stocks

Points Shares Stock

1. Paid up value It may or may not be fully paid up It is always fully paid up

2. Nominal value Shares have nominal value having equal denominations It has no such nominal value

3. Sequence of issue Shares are issued first Fully paid up shares are converted into stock later on

4. Transfer Shares cannot be transferred in fraction Stocks can be transferred in fraction.

Market Price of Shares/Debentures is the price at which they are being bought or sold.

Face Value or Par Value of a share is the price printed on the certificate of the share / debenture. It is normally Rs. 10, but could also be Rs. 100.
Face Value of Debentures are normally Rs. 100 but could also be Rs. 1000.

At par : If by selling a Rs. 100 stock, a person receives Rs. 100 cash, the stock is said to be at par.

At a premium or Above par

The Market Price of Shares/Debentures could be higher or lower than its Face Value. If the Market Price is greater than the Face Value then the Shares/Debentures are
being sold at a Premium.
If the selling price of Rs. 100 stock is more than Rs. 100 cash, the stock is said to be at a premium or above par.

At a discount or below par :

If the Market Price is less than the Face Value, then the Shares/Debentures are being sold at a discount.
If the selling price of Rs. 100 stock is less than Rs. 100 cash, it is said to be at a discount or below par.

Brokerage :

116
 STOCKS & SHARES

Stock is generally bought and sold through a broker, who usually charges some rate percent on the stock bought or sold. Thus if the market value of Rs. 100 stock is Rs.
102, and if the brokerage is 1/8%, the seller of a stock receives Rs. and the purchaser has to pay Rs. . This

charge of a broker is called brokerage.

Hence, the brokerage must be added to the price of stock which is bought and subtracted from the price of that which is sold

through a broker. The broker’s charge for the above example will be quoted “brokerage 1/8”, the words ‘percent’ being omitted.

Unless the brokerage is expressly stated it need not be considered when doing examples in stock.

Students should very carefully distinguish between the paper or nominal value (face value) of stock and the cash or actual price (market price) as well as between the
amount of stock purchased and the sum invested for its purchase. Thus, if the 3 percent stocks are at 95, a man who invests Rs. 950 will be able to purchase Rs. 1000
stock i.e. the amount of stock held by the man is Rs. 1000, but the actual or cash value of that stock is only Rs. 950.
The student should also clearly understand the meaning of an expression of the type “Rs. 4000 in the 5 percents.” It does not mean that the man invested Rs. 4000 in the 5
percent stock but that he holds stock of the nominal value of Rs. 4000 in the 5 percent. He might have actually invested more or less than Rs. 4000 according as the stock
might be at a premium or at a discount.
A person gives brokerage while buying and selling Shares/Debentures.

The brokerage is calculated as a percentage of the buying or selling price and not the Face Value.

Some Formulae
Nominal value of shares =Face value x Number of shares
Market value = Market price x Number of shares

Income
Yield = ×100
Investment
(same as return on investment or ROI or rate of interest on investment)

Warning against common mistakes

In solving questions on stock, the student must clearly distinguish between cash and stock, as explained earlier. A stock is often denoted by the rate of interest it yields,
Hence “ 5 percent at 98” means:
There is a certain stock that pays a dividend of Rs. 5 on every Rs. 100 stock.
The market value of Rs. 100 stock is Rs. 98, i.e. a person can purchase a Rs. 100 stock for Rs. 98 from the market only and therefore there is a dividend of Rs. 5 on an
investment of Rs.98, i.e. by spending Rs. 98 only, a person can have an income of Rs. 5 (here the face value considered is Rs. 100).

Important Definitions and Results

The capital of a company is called the stock, e.g. 5% Stock at 97 means that if a person invests Rs 97, he can buy stock worth Rs. 100
●
and his annual income from the same is Rs. 5.

The convenient unit in which the capital stock of a joint stock company is divided, is called a Share. These shares are generally worth
●
Rs. 100 each. The company raises its capital by means of such shares.

The persons who purchase shares are called Share Holders.

●

The part of the profit of a company which is divided among the share holders is called Dividend. For example, a 20% dividend means
●
that on a share of Face Value Rs. 100, the share holder gets Rs. 20. Similarly on a share of Rs. 10, he gets Rs. 2 and so on.

The value at which a share is available in markets is known as Market Value (Market Price) of the share.
●

If the Market Value=Face Value, share is at par.

●

117
 If the Market Value > Face Value, Share is at premium or above par.
●

If the Market Value < Face Value, Share is at discount or below par.
●

When a company likes to borrow money from the shareholders or public for a Fixed Period at a Fixed Rate of Interest, the company
●
issues Debentures or Bonds. So, Debentures are Debt of a company.

A debenture-holder receives interest on the face value of debentures at fixed rate of the company. The interest does not vary. The
●
rate of interest payable by the company is also declared by the company before the issue of the instrument.

Dividend on Share is also calculated on Face-Value of the share only.

●

Shares and Debentures are generally sold or purchased in a market known as Stock Exchange through authorized persons known as
●
Share-brokers (Brokers).

Broker’s commission is called Brokerage.

●

Brokers charge commission from the purchasers and also from the sellers.
●

Brokerage is calculated on Market Value of Shares / Debentures. (For some questions, the same has to be charged on the face value)
●

Share Purchaser has to pay (Market Value + Brokerage)

●

Share-Seller will get (Market Value-Brokerage)

●

Some Important Facts :

⮚ Interest is paid on debentures

⮚ Dividend is paid on shares

Both are always paid on the face value and never on the market price

⮚ Dividend is always calculated on the Nominal value.

118