COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
NUST
DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS
ENGINEERING
DE-45 [SYNDICATE A]
ISLAMIC STUDIES
[HU-101]

ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED TO:
Sir Rizwan Haider

SUBMITTED BY:

• MUHAMMAD SAQLAIN (482581)

1|Page
Contents
Muslims’ Contribution in Various Fields of Sciences .................................................................................. 4
Introduction:.............................................................................................................................................. 4
Medicine: .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Pioneering work of Muslim Physicians and Scholars: .......................................................................... 4
Advancements in medical theory, diagnosis, treatment, and surgery ................................................... 4
Establishment of hospitals, medical schools, and clinics in the Islamic world ..................................... 5
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Al-Razi (Rhazes), and Ibn al-Nafis .................................................................... 5
Hygiene and Public Health: ...................................................................................................................... 6
Muslim scholars contribution to the field of hygiene and public health ............................................... 6
Sanitation practices, urban planning, and waste management. ............................................................. 7
Establishment of public baths, sewage systems, and clean water supply networks. ............................. 7
Emphasis on cleanliness and personal hygiene in Islamic teachings. ................................................... 7
Agriculture and Irrigation: ........................................................................................................................ 8
Advancements made by Muslim agriculturists and engineers .............................................................. 8
Agricultural techniques, crop cultivation, and irrigation systems ......................................................... 8
Introduction of new crops, cultivation methods, and agricultural tools ................................................ 8
Impact of Islamic agriculture on food production and sustainability.................................................... 9
Engineering and Technology .................................................................................................................... 9
Advancements made by Muslim engineers in various fields of technology ......................................... 9
Innovations in architecture, urban planning, and construction techniques. .......................................... 9
Development of water wheels, water pumps, and irrigation systems. ................................................ 10
Construction of monumental structures, bridges, and dams ............................................................... 10
Pharmacology and Herbal Medicine: ...................................................................................................... 10
Muslim pharmacists and herbalists to the field of pharmacology ....................................................... 11
Identification, extraction, and preparation of medicinal plants and substances .................................. 11
Development of pharmacies, drug manufacturing, and pharmaceutical formulations........................ 11
Compilation and dissemination of pharmacopoeias and medical encyclopedias................................ 12
Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................................. 12
References:.................................................................................................................................................. 13
Understanding the Creator and Hereafter in Major World Religions ......................................................... 14
Historical Context ................................................................................................................................... 14
Beliefs regarding Creator: ....................................................................................................................... 16

2|Page
Belief regarding Hereafter and Afterlife: ................................................................................................ 17
Comparative Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 19
Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................................. 20
References ............................................................................................................................................... 20

3|Page
Muslims’ Contribution in Various Fields of Sciences

Introduction:
The Arabs who had wielded the arms with such remarkable success, that they had become the
masters of a third of the known world in a short span of thirty years, met with even greater success
in the realm of knowledge. But the West has persistently endeavored to under-rate the
achievements of Islam. Writing in his outspoken book the intellectual Development of Europe,
John William Draper says, “I have to deplore the systematic manner in which the literature of
Europe has contrived to put out of sight our scientific obligations to the Mohammadans. Surely
they cannot be much longer hidden. Injustice founded on religious rancour and national conceit
cannot be perpetuated forever. What should the modern astronomer say, when, remembering the
contemporary barbarism of Europe, he finds the Arab Abu Hassan speaking of turbes, to the
extremities of which ocular and object diopters, perhaps sights, were attached, as used at Meragha?
What when he reads of the attempts of Abdur Rahman Sufi at improving the photometry of stars?
Are the astronomical tables of Ibn Junis (A.D. 1008) called the Hakemite tables, or the Ilkanic
tables of Nasir-ud-din Toosi, constructed at the great observatory just mentioned, Meragha near
Tauris (1259 A.D.), or the measurement of time by pendulum oscillations, and the method of
correcting astronomical tables by systematic observations are such things worthless indications of
the mental State? The Arab has left his intellectual impress on Europe, as, before long,
Christendom will have to confess; he has indelibly written it on the heavens, as anyone may see
who reads the names of the stars on a common celestial globe.”

Medicine:

Pioneering work of Muslim Physicians and Scholars:

For early Muslims, knowledge was a treasure they would eagerly seek. Medical science and
pharmacy were no exceptions.
Muslim physicians’ early practice emphasized the importance of preserving health through natural
gentle interventions. The Hippocratic philosophy of ‘Premium non nocera’ (first don't harm) was
a well-kept notion in their minds as it reflected the teaching of their religion. Prophet Muhammad’s
words, “Your body has rights over you” (agreed upon - Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī) paved their way to
amazing advancement in the medical, pharmaceutical, and health fields.

Advancements in medical theory, diagnosis, treatment, and surgery

Methods of diagnosis did not improve much from as the Middle Ages turned into the early
Renaissance.
Physicians still did not know how to cure infectious diseases. When faced with the plague or
syphilis, they often turned to superstitious rites and magic.

4|Page
At one time, doctors asked King Charles II to help by touching sick people in an attempt to cure
them of scrofula, a type of tuberculosis (TB). Another name for scrofula was “The King’s Evil.”
Explorers discovered quinine in the New World and used it to treat malaria.
Medieval Islamic physicians performed more surgeries than their Greek and Roman predecessors,
and they developed new tools and techniques.
In the 10th century, Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili invented a hollow syringe that he used to
remove cataracts by suction.
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi was an eminent surgeon who lived and worked in Andalusia, Spain. He
invented a number of instruments, including forceps, pincers, lancets, and specula. He also used
catgut to sew up wounds.

Establishment of hospitals, medical schools, and clinics in the Islamic world

There were also hospitals, including teaching hospitals, where students could learn how to treat
patients.
Cairo (in Egypt), Harran (in Turkey) and Baghdad (in Iraq) had famous hospitals.
The name given to hospitals was “bimaristan,” from a Persian word meaning “house of the sick.”
According to Oxford Islamic Studies Online, the term referred mainly to mental health facilities,
although hospitals offered a wide range of services, and people did not always have to pay.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Al-Razi (Rhazes), and Ibn al-Nafis

Ibn Sina, who many Europeans referred to as Avicenna, was also Persian. He had many skills and
professions, and he wrote approximately 450 books and articles, 240 of which still exist today.
Forty of these focus on medicine.
Among ibn Sina’s significant contributions to medieval medicine were “The Book of Healing,” an
expansive scientific encyclopedia, and “The Canon of Medicine,” which became essential reading
at several medical schools around the world.
The universities of Leuven, in Belgium, and Montpellier, in France, used these texts into the middle
of the sixteenth century.

The Persian physician, chemist, alchemist, philosopher, and scholar al-Razi lived from 865 to 925
C.E.
He was the first to distinguish measles from smallpox, and he discovered the chemical kerosene
and several other compounds. He became the chief physician of the Baghdad and Rayy hospitals.

5|Page
As an author, al-Razi was prolific, penning more than 200 scientific books and articles. He also
believed in experimental medicine.
Known as the “father of pediatrics,” al-Razi wrote “The Diseases of Children,” likely the first text
to distinguish pediatrics as a separate field of medicine.
He also pioneered ophthalmology and was the first doctor to write about immunology and allergy.
Records suggest Trusted Source that al-Razi discovered allergic asthma, and he was the first to
identify a fever as a defense mechanism against disease and infection.
Also a pharmacist, al-Razi wrote extensively on the subject, introducing the use of mercurial
ointments. Records attribute many devices to him, including spatulas, flasks, mortars, and phials.

Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) was an Arab physician who made several important contributions to the
early knowledge of the pulmonary circulation. He was the first person to challenge the long-held
contention of the Galen School that blood could pass through the cardiac interventricular septum,
and in keeping with this he believed that all the blood that reached the left ventricle passed through
the lung. He also stated that there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic)
between the pulmonary artery and vein, a prediction that preceded by 400 years the discovery of
the pulmonary capillaries by Marcello Malpighi. Ibn al-Nafis and another eminent physiologist of
the period, Avicenna (ca. 980–1037), belong to the long period between the enormously influential
school of Galen in the 2nd century, and the European scientific Renaissance in the 16th century.
This is an epoch often given little attention by physiologists but is known to some historians as the
Islamic Golden Age. Its importance is briefly discussed here.

Hygiene and Public Health:

Muslim scholars contribution to the field of hygiene and public health

Islam's teachings emphasize maintaining personal hygiene and isolating sick people, both of which
are crucial in the present COVID-19 pandemic. Between the 7th and 15th centuries, Islamic and
Arab civilizations produced significant advancements in science and medicine. These discoveries
laid the groundwork for the development of the European Renaissance. In Islam, maintaining one's
personal cleanliness and hygiene is a duty that Muslims have to do to worship Allah (God). In
universal outbreaks such as plague pandemics, Islam recognized the risks and mandated
precautions, prevention, and hygienic isolation. Islam took the lead in pioneering several health
protection practices, such as the quarantine rule. If a contagious sickness manifests in a certain
area or town, Prophet Muhammad instructed to forbid entry or exit to the affected town, now
known as quarantine. The first documented application of quarantine, as we currently know, it was
implemented by the Muslim scholar Avicenna (ibn Sina). According to Islam, protecting living
creatures' lives equals protecting the faith. Therefore, all needed measures to reduce the risk of
infection, including vaccines, should be rigorously applied in Islam. In this viewpoint, we discuss
Islamic beliefs, the Prophet's practices and teachings, and Muslim scholars' contributions to

6|Page
lowering infections and putting specific regulations in place during pandemics that supplemented
the development of infection control rules as we know them in modern medical practices through
using the best available evidence.

Sanitation practices, urban planning, and waste management.

All over the world, urban development has consistently posed significant challenges for societies.
As cities and their populations expand, there is an increasing need to design urban environments
that are both functional and aesthetically pleasing, reflecting the values and beliefs of their
residents. The emphasis on control methodology amidst various polemics is crucial, and it provides
a solid foundation for global efforts to combat ongoing urban degradation worldwide. Among the
various perspectives presented thus far, the Islamic viewpoint stands out as the most encouraging.
Islam is considered a Rahmatan Lil Alamin (a blessing for the universe), and thus, Islamic Shari'a
can be applied to alleviate urban issues.

It's remarkable to note that concepts of sustainable urban planning have been a part of Islamic
history for at least 1,400 years. Shari'a, the comprehensive body of Islamic rules, addresses both
typical and urban conditions of Muslims, reflecting this concern in specific laws aimed at
improving and protecting social features and privileges. Certain rules are clearly outlined in the
basic sources of Shari'a, the Qur'an, and the Sunnah (the practices of the Prophet Muhammad -
PBUH), while others have developed within the conventional built environment of Muslim society.
This framework examines how to implement Islamic social and practical norms. From the seventh
century, when Islam first emerged, through the 19th century, Islamic norms significantly
influenced the physical environment, providing balance and coherence in architecture, building
construction, and urban planning.

Establishment of public baths, sewage systems, and clean water supply networks.
Muslims in the third century (about 950 CE) were the first to introduce water networks/systems
using water pipes made of lead or zinc into homes, bathrooms and mosques. The book “Industries
of the Arabs” included drawings and maps of water networks in some Islamic capitals

Emphasis on cleanliness and personal hygiene in Islamic teachings.

Cleanliness is a crucial aspect of Islam and is considered one of the fundamental teachings of the
religion. In Islam, cleanliness is not only limited to the physical body but also extends to the
environment and personal hygiene. The teachings of Islam emphasize the importance of
cleanliness as it is considered a key component of faith.
The concept of cleanliness is deeply rooted in Islamic teachings and practices. The Holy Quran
states that Allah loves those who keep themselves clean and pure, and it is the duty of every Muslim

7|Page
to maintain a high level of personal hygiene. Muslims are required to perform ablution or wudu
before offering prayers, which involves washing their hands, mouth, nose, face, arms, and feet.

Agriculture and Irrigation:

Advancements made by Muslim agriculturists and engineers

In engineering, there are certain mechanical components, or parts of machines, that have many
uses. Examples of these components are: a device that controls the flow of liquids by opening and
closing in a cycle, crankshafts and gears that transfer energy or regulate the speed and movement
of the machine, a ratchet that stops the movement of gears in a certain direction, and parts that
multiply the force of the machine. Some of these important milestones in engineering that are
found in Kitab al-Hiyal are shown for the first time in the history of technology. Some of them
would not be seen in engineering works until 500-1000 years later in modern industry.

Agricultural techniques, crop cultivation, and irrigation systems

Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements;
sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction
of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land
and amount of water they required. In addition, they introduced incentives based on a new
approach to land ownership and laborers' rights, combining the recognition of private ownership
and the rewarding of cultivators with a harvest share commensurate with their efforts. (Their
counterparts in Europe struggled under a feudal system in which they were almost slaves - serfs -
with little hope of improving their lot by hard work.) Subsistence increased with an increased level
of economic security that spread wealth for all citizens. The quality of life rose from the
introduction of new crops and produce was available all year round without the need to dry them
for winter.

Introduction of new crops, cultivation methods, and agricultural tools

India, South-East Asia and Central Africa, was only made possible by the the Old World under
Islam, which facilitated long-distance travel by merchants, diplomats, scholars and pilgrims, and
unleashed the free movement of peoples from very different climates and agricultural traditions –
Indians, Malays, Persians, Yemenis, Africans, Berbers and cultural exchange facilitated not only
the diffusion of crops and plants but the knowhow to grow them … The Muslim agronomists
introduced a diversity of new crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton,
artichokes, aborigines and saffron. This great diversity not only provided a varied and balanced
diet for both humans and livestock and supplied most of the medicines and many raw materials for
clothing and industrial processes, but also ensured food security throughout the year. This was
achieved by spreading risk in times of unseasonal weather and other unforeseen events, when at
least some crops would be likely to succeed.

8|Page
Impact of Islamic agriculture on food production and sustainability
The collaboration between Islamic finance and sustainable agriculture represents a powerful
approach to addressing global challenges related to food security, environmental sustainability,
and economic development. By providing interest-free financing, promoting ethical investments,
and encouraging profit-and-loss sharing, this partnership supports responsible farming practices
and empowers communities.
As the world recognizes the urgent need to transition to more sustainable agricultural systems,
Islamic finance can play a pivotal role in financing projects and initiatives that prioritize ecological
balance, social equity, and economic stability. By nurturing this symbiotic relationship, we can
cultivate prosperity while preserving the planet for future generations

Engineering and Technology

Advancements made by Muslim engineers in various fields of technology

A chapter of Al-Jazari’s book was devoted to water raising machines. It also included sophisticated
machines powered by water and gravity, simulating the principle of the balance (see the video
below). As the water fills one bucket and as it spills into the large cylindrical tank a siphon sets
into action and so on, to generate air pressure through a flute and gives out a sound at controlled
intervals. The interval is controlled by the rate at which the water flows from the tap.
Among the original machines described in the corpus of technology from Muslim Civilization, the
six-cylinder “monobloc” piston pump designed by Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma’ruf in the late 16th century
holds a special place. Working as a suction pump, this complex machine included components that
are often associated with modern technology, such as a camshaft, a cylinder block, pistons, and
non-return valves. In this article, Joseph Vera, an expert in re-engineering ancient inventions,
describes how he created a SolidWorks CAD model of this remarkable pump that he completed
with a motion simulation. The conclusion he drew after creating the model and the simulation is
that the engineers of the Muslim tradition, represented by Taqi al-Din, had a very solid grasp of
kinematics, dynamics and fluid mechanics.

Innovations in architecture, urban planning, and construction techniques.

1. Geometric Patterns: Islamic architecture is renowned for its intricate geometric patterns,
which adorn surfaces such as walls, ceilings, and floors. These patterns, often derived from
mathematical principles, symbolize the order and unity of the universe in Islamic
cosmology.
2. Arches and Domes: Arches and domes are prominent architectural elements in Islamic
buildings, symbolizing grandeur, spirituality, and the heavens. Arches may be rounded or
pointed, while domes may be bulbous or onion-shaped, depending on regional variations.

9|Page
 3. Calligraphy and Ornamentation: Arabic calligraphy is a central feature of Islamic
architecture, with Quranic verses and religious inscriptions adorning walls, arches, and
domes. Ornamental motifs such as arabesques, vegetal designs, and geometric carvings
embellish facades and interiors, adding richness and beauty to architectural spaces.
4. Courtyards and Gardens: Courtyards and gardens play an essential role in Islamic
architecture, serving as tranquil spaces for prayer, contemplation, and social gatherings.
Courtyards often feature fountains, pools, and lush vegetation, creating a sense of serenity
and harmony with nature.
5. Minarets: Tall spires typically associated with mosques, from which the call to prayer is
announced.
6. Water Features: Water plays a crucial role in Islamic architecture, symbolizing paradise
and used for practical purposes like cooling and ceremonial washings.

Development of water wheels, water pumps, and irrigation systems.

Large waterwheels, or norias, have raised water from fast-flowing waterways to higher land since
100 b.c.e. Vitruvius, the Roman writer, architect, and engineer, mentioned this simple yet powerful
device. Like any waterwheel, it was turned by the force of flowing water against paddle
compartments on its rim. These filled with water and took it to the top, where they emptied into a
head tank connected to an aqueduct. Already used by the Romans and Persians, they were adapted
and redeveloped by the Muslims

Construction of monumental structures, bridges, and dams

Marvelous Monuments referenced in Britannica

 Taj Mahal
 The Alhambra
 The Friday Mosque, Esfahan
 The Dome of the Rock
 Great Mosque of Samarra
 The Citadel of Aleppo
 Great Mosque of Córdoba
 Suleymaniye Mosque complex, Istanbul

Pharmacology and Herbal Medicine:

10 | P a g e
Muslim pharmacists and herbalists to the field of pharmacology
Al-Biruni’s definition of the pharmacist could have been written today. Along the road from
sympathetic magic and shamanism to scientific method, much trailblazing was carried out over a
few centuries by scholars, alchemists, physicians and polymaths of the Muslim Middle East, and
their rules, procedures and expectations are, to a great extent, practiced almost universally today.
Yazid’s son, Khalid ibn Yazid, took particular interest in alchemy, and he employed Greek
philosophers who were living in Egypt. He rewarded them well, and they translated Greek and
Egyptian books on chemistry, medicine and astronomy into Arabic. A contemporary of Khalid’s
was Jabir ibn Hayyan, called Geber in the West, who promoted alchemy as a profession, laying
early foundations for chemical and biochemical research.

Identification, extraction, and preparation of medicinal plants and substances

The time interval from the 9th to the 13th century remained known as the “Golden period of the
Arab science”, and a significant place among the taught sciences are occupied by Medicine and
Pharmacy. In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine, also known as Arabic medicine, refers to
the science of medicine developed in the Islamic Golden Age, and written in Arabic Arabs were
able to use their cultural and natural resources and trade links to contribute to the strong
development of pharmacy. After the collapse of the Arab rule, the Arab territorial expanses and
cultural heritage were taken over by the Turks. Although scientific progress in the Turkish period
slowed down due to numerous unfavorable political-economic and other circumstances, thanks to
the Turks, Arab culture and useful Islamic principles expanded to the territory of our homeland of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant role in the transfer of Arabic medical and pharmaceutical
knowledge was also attributed to the Sephardic Jews who, with their arrival, continued to perform
their attar activities, which were largely based on Arab achievements. However, insufficiently
elaborated, rich funds of oriental medical and pharmaceutical handwriting testify that Oriental
science has nurtured in these areas as well, and that the Arab component in a specific way was
intertwined with other cultures and traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Development of pharmacies, drug manufacturing, and pharmaceutical formulations
Within a century of the death of the Prophet in 632 ce, one of the earliest systematic approaches
to drugs was under way in Damascus at the court of the ruling Umayyads. Snake and dog bites, as
well as the ill effects of scorpions, spiders and other animals, were all causes of concern, and the
poisonous properties of minerals and plants such as aconite, mandrake and black hellebore were
exploited. As with most areas of medicine at the time, Greek physicians Galen and Dioscorides
were considered the ancient authorities, and building off their works, Muslim writers discussed
with particular interest poisons and theriacs (antidotes).
Sudden death was not uncommon in royal courts, and it was frequently attributed, often
erroneously, to poison. Not surprisingly, fear of poison convinced Umayyad leaders of the need to
study them, detect them and cure them. As a result, much of early Islamic pharmacy was done by
alchemists working in toxicology

11 | P a g e
Compilation and dissemination of pharmacopoeias and medical encyclopedias
 Ibn Sina’s ‘The Canon Of Medicine’ Book, 11th Century
 Al-Razi’s ‘Diet Therapy’ Book, 10th Century
 Ibn Hubal’s ‘Selections In Medicine’ Book, 12th Century
 Ibn Al-Nafīs’ ‘Art Of Medicine’ Book, 13th Century
 Samarqandi’s ‘Food And Drink For Healthy People’ Book, 13th Century

Conclusion:
Muslims have made substantial contributions across various fields of science, significantly
advancing human knowledge and understanding. From the Golden Age of Islam, spanning the 8th
to the 14th centuries, Muslim scholars played a pivotal role in fields such as medicine, astronomy,
mathematics, chemistry, and physics. They preserved and expanded upon the knowledge of ancient
civilizations, translating and building upon the works of Greek, Persian, and Indian scholars.
In medicine, figures like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) wrote the "Canon of Medicine," which remained a
cornerstone of medical knowledge in both the Muslim world and Europe for centuries. In
mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi's work on algebra and algorithms laid the groundwork for modern
mathematics and computer science. Astronomers like Al-Battani and Al-Zarqali made precise
astronomical observations and developed sophisticated instruments, influencing both Islamic and
European astronomy.
Chemistry and physics saw advancements through the works of Jabir ibn Hayyan and Alhazen (Ibn
al-Haytham), who are often regarded as the fathers of chemistry and optics, respectively. Their
experimental methods and scientific approaches laid the foundations for modern scientific inquiry
and methodology.
The contributions of Muslim scientists extended beyond technical advancements, encompassing a
profound spirit of inquiry and a commitment to the pursuit of knowledge. Their integration of
empirical research with philosophical inquiry created a rich intellectual tradition that significantly
shaped the scientific landscape of the world.
In conclusion, the contributions of Muslim scholars in various scientific fields have been immense
and enduring. Their legacy continues to influence contemporary science and underscores the
importance of cross-cultural exchange and the cumulative nature of human knowledge. The
recognition and appreciation of these contributions highlight the diverse and interconnected history
of scientific progress.

12 | P a g e
References:
https://www.aliomarermes.co.uk/blogs/islamic-science-medicine/muslim-contributions-to-the-
sciences
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323612#ibn-sina
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2612469/
https://journals.lww.com/jnsm/fulltext/2022/05040/the_contributions_of_islam_and_muslim_sch
olars_to.10.aspx#:~:text=Islam%20took%20the%20lead%20in,town%2C%20now%20known%2
0as%20quarantine
https://muslimheritage.com/water-supply-
sanitation/#:~:text=Muslims%20in%20the%20third%20century,capitals%20%5B92%2C%2093
%5D.
https://mustansarjavaid.medium.com/cleanliness-is-one-of-the-fundamental-teachings-of-islam-
387826db4d6c#:~:text=The%20Holy%20Quran%20states%20that,face%2C%20arms%2C%20a
nd%20feet.
https://www.islamicspain.tv/the-science-and-culture-of-islamic-spain/25-subjects-of-science-
and-culture/engineering/
https://www2.nau.edu/~gaud/bio301/content/agrvl.htm
https://www.faithinwater.org/uploads/4/4/3/0/44307383/islamic-farming-toolkit.pdf
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cultivating-prosperity-islamic-finance-sustainable-agriculture/
https://www.1001inventions.com/devices/
https://www.britannica.com/story/8-masterpieces-of-islamic-architecture
https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/May-2016/The-Islamic-Roots-of-Modern-Pharmacy
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723183/

13 | P a g e
Understanding the Creator and Hereafter in Major World Religions

Historical Context
1. Hinduism:
o Geographical Origins: Hinduism originated in the Indian subcontinent,
particularly in the Indus Valley civilization around 1500 BCE.
o Key Figures: Hinduism doesn’t have a single founder. It evolved over centuries,
with contributions from various sages, philosophers, and texts.
 Vedas: Ancient sacred texts that form the foundation of Hindu thought.
 Rishis: Seers who received divine knowledge.
 Lord Krishna, Lord Rama, and Gautama Buddha (though Buddhism
emerged later) are revered figures.
o Major Historical Events:
 The Vedic period (1500-500 BCE) saw the composition of the Vedas.
 The Upanishads (800-200 BCE) explored philosophical concepts.
 The Bhagavad Gita (around 200 BCE) became a central text.
 Buddhism emerged as a reform movement within Hinduism.
2. Judaism:
o Geographical Origins: Judaism originated in ancient Israel (Canaan) around 1800
BCE.
o Key Figures:
 Abraham: Considered the father of the Jewish people.

14 | P a g e
  Moses: Led the Israelites out of Egypt and received the Ten
Commandments.
 Prophets like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel shaped Jewish thought.
o Major Historical Events:
 The Exodus from Egypt (13th century BCE).
 The Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE).
 The construction of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem.
 The formation of the Talmud (Mishnah and Gemara).
3. Buddhism:
o Geographical Origins: Buddhism began in India around the 5th century BCE.
o Key Figures:
 Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha): Founder of Buddhism.
 Asoka: Emperor who spread Buddhism across Asia.
 Nagarjuna: Influential philosopher.
o Major Historical Events:
 The Buddha’s enlightenment under the Bodhi tree.
 The First Buddhist Council after the Buddha’s death.
 The spread of Buddhism to Sri Lanka, China, and other regions.
4. Christianity:
o Geographical Origins: Christianity emerged in Roman-occupied Judea in the 1st
century CE.
o Key Figures:
 Jesus Christ: Central figure and founder of Christianity.
 Apostles, especially Paul, played crucial roles.
o Major Historical Events:
 Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus.
 The Council of Nicaea (325 CE) defining Christian doctrine.
 The Great Schism (1054 CE) splitting Christianity into Eastern Orthodox
and Roman Catholic branches.

15 | P a g e
 5. Islam:
o Geographical Origins: Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century CE.
o Key Figures:
 Prophet Muhammad (PBUH): Final messenger and founder of Islam.
 Caliphs (successors) like Abu Bakr (RA), Umar (RA), and Ali (RA).
o Major Historical Events:
 The Revelation of the Quran to Muhammad.
 The Hijra (migration) to Medina (622 CE).
 The Rashidun Caliphate and Umayyad Caliphate expansions.

Beliefs regarding Creator:

1. Hinduism:
o Monotheism or Non-Theism: Hinduism is a diverse religion with various beliefs.
While some Hindus are monotheistic, worshiping a single supreme deity
(e.g., Brahman), others follow a more polytheistic approach, revering multiple
gods and goddesses.
o Divine Attributes: Brahman, the ultimate reality, is considered formless, eternal,
and all-pervading. It encompasses both immanence and transcendence.
o Relationship with Humanity: Hinduism emphasizes a personal connection with
the divine through devotion (bhakti), rituals, and meditation. The goal is to achieve
spiritual liberation (moksha).
2. Christianity:
o Monotheism: Christianity is strictly monotheistic. It believes in one God, the Holy
Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit).
o Divine Attributes: God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent. Jesus Christ,
as the Son of God, plays a central role in Christian theology.
o Relationship with Humanity: Christians believe in a personal relationship with
God through faith in Jesus. Prayer, sacraments, and following Christ’s teachings
are essential.
3. Judaism:
o Monotheism: Judaism is profoundly monotheistic. It adheres to the belief
in Yahweh (God) as the sole Creator.

16 | P a g e
 o Divine Attributes: Yahweh is compassionate, just, and merciful. The Ten
Commandments guide ethical behavior.
o Relationship with Humanity: Jews maintain a covenant with God. Rituals, study
of Torah, and adherence to mitzvot (commandments) strengthen this relationship.
4. Islam:
o Monotheism: Islam is unwaveringly monotheistic. The Shahada (declaration of
faith) states, “There is no god but Allah.”
o Divine Attributes: Allah is merciful, compassionate, and all-knowing. The 99
Names of Allah describe His attributes.
o Relationship with Humanity: Muslims submit to Allah’s will through prayer
(Salat), fasting (Sawm), and acts of charity (Zakat). The goal is to attain closeness
to Allah.
5. Buddhism:
o Non-Theism: Buddhism doesn’t posit a creator deity. It focuses on understanding
suffering and achieving enlightenment.
o Divine Attributes: Buddhism emphasizes the Four Noble Truths and
the Eightfold Path. Compassion and wisdom are central.
o Relationship with Humanity: Buddhists seek inner transformation through
meditation, mindfulness, and right action.
6. Sikhism:
o Monotheism: Sikhism believes in Waheguru (One God).
o Divine Attributes: Waheguru is formless, eternal, and compassionate. Sikh
scripture is the Guru Granth Sahib.
o Relationship with Humanity: Sikhs practice selfless service (Seva), meditation,
and devotion to Waheguru

Belief regarding Hereafter and Afterlife:

1. Hinduism:
o Concepts:
 Reincarnation (Samsara): Hindus believe in the cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth. The soul (atman) transmigrates from one body to another based on
karma.

17 | P a g e
  Moksha: The ultimate goal is to break free from this cycle and attain
liberation (moksha), merging with the Universal Soul (Brahman).
 Heaven and Hell: Hinduism doesn’t have a binary heaven or hell, but rather
different realms based on karma.
2. Christianity:
o Concepts:
 Heaven: Christians believe in an eternal paradise where the faithful are in
God’s presence.
 Hell: Hell is a place of punishment for the wicked or those who reject God.
 Resurrection: Traditional Christianity envisions a bodily resurrection at the
end of time.
3. Judaism:
o Concepts:
 Olam Ha-Ba: Jews believe in the World to Come or the Olam Ha-Ba,
where the righteous will experience closeness to God.
 Gan Eden (Paradise): A place of reward for the righteous.
 Gehenna (Hell): A place of purification or punishment.
4. Islam:
o Concepts:
 Akhirah: Islam emphasizes the Hereafter (Akhirah).
 Jannah (Paradise): A blissful garden where the righteous are rewarded.
 Jahannam (Hell): A place of punishment for evildoers.
 Barzakh: An intermediate state between death and resurrection.
 Resurrection: Muslims believe in bodily resurrection and accountability.
5. Buddhism:
o Concepts:
 Rebirth: Buddhists believe in rebirth based on karma.
 Nirvana: The ultimate goal is to attain enlightenment and escape the cycle
of rebirth.
 No Permanent Soul: Buddhism rejects the concept of a permanent soul.

18 | P a g e
 6. Sikhism:
o Concepts:
 Reincarnation: Sikhs believe in the cycle of rebirth.
 Merging with God: The goal is to merge the individual soul (atma) with
God (Waheguru).

Comparative Analysis
1. Monotheism vs. Polytheism:
o Monotheistic Religions (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Judaism):
 Common Theme: These religions emphasize belief in a single, all-
powerful Creator.
 Unique Perspectives:
 Christianity: The Holy Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit)
represents a complex monotheistic understanding.
 Islam: The concept of Tawhid (oneness of God) is central.
 Judaism: The covenant with Yahweh underscores the relationship
between God and the Jewish people.
o Polytheistic Religions (e.g., Hinduism):
 Common Theme: Multiple deities exist, each with specific roles.
 Unique Perspectives:
 Hinduism: The belief in Brahman (the ultimate reality) as both
immanent and transcendent allows for diverse forms of worship.
2. Attributes of the Creator:
o Common Theme: God is compassionate, just, and merciful.
o Unique Perspectives:
 Christianity: Jesus Christ’s divinity and role as a mediator.
 Islam: The 99 Names of Allah describe various attributes.
 Judaism: Yahweh’s covenantal relationship with humanity.
3. The Hereafter:
o Common Theme: All religions address the afterlife.

19 | P a g e
 o Unique Perspectives:
 Heaven and Hell:
 Christianity: Eternal paradise or punishment.
 Islam: Jannah (Paradise) and Jahannam (Hell).
 Judaism: Gan Eden (Paradise) and Gehenna (Purgatory or Hell).
 Reincarnation and Enlightenment:
 Hinduism: Samsara and the pursuit of moksha.
 Buddhism: Nirvana and escaping the cycle of rebirth.
 Sikhism: Merging the soul with God (Waheguru).
4. Emphasis on Ethics and Accountability:
o Common Theme: Actions in this life impact the afterlife.
o Unique Perspectives:
 Islam: The Day of Judgment and individual accountability.
 Buddhism: Karma and the law of cause and effect.
 Sikhism: Living virtuously to attain liberation.

Conclusion:
Each of these major world religions has emerged within a distinct historical and geographical
context, shaped by key figures and significant events. Their teachings on the Creator and the
afterlife reflect deep theological and philosophical inquiries that continue to influence their
adherents and shape global cultures. By understanding these contexts and beliefs, we gain insight
into the rich tapestry of human spirituality and the diverse ways in which people seek to understand
the divine and the hereafter.

References
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/big-history-project/agriculture-civilization/first-cities-
states/a/the-origin-of-world-religions-1
https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/religion/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_religion
https://www.history.com/topics/religion

20 | P a g e
https://www.reviewofreligions.org/9577/the-beginning-of-creation-in-scriptures-of-different-
religions/
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z683rwx/revision/1
https://www.britannica.com/topic/creationism
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/how-
major-religions-view-afterlife
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife
https://islamweb.net/en/article/92754/belief-in-the-hereafter
https://www.britannica.com/topic/afterlife-religion

21 | P a g e