Birefringence

Lecture 3

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Single Mode Fibers
 The core size of single mode fibers is small. The core size (diameter) is typically
around 8 to 10 micrometers.
 A fiber core of this size allows only the fundamental or lowest order mode to
propagate.
 Single mode fibers propagate only one mode, because the core size approaches the
operational wavelength (λ).
 The normalized frequency V is a dimensionless parameter that relates in a very
useful manner the core radius a, the numerical aperture and the operating
wavelength.

 In single mode fibers, V is less than or equal to 2.405. When V ≤ 2.405, single
mode fibers propagate the fundamental mode down the fiber core.
 For low V values (≤ 1.0), most of the power is propagated in the cladding material.
Power transmitted by the cladding is easily lost at fiber bends. The value of V should
remain near 2.405.
 It is advantageous to use SMF.

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Mode Index
p2  2 n  n2
b = 1- 2  1- 2  .
V V n1  n2
 2  a 2 (n12 k02   2 ) ; γ 2  a 2 (  2  n22 k02 )
1
V  k0 a ( n  n )
2
1
2
2
2

n = n2+b(n1−n2) ≈ n2(1+b∆)

An analytic approximation for b is;

b(V) ≈ (1.1428−0.9960/V)2 Fig: 2.5

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Birefringence
 Fibers exhibit considerable variation in the shape of
their core along the fiber length i.e. the core is not
perfectly cylindrical and core diameter is not uniform, so
the cylindrical symmetry of the fiber is broken.
Ideal fiber: cylindrical core
Uniform diameter
Degenerate modes

Real fiber variation in shape

non uniform stress

 Degeneracy between the orthogonally polarized fiber

modes is removed – thus fiber acquires birefringence.
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 Cont.
 Thus the modes have different propagation constants. The
degree of modal birefringence is defined by

 where nx and ny are the mode indices for the orthogonally

polarized fiber modes.

 Birefringence leads to a periodic power exchange between the

two polarization components. The period, referred to as the
beat length, is given by

Typically, Bm ~ 10−7, and LB ~ 10 m for λ ~ 1µm.

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Polarization – Linear to Elliptical
If polarized along one of the principal axes, Linear to Linear

Otherwise, its state of polarization changes along the fiber length from linear to
elliptical, and then back to linear, in a periodic manner over the length LB.

Fast axis - Low refractive index.

Slow axis - High refractive index.

Birefringence is not constant in SMF -

changes randomly, both in magnitude and
direction.

Different frequency components of a pulse

acquire different polarization states,
resulting in pulse broadening.

This phenomenon is called polarization-

mode dispersion (PMD).

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 Polarization Mode Dispersion
 Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is caused by asymmetric distortions to the
fiber from a perfect cylindrical geometry.
 The fiber is not truly a cylindrical waveguide, but it can be best described as an
imperfect cylinder with physical dimensions that are not perfectly constant.
 The mechanical stress exerted upon the fiber due to extrinsically induced bends
and stresses caused during cabling, deployment, and splicing as well as the
imperfections resulting from the manufacturing process are the reasons for the
variations in the cylindrical geometry.
 The asymmetry introduces small refractive index differences for the two
polarization states.
 This characteristic is known as birefringence. Birefringence causes one
polarization mode to travel faster than the other, resulting in a difference in the
propagation time, which is called the differential group delay (DGD).

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Cont..
 Pulse broadening can be estimated from the time delay ∆T
between the two polarization components during propagation
of the pulse. For a fiber of length L, ∆T is given by

 x and y identify the two orthogonally polarized modes .

 and ∆ β1 is related to the Fiber birefringence .

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Cont..
 The PMD-induced pulse broadening is characterized by the
value of ∆T/L.
 PMD is not an issue at low bit rates but becomes an issue at bit
rates in excess of 5 Gbps.
 PMD is noticeable at high bit rates and is a significant source of
impairment for ultra-long-haul systems.
 PMD induced pulse broadening is relatively small compared
with the GVD effects.
 PMD compensation can be achieved by using PMD
compensators that contain dispersion-maintaining fibers with
degrees of birefringence in them.

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SPM

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