Análise de Circuitos

Chapter 14 Analog Filters
¾ 14.1 General Considerations

¾ 14.2 First-Order Filters
¾ 14.3 Second-Order Filters
¾ 14.4 Active Filters
¾ 14.5 Approximation of Filter Response
1
Outline of the Chapter
CH 14 Analog Filters 2
Why We Need Filters
¾ In order to eliminate the unwanted interference that

accompanies a signal, a filter is needed.
Filter Characteristics
sufficiently
narrow
bad stopband
attenuation
attenuated amplified
¾ Ideally, a filter needs to have a flat pass band and a sharp roll-
off in its transition band.
¾ Realistically, it has a rippling pass/stop band and a transition
band.
Example 14.1: Filter I
Problem : Adjacent channel interference is 25 dB above the

signal. Determine the required stopband attenuation if Signal to
Interference ratio must exceed 15 dB.
Solution: A filter with stopband attenuation of 40 dB
Example 14.2: Filter II
Problem: Adjacent 60-Hz channel interference is 40 dB above

the signal. Determine the required stopband attenuation
to ensure that the signal level remains 20dB above the
interferer level.
Solution: A high-pass filter with stopband attenuation of 60 dB

at 60Hz.
Example 14.3: Filter III
¾ A bandpass filter around 1.5 GHz is required to reject

the adjacent Cellular and PCS signals.
Classification of Filters I
Classification of Filters II
Q1 = C2V1
Q2 = C2V2
Continuous-time Discrete-time
if V1 > V2 , C2 absorbs charge from V1
and delivers it to V2 ⇒ ≈ a resistor
Classification of Filters III
Passive Active
Summary of Filter Classifications
Filter Transfer Function
(a) (b)
¾ Filter (a) has a transfer function with -20dB/dec roll-off.

¾ Filter (b) has a transfer function with -40dB/dec roll-off and
provides a higher selectivity.
General Transfer Function
( s − z1 )( s − z2 ) ( s − zm )
H (s) = α
( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) ( s − pn )
zk = zero frequencies
= σ + jω
pk = pole frequencies
Example 14.4 : Pole-Zero Diagram
1 R1C2 s + 1 C1s
H a (s) = H b (s) = H c (s) =
R1C1s + 1 R1 (C1 + C2 ) s + 1 R1 L1C1s 2 + L1s + R1
Example 14.5: Position of the poles
Impulse response contains

exp( pk t ) = exp(σ k t ) exp( jωk t )
Poles on the RHP Poles on the jω axis Poles on the LHP

Unstable Oscillatory Decaying
(no good) (no good) (good)
Transfer Function
H (s) = α
( s − z1 )( s − z2 ) (s − zm )
( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) (s − pn )
¾ The order of the numerator m ≤ The order of the denominator

n
Otherwise, H(s)→∞ as s→∞.
¾ For a physically-realizable transfer function, complex zeros or
poles occur in conjugate pairs. z1 = σ 1 + jω1 z2 = σ 1 − jω1
¾ If a zero is located on the jω axis, z1,2=± jω1 , H(s) drops to zero
at ω1.
The numerator contains a product such as ( s − jω1 )( s + jω1 ) = s 2 + ω12 ,
which vanishes at s = jω1
Imaginary Zeros
¾ Imaginary zero is used to create a null at certain frequency.

For this reason, imaginary zeros are placed only in the stop band.
Sensitivity
dP dC P=Filter Parameter
SC =
P
P C C=Component Value
Example:
In simple RC filter, the -3dB corner frequency is given by 1/(R1C1)
Errors in the cut-off frequency:
(a) the value of components varies with process and temperature
in ICs
(b) The available values of components deviate from those
required by the design
¾ Sensitivity indicates the variation of a filter parameter due to

variation of a component value.
Example 14.6: Sensitivity
Problem: Determine the sensitivity of ω0 with respect to R1.
ω0 = 1 / (R1C1 )
dω0 −1
=
dR1 R12C1
dω0 dR1
=−
ω0 R1
S Rω10 = −1
¾ For example, a +5% change in R1 translates to a -5% error in ω0.
First-Order Filters
s + z1
H (s) = α
s + p1
¾ First-order filters are represented by the transfer function
shown above.
¾ Low/high pass filters can be realized by changing the relative
positions of poles and zeros.
Example 14.8: First-Order
.
Filter I
Vout R2 ( R1C1s + 1)
(s) =
Vin R1 R2 (C1 + C2 ) s + R1 + R2
−1
z1 = −1 / ( R1C1 ), 1
p = −[(C1 + C 2 ) R1 || R2 ]
R2 C1
ω →0⇒ ω →∞⇒
R1 + R2 C1 + C2
1 1 1 1
< >
R1C1 ( C1 + C2 )( R1 R2 ) R1C1 ( C1 + C2 )( R1 R2 )
C R R2C2 < R1C1 C R
R2C2 > R1C1
1+ 2 < 1+ 1 1+ 2 > 1+ 1
C1 R2 C1 R2
Example 14.9: First-Order Filter II
1
−( R2 || )
Vout C2 s
I in (s) =
I in Vin 1
R1 ||
C1s
R2 R1C1s + 1
virtual short =− ⋅
R1 R2C2 s + 1
R2 C1
ω →0 ⇒ − ω →∞⇒−
R1 C2
R2C2 < R1C1 R2C2 > R1C1

Second-Order Filters
General transfer function
αs + βs +γ
2
H (s) =
2 ωn
s + s + ωn2
Q
ωn 1
p1,2 = − ± jωn 1 −
2Q 4Q 2
¾ Second-order filters are characterized by the “biquadratic” equation

with two complex poles shown above.
¾ When Q increases, the real part decreases while the imaginary part
approaches ± ωn.
=> the poles look very imaginary thereby bringing the circuit closer to
instability.
.
Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
γ2
H ( jω ) =
2
2
α=β=0 ⎛ω ⎞
(ω )
2
2
n −ω2 +⎜ n ω⎟
⎝Q ⎠
H( ω p ) 2
Q>
2
∂ H ( jω )
2
=0 H( ω p ) 2
∂ω Q>
2
γ
ωn2
2
for Q >
2
Peak magnitude normalized to the passband magnitude: Q / 1 − (4Q 2 ) −1
Example 14.10: Second-Order LPF
Problem: Q of a second-order LPF = 3.

Estimate the magnitude and frequency of the peak in the frequency
response.
γ2
H ( jω ) =
2
2
⎛ ωn2 ⎞
(ω )
2
2
n − ωn2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Q=3
Q / 1 − 1/(4Q 2 ) ≈ 3
ωn 1 − 1/(2Q 2 ) ≈ ωn
Second-Order High-Pass Filter
The zero(s) must fall below the poles
αs
2
H (s) =
ωn β =γ =0
s2 + s + ω n2
Q
Frequency of the peak: ωn / 1 − 1/ (2Q 2 )

2
for Q >
2
Peak magnitude normalized to the passband magnitude: Q / 1 − (4Q 2 ) −1
Second-Order Band-Pass Filter
βs α =γ =0
H (s) =
ωn
s +
2
s + ωn
2
The magnitude approaches zero
Q for both sÆ0 and sÆ ∞, reaching
a maximum in between
Example 14.2: -3-dB Bandwidth
Problem: Determine the -3dB bandwidth of a band-pass response.

βs
H ( s) =
ωn
(s 2 + s + ωn2 )
Q
The response reaches 1 / 2
times its peak value at -3dB
β 2ω 2 β 2Q 2
frequency =
ωn 2 2ωn 2
(ωn − ω ) + ( ω )
2 2 2
Q
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
ω1,2 = ω0 ⎢ 1 + 2
± ⎥
⎢⎣ 4Q 2Q ⎥⎦
ω0
BW =
Q
LC Realization of Second-Order Filters
ω0
1 L1 s Z1 = 0 at ω = 0 and ∞
Z 1 = ( L1 s ) || = Z1 = ∞ at ω = ω0
C1 s L1C 1 s 2 + 1
¾ An LC tank realizes two imaginary poles at ±j/(L1C1)1/2 , which

implies infinite impedance at ω=1/(L1C1)1/2.
Example 14.13: LC Tank
1 L1 s
Z 1 = ( L1 s ) || =
C1 s L1C 1 s 2 + 1
¾ At ω=0, the inductor acts as a short.

Z1 = 0 at ω = 0 and ∞
¾ At ω=∞, the capacitor acts as a short.
RLC Realization of Second-Order Filters
L1s R1L1s
Z2 = R1 || =
L1C1s2 +1 R1L1C1s2 + L1s + R1
R1L1s R1L1s
= =
1 1 2 ωn
R1L1C1(s +
2
s+ ) R1L1C1(s + s + ωn2 )
R1C1 L1C1 Q
1 C
ωn = , Q = R1 1
L1C1 L1
ωn 1
p1,2 = − ± jω n 1 −
2Q 4Q 2
1 1 L1
=− ± j 1−
2 R1C1 L1C1 4 R12 C1
¾ With a resistor, the poles are no longer pure imaginary which

implies there will be no infinite impedance at any ω.
Voltage Divider Using General Impedances
V out ZP
(s) =
V in ZS + ZP
Low-pass High-pass Band-pass

Low-pass Filter Implementation with Voltage Divider
Z S = L1s → ∞ as s → ∞
1
ZP = || R1 → 0 as s → ∞
C1s
Vout R1
(s) =
Vin R1C1L1s 2 + L1s + R1
Example 14.14: Frequency Peaking
Vout R1
(s ) =
V in R1 C 1 L1 s 2 + L1 s + R1
( )
2
Let D = R1 − R1C1L1ω + L12ω 2
2 2
Voltage gain greater than unity (peaking)

occurs when a solution exists for
2
d D
= 2(− R1C1L1 )( R1 − R1C1L1ω 2 ) + L12
d (ω 2 )
1 1
=0 ⇒ω = − 2 2 >0
L1C1 2R1 C1
C1 1
Thus, when Q = R1 ⋅ > ,
C1 C1 L1 2
2R12 >1 ∵ Q = R1
L1 L1
peaking occurs. 34
CH 14 Analog Filters
Example 14.15: Low-pass Circuit Comparison
(a) (b)
Good Bad
¾ The circuit (a) has a -40dB/dec roll-off at high frequency.

¾ However, the circuit (b) exhibits only a -20dB/dec roll-off since
the parallel combination of L1 and R1 is dominated by R1
because L1ω→∞, thereby reduces the circuit to R1 and C1.
High-pass Filter Implementation with Voltage Divider
α s2
∵ H (s) = for high pass filter
ωn
s2 + s + ω n2
Q
Vout ( L1 s ) || R 1 L1 C 1 R 1 s 2
(s ) = =
V in ( L1 s ) || R 1 +
1 R 1 C 1 L1 s 2 + L1 s + R 1
C1s
Band-pass Filter Implementation with Voltage Divider
Zp must contain both a capacitor and an inductor so that

it approaches zero as s Æ 0 or s Æ ∞
Zp
βs
∵ H ( s) =
ωn
s2 + s + ωn2
Q
1
( L1s ) ||
Vout C1s L1s
(s) = =
Vin ( L1s ) ||
1
+ R1 R C L
1 1 1 s 2
+ L1s + R1
C1s
Summary
¾ Analog filters prove essential in removing unwanted frequency

components that may accompany a desired signal.
¾ The frequency response of a filter consists of a passband,
stopband, and a transition band between the two. The
passband and stopband may exhibit some ripple.
¾ Filters can be classified as LP, HP, BP, or BR topologies. They
can be realized as continuous-time or discrete-time
configurations, and as passive or active circuits.
¾ The frequency response of filters has dependences on various
component values and, therefore, suffers from sensitivity to
component variations.
¾ First-order passive or active filters can readily provide a LP or
HP response, but their transition band is quite wide and
stopband attenuation only moderate.
¾ Second-order filters have a greater stopband attenuation and
are widely used. For a well-behaved frequency and time
response, the Q of these filters is typically maintained below 2 / 2
Why Active Filter?
¾ Passive filters constrain the type of transfer function.
¾ They may require bulky inductors.
Sallen and Key (SK) Filter: Low-Pass
Vout ≈ VX
By applying KCL
VY = Vout C2 sR2 + Vout Vout C2 s
Vout 1
(s) =
α s2 + β s + γ Vin R1 R2 C1C 2 s 2 + ( R1 + R2 ) C 2 s + 1
H ( s) =
2 ωn
s + s + ωn2 1
Q Q=
1 C
R1R2 1 ωn =
R1 + R2 C2 R1R2C1C2
¾ Sallen and Key filters are examples of active filters. This
particular filter implements a low-pass, second-order transfer
function.
Example 14.16: SK Filter with Voltage Gain
Vout = ( 1 + R3 R4 ) VX
R3
1+
Vout R4
(s) =
Vin ⎛ R ⎞
R1R2C1C2 s 2 + ⎜ R1C2 + R2C2 − R1 3 C1 ⎟ s + 1
⎝ R4 ⎠
Example 14.17: SK Filter Poles
Problem: Assuming R1=R2, C1=C2, Does such a filter contain complex poles?
R3
1+
Q↑ Vout R4
( s) =
Vin R
R1 R2C1C2 s 2 + ( R1C2 + R2C2 − R1 3 C1 ) s + 1
R4
1 R1C2 R2C2 R1C1 R3
= + −
Q R2C1 R1C1 R2C2 R4
1
Q=
R
2− 3
R4
¾ The poles begin with real, equal values for R3 /R4 = 0 and
become complex for R3 /R4 > 0 .
Sensitivity in Low-Pass SK Filter
the gain of filter

Vout
=
VX
K = 1 + R3 R4
1 d ωn
∵ωn = = 1 R1C2 R2C2 R1C1 R3
R1R2C1C2 dR1 ∵ = + −
Q R2C1 R1C1 R2C2 R4
ωn ωn ωn ωn 1 1 ⎛ R2 C 2 R1C 2 ⎞
S R = S R = SC = SC =− S C = − S C = − + Q ⎜⎜
Q Q
+ ⎟⎟
1 2 1 2
2 1
22
⎝ R1C1 R2 C1 ⎠
1 R2C2 R1C1
S RQ = − S RQ = − +Q S KQ = QK
1 2
2 R1C1 R2 C 2
Example 14.18: SK Filter Sensitivity I
Problem: Determine the Q sensitivities of the SK filter for the common

choice R1=R2=R, C1=C2=C.
1 1
S RQ = − S RQ =− +
1 2
2 3− K
1 2
S CQ = − S CQ =− +
1 2
2 3− K
K
S KQ =
3− K
With K =1,
S RQ = S RQ = 0
1 2
1
S CQ = S CQ = S KQ =
1 2
2
Integrator-Based Biquads
ωn2 ωn 1
− 2
Vout ( s ) − . Vout ( s )
s Q s
Vout α s2
( s) = Vout ( s ) = αVin ( s ) −
ωn 1 ωn2
. Vout ( s ) − 2 Vout ( s )
Vin 2 ωn
s + s + ωn2 Q s s
Q
¾ It is possible to use integrators to implement biquadratic

transfer functions.
KHN (Kerwin, Huelsman, and Newcomb) Biquads
Simplified
diagram
1 1 1 Vin R5 + VX R4 ⎛ R6 ⎞ R6
VX = − Vout , VY = − VX = V
2 out Vout = ⎜ 1 + −
⎟ YV
R1C1s R2C2 s R1 R2C1C2 s R4 + R5 ⎝ R3 ⎠ R3
ωn 1 ωn2
Comparing with Vout ( s ) = αVin ( s ) − . Vout ( s ) − 2 Vout ( s )
Q s s
R5 ⎛ R6 ⎞ ωn R4 1 ⎛ R6 ⎞ R6 1
α= ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = . . ⎜1 + ⎟ ωn2 = .
R4 + R5 ⎝ R3 ⎠ Q R4 + R5 R1C1 ⎝ R3 ⎠ R3 R1R2C1C2
Calculation of Vout with Simplified Circuit
To obtain VA ,
R4 R5
VA V = VX VA V =0 = Vin
in =0
R4 + R5 X
R4 + R5
VA
R4VX + R5Vin
VA = VA V + VA V =
in =0 X =0
R4 + R5
To obtain Vout for given VA , we ground VY

VA ⎛ R6 ⎞
Vout = ( 3 6) A⎜
R + R = V 1 + ⎟
R3 ⎝ R3 ⎠
To obtain Vout for given VY , we ground VA

VY ⎛ R6 ⎞
Vout = − R6 = VY ⎜ ⎟
R3 ⎝ R3 ⎠
Versatility of KHN Biquads
Vout α s2
High-pass: (s) = ω
Vin s 2 + n s + ωn2
Q
VX α s2 −1
Band-pass: (s) = ω
.
∵ VX = −
Vout 1
Vin s 2 + n s + ωn2 R1C1s R1 sC1
Q
VY α s2 1
Low-pass: ( )
s = . ∵ VY = −
VX 1
2 ωn
2
Vin s + 2 R1R2C1C2 s
s + ωn R2 sC2
Q
Sensitivity in KHN Biquads
S Rωn, R ,C ,C , R , R , R , R = 0.5
1 2 1 2 4 5 3 6
R5
S RQ , R ,C ,C = 0.5, S RQ , R = < 1,
1 2 1 2 4 5
R4 + R5
Q R3 − R6 R2C2 if R3 = R6 ,
S RQ , R =
3 6
2 1 + R5 R 3 R6 R1C1 then S RQ3 , R6 vanishes
R4
Tow-Thomas Biquad
Vout 1
⋅
R2C2 s R4
VX = −VY
Vin
R1 VY = −Vout ( R2C2 s )
⎛ Vout 1 Vin ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⋅ + ⎟ ⎜ R3 ⎟ = −Vout
⎝ R2C2 s R4 R1 ⎠ ⎝ sC1 ⎠
Tow-Thomas Biquad
BFP βs
∵ H (s) =
ωn
s2 + s + ωn2
Q
LFP γ
∵ H (s) =
ωn
s +
2
s + ωn2
Q
Vout R2 R3 R4 C2 s
Band-pass: =− .
Vin R1 R2 R3 R4C1C2 s 2 + R2 R4C2 s + R3
VY R3 R4 1
Low-pass: = .
Differential Tow-Thomas Biquads
¾ An important advantage of this topology over the KHN biquad

is accrued in integrated circuit design, where differential
integrators obviate the need for the inverting stage in the loop.
Example 14.20: Tow-Thomas Biquad
α s2 + β s + γ
H (s) =
2 ωn
s + s + ωn2
Q
VY R3 R4 1
Low-pass: = .
Note that ωn and Q of the Tow-Thomas filter can be adjusted (tuned)

independently.
1
ωn = Q −1
=
1 R2 R4C 2
R 2 R 4 C 1C 2 R3 C1
Adjusted by R2 or R4 Adjusted by R3
Antoniou General Impedance Converter
V1 = V3 = V5 = VX
V
V4 = X Z 4 + VX
Z5
IX IZ 3 V −V V Z
IZ 3 = 4 3 = X ⋅ 4
Z3 Z5 Z3
IZ 3 VX
Z5
V2 = V3 − Z 2 I Z 3
V Z
= VX − Z 2 ⋅ X ⋅ 4
Z5 Z3
V − V2
IX = X
Z1Z3 Z1
Zin = Z5 Z Z
Z2Z4 = VX 2 4
Z1Z 3 Z 5
¾ It is possible to simulate the behavior of an inductor by using

active circuits in feedback with properly chosen passive
elements.
Simulated Inductor
Z1 Z2
Z3 Z4 Z5
Z1Z 3
∵ Z in = Z5 Zin = RX RY Cs
Z2Z4
Thus, Leq = RX RY C
¾ By proper choices of Z1-Z4, Zin has become an impedance that
increases with frequency, simulating inductive effect.
High-Pass Filter with SI
Vout L1s 2
(s) =
Vin R1C1L1s 2 + L1s + R1
¾ With the inductor simulated at the output, the transfer function

resembles a second-order high-pass filter.
Example 14.22: High-Pass Filter with SI
Vout = V1 = V3 = V5
Node 4 can also serve as an output.
RX ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞
V5 = V4 ⇒ V4 = ⎜1 + Y ⎟ V5 ⇒ V4 = Vout ⎜ 1 + Y ⎟
RY + RX ⎝ RX ⎠ ⎝ RX ⎠
¾ V4 is better than Vout since the output impedance is lower.
Low-Pass Filter with Super Capacitor
¾ How to build a floating inductor to derive a low-pass filter?

Not possible. So use a super capacitor.
Z1 Z2 1
Z in =
Cs ( RX Cs + 1)
Z5
Z4 γ
H ( s) =
Z3 ωn
s2 + s + ωn2
Q
Vout Z in
=
Vin Z in + R1
1
=
R1 R X C 2 s 2 + R1Cs + 1
Example 14.23: Poor Low-Pass Filter
Vout = V1 = V3 = V5
⎛ 1 ⎞
Vout ⎜ + Cs ⎟
⎝ RX ⎠
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
V4 = ⎢Vout ⎜ + Cs ⎟ ⎥ RX + Vout = Vout ( 2 + RX Cs )
⎣ ⎝ RX ⎠⎦
¾ Node 4 is no longer a scaled version of the Vout. Therefore the

output can only be sensed at node 1, suffering from a high
impedance.
Summary
¾ Continuous-time passive second-order filters employ RSC

sections, but they become impractical at very low frequencies
(because of large physical size of inductors and capacitors).
¾ Active filters employ op amps, resistors, and capacitors to
create the desired frequency response. The Sallen and Key
topology is an example.
¾ Second-order active (biquad) sections can be based on
integrators. Examples include the KHN biquad and the Tow-
Thomas biquad.
¾ Biquads can also incorporate simulated inductors, which are
derived from the “general impedance converter” (GIC). The GIC
can yield large inductor or capacitor values through the use of
two op amps.
Frequency Response Template
¾ With all the specifications on pass/stop band ripples and

transition band slope, one can create a filter template that will
lend itself to transfer function approximation.
Butterworth Response
1
H ( jω ) =
2n
⎛ω ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω0 ⎠
ω-3dB=ω0, for all n.
¾ The Butterworth response completely avoids ripples in the

pass/stop bands at the expense of the transition band slope.
To obtain the poles, we make a reverse substitution, ω = s / j ,

and set the denominarot to zero:
Butterworth Response
s 2 n + ( jω0 ) = 0 ⇒ s 2n + ( j ) (ω0 )
2n 2n 2n 2n
⎛ s ⎞ =0
1+ ⎜ ⎟ =0
jω
⎝ 0⎠ s 2 n + ( − j ) (ω0 )
n 2n
=0
This polynomial has 2n roots given by
jπ ⎛ 2k − 1 ⎞
pk = ω0 exp exp ⎜ j ⎟ , k = 1, 2,..., 2n
2 ⎝ 2n ⎠
− jπ jπ
exp exp
For 2nd order filter, 4 4
j 3π j 5π j 7π j 9π
pk =1,2,3,4 = ω0 exp , ω0 exp , ω0 exp , ω0 exp
4 4 4 4
negative real positive real
But only the roots having a negative real part are acceptable
jπ ⎛ 2k − 1 ⎞
pk = ω0 exp exp ⎜ j π ⎟ , k = 1, 2, ,n
2 ⎝ 2n ⎠
Poles of the Butterworth Response
2nd‐Order nth‐Order
(− p1 )(− p2 ) ⋅⋅⋅ (− pn )
H (s) =
( s − p1 )( s − p2 ) ⋅⋅⋅ ( s − pn )
where the factor in the numerator is included to
yield H(s=0)=1
Example 14.24: Order of Butterworth Filter
Specification: passband flatness of

0.45 dB for f < f1=1 MHz, stopband
attenuation of 9 dB at f2=2 MHz.
| H ( f1 = 1MHz) |= 0.95 ≈ −0.45 dB | H ( f 2 = 2MHz) |= 0.355 ≈ −9 dB

1 1
2n
= 0.952 2n
= 0.3552
⎛ 2π f1 ⎞ ⎛ 2π f 2 ⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
ω
⎝ 0 ⎠ ω
⎝ 0 ⎠
2n
⎛ f2 ⎞ f 2 = 2 f1
⎜ ⎟ = 64.2 n = 3, ω0 = 2π × (1.45MHz)
⎝ f1 ⎠
¾ The minimum order of the Butterworth filter is three.
Example 14.25: Butterworth Response
Using a Sallen and Key topology, design a Butterworth filter for the
response derived in Example 14.24.
j 2π j 3π j 4π
pk =1,2,3 = ω0 exp , ω0 exp , ω0 exp
3 3 3
= −ω0
⎛ 2π 2π ⎞
p1 = 2π *(1.45MHz ) * ⎜ cos + j sin ⎟
2
π
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
3
2nd-order SK
⎛ 2π 2π ⎞
p3 = 2π *(1.45MHz ) * ⎜ cos − j sin ⎟
4 ⎝ 3 3 ⎠
π
3
p2 = 2π *(1.45MHz ) RC section
Example 14.25: Butterworth Response (cont’d)
C1
α s2 + β s + γ
H (s) =
R1 R2 ω
R3 s 2 + n s + ωn2
C2 C2 Q
(− p1 )(− p3 ) [2π × (1.45MHz)]2

H SK ( s) = = 2
( s − p1 )( s − p3 ) s − [ 4π × (1.45MHz) cos(2π / 3) ] s + [2π × (1.45MHz)]2
2π ⎞ 1
⎛ ∵ ω =
ωn = 2π × (1.45MHz) and Q = 1/ ⎜ 2 cos ⎟ = 1 → n
R1R2C1C2
⎝ 3 ⎠
1 C1
∵Q = R1R2 R1 = R2 = 1kΩ , C 2 = 54.9pF, and C1 = 4C 2
R1 + R2 C2
1
ωn =
1 4 R12C12
= 2π × (1.45MHz) → R3 = 1kΩ and C3 = 109.8pF
R3C3
Chebyshev Response
1
H ( jω ) =
2⎛ ω ⎞
1+ ε 2
Cn ⎜ ⎟
ω
⎝ 0⎠
Chebyshev Polynomial
ε : the amount of ripple

Cn2 (ω / ω0 ) : the "Chebyshev polynomial" of nth order
¾ The Chebyshev response provides an “equiripple” pass/stop

band response.
Chebyshev Polynomial
1
H ( jω ) =
⎛ω ⎞ ⎛ω ⎞
H⎜ ⎟ 1 + ε 2Cn2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω0 ⎠ ⎝ ω0 ⎠
1
1
1+ ε 2
Chebyshev polynomial for Resulting transfer function for

n=1,2,3 n=2,3
⎛ω ⎞ ⎛ −1 ω ⎞
Cn ⎜ ⎟ = cos ⎜ n cos ⎟ , ω < ω0
ω
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ ω 0 ⎠
⎛ ω ⎞
= cosh ⎜ n cosh −1 ⎟ , ω > ω0
⎝ ω0 ⎠ 69
CH 14 Analog Filters
Chebyshev Response
Peak-to-peak Ripple |dB = 20 log 1 + ε 2
1 1
| H PB ( jω ) |= | H SB ( jω ) |=
⎛ ω⎞ ⎛ ω⎞
1 + ε 2 cos 2 ⎜ n cos −1 ⎟ 1 + ε 2 cosh 2 ⎜ n cosh −1 ⎟
⎝ ω0 ⎠ ⎝ ω0 ⎠
Example 14.26: Chebyshev Response
Suppose the filter required in

Example 14.24 is realized with third-
order Chebyshev response.
Determine the attenuation at 2MHz.
1
1 H ( jω ) =
= 0.95 → ε = 0.329 ⎡ ⎛ ω ⎞3
2
1+ ε 2 ω ⎤
1 + ε ⎢4 ⎜
2
⎟ −3 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ω0 ⎠ ω0 ⎥
⎦
ω0=2π (1MHz)
H ( j 2π (2MHz) ) = 0.116 = −18.7dB
¾ A third-order Chebyshev response provides an attenuation of

-18.7 dB a 2MHz.
Example 14.27: Order of Chebyshev Filter
Specification:
Passband ripple: 1 dB
Bandwidth: 5 MHz
Attenuation at 10 MHz: 30 dB
What’s the order?
1 dB = 20 log 1 + ε 2 → ε = 0.509
Attenuation at ω = 2ω0 = 10 MHz: 30 dB
1
= 0.0316
−1
1 + 0.509 cosh (n cosh 2)
2 2
cosh 2 (1.317n) = 3862 → n > 3.66 → n = 4

Example 14.28: Chebyshev Filter Design
Using two SK stages, design a filter that

satisfies the requirements in Example 14.27.
pk = −ω0 sin
( 2k − 1) π sinh ⎛ 1 sinh −1 1 ⎞ + jω ( 2k − 1) π cosh ⎛ 1 sinh −1 1 ⎞
⎜
2n ⎝n ε ⎟⎠ 0 cos
2n
⎜
⎝n ε ⎟⎠
p1,4 = −0.140ω0 ± 0.983 jω0 p2,3 = −0.337ω 0 ± 0.407 jω 0

SK1 SK2
Example 14.28: Chebyshev Filter Design (cont’d)
(− p1 )(− p4 ) (− p2 )(− p3 )
H SK 1 ( s ) = H SK 2 ( s ) =
( s − p1 )( s − p4 ) ( s − p2 )( s − p3 )
0.986ω02 0.279ω02
= 2 = 2
s + 0.28ω0 s + 0.986ω02 s + 0.674ω0 s + 0.279ω02
ωn1 = 0.993ω0 = 2π × (4.965MHz) ωn 2 = 0.528ω0 = 2π × (2.64MHz)

Q1 = 3.55 Q2 = 0.783.
R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ, C1 = 50.4C2 R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ, C1 = 2.45C2

1 1
= 2π × (4.965MHz) = 2π × (2.64 MHz)
50.4 R1C2 2.45 R1C2
→ C2 = 4.52 pF, C1 = 227.8 pF → C2 = 38.5 pF, C1 = 94.3 pF
Summary
¾ The desired filter response must in practice be approximated

by a realizable transfer function. Possible transfer functions
include Butterworth and Chebyshev responses.
¾ The Butterworth response contains n complex poles on a circle
and exhibits a maximally-flat behavior. It is suited to
applications that are intolerant of any ripple in the passband
¾ The Chebyshev response provides a sharper transition than
Butterworth at the cost of some ripple in the passband and
stopbands. It contains n complex poles on an ellipse.

Análise de Circuitos

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Análise de Circuitos

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Chapter 14 Analog Filters

¾ 14.1 General Considerations

¾ In order to eliminate the unwanted interference that

Problem : Adjacent channel interference is 25 dB above the

Solution: A filter with stopband attenuation of 40 dB

Problem: Adjacent 60-Hz channel interference is 40 dB above

Solution: A high-pass filter with stopband attenuation of 60 dB

¾ A bandpass filter around 1.5 GHz is required to reject

¾ Filter (a) has a transfer function with -20dB/dec roll-off.

Impulse response contains

Poles on the RHP Poles on the jω axis Poles on the LHP

¾ The order of the numerator m ≤ The order of the denominator

¾ Imaginary zero is used to create a null at certain frequency.

¾ Sensitivity indicates the variation of a filter parameter due to

Problem: Determine the sensitivity of ω0 with respect to R1.

R2C2 < R1C1 R2C2 > R1C1

¾ Second-order filters are characterized by the “biquadratic” equation

Second-Order Low-Pass Filter

Peak magnitude normalized to the passband magnitude: Q / 1 − (4Q 2 ) −1

Problem: Q of a second-order LPF = 3.

Frequency of the peak: ωn / 1 − 1/ (2Q 2 )

Peak magnitude normalized to the passband magnitude: Q / 1 − (4Q 2 ) −1

Problem: Determine the -3dB bandwidth of a band-pass response.

¾ An LC tank realizes two imaginary poles at ±j/(L1C1)1/2 , which

¾ At ω=0, the inductor acts as a short.

¾ With a resistor, the poles are no longer pure imaginary which

Low-pass High-pass Band-pass

Voltage gain greater than unity (peaking)

¾ The circuit (a) has a -40dB/dec roll-off at high frequency.

Zp must contain both a capacitor and an inductor so that

¾ Analog filters prove essential in removing unwanted frequency

¾ Passive filters constrain the type of transfer function.

¾ They may require bulky inductors.

VY = Vout C2 sR2 + Vout Vout C2 s

the gain of filter

Problem: Determine the Q sensitivities of the SK filter for the common

¾ It is possible to use integrators to implement biquadratic

To obtain Vout for given VA , we ground VY

To obtain Vout for given VY , we ground VA

¾ An important advantage of this topology over the KHN biquad

Note that ωn and Q of the Tow-Thomas filter can be adjusted (tuned)

¾ It is possible to simulate the behavior of an inductor by using

¾ With the inductor simulated at the output, the transfer function

Node 4 can also serve as an output.

¾ V4 is better than Vout since the output impedance is lower.

¾ How to build a floating inductor to derive a low-pass filter?

¾ Node 4 is no longer a scaled version of the Vout. Therefore the

¾ Continuous-time passive second-order filters employ RSC

¾ With all the specifications on pass/stop band ripples and

ω-3dB=ω0, for all n.

¾ The Butterworth response completely avoids ripples in the

To obtain the poles, we make a reverse substitution, ω = s / j ,

Specification: passband flatness of

| H ( f1 = 1MHz) |= 0.95 ≈ −0.45 dB | H ( f 2 = 2MHz) |= 0.355 ≈ −9 dB

(− p1 )(− p3 ) [2π × (1.45MHz)]2

ε : the amount of ripple

¾ The Chebyshev response provides an “equiripple” pass/stop

Chebyshev polynomial for Resulting transfer function for

Peak-to-peak Ripple |dB = 20 log 1 + ε 2

Suppose the filter required in

¾ A third-order Chebyshev response provides an attenuation of

Attenuation at ω = 2ω0 = 10 MHz: 30 dB

cosh 2 (1.317n) = 3862 → n > 3.66 → n = 4