Business of Safety Managing Occupational and Industrial Risks Textbook - PART - 2

5 Occupational and industrial hazards 77
5 OCCUPATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS

5.1 Definition of hazard and related terms
The terminology used in OSH varies between countries, but generally speaking:
A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled;

The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard;
A risk is a combination of the likelihood of a particular outcome and the sever-
ity of the harm involved.
“Hazard”, “risk”, and “outcome” are used in other fields to describe, e.g. envi-
ronmental damage, or damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, “out-
come” generally describes the direct or indirect degradation, temporary or perma-
nent, of the physical, mental, or social well-being of workers. For example,
repetitively carrying out manual handling of heavy objects is a hazard. The outcome
would be a musculoskeletal disorder. The risk can be expressed numerically, (e.g., a
0,5 or 50/50 chance of the outcome occurring during a year), qualitatively as
"high/medium/low", or using a more complicated classification scheme.
The above terms are widely used but often in diverse ways. This section will be
oriented towards occupational (workplace) hazards. Therefore Box 5.1 contains
clarification of the term “hazard” and its relationships to other related terms often
used in OSH (Hammer and Price 2001: 190).
Copyright © 2010. Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Press. All rights reserved.
Box 5.1: explanation of terms related to the term “hazard”

Hazard: condition with the potential of causing injury to personnel, damage to
equipment or structures, loss of material, or lessening of the ability to perform a
described function. When a hazard is present, the possibility exists of these ad-
verse effects occurring.
Danger: expresses a relative exposure to a hazard. A hazard may be present, but

there may be little danger because of the precautions taken.
A person working on a very high structure is subject to a hazard that he

could fall to his death. When he wears an anchored safety harness, the danger is
reduced but is still present since the harness might brake.
A high-voltage transformer bank, such as those in power transmission sys-
tems, has an inherent hazard of electrocuting someone as long as it is energised.
A high degree of hazard exists if the bank is unprotected in the middle of a busy
inhabited area (Figure 5.1). The same hazard is present even when the trans-
formers are completely enclosed in a locked underground vault. However, there
is almost no danger to personnel. An above ground installation with a high fence
and locked gate has a danger level between these two.
Vaidogas, Egidijus Rytas. Business of Safety : Managing Occupational and Industrial Risks : Textbook, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University Press, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unitemlibrary-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3572003.
Created from unitemlibrary-ebooks on 2019-01-08 18:22:27.
78 Part II Dealing with individual workplace hazards
Damage: severity of injury or the physical, functional, or monetary loss that

could result if control of hazard is lost (Figure 5.2).
An unprotected man falling from a steel beam 3 m above a concrete pave-

ment might suffer a sprained ankle or broken leg. He would be killed in a similar
fall from 90 m. The hazard (possibility) and danger (exposure) of falling are the
same. The difference is in the severity of damage that would result if a fall oc-
curred.
The same hazard of electrocuting an energized person:

transformer bank in power transmission system
High fence with
locked gate
Locked underground vault
Unprotected: Completely enclosed: Enclosed by a fence:

maximum danger almost no danger intermediate level of
to personnel to personnel danger to personnel
Figure 5.1 An illustration of the relation between the terms “hazard” and “danger”: a case of
the protection of a transformer bank
Outcome or consequences
Hazard 1 Damage:
Hazard 2 Loss of Injury
Accident
M control Physical loss
Hazard n Functional loss
Monetary loss
Pre-accident time Moment of

Post-accident time
of exposure accident
Figure 5.2 Relation between terms “hazard”, “outcome”, “damage”
An occupational hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to a worker,

consumer, or other individual. The potential “targets” of hazard are
Life,
Health,
Property,
The environment.
Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm;
however, once a hazard becomes “active”, it can create an emergency situation
which can result in an accident.
A hazard is defined in the Federal Aviation Administration (US) Order 8040.4
as a “Condition, event, or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an un-
planned or undesirable event.” (FAA 1998). Seldom does a single hazard cause an
accident. More often, an accident occurs as the result of a sequence of causes. A
hazard analysis will consider the system state, for example operating environment,
as well as failures or malfunctions.
5.2 Classification of hazards
5.2.1 Modes of a hazard
A hazard is usually used to describe a potentially harmful situation, although not
usually the event itself – once the accident has started it is classified as an emer-
gency or accident. There are a number of modes for a hazard, which include:
Dormant: the situation has the potential to be hazardous, but no people, property
or the environment is currently affected by this. For instance, a hillside way
may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but there is nothing below or
on the hillside which could be affected;
Potential (“armed”): the situation where the hazard is in the position to affect
persons, property, or the environment. This type of hazard is likely to require
further risk assessment;
Active: the hazard is certain to cause harm, as no intervention is possible before

the accident occurs;
Mitigated: a potential hazard has been identified, but actions have been taken in
order to ensure it does not become an accident. This may not be an absolute
guarantee of no risk, but it is likely to have been undertaken to significantly re-
duce the danger.
5.2.2 Causes of hazards
There are many causes of hazards, but they can broadly be termed into:
Natural: natural hazards include anything which is caused by a natural process,

and can include obvious hazards such as volcanoes to smaller scale hazards
such as loose rocks on a hillside;
Man-made: hazards created by humans, which includes a huge array of possi-
bilities, probably too many to list, as it includes long term (and sometimes dis-
puted) effects such as global warming to immediate hazards such as building
sites;
Activity-related: some hazards are created by the undertaking of a certain activ-

ity, and the cessation of the activity will negate the risk. This includes hazards
such as flying.
5.2.3 Risk-based classification of hazards
By its nature, a hazard involves something which could potentially be harmful to a
person’s life, health, property or to the environment. There are a number of methods
of classifying a hazard, but most systems use some variation on the factors of likeli-
hood of the hazard turning into an accident (accident likelihood) and the severity of
the accident if it were to occur.
A common method is to score both likelihood and severity on a numerical scale
(with the most likely and most serious scoring highest) and multiplying one by the
other in order to reach a comparative score:
 Likelihood of   Seriousness of 
 × 
Risk =    accident occurred  (5.1)
 occurrence   
This score can then be used to identify which hazards may need to be mitigated. A
low score on likelihood of occurrence may mean that the hazard is dormant, whereas
a high score would indicate that it may be an active hazard.
While in some cases the risk (5.1) can be eliminated, in most cases a certain de-
gree of risk must be accepted. In order to quantify expected accident costs before the
fact, the potential consequences of an accident, and the probability of occurrence
must be considered. Assessment of risk is made by combining the severity of conse-
quence with the likelihood of occurrence in a matrix also called the risk matrix (e.g.,
Ayyub 2003: 70). Examples of these two components of risk are given in Tables 5.1
and 5.2. An example risk matrix is shown in Figure 5.3. Risks that fall into the “un-
acceptable” or “high risk” category (e.g., high severity and high probability) must be
mitigated by some means to reduce the level of safety risk.
Table 5.1 Severity definitions (retrieved from Wikipedia, see Appendix 2)

Severity Definition
Catastrophic Results in multiple fatalities and/or loss of the system
Reduces the capability of the system or the operator ability to cope with
adverse conditions to the extent that there would be:
Large reduction in safety margin or functional capability;
Crew physical distress/excessive workload such that operators can-
Hazardous not be relied upon to perform required tasks accurately or com-
pletely;
Serious or fatal injury to a small number of occupants of aircraft
(except operators);
Fatal injury to ground personnel and/or general public.
Severity Definition
Reduces the capability of the system or the operators to cope with ad-
verse operating conditions to the extent that there would be:
Significant reduction in safety margin or functional capability;
Significant increase in operator workload;
Conditions impairing operator efficiency or creating significant dis-
Major
comfort;
Physical distress to occupants of aircraft (except an operator);
including injuries;
Major occupational illness and/or major environmental damage,
and/or major property damage.
Does not significantly reduce system safety. Operators are capable to
carry out their actions. Include:
Slight reduction in safety margin or functional capabilities;
Slight increase in workload such as routine flight plan changes;
Minor
Some physical discomfort to occupants or aircraft (except opera-
tors);
Minor occupational illness and/or minor environmental damage,
and/or minor property damage.
None Has no effect on safety
Table 5.2 Likelihood of occurrence (retrieved from Wikipedia, see Appendix 2)

Likelihood Definition
Qualitative: Anticipated to occur one or more times during the en-

tire system/operational life of an item;
Probable
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is
greater than 1×10–5.
Qualitative: Unlikely to occur to each item during its total life. May
occur several times in the life of an entire system or fleet;
Remote
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less
than 1×10–5, but greater than 1×10–7.
Qualitative: Not anticipated to occur to each item during its total
life. May occur a few times in the life of an entire system or fleet;
Extremely remote
than 1×10–7 but greater than 1×10–9.
Qualitative: So unlikely that it is not anticipated to occur during the
entire operational life of an entire system or fleet;
Extremely improbable
than 1×10–9.
Probable L M H H H
Remote L L M H H
Likelihood L
Extremely remote L L M H
Extremely improb- L
L L L M
able
None Minor Major Hazardous Catastrophic
Severity of consequences
Figure 5.3 Example of the risk matrix (H = high level of risk; M = medium level of risk;
L = low level of risk)
5.3 Common workplace hazard groups

Workplace hazards are often grouped into physical hazards, physical agents, chemi-
cal agents, biological agents, and psychosocial issues.
5.3.1 Physical hazards
Physical hazards are mostly mechanical and electrical phenomena arising from the
workplace environment and are usually man-made and intrinsic to work. Physical
hazards include:
Slips and trips,


Falls from height,
Workplace transport,
Dangerous machinery,
Pressure vessels,
Electricity.
Most of the physical hazards listed above are described in detail in chapters of
the second part of this textbook. New and emerging physical risks are covered in the
EASHW report “Expert forecast on emerging physical risks related to occupational
safety and health” (EASHW 2005b).
5.3.2 Physical agents
Physical agents are physical phenomena which can have an adverse effect on the
body. Physical agents include:
Noise,
Extreme temperatures (heat or cold),
Vibration,
Ionising and non-ionising radiation,
Humidity,
Pressure.
The physical agents listed above are covered in detail in Chapters 8, 9, 12 and
13. The phenomena of physical agents are described in depth, among others, by
Gardiner and Harrington (2005). New and emerging risks due to physical agents are
presented in the EASHW report “Expert forecast on emerging physical risks related
to occupational safety and health” (EASHW 2005b)
5.3.3 Chemical agents
Chemical agent means any chemical element or compound which presents a risk to
the safety and health of workers. An activity involving chemical agents means any
work in which chemical agents are used. They can be used in any process, including
production, handling, storage, transport, or disposal. Chemical agents, include:
Solvents,
Heavy metals,
Asbestos.
Many chemical agents are used in workplaces in specific processes, as cleaning

compounds and in laboratory work. The effects on the body can vary significantly.
However, the main effects can be classified into a number of clear-cut areas, namely
chemical poisonings, occupational cancers, dermatitis, and the effects of gassing
accidents. Dermatitis fundamentally implies inflammation of the skin and is the
most common occupational disease.
Safety fact*
Approximately two-thirds of all cancers are “voluntary” cancers caused by smoking and
bad diet. They are followed by endogenously caused cancers. Alcohol, causing 3% of all
fatal cancer cases, is as relevant as asbestos. Occupational tumours are predominantly
caused by asbestos. These tumours are responsible for approx. 4% of the total number of
fatal cancer cases. However, it should be realised that only a small fraction of the popu-
lation is exposed to carcinogens at the workplace, whereas about 50% of the population
smoke and everybody has a generic risk.
*Bender and Eisenbarth (2007: 25)
A more detailed description of chemical agents is given in Chapter 16. New and
emerging chemical risks are covered in the EASHW report “Expert forecast on
emerging chemical risks related to occupational safety and health” (EASHW 2009c).
5.3.4 Biological agents
A biological agent is any micro-organism, cell culture or human endoparasite, includ-
ing any which have been genetically modified, which may cause any infection, al-
lergy, toxicity or otherwise create a risk to human health (EASHW 2003). There are
more than 1200 different kinds of biological agents. Biological agents include:
Prions,
Microorganisms (viruses, and fungi),
Some unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes (for example parasites) and their
associated toxins.
They have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways,
ranging from allergic reactions that are usually relatively mild, to serious medical
conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in the natural environment;
they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many biological agents
reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for preservation, they are a poten-
tial danger in a wide variety of occupational settings. Examples of biological agents
are:
Anthrax,
Avian influenza,
Botulism,
Foodborne illness,
Hantavirus,
Legionnaires’ disease,
Fungi (yeasts and moulds),
Pneumonic plague,
Smallpox,

Tularemia,
Viral hemorrhagic fevers.
Biological agents are rarely visible and therefore the risks they pose are not al-
ways appreciated. People may be exposed to biological agents whenever they are in
contact at work with:
Natural or organic materials like soil, clay, plant materials (hay, straw, cotton,
etc.);
Substances of animal origin (wool, hair, etc.);
Food;
Organic dust (e.g., flour, paper dust, animal dander);
Waste, wastewater;
Blood and other body fluids.
When a work activity involves the deliberate, intentional use of biological

agents, such as cultivating a microorganism in a microbiological laboratory or using
it in food production, the biological agent will be known, can be monitored more
easily and prevention measures can be tailored to the risk posed by the organism.
Information about the nature and effects of the biological agent used should then be
included in the inventory of hazardous substances.
When the occurrence of the biological agents is an unintentional consequence of
the work – this is the case for waste sorting or agricultural activities – the assessment
of risks that workers are exposed to will be more difficult. Nevertheless, for some of
the activities involved, information on exposures and protection measures is avail-
able.
Biological agents can cause three types of disease:
1 Infections caused by parasites, viruses, or bacteria;

2 Allergies initiated by exposure to mould organic dusts like flour dust and animal
dander, enzymes and mites; and
3 Poisoning or toxic effects.
Some biohazards have the potential to cause cancer or foetal harm. Microorgan-
isms can enter the human body via damaged skin or mucous membranes. They can
be inhaled or swallowed, leading to infections of the upper respiratory tract or the
digestive system. Exposure also occurs accidentally by animal bites or needle stick
injuries.
The European directive 2000/54/EC aims to minimise the health risks from bio-
logical agents in the workplace (see Table 2.1). This directive classifies biological
agents into four risk categories according to their potential to cause diseases and the
possibilities of prevention and treatment. The list of biological agents provides indi-
cations of allergenic potential and toxic effects. Measures proposed include con-
tainment categories for laboratory work and industrial processes.
The directive 2000/54/EC requires the employer to assess the risk to workers
posed by biological agents and to reduce this risk. However, the assessment of bio-
logical risks remains a problematic issue despite the obligation laid down by the di-
rective. Knowledge and information about biological agents is still relatively unde-
veloped. Better methods for measuring and assessing exposure to biological agents
and well-established dose-effect relationships need to be developed. The European
experts consider the poor assessment of biological risks to be a new and emerging
occupational hazard (Box 19.1).
Currently, no occupational exposure limits have been set for biological agents,
although some member states of the European Union have set limits for their toxins.
The essential difference between biological agents and other hazardous substances is
their ability to reproduce. A small amount of a microorganism may grow considera-
bly in a very short time under favourable conditions.
5.3.5 Psychosocial issues
Psychosocial issues are those aspects of work design, and the organisation and man-
agement of work, and their social and organisational contexts, which have the poten-
tial for causing psychological or physical harm (Clarce and Cooper 2004: 3). Psy-
chosocial issues include:
Work-related stress, whose causal factors include excessive working time and
overwork;
Bullying (sometimes called mobbing) which may include emotional, verbal, and
sexual harassment;
Violence from outside the organisation.
There is increasing awareness that psychosocial issues pose a significant danger,

which also needs to be evaluated and controlled. Psychosocial issues are linked to
the way work is designed, organised and managed, as well as to the economic and
social context of work. These issues result in an increased level of stress and can
lead to serious deterioration of mental and physical health. In 2005, more than 20%
of workers from the 25 member states of the European Union believed that their
health is at risk because of work-related stress (EASHW 2007d). In 2002, the annual
economic cost of work-related stress in the old 15 member states was estimated at
€20 billion.
The psychosocial issues related to OSH risks are often the result of technical or
organisational change. Socio-economic, demographic and political changes, includ-
ing the current phenomenon of “globalization”, are also significant factors. The main
psychosocial issues identified by the European experts can be grouped into the fol-
lowing five areas (EASHW 2007c: 24, 2007d):
1 New forms of employment contracts and job insecurity: the use of more precari-
ous employment contracts, together with the trend towards lean production
(producing goods and services with less waste) and outsourcing (using outside
organisations to carry out work), can affect workers’ health and safety; workers
on precarious contracts tend to carry out the most hazardous jobs, work in
poorer conditions and receive less OSH training; working in unstable labour
markets can give rise to feelings of job insecurity and increase work-related
stress;
2 The ageing workforce: one consequence of an ageing population and higher re-
tirement ages in Europe is that workforce becomes older; ageing workers are
more vulnerable to the hazards resulting from poor working conditions than
younger employees; the failure to provide ageing workers with lifelong learning
opportunities also increases the mental and emotional demands made upon them;
this may affect their health and increase the chance of work-related accidents;
3 Work intensification: many workers are handling growing amounts of infor-
mation, and having to cope with higher workloads and greater pressure at work;
some workers, particularly those employed in new forms of employment or
highly competitive fields, tend to feel less secure; a higher workload and more
demands made on fewer workers can lead to an increase in work-related stress

and affect workers’ health and safety;
4 High emotional demands at work: this issue is of great concern, especially in the
growing and increasingly competitive healthcare and service sectors; bullying at
work is identified by the experts as a contributing factor to the increased emo-
tional demands being made on workers; the problem of violence and bullying
can affect all occupations and sectors; for both the victims and witnesses, vio-
lence and bullying result in stress and may seriously affect both mental and
physical health;
5 Poor work-life balance: problems at work can spill over into a person’s private
life; uncertain casual work, high workloads and variable or unpredictable work-
ing hours, especially when there is no possibility for the employee to adjust
them to their personal needs, can lead to a conflict between the demands of
work and private life; the result is a poor work-life balance, which has a detri-
mental effect on a worker’s well-being.
Work-related stress
Work-related stress can be caused by psychosocial issues, such as work design, or-
ganisation, and management (e.g., high job demands and low job control as well as
bullying and violence at work). Physical agents, such as noise and temperature, can
also cause the stress. Work-related stress is experienced when the demands of the
work environment exceed the employees’ ability to cope with (or control) them.
Stress is not a disease, but if it is intense and goes on for some time, it can lead to
mental and physical ill-health. Being under pressure can improve performance and
give satisfaction when challenging objectives are achieved. But when demand and
pressures become too strong, they lead to stress. And this is bad for workers and for
their organisations.
Safety fact*
Work-related stress is a symptom of an organisational problem, not an individual weak-

ness!
* EASHW (2002c)
Work-related stress is the second most common work-related health problem af-
fecting 22% of workers from 27 member states of the European Union, after back
pain which affects 28% of European workers (EASHW 2002c, EASHW website in
Appendix 2). Work-related stress accounts for more than a quarter of two week or
more absences from work through work-related health problems. Occupational data
from 1999 estimate that the stress costs member states at least €20 billion annually.
Work-related stress can lead to conditions such as depression, anxiety, nervousness,
fatigue, and heart disease. It also causes very considerable disturbances to productiv-
ity, creativity, and competitiveness. The stress can affect anyone in any sector and in
any size of the organisation.
Safety fact*
It is estimated that about half of all work absences in the United Kingdom are related to
occupational stress. The costs associated with sickness absence are high, for example,
the Confederation of British Industry estimates that in financial terms, sickness absence
costs some £11 billion per year in the United Kingdom, of which it has been estimated
that about 40% is due to workplace stress. This amounts to approximately 2% to 3% of
GDP, or £438 per employee per year.
*Clarce and Cooper (2004: 4)
Bullying at work
Bullying at work is one of the key triggers of work-related stress. Workplace bully-
ing is repeated behaviour directed towards an employee and creating a hazard to vic-
tim’s health and safety. Bullying often involves a misuse or abuse of power, where
victims can experience difficulties in defending themselves. Bullying can involve
both verbal and physical attacks, as well as more subtle acts like devaluation of a
colleague’s work or social isolation. Bullying may encompass both physical and
psychological violence.
Consequences of bullying may be significant. Physical, mental and psychoso-
matic health symptoms of bullying are stress, depression, reduced self-esteem, self-
blame, phobias, sleep disturbances, digestive and musculoskeletal problems. Post

traumatic stress disorder, similar to symptoms exhibited after other traumatic experi-
ences such as disasters and assaults, is also common among victims of bullying.
These symptoms might persist years after exposure to bullying. Other consequences
might be social isolation, family problems, and financial problems due to absence or
discharge from work.
Workplace bullying constitutes a significant problem in the European workforce.
The costs are considerable for both the worker and the organisation. Results from an
European survey show that 9% of workers in Europe, or 12 million people, report
being subject to bullying over a 12-month period in 2000 (EASHW 2002a). The
costs of bullying can result in higher absenteeism and staff turnover, reduced effec-
tiveness and productivity, not only for the victims of bullying but also for other col-
leagues who suffer from the negative psychosocial climate in the work environment.
Legal damages arising from bullying cases can also be high.
External violence
Bullying is related to the use of intimidation in relationships between colleagues and
therefore it can be considered a form of internal violence. “External” violence covers
insults, threats, or physical or psychological aggression exerted by people from out-
side the organisation, including customers and clients, against a person at work that
endangers their health, safety, or well-being. There may be a racial or sexual dimen-
sion to the violence. Aggressive or violent acts take the form of:
Uncivil behaviour (lack of respect for others),

Physical or verbal aggression (intention to injure),
Assault (intention to harm the other person).
Results from the European survey show that 4% of the working population re-
port that they have been victims of actual physical violence from people outside the
workplace (EASHW 2002b). Many more will have suffered from threats and insults
or other forms of psychological aggression outside the workplace.
European legislation related to psychosocial issues
Measures to protect workers against hazards of psychosocial nature were introduced
in the framework directive 89/391/EEC (EC 1989). The framework directive con-
tains the basic provisions for health and safety at work and it makes employers re-
sponsible for making sure that employees do not suffer harm through work, includ-
ing psychosocial issues. In line with the directive, employers in consultation with
workers and their representatives should:
Aim to prevent work-related stress as well as workplace bullying and violence;

Assess the risks related to psychosocial issues;
Take adequate actions to prevent these risks.
Guidance for assessing risks induced by psychosocial issues and recommenda-

tions for preventing potential harm due to these issues are given in documents of
EASHW (see EASHW (2002a, b, c) and references cited therein).
5.4 Review questions and exercises

1 What is the difference between the terms “hazard” and “danger”?
2 Define risk and provide a qualitative classification of likelihood of occurrence and se-
verity of accidents.
3 Explain the risk matrix.
4 How are occupational hazards classified according to their mode and causes?
5 List the five groups of common workplace hazards.
6 Try to distinguish several occupations (occupational settings) which are exposed to high
level of biological risks.
7 What are the five main areas of psychosocial issues related to OSH and identified by the
European experts?
8 Define the term “work-related” stress.
9 Distinguish between workplace bullying and external violence against the organisation.
6 FALLS, IMPACT, FALLING OBJECTS AND LIFTING

Some of the most common accidents in the workplace happen as the result of slip-
ping, falling, and improper lifting. The impact from a falling object is also a com-
mon cause of accidents. Slips, trips, and falls are the largest cause of accidents in all
industry branches from heavy manufacturing to office work. In European member
states they have been identified as the main causes of accidents which result in more
than three days absence from work (EASHW 2001). The American data on non-fatal
occupational injuries and illnesses list five sources of injury which can probably be
classified as resulting from falls or impacts (Hammer and Price 2004: 259):
Contact with objects and equipment 26,2% of all cases

Struck by an object 12,7% "
Struck by against an object 6,8% "
Fall to a lower level 4,2% "
Fall to the same level 11,7% "
Total 61,6% "
The great number of impact accidents have been the major factor in the demand
that increased safety measures be used. Notable measures (among many others) are
the use of safety nets and protective helmets for workers or other persons who might
be hurt by falling objects and of seat restraint devices for vehicle drivers and pas-
sengers.
Safety fact*
Falls do not have to be great to be fatal. Persons have been killed when they struck their
heads in fall from upright position on slippery floors. In 1996 there were 14 100 fall-
related deaths, the second leading cause of unintentional deaths in the United States.
* Hammer and Price (2001: 259)
6.1 Falls
More than 16% of all disabling work-related injuries are the result of falls (Goetsch
2002: 212). The primary causes of falls are as follows:
A foreign object on the walking surface (any object that is out of place or in a
position to trip someone or to cause a slip);
A design flaw in the walking surface (e.g., a poorly designed floor covering, a
ladder that does not seat properly, or a catwalk that gives way, see Figure 6.1);
Slippery surface (particularly prevalent in industrial plants where numerous dif-
ferent lubricants and cleaning solvents are used);
An individual’s impaired physical condition (particularly common for aging
workers).
6 Falls, impact, falling objects and lifting 91
Figure 6.1 Multiple floor types of the space between the elevator car and the floor can
increase the potential for falls (Di Pilla 2003)
Falls can be divided into the following four categories (Goetsch 2002:213):
“Trip and fall” accidents occur when workers encounter an unseen foreign ob-
ject in their path. When employee’s foot strikes the object, he/she trips and falls;
“Stump and fall” accidents occur when a worker’s foot meets a sticky surface or
a defect on the walking surface. Expecting to continue at the established pace,
the worker falls when his/her foot is unable to respond properly;
“Step and fall” accidents occur when a person’s foot encounters an unexpected
step down (e.g., a hole in the floor or a floorboard that gives way). This can also
happen when an employee thinks he/she reached the bottom of the stairs when,
in reality, there is one more step;
“Slip and fall” accidents occur when the worker’s centre of gravity is suddenly
thrown out of balance (e.g., an oil spot causes a foot to shoot out from under the
worker). This is the most common type of fall.
Broken bones is generally the most serious damage from a fall. Of these, injury
to the head is the most serious and frequent. Table 6.1 provides data on probable
injuries from impacts.
White and Bower (1953) indicate that 50% of all persons impacting against a
hard surface with velocity of 29 km/h (8,2 m/s) will be killed. This is equivalent to a
free fall of 3,3 m. These values apply to impacting the entire body, whereas the data
in Table 6.1 are related to specific bony structures.
It has been found that the ability of human body to sustain an impact, such as a
fall, depends on three major factors: (1) velocity of an initial impact; (2) magnitude
of the deceleration (negative acceleration); and (3) orientation of the body on the
impact.
Table 6.1 Approximate impact velocities and equivalent heights of fall (White and Bower
1953)
Effect on Impact velocity Height of fall
Comment
worker m/s km/h m
Experimental 4,1–7,0 15,3–24,1 0,94–2,31 Range of 1–99% fracture of
skull fracture cadaver heads dropped on
flat metal surface
Fracture – feet 3,7–4,0 12,9–12,9 0,64–0,76 Impact table data using ca-
and ankles davers with knees locked
Fracture – lum- 4,0 9,65 0,30 Estimated for impact on hard
bar spine surface in sitting position
Safety fact
Good housekeeping is a very cheap and effective means of controlling risks. It involves
keeping the site and each workplace clean and tidy at all times and maintaining good
storage systems for hazardous substances and other potentially dangerous items. The risks
most likely to be influenced by good housekeeping are fall objects, slips, trips and falls
and fire.
6.2 Slip and fall prevention measures

It is unwise to depend on luck to avoid the effects of accidental falls and impacts. A
much wiser approach is to prevent falls and the subsequent impacts in the first place.
Secondly, safety measures can be provided to avoid hard impacts where the possibil-
ity of falls can not be entirely eliminated.

Good housekeeping can be a major factor in reducing slip and fall hazards. Wa-
ter, oil, soap, coolant, and cleaning solvents left on a floor can decrease traction and
turn an otherwise surface into a hazardous place. For instance, the friction coeffi-
cient of a dry concrete surface is 0,43 (Box 6.1). This coefficient is reduced by al-
most 15% if the concrete is wet. Rubber-soled shoes can decrease slipping hazards
somewhat. However, changing the type of shoe is not enough to ensure safety.
Box 6.1: coefficient of friction

The coefficient of friction is an effective way for comparing the relative traction
of surface. This coefficient is a numerical comparison of the resistance of one
surface (e.g., shoe or boot) against another surface (the floor). Figure 6.2 shows
ratings of the coefficient of friction from very slippery to good traction. Surfaces
with the coefficient of friction of 0,2 and less are very slippery and very hazard-
ous. At the opposite end of this scale, surfaces with a coefficient of friction of
0,4 or higher have good friction.
To get an idea about different values of the coefficient, one can list the following
surfaces: (i) ice has a coefficient of 0,10; (ii) concrete has a coefficient of 0,43;
(iii) linoleum has a coefficient of 0,33; and (iv) waxed white oak has a coeffi-
cient of 0,24. To determine the degree of hazard of these surfaces, the listed val-
ues can be compared with Figure 6.2.
0,2 0,3 0,4
Very slippery and Slippery and Slippery but not

Good traction
very hazardous hazardous hazardous
Figure 6.2 Coefficient of friction and the degrees of hazard of the slip and fall
Slip prevention should be a part of companies OSH management system. Seven

strategies which can prevent slipping are:
1 The choice of the right material from outset. Where the walking surface is to be
newly constructed or an existing surface is to be replaced, surface materials
with the highest possible coefficient of friction should be selected;
2 Retrofitting an existing surface. If it is too disruptive to replace a slippery sur-
face completely, this surface should be retrofitted with friction enhancement

devices or materials. Such devices and materials include runners, skid strips,
carpet, grooves, abrasive coatings, grills, textured coverings;
3 Practising good housekeeping. Regardless the type of the surface, it must be
kept clean and dry. Spilled water, grease, oil, solvents, and other liquids should
be removed immediately. Warning signs should be erected around surfaces
which are wet intentionally (e.g., after cleaning);
4 The use of non-skid footwear. Employees who work in areas where slipping is
likely to be a problem should be required to wear shoes with special non-skid
soles. Non-skid footwear should be a normal part of a worker’s personal protec-
tive equipment (Figure 6.3);
5 Ensure good lighting levels; position lights to ensure that all floor areas are
evenly lit and all potential hazards (e.g., obstructions and spills) can be seen.
Light levels need to allow safe passage through the business premises. Exterior
lights may be required as outdoor workplaces must be adequately lit (Fig-
ure 6.4);
6 Many accidents occur on stairways. Handrails, slip resistant covers to steps,
high visibility and non-slip marking of the front edges of steps, and sufficient
lighting can help in preventing slips and trips on stairs (Figure 6.5);
Good design: good tread pattern sweeps away lubricant leaving dry contact under cleats
Leading edges in all

directions
Channel width: 2 mm minimum for lubricant

dispersal Square heel
breast acts like
leading wedge Soft flexible construction
Cleat width: min. 3 mm , max. 20 mm maximises contact with floor
Slip direction
Maximum tread depth: 2 mm or 5 mm for
rugged outdoor footwear Well-defined square leading
edges
Figure 6.3 Attributes of slip resistant soling (Di Pilla 2003)
7 A frequent inspection of surfaces. Employees who are working to meet produc-

tion deadlines may be so distracted that they do not notice a wet surface, or they
may notice it but feel too rushed to do anything about it. Consequently, persons
responsible for safety should conduct frequent inspections and act immediately
when the hazard slipping is identified.
Figure 6.4 Well-lit construction site at night (Hughes and Ferrett 2007)
Figure 6.5 Slip resistant strips on steps (Di Pilla 2003)
The control of slipping hazard should not rely on clean-up and maintenance.
Safety mats, slip resistance safety shoes, and non-slipping flooring are more reliable.
Ramps and sloped surfaces require higher friction values than level walking surfaces
do. The protection against slipping hazard should focus on areas with open walking
space, such as large plants, warehouses, and supermarkets. Lighting and painted
signs should be used effectively to draw attention to steps, speed bumps, and other
obstacles. Slip, trip and fall hazards put non-employees such as visitors and custom-
ers at risk.
6.3 Impact and acceleration hazards

An employee working on a catwalk drops a wrench. The falling wrench accelerated
over the 6 m drop and strikes an employee below. Had the victim not been wearing a
protective helmet, he might have sustained serious injuries from the impact. This is
an example of accident involving acceleration and impact. The body can also be im-
pacted by non-falling solid material such as high-pressure tyres or tanks which fail,
missile-like fragments from bursting pressurised equipment, windblown solids, de-
bris thrown by rotating equipment, or other objects.
Objects which fall, are slung from a machine, or otherwise become projectiles,
pose serious hazard to heads, faces, feet, and eyes of workers. Consequently, pro-
tecting workers from projectiles requires the use of appropriate protective equipment
and strict adherence to safety rules of all employees.
The principal safety measure against impact and acceleration hazards is per-
sonal protective equipment (Figure 6.6). It means all equipment which is intended to
be worn or held by a person at work and which protects him against one or more
risks to his health and safety. Essential components of personal protective equipment
are means used to protect people against impact and acceleration hazards:
Head protection,
Eye protection,
Face protection.
These means can help to reduce the risk associated with falling and projected
objects, but only if they are worn.
Safety fact*
In the United States, workplace accidents resulting in head injuries cost employers and
workers an estimated $2,5 billion per year in worker’s compensation insurance, medical
expenses, and the accident investigation as well as associated costs due to lost time at
work and substitute workers. Thus is an average cost of $22 500 for each worker who
received a head injury.
* Goetsch (2002: 225)
The protection of head impact and acceleration hazards includes:
Safety helmets used to protect the head from falling objects and overhead haz-
ards;
Industrial scalp protectors (bump caps) intended to protect against striking fixed
obstacles, scalping or entanglement;
Caps and hair nets used to prevent the hair from coming into contact with mov-
ing machinery or parts of machinery.
Eye and face protection is designed to prevent injury from flying particles, dust,
fumes, welding glare and splashes from hazardous substances, such as acids. Eye
protection takes a number of forms:
Eye and face shields which can be hand-held, fixed to a safety helmet or
strapped to the head (Figure 6.6b);
Spectacles (safety glasses) used with toughened glass or plastic lenses, plastic or
metal frames and, in some cases, side shields (Figure 6.6c);
Safety goggles incorporating a cup surrounding each (Figure 6.6d).
Goggles are best to protect the eyes from dust or solvent vapours because they
fit tightly around the eyes. Visors offer protection to the face as well as the eyes and
do not steam up so readily in hot and humid environments. For protection against
very bright lights, special light filtering lenses are used (e.g., in arc welding). Main-
tenance and regular cleaning are essential for the efficient operation of eye protec-
tion.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.6 Equipment for protection of head, face, and eyes: (a) bump cap; (b) face shield;
(c) safety glasses; and (d) safety goggles
The type of eye and face protection in a given setting depends on the type of
work done in that setting and the corresponding hazards. Before choosing an eye
and/or face protection measure, it is necessary to assess the workplace by answering
the following questions:
Do employees perform tasks which may produce airborne dust or flying objects?
Do employees work near others who perform tasks which may produce airborne
dust or flying objects?
Do employees handle hazardous liquid chemicals or blood?
Do employees work near others who handle hazardous liquid chemicals or
blood?
Do employees work in situations which may expose their eyes (faces) to chemi-
cal or physical irritants?
Do employees work in situations which may expose their eyes (faces) to intense
light or lasers?
Based on the answers to these questions, eye or face protective measures can be
chosen for employees working in hazardous conditions.
Safety fact*
Though decreasing lately, the rate of workers in the 25 states of the European Union,
who report carrying or moving heavy loads, is still high (34,5%) reaching 38% in the
new 10 member states.
* EASHW (2007e)
6.4 Lifting hazards
Back injuries which result from improper lifting are among the most common in an
industrial setting. Lifting hazards are created by a poor posture, ergonomic factors,
and personal lifestyles. The back injuries can be prevented by applying the four-step
programme:
1 Posters, which display proper lifting reaching, sitting, and bending, should be
displayed throughout the workplace;
2 Pre-employment screening can identify people who already have back problems
when they apply. Majority of back injuries are related to pre-existing problems;
3 Regular inspections can identify potential problem areas so that corrective ac-
tion can be taken immediately;
4 Education and training aimed to help employees understand how to lift, bent,
stand, walk, reach, and sit safely can be the most effective preventive measure.
Figure 6.7 Manual handling of loads (EASHW 2007e)
One of the most effective ways to prevent back injuries is to teach employees
proper lifting techniques (Figure 6.7). Following are lifting techniques which should
be taught in the company (Goetsch 2002: 231):
1 Plan ahead:
Determine if you can lift the load;

Decide if you need assistance;
Check your route to see whether it has obstructions and slippery surfaces.
2 Lift with your legs not your back:
Bent your knees, keeping your back straight;

Position your feet close to the object;
Centre your body over the load;
Lift straight up smoothly, don’t jerk;
Keep your torso straight; don’t twist while lifting or after the load is lifted;
Set the load down slowly and smoothly with a straight back and bent knees.
3 Push, don’t pull:
Pushing puts less strain on your back; don’t pull objects;

Use rollers under the object whenever possible.

1 List the primary causes of falls.
2 Explain briefly the most common kinds of falls.

3 Explain how surface traction is measured by means of coefficient of friction.
4 List and briefly explain five strategies for preventing slips.
5 Explain how to assess the workplace for eye and face hazards.
6 Describe briefly the four-step programme designed to prevent lifting hazards.
7 What three lifting techniques are safe?
7 MECHANICAL HAZARDS AND MACHINE SAFEGUARDING

7.1 Mechanical injuries
Mechanical hazards are those associated with power-driven machines, whether
automated or manually operated. In spite of advances in safeguarding technologies
and techniques, mechanical hazards are still a major concern today. In addition,
automated machines have introduced new concerns.
In an industrial setting, people interact with machines that are designed to drill,
cut, shear, punch, staple, stitch, abrade, shape, stamp, and slit such materials as met-
als, composites, plastics, and elastomers. If appropriate safety measures are not in
place, or if workers fail to follow safety precautions, these machines can apply the
same procedures to humans. When this happens, mechanical injuries are caused by
cutting, tearing, shearing, crushing, breaking, straining, puncturing, and combina-
tions of these (Figure 7.1 and Box 7.1).
Cutting and tearing
Puncturing Shearing
Common mechanical
injuries
Staining and spraiding Crushing
Figure 7.1 Common types of mechanical injuries
Box 7.1: mechanical injuries

Cutting and tearing: cutting results when skin or a body part comes in contact
with a sharp edge. Tearing of the skin may occur when a sharp point or edge first
pierces the skin and flesh and then is pulled away violently. In addition, tearing
of the skin and flesh can occur when fingers are pulled away violently.
Shearing: this type of injury will occur due to shearing action caused by a linear
motion of a sharp edge or a motion of two objects passing close enough to each
other (Figure 7.2). Power-driven shears and cutters used for severing paper,
metal, and plastic are widely used in manufacturing. In times past, unguarded or
badly guarded shears and cutters often amputated fingers and hands.
Crushing: injuries from crushing occur when a part of body is caught between
two hard surfaces that progressively move together, thereby crushing anything
7 Mechanical hazards and machine safeguarding 101
between them. Crashing hazards are divided into squeeze-point and run-in point
hazards. A squeeze-point (reciprocating trap) is created by two solid objects, at
least one of which is in motion (e.g., the case of manually operated vice or metal
stamping machine, power press). At the point where injury occurs the limb is
stationary (Figure 7.3).These objects can crush any object which may be be-
tween them. A run-in point (in-running trap) exists when two objects, at least
one of which is rotating, come progressively to each other. Common examples
include meshing gears, belts running over pullers, cables on drums and rolls on
rubber mills or paper calendars (Figure 7.4).
Straining and spraining: a strain injury results when muscles are overstretched
or torn. A sprain injury is the result of torn ligaments in a joint. Strains and
sprains can cause swelling and intense pain. There are numerous situations in an
industrial setting when straining of muscles and spraining of ligaments is possi-
ble.
Puncturing: an injury occurring when an object penetrates straight into the body
and pulls straight out, creating a wound in the shape of a penetrating object. The
greatest hazard with puncture wounds is the potential for damage to internal or-
gans. The body can be punctured by machines which have sharp tools.
* DiBerardinis (1999: 197), Stranks (2002)

Figure 7.2 Shearing hazard (shearing trap) created by a moving part transversing a fixed part
(Stranks 2002)
Figure 7.3 A squeeze point created by vertical reciprocating motion of a power press
(Stranks 2002)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7.4 Run-in points: (a) between belt and pulley; (b) between two rollers; (c) between
toothed wheels (Stranks 2002)
Safety fact*
Industrial medics have noted that types of injuries which require treatment because of
worker injuries have been changing. Skin cuts, tears, and abrasions or crushed or severed
body extremities are becoming fewer compared to other types of injuries. The principal
reason for this is the increase in numbers, types, and effectiveness of machine guards and
other safety devices.
7.2 Machine guards and safety devices

The hazards explained in the previous section can be reduced by the application of
appropriate safeguards. A safeguard is a device design to protect persons from ma-
chinery hazards (Stranks 2002: 160). Safeguarding is achieved through a combina-
tion of physical guards and safety devices.
7.2.1 Machine guards
A machine guard is a physical barrier that prevents entry of any part of the body
into a hazardous area, such as a cover over a set of gears. There are five main forms
of machinery guard (Stranks 2002: 108, Stranks 2006: 93):
Fixed guard,
Adjustable guard,
Distance guard,
Interlocking guard,
Automatic guard.
A fixed guard is a device which has no moving parts associated with, or de-
pendent upon the mechanism of any machinery, and which, when in position, pre-
vents access to a danger point or area (Figure 7.5). Fixed guards are the most effec-
tive form of guard. They are principally used to prevent access to non-operational
parts and may take the form of a solid casting, sheet metal, perforated or expanded
metal, welded mesh, safety glass panels or polycarbonate panels.
Shaft with projections Chain and sprockets
Rack and pinion gears Meshing gears
Counter-rotating rolls Pulley belts

Figure 7.5 Examples of fixed guards (Hughes and Ferrett 2007)
An adjustable guard is a machinery guard incorporating an adjustable element

which, once adjusted, remains in that position during a particular operation. This is
the least reliable form of guard in that it requires the operator to adjust same to the
safe position prior to the operation of the machine. Adjustable guards are commonly
used in conjunction with vertical drilling machinery and certain types of woodwork-
ing machinery, such as circular saws and band saws (Figure 7.6).
A distance guard does not completely enclose a danger point or area but places
it out of normal reach. The guard may incorporate a tunnel, fixed grill or rail posi-
tioned at sufficient distance so that access to the moving parts cannot be gained ex-
cept through a deliberately unsafe act. For instance, a metal enclosure or tunnel can
be used for passing materials into machine to prevent an access to the danger area
(Figure 7.7). If this guard is raised, the machine stops.
Figure 7.6 An adjustable guard to a floor-mounted circular saw (Stranks 2002)
Figure 7.7 Distance guard for a metal-cutting machine (Stranks 2002)

An interlocking guard has a movable part so connected with the machinery con-
trols that:
The parts of the machinery causing danger cannot be set in motion until the
guard is closed;
The power is switched off and the motion braked before the guard can be
opened sufficiently to allow access to the dangerous parts; and
The access to the danger point or area is denied whilst the danger exists.
An interlocking guard is further defined as “a moving guard which, in the

closed position, prevents all access to the dangerous parts” (Stranks 2006: 94,
Hughes and Ferrett 2007: 205). The control gear for starting up cannot be operated
until the guard is fully closed and the guard cannot be opened until the dangerous
moving parts have come to rest.
An automatic guard is associated with, and dependent upon, the mechanism of

the machinery and operates so as to remove physically any part of a person exposed
to the danger from the danger area. This form of guard incorporates a device so fit-
ted in relation to the dangerous parts that the operator is automatically prevented
from coming into contact with such parts. Typical machines using this system of
guarding are power presses, press brakes, and certain types of guillotine (see Fig-
ure 7.8).
In many cases, the machinery guard will be linked with a safety device.
Sweep away guard moves up as

machine is operating
Feeding table
Guillotine cutters
Figure 7.8 Automatic guarding to a power operated guillotine (Stranks 2002)

7.2.2 Machinery safety devices

A safety device is a protective appliance, other than a guard, which eliminates or
reduces danger before access to a danger point or area can be achieved. Safety de-
vices take the following forms (Stranks 2002: 109):
Trip devices,
Two-hand control,
Overrun device,
Mechanical restraint device.
A trip device operates on the basis whereby any approach by a person beyond
the safe limit of machinery causes the device to actuate and stop the machinery, or
reverse its motion, thus preventing or minimizing injury at the danger point (Fig-
ure 7.9). Trip devices take a number of forms: mechanical, photoelectric, pressure
sensitive mat, etc. (Stranks 2006: 97).
Tork-Lok
Motor
control box
Reset
Motor
starter
Power
isolation Telescopic safety
switch trip switch
Figure 7.9 Telescopic trip device for a drilling machine (after Stranks 2002 and Hughes and
Ferrett 2007)
A two-hand control device requires both hands to operate the machinery con-
trols, thus affording a measure of protection from danger only to the machinery op-
erator and not other persons (Figure 7.10). An overrun device is used in conjunction
with a guard and is designed to prevent access to machinery parts which are moving
by their own inertia after the power supply has been interrupted so as to prevent
danger. Mechanical restraint device applies mechanical restraint to a dangerous part
of machinery which has been set in motion owing to failure of the machinery con-
trols or other parts of the machinery, so as to prevent danger.
Shrouded button
Figure 7.10 Two-hand control on a clicking press (Stranks 2002)
7.2.3 Requirements for all safety guards and devices

An effective guard or safety device must have certain features and meet certain crite-
ria:
1 Access to the danger zone must be prevented while the machinery is operating;
2 It must be safe under all conditions. If it fails, ceases to operate, or is opened,

the machine will immediately and automatically stop;
3 It must be designed for the hazard, the machine, and type of operation which
will be present;
4 It must impose no restrictions, discomforts, or difficulties for the worker. Then
guard or device must automatically move into or be fixed into place. It must not
require delicate adjustment for the use or move out of alignment easily;
5 It must be impossible for an operator to bypass or inactivate the guard or device
without simultaneously inactivating the equipment on which it is mounted;
6 It should not itself create a new hazard. For instance, a guard with a sharp edge,
unfinished surface, or protruding bolts introduces new hazards while protecting
against the old;
7 It should require minimum maintenance (e.g., lubrication). The maintenance
should be accomplished without removal of the guard.
Design and installation of machine guards and safety devices are highly special-
ised activities. They require a strong working knowledge of machines, production
techniques, and safety. However, it is critical that all requirements explained in this
section should be considered and accommodated during the design process.
Safety fact
Robots are used in hazardous environments and for carrying out hazardous operations.
The first and second generation robots have been used for spray painting, handling of
nuclear materials, handling and disposing such items as bombs and other explosives.
7.3 Robot safeguards

Robots have become commonplace in modern industry. The main hazards associated
with robots are:
Entrapment of a worker between the robot and a solid surface;

Impact with a moving robot arm;
Impact with objects ejected or dropped by a robot.
The best guard against these hazards is to erect a physical barrier around the en-
tire perimeter of a robot’s work envelope. This envelope is a three dimensional area
established by the robot’s full range of motion. This physical barrier should be able
to withstand the force of the heaviest object that a robot could eject.
Various types of automatic guards can also be used. A guard containing a sens-
ing device which automatically shuts down the robot if any person or object enters
its work envelope can be effective. Another approach is to put sensitised doors or
gates in the perimeter barrier that automatically shut down the robot as soon as they
are opened.
These types of guards are especially important because robots can be deceptive.
A robot which is not moving at the moment may simply be at the stage between cy-
cles. Without warning, it might make sudden and rapid movements which could en-
danger any person inside the work envelope.

1 List and briefly describe the common types of mechanical injuries.
2 Explain the concept of safeguarding and the use of safety devices in machinery.
3 Describe five types of machinery guards.
4 What is the most effective form of machinery guard?
5 Describe four types of machinery safety devices.
6 What are the seven requirements all machine guards and safety devices should meet?
7 Explain how to guard against the hazards created by robots.
8 Hazards of temperature extremes 109
8 HAZARDS OF TEMPERATURE EXTREMES

The part of providing a safe and healthy workplace is appropriately controlling the
temperature, humidity, and air distribution in work areas. Work environment in
which the temperature is not properly controlled can be uncomfortable. Extremes of
either heat or cold can be more than uncomfortable – they can be dangerous. Heat
stress, cold stress and burns should be major concern of employees and employers.
8.1 Effects of high temperatures
Continued exposure to high temperature and humidity or to hot sun is a common
cause of the following forms of heat-induced illnesses:
Heat cramps,
Heat exhaustion, and
Heat stroke.
The same degree of exposure may produce different effects, depending on the sus-
ceptibility of the person exposed. Heat cramps are an initial form of heat exhaustion,
but both differ from heat stroke. As the name implies, heat cramps involve muscular
pains and spasms, cold sweating, and vomiting. Heat cramps are not harmful in
themselves and can be effectively treated by rest and adequate fluid replacement.
There is no benefit in most circumstances in adding salt to the fluid and, indeed, in
some circumstances, this may be harmful (Gardiner and Harrington 2005: 62).
Heat exhaustion is a condition marked by weakness, nausea, dizziness, and pro-
fuse sweating, usually precipitated by physical exertion in a hot environment. This
condition is generally because of the loss of salt from the body while perspiring. The
patient will look and feel ill with a pale, clammy skin and extreme lethargy. Mental
confusion may develop followed by unconsciousness. The core temperature of the
body will range from 38,3°C to 40,6°C. Treatment of heat exhaustion is by rest, con-
trolled cooling and adequate fluid replacement (Gardiner and Harrington 2005: 62).
Heat evaporation is caused by excessive perspiring because of hot environment
or strenuous physical exertion. The ability of the body to carry heat to the skin is
inadequate, and certain critical areas are deprived of blood. A person suffering from
heat exhaustion may lose the ability to stand erect. If the person faints, he/she will
generally regain consciousness after the body is lowered from an upright position.
People’s abilities to avoid heat exhaustion vary. Where exposure to high-
temperature atmospheres can not be avoided, personnel must add large amounts of
salt to their diets.
Heat stroke is more serious than heat cramps or exhaustion. The patient be-
comes dizzy, weak, and irritable. Vision may be blurred with a reddish haze. The
patient will have the temperature of 40ºC or more, with correspondingly hot skin.
However, the skin will be dry, with no perspiration. Breathing will resemble snoring.
The patient may vomit, suffer convulsions, and lose consciousness. The pulse rate
will be rapid but blood pressure is seldom affected. Mental confusion may develop
followed by unconsciousness or convulsions and death. Urgent medical assistance is

essential and will involve rapid cooling and treatment by intravenous fluids and
drugs as appropriate. In an emergency, first aid by immersion in a cold bath and
fluid replacement may be life-saving, although cold water immersion has its inherent
dangers as it may lead to further reducing the body’s ability to lose heat (Gardiner
and Harrington 2005: 63). Even if the patient recovers, there may be residual dam-
age to the brain or the kidneys.
8.2 Heat stress and performance
Heat stress is the net heat load to which a worker may be exposed from the com-
bined contributions of metabolic cost of work, environmental factors (that is, tem-
perature, humidity, air environment, and radiant heat exchange) and clothing re-
quirements. A mild and moderate heat stress may cause discomfort and may
adversely affect performance and safety, but it is not harmful to health. As the heat
stress approaches human tolerance limits, the risk of heat-related disorders increases.
High humidity may cause psychological and physiological stresses in personnel,
especially at high temperatures. The amount of work that can be accomplished at
high temperatures decreases as humidity increases (Figure 8.1). The length of time
protective clothing impermeable to moisture can be worn decreases as the humidity
builds up inside the clothing. Provisions must therefore be made to minimise the
presence of moisture inside garments where temperatures are elevated.
High temperature + High humidity + Physical work = Heat illness

Relative humidity Temperature
70% 37,8ºC / 100ºF

When the body is not able to cool itself
through sweating a serious heat illness may
occur.
60% 35ºC / 95ºF
The most severe heat induced illnesses are
heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
If left untreated, heat exhaustion could 50% 32,2ºC / 90ºF
progress to heat stroke and possible death.
40% 29,4ºC / 85ºF
30% 26,7ºC / 80ºF
Danger
Caution
Less hazardous
Figure 8.1 Heat stress card (after Hughes and Ferrett 2007)
High relative humidity means there will be little or no evaporation because a

high percentage of moisture is already present. Certain environments fall into this
category, especially when they are not fitted with air conditioning equipment or
when it fails: windowless industrial buildings, protective suits of impermeable mate-
rial, steam process plants, and laundries.
After humidity, the next most significant factor in increasing heat stress is dura-
tion of exposure. Short term exposures of less than one hour to ambient dry tempera-
tures of 70 – 110ºC caused no significant impairment of performance by test persons
(Hammer and Price 2001: 302). However, one hour is probably the upper limit of
time during which high temperature will not degrade performance. The maximum
level for reliable human performance would be effective temperature of 29ºC
(Box 8.1 and Figure 8.1).
Box 8.1: moisture and humidity

Moisture: small amount of water present in the air in a substance or on a surface.
Absolute humidity: weight of moisture in a cubic meter of space.
Relative humidity: ratio (as a percentage) between the actual pressure of water
vapour present to the saturation vapour pressure. A simpler way to compute rela-
tive humidity is to divide the weight of water gas present in one cubic meter of
space by the weight of water that would be present at the saturation temperature.
Effective temperature: comfort index which combines the effects on a body of

temperature, humidity, and air movement. It is not the temperature measurable
with instruments. It is equivalent to the comfort a person generally feels (there
are always exceptions) in a saturated atmosphere with the same temperature and
with specific movement of air. A person should be equally comfortable under
different conditions, provided that the effective temperature remains approxi-
mately the same.
In most circumstances, most at risk of heat stress are those whose heat environ-
ment changes suddenly, for example the working of a new and deep seam in coal
mining or the unexpected hot spell that overwhelms the ventilation system in a
boiler room. Management should be aware of the possibility of such occurrences,
and should ask for appropriate hygiene advice to determine if the working environ-
ment is acceptable. If work is performed under unsuitable conditions, particularly
conditions of high humidity and low airflow, the core temperature of exposed work-
ers may start to rise.
The first signs of the resulting heat stress are discomfort and fatigue, and the
natural reaction is to slow down the work rate or stop work, a protective mechanism
that will allow cooling and recovery. In some situations, for example in rescue work
and armed service, there may be powerful stimuli to exceed the limits of normal
work capacity. Such workers should be trained to recognize this risk and taught how
to measure the thermal environment and to enforce a work-rest regime if necessary.
All those involved in work in high temperatures should be aware of the physio-
logical changes which take place and the symptoms that occur on continued and un-
controlled exposure to excessive heat when the body’s thermoregulatory mecha-
nisms begin to decompensate. This is particularly important; if the premonitory
symptoms are ignored, serious illness may occur with alarming rapidity.
Acclimatisation (acclimation) is another major factor affecting performance at
high temperature. Acclimatisation is the process of biochemical adaptations enabling
a person to withstand environmental changes such as changes in temperature, hu-
midity, and pressure (Koren 2005: 5). Short exposure generally will not affect per-
formance; longer exposures may result in degradation of performance. However it
has been found that continued exposure to high temperature enables persons to with-
stand heat successfully.
The length of time to acclimatisation varies and depends on the individual.
There is good evidence that physically fit individuals are better able to adapt to ex-
cessive heat and to withstand heat stress. Unfit or obese people are less able to adapt
well to hot temperatures. Adaptation may also be compromised by illness or by tak-
ing certain drugs, including alcohol.
Safety fact*
For the vast majority of workers, the temperature of their workplace has importance only
in terms of comfort zones, and thermal comfort limits are intended to ensure productivity
and quality of work, not protect health. Typically, the minimum recommended tempera-
ture is 16°C with an upper limit of 30°C; if the work is strenuous, these may be modified
to 13°C and 27°C.
However, for an important minority of the workforce the temperatures encountered in

the working environment may exceed the body’s thermoregulatory capacity and have the
potential to be detrimental to health or even to be life-threatening. Such conditions vary
greatly depending on the job and where it is being done. It may be extremely hot for the
foundry worker or very cold for cold-storage operatives. Oil workers in an Alaskan win-
ter (e.g., –40°C) experience markedly different temperatures from their colleagues un-
dertaking otherwise similar work in the Arabian desert in summer (perhaps +40°C).
* Gardiner and Harrington (2005: 61)
8.3 Effects of cold

There are two main types of climate in which cold injuries may occur. In a cold dry
climate, snow and ice are usually present, and the temperature seldom rises above
0°C. A cold, wet climate is more typical of winter in “temperate” zones, when the
temperature may vary from 10°C to 12°C. In cold climates, the body’s principal
physiological response is to try to maintain temperature by decreasing the peripheral

circulation to reduce heat loss. Other responses to cold include increasing the meta-
bolic rate through an impulse to maintain physical activity or, when this is not possi-
ble, by shivering. Excessive exposure to cold stress, even when not fatal, can result
in impaired judgment, reduced alertness, and injuries.
Cold injuries due to occupation are not common (Gardiner and Harrington
2005: 63). Toes, fingers, ears, and the nose are the most common sites for cold in-
jury as they loose heat more rapidly due to their higher surface area-volume ratio
and the peripheral vasoconstriction (decrease in the cross-sectional area of blood
vessels). They are also more likely to be in contact with colder surfaces than other
parts of the body. Most workers exposed to extreme cold are well aware of the risks
and wear suitable protective clothing and are careful about handling metal tools or
similar objects (Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2 Patching a road cover in cold weather. Is the clothing of workers sufficiently
warm?
Non-freezing cold injuries occur after prolonged exposure to cold and often
damp conditions. Chilblains are a form of mild cold injury following repeated expo-
sures to low temperatures of 0–16°C. They are characterized by redness and swell-
ing of the skin in the affected area and may be associated with tingling and pain.
Freezing cold injuries are most likely in a cold dry climate in which the extremi-
ties are exposed to freezing air. Short exposures may lead to rapid surface freezing
that produces a white spot on the skin known as frostnip. At this stage, the underly-
ing tissues are still viable and early recognition and rewarming limits damage.
Frostbite occurs when the exposure to freezing air is prolonged or the cold is ex-
treme. It can also result from contact with frozen metals or from short exposures in
the workplace to cooled or compressed gases.
Freezing causing frostbite occurs in the deeper tissues with ice crystal formation
in tissue fluid, resulting in structural damage to cells. The skin is pale and solid,
looking and literally feeling frozen. On rewarming, the damaged vessels leak, pro-
ducing areas of inflammation and swelling that further compromise the circulation
and add to the tissue destruction. Some degree of tissue loss is inevitable and may be
more extensive than the initial injury suggests owing to subsequent infection and
gangrene. Treatment is aimed at minimising this subsequent damage.
Excessive exposure to cold can lead to hypothermia which can be fatal. Hypo-
thermia is defined as a subnormal temperature of the body. The body’s thermoregu-
latory mechanisms can maintain the core temperature to within 1–2°C of normal one.
The employees should be protected from it by preventing the deep body temperature
from falling below 36ºC and preventing cold injuries to body extremities, especially
hands, feet, and head. A fatal exposure to cold typically results from failure to re-
move the employee from cold air environment or immersion in cold water. Immer-
sion in water is the most common cause of hypothermia, but cold, wet and windy
conditions are also particularly treacherous. Once the body’s thermoregulatory
mechanisms are overwhelmed, the body’s core temperature starts to fall. Box 8.2
shows the effects of allowing the core body temperature to fall to selected levels.
Box 8.2: the body’s response to reducing its core temperature

Core temperature ºC Response of body
37,6 Normal rectal temperature
36 Metabolic rate increases
35 Pronounced shivering
33 Severe hypothermia
30 Progressive loss of consciousness begins
24 Pulmonary edema
20 Cardiac standstill
Whether employees are exposed to cold air or are immersed in cold water, wind
can magnify the level of cold stress. The rate of heat loss from a warm body in-
creases with movement of air across the exposed skin. This produces a cooling ef-
fect and chilling. The heat loss from skin exposed to a 16,1 km/h (10 mph) wind
when ambient temperature is –12ºC (10ºF) will be the same as for a skin in still air
at –23ºC (–9ºF) (Hammer and Price 2001: 304). This amount of chilling of the body
due to exposure to cool air currents, beyond that caused from cold ambient tempera-
ture, is called the wind chill factor. It is an indication of relative heat loss and does
not indicate that tissue will freeze because of the wind. Freezing will not occur
unless the temperature is 0ºC or lower. For instance, the wind chill factor for a
24 km/h wind at the ambient temperature of 4ºC is –30ºC. If a body is exposed to the
temperature of 0ºC or less, wind chill will cause frostbite to occur sooner than nor-
mally would.
The means to mitigate heat-loss problems resulting from wind chill is obvious.
The worker in danger should obtain the shelter of some sort to break the wind. The
protection can be provided by impermeable cover, a tent of lean-to, the cabin of a
vehicle, coverage with a blanket of leaves of newspapers, or even a hole in a snow-

bank.
8.4 Protection against temperature extremes
Protection from human exposure to thermal extreme which can result in personal
harm or impaired performance can be provided at the thermal source, on the path-
way to the person in danger, and for the person. When the heat or cold is induced by
equipment or processes, the source of discomfort can be altered in some cases to
produce less heat or cold, at less than extreme temperatures. Replacement of the of-
fending source by one less offensive is sometimes possible. However, the most
common methods of protection are on the pathway to the exposed person and for the
exposed person.
Air conditioning is the most common measure. The environment along the
pathway between the person and the source is artificially heated or cooled and/or air
is circulated. This measure is, of course, more feasible for indoor applications. An-
other pathway protection is the use of structure and materials to provide a protective
barrier between the source and the exposed person. That barrier could be a thermal
insulation material, or a reflective material, or it could be as simple as a roof to pro-
vide shade. The contact with hot or cold surfaces can be prevented by providing me-
chanical barriers. Warning signs can be used on the pathway.
For the person in danger, many protective interventions are possible:
Conduct medical screening to select workers based on health and physical fit-
ness;
Provide acclimatisation by guarded work and exposure to temperature extremes;

Provide adequate clothing such as reflective apron, cooling vest, cooling suit,
cooling helmet;
Provide or ensure adequate clothing;
Provide “spot” heating or cooling through sources directed at the person in danger;
Monitor workers during sustained exposure to temperature extremes;
Provide ample hot or cold liquid, food, salt intake;
Train workers to recognise symptoms of extreme exposure and to know what
action to take.
In workplaces where people must carry out operations in severe cold, workers
spend time and energy in self-preservation. This may cause impediments to produc-
tivity. Some workers, particularly in chemical plants and installations, must perform
a critical operation wearing full-body protective suits which increase heat stress. All
this may require to take appropriate protective measures to manage these tempera-
ture hazards.

1 Briefly describe the three heat-induced illnesses: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat
stroke.
2 What is heat stress?
3 How does temperature and humidity affect the performance?
4 Define the term “hypothermia”.
5 What is “wind chill”? Give an example.
6 List and briefly describe injuries and dangerous effects induced by low temperatures.
7 What measures can be taken to protect a person subjected to the danger of extreme tem-
peratures?
9 Noise and vibration hazards 117
9 NOISE AND VIBRATION HAZARDS

The modern industrial worksite can be a noisy place. This poses two problems:
safety-related and health-related one. Firstly, noise can distract workers and disrupt
their concentration. This can lead to accidents, for instance, noise can make it diffi-
cult to hear audible warning signals. Secondly, there is the problem of hearing loss.
Exposure to noise that exceeds prescribed levels can result in permanent hearing
loss.
Noise in the workplace can arise as a result of:
Noise produced as a result of vibration in machinery and a plant,

Noise taking a structure-borne pathway,
Radiation of structural vibration into the air,
Turbulence created by air or gas flow,
Noise taking an airborne pathway,
Noise produced by vibratory hand tools, such as chain saws.
9.1 Effects of noise
In industrial activities the sounds which cause losses constitute noise – unwanted
sound. The terms sound and noise are often used interchangeably. Box 9.1 indicates
some typical noise intensities. The adverse effects of noise include:
Loss of hearing sensitivity,

Immediate physical damage (ruptured eardrums),
Interference (masking),
Annoyance,
Distraction,
Contribution to other disorders (e.g., increase in blood pressure).
Box 9.1: sound, noise and vibration

Sound: any change in pressure that can be detected by ear.
Noise: unwanted sound.
Interference: two or more continuous sounds produced together may interfere with
each other. When the energies reinforce each other, the interference is construc-
tive; when they oppose each other, destructive. Reinforcement or opposition of
energy may occur to cause regular increases or decreases in the volume of sound.
Frequency: number of vibrations or Hertz (Hz) (cycles per second) of a sound

wave. The ear can detect sound vibrations which vary from 20 to 20 000 Hz, typi-
cally 50 – 16 000 Hz. Below 20 Hz, sound is infrasonic; above 20 000 Hz it is ul-
trasonic.
Decibel (dB): the logarithm to the base of 10 of the ratio of other sound levels l
and the basic sound intensity l0 (the reference level from which the intensity of
sounds can be computed): no of decibels = log10(l/l0). A bel is large, so the decibel
or one tenth of a bel is used.
Sound pressure level (SPL in dB): the measure of sound intensity proportional to
the ratio between the measured sound pressure ρ (Pa) and the reference pressure
at the threshold of hearing, ρ0 = 2×10–5 Pa. SPL is expressed by the number of
decibels and defined by SPL = 20 log10(ρ/ρ0). It important to note that since a
logarithmic scale to the base of 10 is used, each increase of 3 dB is a doubling in
the pressure (loudness) ρ. Thus if a sound reading changes form 75 dB to 81 dB,
the sound pressure has increased four times.
A-scale and C-scale sound level: the scale normally used for industrial noise
measurement; this sale most closely corresponds to the performance of the human
ear. Sound level in dB read on the A-scale of a sound-level meter is expressed by
adjusted decibels designated by dB(A) (Figure 9.1). The figure given below shows
a scale of sound levels in dB(A) related to various sources of noise. The sound-
level meter has also C-scale which discriminates very little against very low fre-
quencies and is used to measure peak noise levels. The sound level in decibels
read on the C-scale is designated by dB(C).
Sound picture
studio Private office
Sound picture Average Pneumatic Jet engine
residence Heavy traffic test cell
studio rock drill
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Whisper Punch presses Pain

Threshold of Revert gun Discomfort Probable
Conventional instantaneous
hearing at
speach damage
1000 Hz
EU daily exposure limit
value of 87 dB(A)
Vibration: oscillatory motion of a system around an equilibrium position. The sys-

tem can be in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state and the oscillation of the system can
be periodic or random, steady-state or transient, continuous or intermittent.
Audiometry: the measurement of an individual’s hearing acuity or ability over a

range of frequencies. An audiogram, the outcome of an audiometric test, is used to
assess the degree of hearing loss across the frequencies of interest, namely the fre-
quencies at which normal speech takes place, i.e. 0,5; 1 and 2 kHz. It is essentially
a chart of a person’s hearing threshold levels for pure tones of different frequen-
cies.
Figure 9.1 Sound-level meter with the A- and C- scales
The maximum level of sound which can be perceived without experiencing pain
is known as a threshold of pain and is equal to 140 dB(A) . The unprotected human
ear is at risk when exposed to sound levels exceeding 115 dB(A). Exposure to sound
levels below 80 dB(A) is generally considered safe. Sound levels of less than
75 dB(A) are very unlikely to cause permanent damage to hearing. Prolonged expo-
sure to noise levels higher than 85 dB(A) should be minimised through the use of
appropriate personal protective devices. Hearing protection is mandatory for any
employee who is exposed to at least 87 dB(A).
To deal with the noise in the workplace, the following general rules should be
applied:
Daily, 8-hour exposures of less than 80 dB(A) and peak exposures of 135 dB(C)
may be considered safe for the purpose of risk assessment;
A time-average (threshold) of 87 dB(A) should be considered the maximum
limit of continuous exposure of 8-hour days without protection (according to the
European directive on noise, 2003/10/EC, see Table 2.1). The maximum limit
of peak exposures is 140 dB(C).
Safety fact*
How loud? Look at the following figures:
A study of noise in kindergartens found average noise levels to be over 85 dB(A).

During a performance of Snow Lake, a conductor was recorded as being exposed to
88 dB(A).
Truck drivers can be exposed to 89 dB(A).
Staff in night clubs can be exposed to up to 100 dB(A).
Noise on pig farms has been measures up to 115 dB(A).
Pneumatic drill on the construction site will emit 125 dB(A), and the noise of a nail
gun will be 130–140 dB(A).
* EASHW (2005a), Hughes and Ferrett (2007: 316)
The peak exposure values are defined because high-level peak noise can lead to
short-term and long-term hearing loss. Explosives, guns (including nail guns), car-
tridge tools, hammers and stone chisels can all produce high peak sound pressures. If
the daily noise exposure exceeds 80 dB(A), then a noise assessment should be car-
ried out and recorded by a competent person. Table 9.1 gives the information on
simple tests to determine the need for a noise risk assessment.
Table 9.1 Simple observations to determine the need for a noise risk assessment (Hughes
and Ferrett 2007: 317)
Likely Make risk assessment if this
Observation at the workplace
noise level noise level persists for:

The noise is noticeable but does not inter- 80 dB(A) 6 hours
fere with normal conversation – equivalent
to a domestic vacuum cleaner
People have to shout to be heard if they are 85 dB(A) 2 hours
more than 2m apart
People have to shout to be heard if they are 90 dB(A) 45 minutes
more than 1m apart
9.1.1 Hearing damage

Exposure to noise at work may affect hearing in three ways:
Temporary threshold shift (a short-term effect, i.e. a temporary reduction in the

ability to hear, which may follow exposure to excessive noise, such as that from
rifle fire or certain types of machinery, such as chain saws);
Permanent threshold shift (a permanent effect where the limit of tolerance is
exceeded in terms of the duration and level of exposure to noise and individual
susceptibility to noise);
Acoustic trauma (a condition which involves sudden damage to the ear from
short-term intense exposure or even from one single exposure, e.g. gun fire, ma-
jor explosions).
Overexposure to loud noise can cause hearing damage. Damage takes place in
the cochlea, a snail-shaped organ full of liquid (Figure 9.2). The motion of this liq-
uid is detected by minute hair cells in the organ of Corti and is converted to electri-
cal impulses which are passed to the brain. Hearing damage takes place in the organ
of Corti whereby the hair cells cease to respond to stimuli. This damage is irrepara-
ble.
The commonest injury due to noise is sound-induced hearing loss (occupational
deafness). This occupational disease is defined as “substantial sensorineural hearing
loss amounting to at least 50 dB in each ear, being due in the case of at least one ear
to occupational noise, and being the average of pure tone losses measured by audi-
ometry over the 1, 2 and 3 kHz frequencies” (see Box 9.1 for “audiometry” and
Stranks 2006: 170).
Safety fact*
One in five of Europe’s workers has to raise their voice to be heard for at least half of the
time that they are at work and 7% suffer from work-related hearing difficulties. Noise-
induced hearing loss is still one of the most prevalent recognised occupational diseases.
The cost of hearing loss represented about 10% of the total cost of occupational diseases
from 1999 to 2001. In many countries, noise-induced hearing loss is the most prevalent
irreversible industrial disease. It is estimated that the number of people in Europe with
hearing difficulties is more than population of France.
* EASHW (2005a, 2006)
9.1.2 Annoyance
Noise generally annoys people. However, levels and types of noise that can annoy
employees are difficult to determine. In addition, many persons who have been ex-
posed to certain noise over long periods of time develop a tolerance. These persons
may not even hear this noise without conscious effort. On the other hand, the same
noises may annoy other persons who have not developed the tolerance. They may
become more prone to make errors which lead to accidents.
Noises which annoy need not be loud noises. However, the louder the sound,
the more annoying it can be. In addition, an unexpected and suddenly occurring
noise can be most annoying. A sudden impact of noise will not only annoy persons
who hear it, but may keep them on the alert against being startled again.
cochlear duct vestibular canal

ear drum
cochlea auditory nerve
organ of Corti
tympatic canal
ear drum cochlea
eustachian nerve
auditory nerve
sounds waves
eustachian nerve
auditory nerve
Figure 9.2 Sensation of sound (on the left) and the anatomy of cochlea (on the right)
9.1.3 Distraction
The same types of noise which annoy persons can also distract them from their nor-
mal activities. Other sounds, for instance, music may not annoy but may distract at-
tention. A distraction can be the talking of persons in the vicinity of other persons.
Accidents have occurred when persons engaged in hazardous activities were spoken
to. Their attention was distracted momentarily so that they failed to respond during a
critical instant. Buses are posted with signs telling passengers not to hold conversa-
tions with their drivers when the buses are in motion.
9.2 Noise control
Figure 9.3 illustrates three components of a noise hazard. Noise can be reduced be
reduced by engineering and/or administrative controls applied to one or more of
these components. The most desirable noise controls are those which reduce noise at
the source. The second priority is to reduce noise along its path. The last resort is
noise reduction at the receiver using personal protective devices. The latter approach
should never be substituted for the two former approaches.
Noise source Noise path Noise receiver
Figure 9.3 Three parts of a noise hazard (after Goetsch 2002)
The noise reduction measures can be summarised as follows:
Noise can be reduced at its source by enclosing the source, altering the acoustic
design at the source, substituting equipment which produces less noise, making
alternations to existing equipment, or changing the process so that less noisy
equipment can be used;
Noise can be reduced along its path by moving the source farther away from
receivers and improving the acoustic design of the path so that more sound is
absorbed as it travels toward receivers;
Noise can be reduced at the receiver by enclosing the worker, using personal
protective devices, and changing job schedules so that exposure time is reduced.
Some of these measures are engineering controls; others are administrative con-
trols. For instance, enclosing a noise source and substituting less noisy equipment
are both examples of engineering controls. Changing job schedules is an example of
an administrative control.
9.2.1 Engineering controls
Engineering controls are steps taken, other than administrative and personal protec-
tive measures, to reduce the sound level at the source or within the hearing zone of
the workers. The following are some commonly used engineering controls focusing
primarily on the noise rather than the workers exposed to it (Goetsch 2002: 412):
Good maintenance (e.g., replacement of worn, loose, or unbalanced parts of

machines; lubrication of machine parts and use of cutting oils; use of properly
shaped and sharpened cutting tools);
Substitution of machines (e.g., larger slower machines for smaller, faster ones;
presses for hammers; hydraulic presses for mechanical ones, belt drives for
gears);
Substitution of processes (e.g., welding for riveting, hot working for cold work-
ing, pressing for rolling and forging);
Reducing the driving force of vibrating surfaces (e.g., by reducing the forces,
minimising rotational speed, isolating);
Reducing the noise transmission through solids (e.g., flexible mounting, flexible
sections in pipe runs, flexible shaft couplings, resilient flooring);
Reducing noise by reducing its transmission trough air (e.g., by using sound-
absorptive material on walls and ceiling in work areas; using sound barriers and
sound absorption along the transmission path; completely enclosing individual
machines; confining high-noise machines to insulated rooms, see Figure 9.4).
Operation with ear protection
Noisy machine enclosures in room with

internal absorbtion
Figure 9.4 Confining a noisy machine for the benefit of the whole workplace (after Hughes
and Ferrett 2007)
9.2.2 Administrative controls

Administrative controls are protective measures which reduce the exposure of em-
ployees to noise rather than reducing the noise. The times of exposure to noise can
be reduced by changing production schedules or rotating jobs. This includes trans-
ferring employees from a job location with a high noise level to job location with a
lower one of this procedure would make the employee’s daily noise exposure ac-
ceptable.
Administrative controls should be considered a second-level approach, with en-
gineering controls given top priority. SMEs which can not afford to reduce noise
through engineering controls may used administrative measures instead.
9.2.3 Hearing protection devices
In addition to engineering and administrative controls, employees should be required
to use appropriate hearing protection devices (HPDs). It should be noted, however,
that HPDs are effective only if worn properly. Enforcement of the proper use of
HPDs is difficult in some settings. The following three types of HPDs are widely
used:
Enclosures (devices which completely encompass the employee’s head);

Ear plugs (devices which fit into the ear canal, Figure 9.5a);
Ear muffs or ear defenders (devices which cover the entire ear with a cushioned
cup which is attached to the headband, Figure 9.5b).
Ear plugs and ear muffs are able to reduce noise by 20 to 30 dB. By combining
ear plugs and ear muffs, an additional 3 to 5 dB of noise blockage can be gained
(Goetsch 2002: 414).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9.5 Hearing protection devices: (a) ear plugs; (b) ear muffs with radio capacity;
(c) device for a combined protection of ear, face, and head of a woodsman
The main disadvantage of ear plugs is that they do not reduce the sound trans-
mitted through the bone structure which surrounds the ear and they often work loose
with time. Ear muffs are generally more acceptable to workers because they are
more comfortable to wear and they are easy to monitor since they are clearly visible.
They also reduce the sound intensity transmitted through the bone structure sur-
rounding the ear. A communication system can be built into ear muffs. However,
they may be less effective if the user has long hair or is wearing spectacles or large
earrings. They may also be less effective if worn with helmets or face shields and
uncomfortable in warm conditions. Maintenance is an important factor with ear

muffs and should include checks for wear and tear and general cleanliness.
HPDs performance is highly sensitive to the fit of the device being used. Any
acoustical leakage around the device as a result of improper fit, seal breakage by
eyeglass frames, or long hair, or loss of pressure on the cushions due to stretched
supports, or improperly maintained cushions can so degrade the level of protection
that only 10 dB or less of attenuation can be obtained (Kavarian and Wentz 1990:
203). Unfortunately, workers tend to use HPDs improperly because looser-fitting
devices are more comfortable than properly worn ones.
9.3 Effects of vibration
Vibration is defined as the oscillating motion or a system around an equilibrium po-
sition (Box 9.1). Sound and vibration are very similar. Sound typically relates to a
sensation which is perceived by the inner ear as hearing. Vibration, on the other
hand, is inaudible and is perceived through the sense of touch.
In industrial situations, exposure to vibration is usually accompanied by expo-
sure to noise. Tools that produce vibration typically produce excessive level of noise.
Adverse effects of vibration on humans can be rather serious. Humans exposed to
excessive vibration can suffer from both physiological and psychological effects.
Blurred vision, loss of motor control, and lack of ability to one’s job properly are
some of the adverse effects of vibration.
The clinical evidence of overexposure to vibration during the use of hand tools
can be conveniently grouped onto the following types of disorders:
Raynaud’s syndrome (also known as “dead fingers” or “white fingers”) occurs

mainly in the fingers of the hand used to guide vibrating tool (Figure 9.6). The
circulation in the hand becomes impaired, and, when exposed to cold, the fin-
gers become white and devoid of sensation, as though mildly frosted. The con-
dition usually disappears when the fingers are warmed for some item;
Degenerative alteration of ulnar and axillar nerves resulting in loss of the sense
of touch, thermal sensations, and muscular weakness or even paralysis;
Decalcification and fragmentation or deformation of bones due to vibration of
skull and other bones with injurious amplitudes.
Figure 9.6 Raynaud’s disease causing intermittent interruption of blood flow to the extremities
Vibration may cause equipment components such as nuts and bolts to break or
crack as a result of fatigue, thereby producing a potentiality of hazardous situation.
Metal fatigue can cause failures of rotating parts and other stressed mechanical
equipment. The result will be loss of or damage to the part of equipment and possi-
ble injury to personnel. Vibration may cause leakage of fluid lines, pressure vessels,
and containers of hazardous liquids and gases.
The two basic methods of vibration control employ damping materials and vi-
bration isolators. Damping materials are used to reduce resonance effects in solids.
Essentially, damping materials act as absorbents for solid-borne sound, converting
vibrational energy into heat. Vibration isolators act on the same principle as isolators
for airborne sound. For vibration in solids, such materials are spring-like. Examples
include resilient elastomer and metal springs, elastomer pads. The weaker is the
spring, usually the greater is the isolation.

1. Define the terms “sound” and “noise”.
2. What is difference between sound and noise?
3. Differentiate between sound and vibration.
4. At what noise level it is necessary to begin using some type of personal protection?
5. Differentiate between engineering and administrative controls of industrial noise.

6. Explain the three classifications of HPDs which are widely used.
7. What is Raynaud’s syndrome?
8. What are the two basic methods of vibration control?
10 ERGONOMIC HAZARDS
The history of workplace development in the industrial world is characterised by
jobs and technologies designed to improve processes and productivity. All too often
in the past, little or no concern was given to the impact of the job process or tech-
nology on workers. As a result, work processes and machines have sometimes been
unnecessarily dangerous. Another result has been that new technologies have some-
times failed to live up to expectations. This is because, even in the age of high tech-
nology, human involvement in work processes is still the key to the most significant
and enduring productivity improvements. If a machine or system is uncomfortable,
difficult, overly complicated, or dangerous to use, human workers will not be able to
derive its full benefit.
The proliferation of uncomfortable and dangerous workplace conditions,
whether created by job design or unfriendly technologies, is now widely recognised
as harmful to productivity, quality, and worker’s safety and health. The advent of the
science of ergonomics is making the workplace more physically friendly. This, in
turn, is making the workplace a safer and healthier place.
Safety fact*
Pain, discomfort and loss of function in the back, neck, and extremities are common
among working people. Within 27 countries of the European Union, about 25% of work-
ers complain of backache and about 23% report muscular pain. Available cost estimates
of these disorders put the cost at 0,5% to 2% of GDP.
* EASHW (2007g)
10.1 The science of ergonomics

Briefly, ergonomics is defined as the science of fitting the job to the worker (Ham-
mer and Price 2001: 145). Minimising the amount of physical stress in the work-
place requires continuous study of the ways in which people and technology interact.
The insight learned from this study must then be used to improve the interaction.
This is a wider description of the science of ergonomics. Thus ergonomics is a mul-
tidisciplinary science that seeks to conform the workplace and all of its physiologi-
cal aspects to the worker. Ergonomics involves the following (Goetsch 2002: 147):
Using special design and evaluation techniques to make tasks, objects, and envi-
ronments more compatible with human abilities and limitations;
Seeking to improve productivity and quality by reducing workplace stressors,
reducing the risk of injuries and illnesses and increasing efficiency.
The field of ergonomics is also called human engineering and human factors.
The word “ergonomics” is derived from the Greek language. “Ergon” is Greek for
“work”; “nomos” means “laws”. Therefore, in a literal sense, ergonomics means
10 Ergonomic hazards 129
work of laws. In practice, it consists of the scientific principles (laws) applied in

minimising the physical stress associated with the workplace (work). The widely
accepted benefits of ergonomics are:
Improved health and safety for workers,

Higher morale throughout the workplace,
Improved quality,
Improved productivity,
Improved competitiveness,
Decreased absenteeism,
Fewer workplace injuries/health problems.
There are benefits to be derived from ergonomics. There are also problems, both
financial and health-related, that can result from giving too little attention to ergo-
nomics. The matter is complicated further because health problems tend to multiply
company’s financial problems.
Common indicators of the existence of ergonomic problems include the follow-
ing:
Occupational health problems collectively known as musculoskeletal disorders,

Trends in accidents and injuries,
Absenteeism,
High turnover rates,
Employee complaints,
Employee generated changes,

Poor quality, and
High incidence of manual material handling.
Musculoskeletal disorders cause more than 30% of all occupational injuries and dis-
eases in the United States (Goetsch 2002: 150). In the European Union, muscu-
loskeletal disorders are the cause of about 50% of work-related health problems
(Figure 10.1) (European Social Statistics 2002: 104).
10.2 Musculoskeletal disorders
Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) is an umbrella term that covers a number of inju-
ries caused by awkward movements repeated frequently over time. Other aggravat-
ing factors include poor posture, an improperly designed workstation, poor tool de-
sign, and work stress. MSDs occur to the muscles, nerves, and tendons of the hands,
arms, shoulders, and neck. Box 10.1 shows a classification of musculoskeletal disor-
der. MSDs are also called by names such as occupational overuse disorders, cumula-
tive trauma disorders, and repetitive stress injuries.
Musculoskeletal disorders, 52%
Stress depression, anxiety, 18%
Lung disorders, 8%
Cardiovascular disorders, 4%
Headaches, visual fatigue, 3%
Hearing disorders, 3%
Infectious diseases, 3%
Skin problems, 3%
Other, 6%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Percentage
Figure 10.1 Work-related health problems by diagnosis group (the old 15 countries of the
European Union, 1999; serious health problem only, with or without days’ absence from
work, %, source European Social Statistics (2002: 108))
Box 10.1: classification of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)*

Muscle and tendon disorders
Tendinitis:
– Shoulder tendinitis,
– Bicipital tendinitis,
– Rotator cuff tendinitis,
Muscle damage,
Tenosynovitis,
Stenosing tenosynovitis:
– DeQuervain’s disease,
– Trigger finger (flexor tenosynovitis),
Forearm tendinitis:
– Flexor carpi radials tendinitis,
– Extensor tendinitis,
– Flexor tendinitis,
Epicondylitis,
Ganglion cysts.
Cervical Radiculopathy
Tunnel syndromes
Carpal tunnel syndrome,
Radial tunnel syndrome,
Sulcus ulnaris syndrome,
Cubital tunnel syndrome,
Guyons canal syndrome.
Nerve and circulation disorders

Thoracic outlet syndrome,
Raynaud’s disease,
* Goetsch (2002: 175)
10.2.1 Muscle and tendon disorders

Tendons connect muscles to bones. They can accommodate very little in the
way of stretching and are prone to injury when overused. Overworking a tendon can
cause small tears in it. These tears can become inflamed and cause intense pain. This
condition is known as tenditis. Shoulder tenditis occurs in the muscles of a shoulder.
Forearm tenditis causes pain in fingers, wrist, and muscles in the top of the hand.
Overexertion can cause myofacial muscle damage. The symptom of this disor-
der is soreness that persists even when resting. Muscles may burn and be sensitive to
the touch. When the muscles become inflamed and swell, the symptoms are aggra-
vated even further by nerve compression.
Tendons which curve around bones are encased in protective coverings called
sheaths. Sheaths contain a lubricated substance known as synovial fluid. When ten-
dons rub against the sheath too frequently, friction is produced. The body responds
by producing additional synovial fluid. Excess build-up of this fluid can cause swell-
ing which, in turn, causes pressure on the surrounding nerves. This condition is
known as tenosynovitis. Chronic tenosynovitis is known as stenosing tenosynovitis.
Epicondilitis and ganglion cysts are two muscle and tendon disorders. Epi-
condilitis affects an elbow. The common term for this disorder is “tennis elbow”.
Ganglion cysts grow on the tendon, tendon sheath, or synovial lining, typically on
the top of the hand, on the nail bed, above the wrist, or on the inside of the wrist.
10.2.2 Cervical radiculopathy
This disorder is most commonly associated with holding a telephone receiver on an
upraised shoulder when typing. This widely practised act can cause compression of
the cervical discs in the neck making it painful to turn the head. Putting the body in
an unnatural posture while using the hands is always dangerous.
10.2.3 Tunnel syndromes

Tunnels are conduits for nerves that are formed by ligaments and other soft tissues.
Damage to the soft tissues can cause swelling that compresses the nerves that pass
through the tunnel. These nerves are the medial, radial, and ulnar nerves that pass
through the tunnel in the forearm and wrist. Pain experienced with tunnel injuries
can be constant and intense. In addition to pain, people with a tunnel injury might
experience numbness, tingling, and a loss of gripping power.
10.2.4 Nerve and circulation disorders
When friction or inflammation cause swelling, both nerves and arteries can be com-
pressed and so restrict the flow of blood to muscles. This can cause a disorder
known as thoracic outlet syndrome. The symptoms of this disorder are pain in the
entire arm, numbness, coldness, and weakness in the arm, hand, and fingers.
If the blood vessels in the hands are restricted, Raynaud’s disease can result.
Symptoms include painful sensitivity, tingling, numbness, coldness, and paleness in
the fingers. It can affect one or both hands. This disorder is also known as vibration
syndrome because it is associated with vibrating tools.
10.3 Ergonomic risk factors
Identification of ergonomic hazards is based on ergonomic risk factors: conditions of
the work process, workstations, or work method which contribute to the likelihood
of developing MSDs. Not all of these risk factors will be present in every MSD
probe occupational activity, nor is the existence of one of these factors necessarily
sufficient to cause a MSD. Some of the risk factors for MSDs of the upper extremi-
ties include the following:

Repetitive and/or prolonged activities;
Forceful exertions usually with the hands (including pinch grips);
Prolonged static pressures;
Awkward postures of the upper body, including reaching above the shoulders or
behind the back and twisting the wrists and other joints to perform tasks;
Continued physical contact with work surfaces (soft tissue compression);
Excessive vibration from the power tools;
Cool temperatures;
Inappropriate or inadequate tool design;
High wrist acceleration;
Fatigue (inadequate recovery time);
Use of gloves.
Risk factors for back disorders include items such as the following:
Bad body mechanics such as continued bending over the waist, continued lifting
from below the knees or above the shoulders, and twisting at the waist, espe-
cially while lifting (see Figure 10.2);
Lifting or moving objects of excessive weight or asymmetric size;
Prolonged sitting, especially with poor posture;

Lack of adjustable chairs, footrests, body supports, and work surfaces at work-
stations;
Poor grips on handles;
Slippery footing.
Safety fact*
Almost all of us will experience back pain at sometime in our life. It is normal and a fact
of life. All epidemiology studies indicate that up to 90% of persons between the ages of
18–55 years (i.e., of working age) will recall an episode of low back pain that interfered
with their ability to function for at least 24 hours at some time. All social and occupa-
tional groups are the same. Approximately 40% of us will experience recurring problems
with our backs.
Most primary care patients who seek treatment for back pain will improve considerably
over the first 4 weeks, but only 30% will be pain free. At one year 70–80% will still re-
port some recurring back symptoms; one third will have intermittent or persistent pain of
at least moderate intensity, and about 15–20% will have a poor functional outcome. The
period prevalence of neck and arm pain in the population is similar to low back pain but
not as frequently disabling.
* Gardiner and Harrington (2005: 42)
Works, operations, or workstations that have multiple risk factors have a higher
probability of MSDs. The combined effect of several risk factors in the development
of MSD is sometimes referred to as multiple causation.
Figure 10.2 Workstation in a pharmaceutical plant: before and after adjustments were made
to the workstation (EASHW 2007g)
10.4 Prevention of MSDs

MSDs can occur across all types of jobs and work sectors. However, some types of
employment groups seem to be particularly at risk. Specific industries (occupations)
with high exposures and groups at high risk include (EASHW 2008c: 17):
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries;

Manufacturing, mining;
Machine operators;
Craft workers, tailors;
Construction;
Wholesale, retail and repairs;
Hotels, restaurants and catering;
Secretaries, typists;
Loaders and unloaders.
Evidence suggests that MSDs affect women more than men largely because of the
type of work they do than because of any gender or other personal factors.
Physical causes of MSD include manual handling, loads, poor posture and
awkward movements, highly repetitive movements, forceful hand applications, di-
rect mechanical pressure on body tissues, vibrations, and cold work environments.
Causes in the organisation of work include pace of work, repetitive work, time pat-
terns, payment systems, monotonous work, and also psychosocial work factors.
Some types of disorders are associated with particular tasks or occupations.
To prevent musculoskeletal disorders effectively, the risk factors in the work-
place must be identified and then practical measures taken to prevent or reduce the
risks. Attention needs to be paid to: risk assessment; health surveillance; training;
employee information and consultation; ergonomic work systems (i.e., looking at the
effect of the whole workplace, equipment, work methods, and work organisation, etc.
to identify problems and solutions); and prevention of fatigue. These components of
MSD prevention are already recognised in the European practice (EASHW 2008c).
Solutions of the MSD problem include:
1 Administrative solutions:
A reduction in daily working hours, modification of work, and job rotation may
reduce MSDs;
The introduction of additional breaks into repetitive work may be achievable
without the loss of productivity.
2 Engineering solutions:
Technical ergonomic measures can reduce the workload on the back and upper
limbs (e.g., in the case of ergonomic hand tools), and thus the occurrence of
MSDs, without the loss of productivity;
Technical interventions may also include redesign of physical environment, in-
troduction of lifting and transfer aids, etc. (Figure 10.3).
3 Behavioural modification:
Training on working methods in manual handling is not effective if it is used as

the only measure to prevent low back pain;
Physical training can reduce the recurrence of back pain and neck-shoulder pain.
But to be effective, the training should include vigorous exercise and be re-
peated at least three times a week.
4 Implementation strategies:
A combination of several kinds of interventions (multidisciplinary approach) –

including organisational, technical and personal measures – is needed to prevent
MSDs. Interventions based on single measures are unlikely to prevent MSDs;
A participative approach that includes the workers in the process of change may
have a positive effect on the success of an intervention.
Figure 10.3 Hand-guided pneumatic balancer and folding trolley used as lifting and transfer
aids

1 Define the term ergonomics. Explain its origin.
2 What is the main cause of occupational injuries and diseases in the European Union?
3 Briefly explain four types of MSDs.
4 What is the approximate percentage of MSDs among serious work-related health prob-
lems?
5 List five risk factors associated with MSDs.
6 Which industries and occupations have an increased risk of MSDs?
7 Explain four possible solutions of the MSD problem. Provide one or two examples of
each solution.
11 Electrical hazards 137
11 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
The use of electricity, electrical equipment, and appliances is so common that most
persons fail to appreciate the hazards involved. Wherever a person works with
power tools or on electric circuit, there is a risk that he/she will be killed by electri-
cal shock or burned or maimed by electricity. Electrical hazards can be divided into
six categories:
1 Shock to employees;
2 Ignition of combustible or explosive materials;
3 Overheating and damage to equipment or burns to employees;
4 Electrical explosions;
5 Inadvertent activation of equipment;
6 Electromagnetic effects.
Control of electrical hazards requires an understanding of what electricity is,
how electrical energy is transmitted and how the path, through which electric current
travels, can be controlled (see Box 11.1).
Safety fact*
In 1992–2005, electrocution (death due to electrical shock) was the fifth leading cause of
work-related deaths for 16 to 19 year-olds working in the United States, after motor ve-
hicle deaths, contact with objects or equipment, workplace homicide, and falls. Electro-
cution is the cause of 7% of all workplace deaths among young workers aged 16–19,
causing an average of 10 deaths per year.
* NIOSH (2009b: Section 1)
11.1 Electrical shock

Electrical shock occurs when the human body becomes a part of an electric circuit
that has a sufficient potential to overcome the body’s resistance. Electrical shock is a
common hazard encountered by people involved in the installation, maintenance,
and operation of electrical equipment. There are five principle ways in which a per-
son can be shocked:
1 Contact with a normally bare energised conductor,

2 Contact with an energised conductor on which the insulation has deteriorated or
has been damaged so that it has lost its protective value,
3 Equipment failure which causes an open or short circuit,
4 Static electricity discharge,
5 Lightning strike.
Box 11.1: terms related to electricity

Electricity: a flow of electrons along conductor.
Electric circuit: a network which has a closed loop, giving a path for the flow of
electric current.
Resistance: a measure of an opposition of an object to the passage of a steady

electric current. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω).
Electric current: a flow of electric charge. The electric charge that flows is carried
in a conductor by mobile electrons. The SI unit of electric current intensity is the
ampere (A). Electric current is measured using an ammeter.
Conductor: is a material which contains movable electric charges (electrons in

metallic conductors). All conductors contain electric charges which will move
when a voltage is applied across separate points on the material.
Insulator: a material that resists the flow of electric current. Insulating materials
are used in parts of electrical equipment, also called insulators or insulation,
intended to support or separate electrical conductors without passing current
through themselves.
Voltage: term used to mean electric potential, i.e. a hypothetically measurable

physical dimension, and is denoted by V (italicised letter). The SI unit for voltage
is the volt (not italicised V).
Ohm’s law: applies to electric circuits; the law states that the current of the
intensity I (A) through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points, V (V), and inversely proportional to the
resistance between them, R (Ω). The mathematical equation that describes this
relationship is: I = V/R.
“Energised” (“live”, “hot”): similar terms meaning that a voltage is present

which can cause a current, so there is a possibility of getting shocked.
Short circuit: a circuit, in which current passes through the shorting material with-
out passing through the load in the circuit (a device using the current), and the
wire becomes overheated.
Fuse: overcurrent protection device which has an internal part that melts and shuts
off the current in a circuit if there is an overload.
Circuit breaker: overcurrent protection device which automatically shuts off the
current in a circuit if an overload occurs.
Although potential difference determines whether the body’s resistance will be

overcome, the damaging factor and chief source of injury in electrical shock is the
current flow. The voltage determines whether a particular person’s natural resistance
to current flow will be overcome. Skin resistance can vary from 400 Ω to
600 000 Ω, depending on skin moisture. The effects of alternating current flow on
the human body may be (Kavarian and Wentz 1990: 214, Goetsch 2002: 285):
1 milliampere (1 mA): shock becomes perceptible as faint tingle;

More than 3 mA: painful shock;
More than 10 mA: local muscle contractions, “freezing” to the circuit for 2,5%
of population;
More than 30 mA: breathing difficulty, the current flow can cause unconscious-
ness, “freezing” to the circuit for 50% of population;
50 to 100 mA: extreme pain, breathing stops, possible ventricular fibrillation of
the heart. Death is possible after 3 minutes of contact due to paralysis of the
respiratory muscles;
100 to 200 mA: contact of more than a quarter of a second can cause ventricular
fibrillation of the heart and death;
Over 200 mA: severe burns to the skin and internal organs, muscular contrac-
tions; heart more apt to stop that fibrillate. Death is likely;
Over few amperes: irreparable damage to body tissues. Death is probable.
The path the current takes through the body affects the degree of injury. A small
current that passes from one hand to the other hand through the heart is capable of
causing severe injury or death. However, there have been cases where larger cur-
rents caused an arm or leg to burn off without going through the vital organs of the
body. In many of such cases the person was not killed. Had the same current passed
through the vital organs of the body, the person could have been electrocuted (killed
with electricity). Another factor affecting the outcome of an electric current passing
through the body is the duration of the current flow: the longer this duration, the
more devastating the results can be. An electric current passing through the body can
cause severe injury or death by:
Contracting the chest muscles resulting in breathing difficulty and death due to
asphyxiation;
Affecting the central nervous system resulting in malfunction of vital body
functions such as respiration;
Interference with the normal rhythm of the heart beat resulting in ventricular
fibrillation which is defined as very rapid uncoordinated contractions of the
ventricles of the heart. This leads to the loss of synchronisation between heart-
break and pulse beat. Once ventricular fibrillation occurs, it will continue and
death will ensure within a few minutes;
Affecting the heart muscle resulting in severe heart muscle contraction and ces-
sation of heart action;
Destruction of body issues by heat generated when the current overcomes tissue
resistance.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 11.1 Electrical burns: (a) burns on hand and arm; (b) arm with the third degree burn
from voltage line; (c) contact electrical burns (the knee on the left was energised and the
knee on the right was grounded) (NIOSH 2009b)
The most common shock-related, non-fatal injury is a burn (Figure 11.1). Burns
caused by electricity may be of three types:
1 Electrical burns are one of the most serious injuries people can receive. Typi-
cally, burns occur on the hands. They need to be given immediate attention.
Additionally, clothing may catch fire and a thermal burn may result from the
heat of the fire;
2 Arc-blasts occur when powerful, high-amperage currents arc through the air.
Arcing is the luminous electrical discharge that occurs when high voltages exist
across a gap between conductors and current travels through the air (Box 11.2).
This situation is often caused by equipment failure due to abuse or fatigue.
Temperatures as high as 19 000°C have been reached in arc-blasts;
3 Thermal burns may result if an explosion occurs when electricity ignites an ex-
plosive mixture of material in the air (Section 11.2). This ignition can result
from the build-up of combustible vapours, gases, or dusts. Ignition can also be
caused by overheated conductors or equipment, or by normal arcing at switch
contacts or in circuit breakers.
11.2 Ignition of combustible or explosive materials
Electricity is one of the most common causes of fires and thermal burns in homes
and workplaces. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major cause of elec-
trical fires.
The commonest means by which combustibles are ignited electrically are by
spark arc or corona through flammable mixture (Box 11.2). Ignition by contact with
an electrically heated surface generally requires the expenditure of considerable
power to cause the heating. A spark or arc, on the other hand, may involve compara-
tively little energy but is discharged rapidly in a limited space where it is adequate to
cause the ignition of an extremely small volume of flammable mixture. The energy
released from this combustion is enough to cause further propagation of fire.
Box 11.2: sparks, arcs and corona
Spark: a sharp, rapid heavy discharge of electrons (see the picture above). It may
be a single discharge which completely exhausts the energy in an electrical sys-
tem, or it may be a series as the energy required for a discharge is replenished.
Arc: a sustained stream of electrons across a gap created when two metal surfaces
that were in contact or in close proximity separate when current is flowing (see the
picture above).
Corona: the phenomenon occurring in high voltage circuits when a breakdown

between two conductors is only partial. The potential exceeds a specific level, so
gas ionisation occurs but is less than that needed to produce sparking. Corona dis-
charge starts more readily at those electrode points or protuberances which are
negative than at those which are positive. Ions form a cloud which begins to drift
to the opposite electrode establishing a low-grade continuous flow. This is the co-
rona effect. It may produce a faint glow in the dark, a hissing sound, and electro-
magnetic interference (see the picture above).
11.3 Overheating and damage to equipment and burns to employees

The use of electrical power results in the production of heat. The heat is caused ei-
ther by design or occurs as an unavoidable and unproductive loss due to the resis-
tance to flow of a conductor. One of the principle effects of electrical heating, espe-
cially overheating, is to cause accidental fires. This process can:
Raise a flammable mixture to the temperature where it ignites easily;

Raise the mixture to the temperature where it ignites;
Cause insulation, wood, and other organic materials to melt, char, or burn;
Cause rapid evaporation of liquid fuels so that flammable concentrations are
created;
Cause breakdown of non-combustible compounds.
In addition, overheating can cause burnouts of operating equipment, raising its

temperature so high that the equipment fails or sometimes ignites. The damage that
results from overheating will depend to certain extent on the rapidity with which it
occurs.
Another adverse effect of electrical overheating is that exposed metal surfaces
may become so hot that unwary persons who touch them may get burned. Require-
ments for military electronic equipment stipulate that temperatures of exposure parts,
including the equipment enclosure, will not exceed 60°C and front panels and oper-
ating controls will not exceed 49°C (Hammer and Price 2001: 366).
11.4 Electrical explosions
A conductor which is inadequate, either because of its size or material, to pass a very
heavy current may explode. Rapid overheating from over-currents due to short cir-
cuits or current surges can cause switches, fuses or circuit breakers to explode vio-
lently. The heat generated by the resistance to flow can cause the metal of the con-
ductor to melt and vaporise extremely rapidly. This effect can be extremely
damaging. The over-current, which may prove to be extremely heavy, can be due to
short circuits, transient surges due to start-ups, or lightning strikes.
Electrical explosions can be generated in other ways. Oil-filled breakers or
transformers may contain contaminants such as free water. The heavy current can
cause high heating of these contaminants so that they vaporise and create high pres-
sures that will rupture the containers in which the oil or electrical equipment are held.
Capacitors will not only explode because of heavy currents but the polarised elec-
tronic type will also do so if they are subjected to current or voltage of the wrong
polarity. This can occur after installation or repair work if the capacitor is installed
incorrectly or if leads are reversed in a direct-current system.
11.5 Inadvertent activation of equipment
Inadvertent activation of electrical equipment can cause injuries, fatalities, damage
or other problems. Employees have been injured or killed when they crawled inside
to repair or clean electrically operated equipment. The equipment would start unin-
tendedly and an injury or fatality would result. The precautionary measures to pre-
clude such occurrences are the same as those indicated to prevent mistaken activa-
tion of an electric circuit:
Opening the circuit,

Locking it open,
Ensuring that only the person working on the system can unlock it,
Trying to activate the system when the circuit is locked open.
Employees have been injured after accidentally hitting a start button or switch,
activating the equipment they were using before they were ready. Persons who were
changing the bits on drills presses have unintentionally hit their shoulder or arm
while still holding the chuck key. The results were torn, broken, or severed fingers.
Precautionary measures to prevent such unwanted activation would be to ensure start
buttons be recessed to avoid unintentional activation. Even safer are switches with
safety covers that must first be raised to activate a critical circuit.
11.6 Electromagnetic effects
The wide application of electrical technologies has produced an extremely complex
electric and magnetic environment in which many employees must work. Electro-
magnetic fields from power lines and electrical equipment are a potential hazard to
worker health. The research into the possible cause-and-effect relationship between
electromagnetic fields and health problems is inconclusive; on the other hand, the
anecdotal and circumstantial evidence strongly suggests a link (Goetsch 2002: 390).
The health problems most frequently associated with electromagnetic fields are
brain cancer, acute myeloid leukaemia, and lymphatic leukaemia. Occupations with
a higher-than-normal incidence of leukaemia and brain cancer are as follows:
Telephone operators,
Electrical manufacturing workers,
Power plant workers,
Telecommunication workers,
Electrical engineers,
Electrical line workers,
Power station workers,
Electricians,
Cable splicers.
Electrical equipment usually must be turned on for a magnetic field to be pro-

duced. Electric fields are present even when equipment is turned off, as long as it is
plugged in. Exposure to electromagnetic fields depends on the strength of the mag-
netic field sources, the distance from these sources, and the time spent in the mag-
netic field.
Safety fact*
Electrical hazards in brief:
You will receive a shock if you touch two wires at different voltages at the same time;
If you come in contact with an energised hot wire and you are also in contact with the
neutral wire the current will pass through your body. You will receive an electrical
shock;
You will receive a shock if you touch a hot wire and are grounded at the same time;
When a circuit, electrical component, or equipment is energised, a potential shock
hazard is present;
You will be hurt more if you can’t let go of a tool giving a shock;
The longer the shock the greater the injury;
The greater the current, the greater the shock!
Higher voltages can cause larger currents and more severe shocks;
Electrical shocks cause burns;
Some injuries from electrical shock cannot be seen;
Severity of shock depends on voltage, amperage, and resistance;
Currents across the chest are very dangerous;
Overloaded wires get hot;
Incorrect wiring practices can cause fires;
Circuit breakers and fuses that are too big for the circuit are dangerous (e.g., using a
30 A fuse in a 20 A circuit).
* NIOSH (2009b)
11.7 Reducing electrical hazards

11.7.1 Grounding and bonding
Grounding of electrical equipment is the primary method of reducing electrical haz-
ards. The purpose of grounding is to protect people from electrical shocks, reduce
the probability of a fire, and safe equipment from the damage. Grounding ensures a
path to the earth for the flow of excessive current. Grounding also eliminates the
possibility of a person being shocked by contact with a charged capacitor.
The mechanism of grounding is explained in Figure 11.2. The hot wire (un-
grounded conductor) carries an effective voltage (230 V, say) with respect to the
ground. The neutral wire (grounded conductor) carries nearly zero voltage with re-
spect to the ground. If the hot wire makes contact with an unintended conductor,
such as a metal equipment case, the current can bypass the load and go directly to
the ground. With the load skipped, the ground wire is a low-resistance path to the
earth and carries the highest current which is possible for that circuit.
Power Power
source Hot wire source Hot wire
Load Load
Neutral wire Neutral wire
Ground wire
Ground
(a) (b)
Figure 11.2 Typical three-wire electrical circuit: (a) grounded circuit; (b) circuit without
grounding
There are two kinds of grounding:
System grounding is accomplished when one conductor of the circuit is inten-

tionally connected to the ground. This is done to protect the circuit should light-
ning strike or other high voltage occur. Grounding a system also stabilises the
voltage in the system so that expected voltage levels are not exceeded under
normal conditions;
Equipment grounding is accomplished when all metal frames of equipment and
metal enclosures containing electrical equipment or conductors are grounded by
means of a permanent and continuous connection or bond. The equipment
grounding conductor provides a path for a dangerous fault current to return to
the system ground at the supply source of the circuit, should an insulation fail-
ure take place.
Bonding is used to connect two pieces of equipment by a conductor. Bonding

can reduce potential differences between the equipment and thus reduce the possibil-
ity of sparking (Figure 11.3). Bonding assures a reliable electrical path to the
ground. Grounding, on the other hand, provides conducting a path between the
charged object and the earth. It must be noted that although bonding eliminates the
possibility of sparking between bonded objects, it does not eliminate the possibility
of sparking between the charged object and other objects or the ground. Bonding
and grounding together are used for entire electrical systems.
Figure 11.3 Bonding jumper wire (the conductor used to connect bonded parts) around non-
conductive material
11.7.2 Ground fault circuit interrupter

Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an inexpensive life-saver. This fast-acting
device can detect the flow of current to the ground and open a circuit in miliseconds,
thereby interrupting the flow of current (Figure 11.4). When the current flow in the
hot wire is greater than the current in the neutral wire, a ground fault has occurred.
The GFCI provides a safety measure for a person who becomes a part of the ground
fault circuit.
It is important to realise that GFCI only can provide protection against line-to-
ground contact and provide no protection against line-to-line contact. For instance, if
someone touches both the hot wire and the neutral wire in a circuit, the GFCI will do
nothing, and the person could receive a fatal shock. It is also imperative to under-
stand that in spite of all the success of GFCIs in protecting against line-to-ground
contact, they are not suitable for proper grounding and general safety precautions.
To ensure safety, equipment must be grounded as well as protected by GFCI.
After 10 years or so, the sensitive circuitry

inside a GFCI wears out. And usually the
test button on the GFCI doesn't tell you
there's anything wrong: When you press
the button, it shuts off the power as al-
ways. So the only reliable way to check an
older GFCI is to use a circuit tester which
has its own GFCI test button. Plug in the
tester and push its test button. If the power
goes off, the GFCI is working. Press the
reset button to restore power. If the power
doesn't go off, replace the GFCI.
Figure 11.4 Receptable type GFCI and a circuit tester which has its own GFCI test button
11.7.3 Lockouts
Before making any attempt to do maintenance work on electrical equipment, one
must ensure that the power to the equipment has been shut off. For smaller electrical
appliances, the worker can simply unplug the device. However, larger electrical
equipment used in manufacturing facilities normally is connected permanently to the
power source. The power to such equipment can be disconnected only through
switches or circuit breakers. Many fatal shocks to electrical workers occurred when
maintenance work was being performed and a co-worker turned on the power.
Therefore, it is extremely important to lock the circuit breakers with one’s own lock
and to test the equipment to ensure that the right circuit breaker was shut off. Lock-
out is applying physical lock to the power source of circuits and equipment after
they have been shut off and de-energised. The lock is then tagged out with an easy to
read tag which alerts other workers in the area that a lock has been applied (Fig-
ure 11.5).
Figure 11.5 Two examples of and tagouts

1 List some hazards involved in the use of electrical equipment.
2 Explain the relationship between circuit load and short circuits.
3 What is the objective of grounding?
4 Briefly describe equipment grounding and state the need of this type of grounding.
5 What is the purpose of bonding?
6 What is a ground fault circuit interrupter and how it can provide protection against fatal
shocks?
7 How can lockouts sage the life of electrical workers who carry out maintenance work on
electrical equipment?
12 RADIATION HAZARDS
12.1 Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is the energy emitted or absorbed as small discrete pulses
called photons or quanta. Electromagnetic radiation refers to the entire spectrum of
photonic radiation, from wave length of less than 10–15 meters to those greater than
10+8 meters – a wavelength of more than 22 decimal orders of magnitude! It includes
all of the segments that make up two principal sub-categories of this overall spec-
trum, which are the “ionising” and “non-ionising” radiation sectors (Box 12.1). Pho-
tons having wavelengths shorter than 0,4 µ (400 nm) fall under the category of ion-
ising radiation; those with longer wavelengths will all be in the non-ionising group.
Sectors of ionising and non-ionising radiations are further divided into the sub-
sectors shown in Table 12.1.
Box 12.1: key terms and concepts of electromagnetic radiation

Alpha rays: a stream of positively charged particles (essentially nuclei of helium
with two positive charges) travelling at high speed (an alpha particle will travel at
3000–30 000 kilometres per second). These particles have a relatively low pene-
trating power and a rather high ionising power.
Beta rays: fast-moving electrons. They can be either negatively charged (nega-
trons) or positively charged (positrons) electrons. The beta particles are more
penetrative than alpha rays and have a moderate power of ionisation.
Gamma rays: very high-energy photons emitted when radioactive transformations

take place and usually accompany alpha and beta radiation. Gamma radiation
travels at the speed of light and has great penetrating power.
Ion: an electrically charged atom that becomes charged when a neutral atom loses
or gains one or more electrons as a result of a chemical reaction.
Ionisation: the process by which atoms are made into ions by the removal or addi-
tion of one or more electrons.
Ioniser: an ioniser ionises the air surrounding a charged surface to provide a con-
ductive path for the flow of charges.
Ionising radiation: radiation that becomes electrically charged or changes into ions.
Isotopes: atoms which are chemically identical but which differ in the number of
neutrons in their nuclei. For instance, hydrogen has three isotopes: hydrogen the
most abundant which has one proton and no neutron; deuterium which has one
proton and one neutron, and tritium which has one proton and two neutrons.
12 Radiation hazards 149
Momentum: the product of the mass and velocity of an object.
Neutron: relatively massive particles which do not carry any electric charge.
Non-ionising radiation: radiation with frequency levels that do not have sufficient
energy to shatter atoms and ionise them.
Nuclear fission: the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei)
often producing free neutrons and other smaller nuclei, which may eventually
produce photons (in the form of gamma rays).
Photon: the elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena. It is

the carrier of electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, including in decreasing
order of energy, gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light,
microwaves, and radio waves. The photon differs from many other elementary
particles, such as the electron and the quark, in that it has zero rest mass; there-
fore, it travels (in a vacuum) at the speed of light.
Radioactive decay: the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy
by emitting radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. This de-
cay, or loss of energy, results in an atom of one type, called the parent nuclide
transforming to an atom of a different type, called the daughter nuclide.
Radioactive isotope: radioactive form of an element.

X-rays: high-energy photons which are man-made. X-rays are similar to gamma
radiation. They are the result of the ionisation of matter by a stream of fast moving
charged particles. When electrons are ejected from their inner orbits, the electrons
from outer shells fall to the lower orbits to fill their place. As a result of this en-
ergy transmission, X-rays are produced.
Box 12.2: units of measurements related to electromagnetic radiation

Å Angstrom (a unit used for measuring wavelength, 1 Å = 10–10 m)
Bq Becquerel (the SI derived unit of radioactivity. 1 Bq is defined as the
activity of a quantity of radioactive material in which one nucleus decays
per second. It is therefore equivalent to s–1. The Becquerel is named for
the French physicist Henri Becquerel)
C Coulomb (the SI unit of electric charge. 1 coulomb is the amount of elec-
tric charge transported by an electric current of 1 ampere in 1 second. It
is named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb).
Gy Grey (the SI unit used to measure absorbed dose of radiation. 1 Gy is

defined to be the deposition of 1 joule of energy into 1 kilogram of mat-
ter)
nm nanometer (1 nm = 10–9 m)
µm micrometer (1 µm = 10–6 m)
R Roentgen (unit used for measuring exposure to radiation. 1 R equals to
2,58×10–4 coulomb per kilogram of air)
Sv Sievert (the SI derived unit of dose equivalent. It attempts to reflect the
biological effects of radiation as opposed to the physical aspects, which
are characterised by the absorbed dose, measured in greys (Gy). It is
named after Rolf Sievert, a Swedish medical physicist. In terms of SI
base units: 1 Sv = 1 J/kg = 1 m2/s2 = 1 m2·s–2)
Table 12.1 Electromagnetic radiation bands (the measurement units in this table are ex-
plained in Box 12.2)
Photon wavelength λ for each band (Eq (14.1))
Spectral band
Minimum λ Maximum λ
Ionising radiation
Gamma rays 0,005 Å 0,8 Å
X-rays 0,8 Å 80 Å
Non-ionising radiation
Optical radiation bands
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation* 8,0 nm (0,008 µm) 400 nm (0,4 µm)

Visible light 0,4 µm 0,75 µ
Infrared radiation 0,75 µm 1 mm
Radio and sun-radio frequency bands
Radio frequency/Microwave band 1 mm 10 km
Sub-radio frequency band 10 km >108 km
* UV radiation is classified in this table as a member of the optical radiation band which
– by definition – is non-ionising radiation; however, UV is capable of producing ionisa-
tions in exposed matter. Certain wavelengths of UV radiation are able to generate ions in
certain gaseous components.
Although Table 12.1 is focussed on wavelengths of various bands, the classifi-

cation of electromagnetic radiation can be approached from the perspective of the
frequencies. These range from 60 000 exahertz (6×1022 Hz cycles per second) for the
most energetic rays to 1 or 2 Hz for the longest wavelength of extremely low fre-
quency photons. The energy of any photon in the overall spectrum will be directly
proportional to its wavelength, λ (m), i.e. photons with the highest frequency f (Hz)
will be the most energetic. The quantities λ and f are related to each other by the
formula
λ = velocity/frequency = 3×108/f (14.1)

where 3×108 m/s is the speed of light (the velocity of all electromagnetic radiation);
f is the frequency in Hz.
Safety fact*
Almost 20 years ago in Brazil a man rummaging around in an abandoned medical clinic
came across a radiation therapy machine and sold it to a scrap metal dealer for its steel
parts. When taking it apart, the dealer noticed a blue glow and dug out the powdery sub-
stance inside. It was radioactive cesium-137 (137Ce), highly radioactive material. Having
no idea what it actually was, the dealer brought the powder home for his children to play
with. His 6-year-old daughter smeared it on her face like shimmering make-up. Then,
hands coated in radioactive dust, they sat down to eat dinner.
The radiation spread over several weeks, until authorities found almost 250 people in the
surrounding area to be contaminated. The little girl who ingested the material was
brought to hospital for treatment – her hair was falling out, patches of skin were peeling
off, and her lungs and kidneys were malfunctioning. She stayed severely sick for almost
a month before she died, as did four others who were exposed to the source.
* Burchfield (2009: 65)
12.2 Ionising radiation

12.2.1 Definition
Ionising radiation is a process by which atoms are made into ions by the removal or
addition of one or more electrons. An ion is an electrically charged atom (group of
atoms) that becomes charged when a neutral atom (group of atoms) loses or gains
one or more electrons as a result of a chemical reaction. If an electron is lost during
this process, a positively charged ion is produced; if an electron is gained, a nega-
tively charged ion is produced. To ionise is to become electrically charged or change
into ions. Alpha, beta, neutral particles (neutrons), X-rays, and gamma rays are ion-
ising radiations (Tables 12.2 and 12.3).
The sources of ionising radiation can come in the form of sealed radioactive
material used to its radiation emissions, unsealed radioactive material used in a re-
search or manufacturing process, or machine-produced radiation in the form of an
X-ray machine or the by-product of a high voltage supply (Table 12.3). Certain
quantities of radioactive materials can occur naturally. For instance, materials con-
taining uranium and thorium are widely used in industry for shielding and counter-
weights to coating processes on high polished optical surfaces. Analytical machines
such as diffraction or fluorescence equipment used to study manufactured goods
may present an exposure potential to users and surrounding environments.
Table 12.2 Types of ionising radiation

Type Particle constituting the radiation Charge Produced by
Alpha Nucleus of helium with two positive charges + Radioactive decay
of heavy-atoms
Beta Negatively charged electron (negatron) – Radioactive decay
Beta Positively charged electron (positron) + Radioactive decay
Gamma Naturally occurring very-high energy photons 0 Radioactive decay
X-ray Man-made very-high energy photons 0 Radioactive decay
Neutron Massive particle called neutron 0 Cyclotron
Table 12.3 Some characteristics of ionising radiations

Penetrating Ionising
Type Examples of potential sources of emission
power power
Alpha Relatively Very high Smoke detectors
low Radioisotope thermoelectric generators
Beta High Moderate Equipment for radiation therapy
Use for tracing in the positron emission tomography
Quality control to test the thickness of an item, such
as paper, coming through a system of rollers
Gamma Very high High Density gauges with 137Cs source
Irradiation equipment for sterilizing medical in-
struments, etc.
Areas of medical and radiological diagnostics, ra-
dioactive isotopes used for non-destructive testing
X-ray Very high High Areas of medical and radiological diagnostics
Neutron Very high High The nuclear reactor (commercial, research, and/or
military)
Particle accelerator
12.2.2 Alpha radiation

Alpha radiation consists of alpha particles which are completely ionised nuclei of
helium atoms. These nuclei consist of two protons and two neutrons each, and as
such, they are among the heaviest particles that one ever encounters in the nuclear
radiation field.
Considered as a member of the nuclear radiation family, the alpha radiation is
the most energetic but the least penetrating. Typically, the alpha radiation can be
stopped by a sheet of paper; thus shielding individuals from exposures to alpha par-
ticles is relatively easy (Table 12.4). Since the epidermis is composed of dead cells,
there will be little effect. It can therefore be considered that alpha particles from an
external source constitute no danger. They can be most harmful when they enter the
body through a wound, inhalation, or the digestive system. If ingested or inhaled
into the body, they will be close to living tissue that can be damaged. The injury will
be local but intense, so that essential organs containing source of alpha particles may
be destroyed.
Table 12.4 Shielding recommendations for the protection against ionising radiation (Ham-
mer and Price 2001: 514, Finucane 2006)
Range of
Radiation
rays in Type Thickness
type
the air
Alpha 2,8 cm Aluminium sheet 0,4 mm
Paper 0,4 mm
Ordinary cloth-
ing 0,4 mm
Beta 13 m Lead 1,4 cm
Aluminium 5,3 cm
Pyrex (glass) 6,6 cm
Lucite 12,4 cm
Water 14,8 cm
Gamma – Shielding is accomplished by reducing intensity of incident
gamma radiation by scattering interactions within a shield (the
probability of completely absorbing the nuclei of atoms in a
shield is slight). Thickness of material required to reduce radia-
tion to one-half is called the half-value layer. Half-value layers
for typical materials are:
Lead 0,8 cm
Iron 1,3 cm
Aluminium 7 cm
Concrete 7 cm
Water 21 cm
Neutron – Shielding against neutron radiation always involves processes
that reduce the energy or the momentum of the penetrating neu-

tron to a point where its collisions are no longer capable of pro-
ducing damage. High energy neutrons are most effectively at-
tenuated (i.e., reduced in energy or momentum) when they
collide with an object having approximately the same mass. The
most effective shielding media for neutrons is water, which ob-
viously contains large numbers of hydrogen nuclei, or protons
which have virtually the same mass as the neutron.
12.2.3 Beta radiation

Beta radiation consists of fast-moving electrons. They can be either positively
charged (positrons) or negatively charged (negatrons). They are lighter than alpha
particles and have much greater penetrating power but are less ionising. Some fis-
sion products in spent fuel and wastes emit beta particles, such as strontium-90, ion-
ide-131, and cesium-137. A beta particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom is far
smaller than is an alpha particle (about 1/7300). A thin sheet of metal, such as alu-
minium, can act as a shield, but the metal must be selected with care to ensure it is
not one from which X-rays can be generated (see also Table 12.4).
A beta source may be an external hazard if the energy of the betas is great
enough, since the particles may penetrate the dead cells of the skin. As is the case
with alpha particles, beta particles are most dangerous when an inhaled or ingested
beta active source becomes situated in some susceptible organ or other location
within the body.
12.2.4 Gamma radiation and X-radiation
Both, gamma radiation and X- radiation, are similar, but the first is natural, from
nuclear fission products. Gamma rays consists of very high energy photons. They
are emitted when radioactive transformations take place and usually accompany al-
pha and beta radiation. X-rays are produced by high-speed electrons striking a suit-
able target (i.e. heavy metals like tungsten or iron). Electrical potentials required to
accelerate electrons to speeds great enough to generate X-rays can be at least 15 000
to 16 000 volts. Electrical equipment operating at voltages lower than this level will
not produce X-radiation. At voltages higher than this, the possibility of the presence
of this hazard is substantial. Recommendations for shielding against gamma radia-
tion are discussed in Table 12.4.
The energies of gamma rays and X-rays give them high penetrating power even
through fairly dense materials. In the air and other substances of low density they
will be hazardous at comparatively long distances. Because of their penetrating
power, gamma rays and X-rays will injure tissue throughout the body in addition to
damaging the skin. Internally, the energies of gamma rays and X-rays are not as
readily absorbed by tissue as those of alpha and beta radiation. The shorter ranges of
alpha, beta, or neutron particles in tissues result in the absorption of radiation energy
which produces the damage to a small volume of tissue with a correspondingly

higher absorbed dose.
12.2.5 Neutrons
Neutrons are particles that can be emitted spontaneously by certain radioactive mate-
rials. Although there are no naturally occurring neutron sources, this particle still
constitutes an important form of nuclear radiation. Since a neutron is a massive par-
ticle it should not be simply considered to be a form of electromagnetic radiation. As
in the case of alpha- and beta-particles, neutrons can generate ions as they interact
with the matter. Thus they definitely are a subset of the overall class of ionising ra-
diation. The most important source of neutron radiation is the nuclear reactor com-
mercial, research, and/or military. The characteristic, self-sustaining chain reaction
of an operating nuclear reactor generates a steady supply of neutrons. Particle accel-
erators can also be a source of neutron radiation.
Protecting personnel from exposures arising from neutron radiation is one of the
most difficult problems in the overall area of radiation protection. Neutrons can pro-
duce considerable damage in exposed individuals. Unlike their electrically charged
counterparts (alpha- and beta-particles) uncharged neutrons are not capable, either
directly or indirectly, of producing ionisations. Additionally, neutrons do not behave
like high energy gamma rays and/or X rays as they interact with the matter. These
relatively massive uncharged particles simply pass through the matter without pro-
ducing anything until they collide with one of the nuclei that are resident there.
These collisions accomplish two things simultaneously:
They reduce the energy of the neutron, and

They “blast” the target nucleus, usually damaging it in some very significant
manner, that is, they mutate this target nucleus into an isotope of the same ele-
ment that has a higher atomic weight, one that likely will be radioactive.
Shielding against neutron radiation always involves processes that reduce the
energy or the momentum of the penetrating neutron to a point where its collisions
are no longer capable of producing the damage. High energy neutrons are most ef-
fectively attenuated (i.e., reduced in energy or momentum) when they collide with
an object having approximately their same mass. Such collisions reduce the neutron
energy in a very efficient manner. Because of this fact, one of the most effective
shielding media for neutrons is water, which obviously contains large numbers of
hydrogen nuclei, or protons which have virtually the same mass as the neutron.
12.3 Radiation measurements and limits
12.3.1 The strength or activity of a radiation source
The most common measure of radiation source strength or activity is the number of
radioactive disintegrations that occur in the mass of radioactive material per unit
time. There are two basic units that are employed in this area, namely, the curie (Ci)
and the becquerel (Bq) (Table 12.5). The latter is the unit of the source strength un-
der the SI system. One curie means 2,22×1012 desintegrations per minute, where as
one becquerel means 60 disintegrations per second.
Table 12.5 Units used for the radiation measurement (e.g., Finucane 2006)
Old, non SI system
Characteristic SI system unit Relation
unit
Strength (activity) becquerel (Bq) curie (Ci) 1 Bq = 2,7⋅10–11 Ci
Exposure X coulomb per kilo- roentgen (R) 1 C/kg = 3906 R
gram (C/kg)
Dose D grey (Gy) roentgen absorbed doze 1 Gy = 100 rad
(rad)
Dose equivalent H sievert (Sv) roentgen equivalent 1 Sv = 100 rem
man (rem)
12.3.2 Exposure
Exposure is a unit of measure of radiation that is currently falling in disuse. The ba-
sic definition of exposure is the sum number of all the ions, of whether positive or
negative charge, that are produced in a mass of air by some form of ionising radia-
tion that, in the course of producing these ions, has totally dissipated. Quantitatively,
the exposure is designated by the formula
Q
X = (14.2)
m
where Q is the sum number of all the ions, m is the total mass of air in which these
ions are produced.
The unit of exposure is the roentgen (R) (Table 12.5). There is no SI system unit
for exposure and this is measured by the composed unit coulomb per kilogram
(C/kg). The coulomb is a relatively large unit of electric charge. A more “natural”
unit would probably be the charge carried by an electron or proton. The electric
charge carried by these basic atomic particles is equivalent to 1,60×10–19 C. The
measures of exposure, R and C/kg, are now rarely encountered. References to expo-
sure are now only likely to be found in older literature (e.g., Table 12.10).
12.3.3 Absorbed dose
The dose or more precisely absorbed dose is the total energy imparted by some form
of ionising radiation to a known mass of the matter that has been exposed to that
radiation. Until the mid 1970s the most widely used unit of dose was the rad (roent-
gen absorbed doze) which has been defined to be equal to 100 ergs of energy ab-
sorbed into one gram of matter (tissue) (Table 12.5). At present, under the SI sys-
tem, a new unit of dose coming into use. This unit is the grey (Gy). It has been
defined to be the decomposition of 1,0 joule of energy into 1,0 kilogram of the mat-
ter. The grey is steadily replacing the rad although the latter is still in fairly wide
use. The dose, as a measurable quantity, is always represented by the symbol D.

12.3.4 Dose equivalent
The dose equivalent is the most important measured radiation characteristic as the
overall subject of radiation protection is concerned. It is basically the product of the
absorbed dose and an appropriate quality factor QF, a coefficient that is dependent
upon the type of ionising radiation particle involved (Table 12.6).
Table 12.6 Tabulation of quality factors (QF) by radiation type (Finucane 2006: 8–23)
Position of source
Radiation type Quality factor QF
(internal/external)
X-rays or gamma rays 1,0 Both
Beta rays 1,0 Internal only
Thermal neutrons 5,0 Both
Slow neutrons 4,0 – 22,0 Both
Fast neutrons 3,0 – 5,0 Both
Heavy, charged alpha particles 20,0 Internal only
The dose equivalent is usually represented by the symbol H. There are two cases
to consider, and they are as follows:
HRems = DRads × QF (14.3)
HSieverts = DGreys × QF (14.4)
It is very important to know that since 1 Gy = 100 rads, it follows that 1 Sv =
100 rem. Finally, if it is determined that a dose equivalent is greater than 100 mSv
(100 millisieverts), there is almost certainly a very serious situation with a great po-
tential for human harm. Thus, in practice, for dose equivalents above this level, the
unit of sievert is rarely, if ever, employed.
12.3.5 Nuclear detection equipment
Nuclear detection instruments are necessary to detect and quantify two fundamental
types of radiation exposure: ionising radiation sources outside the human body, and
ionising radiation sources in a form that has the capability of entering the human body
(primarily as surface contamination such as radioactive dust, aerosols or liquids).
Four basic types of nuclear detection instruments are recommended for the use
during radiological emergency, as follows (Figure 12.1):
Dosimeters for measuring the cumulative external exposure;

Aerosol or gas contamination monitors which indicate the potential internal ex-
posure when a radioactive substance is distributed within the atmosphere;
Nuclear rate meter for measuring surface contamination, which indicates the poten-
tial internal exposure when a radioactive substance is distributed over the surface;
Dose rate meters for measuring an immediate external human exposure to radia-
tion.
Dosimeters measure the total energy absorbed as a consequence of exposure to

ionising radiation. Personal dosimeters should be worn in a radiological zone to as-
sess their radiation exposure. Passive dosimeters routinely monitor cumulative doses
that result from an external exposure. Active dosimeters provide an immediate read-
ing of the dose in microsieverts (µSv) and may also provide an immediate alarm
signal when the measured dose approaches the value preset by the manufacturer or
the health physics specialist.
Airborne contamination meters are used to detect radioactive aerosols that may
be present after a nuclear accident or a chemical explosion. These may be dispersion
aerosols (dusts), condensation aerosols (), or liquid aerosols (mists). Gas monitoring
detectors provide monitoring by simply moving the radioactive gas past a detector.
The advantage of gas monitors is that they give direct and immediate feedback of
the presence of airborne radioactive gases. In general, most gas monitoring systems
measure in units of Becquerels per cubic meter (Bq/m3). Airborne contamination
meters and gas monitors may be used to assess airborne contamination in the event
of a radiological event.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 12.1 Radiation monitoring instruments: (a) dosimeter; (b) airborne contamination meter
and gas monitor; (c) surface contamination meter; (d) dose rate meter (after Burchfield 2009)
Surface contamination meters are used to detect the presence of radioactive sub-
stances on accessible surfaces. Even low concentrations of such substances may pre-
sent a potential internal exposure. However, each instrument will have detection ef-
ficiencies that range from near 0% to 30% (at best) depending on what types of
radionuclides are present. For example, alpha-emitting radionuclides present the
most significant challenge in being measured because almost anything stops an al-
pha particle. Measurements must be made using a calibrated instrument with the best
available, predetermined detection efficiency for the contaminant. The measure-
ments, in counts per second (cps or s–1), need to be converted to Becquerels per
square centimeter (Bq/cm2).
A dose rate meter measures absorbed energy from penetrating radiation. A suit-
able and efficient instrument that is matched to the specific task should be capable of
providing direct readings of the dose equivalent rate in microsieverts per hour
(µSv/hr). A smaller number of instruments indicate the absorbed dose rate in micro-
greys per hour (mGy/hr). These instruments usually respond only to X-rays, gamma,
and/or beta radiations. Specialised instruments are necessary to measure neutron
dose equivalent rates. Older units of dose rate – millirem per hour (mrem/hr), mil-
lirad per hour (mrad/hr), and milliroentgen per hour (mR/hr)–are still displayed on
some instruments (10 mSv/hr is equivalent to 1 mrem/hr, Table 12.5).
Integrating dose rate meters and dosimeters can be used to assess an external
exposure which is rapidly changing, for example: (i) a task of short duration has to
be carried out in the presence of high dose rates, and (ii) the source emits radiation
within a short distance of a radiological device.
12.4 Radiation limits
Exposure of employees to radiation must be carefully controlled and monitored.
Regulatory documents outline the maximum permissible exposure limits allowed for
radiation workers and the general public. The limits are reported in units the dose
equivalent expressed in sieverts or rems. An example of such limits outlined in
OSHA regulations (US) are given in Table 12.7. In author’s country, Lithuania, such
limits are outlined in the hygiene norms HN 73-2001 (HN 2001).
Table 12.7 Annual maximum permissible exposure limits according to OSHA regulations
(US) (DiBerardinis 1999: 1009)
Annual limit Annual limit
Part of body
(mSv) (rem)
Total effective dose equivalent (internal and external 50 5
whole body)
Lens of the eye 150 15
Skin of the whole body 200 2
Hands and forearms, feet and ankles 350 35
General public 10 1
Exposure of the general public to radiation is also regulated by outlining the

limits of pollution of water and food by radioactive materials. Table 12.8 is an ex-
ample of such a regulation. It outlines the maximum levels of pollution by radio nu-
clides and isotopes used in Lithuania.
Table 12.8 Maximum levels of pollution of water and food products by radio nuclides
134,137
Cs and the isotope 90Sr used in Lithuania (HN 2001)
Specific activity of Specific activity of
Product 134,137
Cs (Bq/kg) 90
Sr (Bq/kg)
Drinking water 18,8 3,7
Milk and milk products 250 37
Milk powder 250 165
Meat, eggs and their products 370 37
Animal and vegetable fats 185 –
Bread and products of bread 250 37
Vegetables 250 –
Fresh mushrooms 600 –
Dried mushrooms 3700 –
Dry tea leaves 1850 –
All products for children 185 3,7
Safety fact*
In April 1986, the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in the northern Ukraine
released tonnes of radioactive material – 400 times more than what was released by the
combined atomic bombing of Hiroshima – into the atmosphere over three countries:
more than 12 trillion international units of radioactivity in Bq, most of which was released
in the first 10 days. Close to five million people living in the surrounding vicinities were
exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. In comparison, all the aboveground testing of
nuclear weapons performed in the 1950s and 1960s is estimated to put some 100 to 1000
times more radioactive material into the atmosphere than the Chernobyl accident.
Less than 50 immediate deaths were attributed to the explosion; the effects were felt for
years. A total of 237 occupationally exposed people were admitted to hospitals, and 134
were diagnosed with “acute radiation syndrome.” Of these, 28 died within the first 3
months, whereas at least 14 additional patients died over the next 10 years; however,
perhaps some deaths cannot be attributed entirely to radiation exposure. Two other peo-
ple died in the explosion, and one more presumably died of heart failure. Additionally,
some 200 000 people involved in the initial clean-up of the plant received average total
body radiation doses of the order of 100 mSv. Ten mSv is equivalent to the dose of one
general chest X-ray. Twenty mSv is also the dose limit currently permitted for workers in
nuclear facilities. The average worldwide natural “background” radiation is about 2,4 mSv.
Within the group of 116,000 evacuated from the “exclusion zone,” less than 10% re-
ceived doses greater than 50 mSv; less than 5% received more than 100 mSv. A sharp
increase in thyroid cancer among children from the affected areas is the only major pub-
lic health impact from radiation exposure documented to date. By the end of 1995, ap-
proximately 800 cases in children under 15 years of age had been diagnosed, mainly in
the northern part of Ukraine and in Belarus. Three children died as a result of this cancer
which can be treated medically.
* Burchfield (2009: 13)
12.5 Damaging effect of ionising radiation

The rays belonging to the class of ionising radiation may cause injury by producing
ionising of cellular components, leading to functional changes in the tissues of the
body. The energy that radiation is great enough to discharge electrons from the at-
oms that make up the cells, producing
Ion pairs,
Chemical free radicals, and
Oxidation products.
The body’s tissues differ in form, composition, and function. Their sensitivities
and biological responses to ionising radiation are therefore different. Sensitivity to
radiation is directly proportional to the reproductive capability of the cell. In some
instances, radiation damage to the cell is replaced by natural processes. The radia-
tion effects in such cases are said to be “reversible”, whereas permanent or non-
reparable injury is “irreversible”.
The effects generated during a massive single exposure or over a short period
are said to be “acute” and can produce both immediate and delayed effects on the
body. Low but repeated radiation exposures are said to be “chronic” and generally
have delayed effects. Acute exposures usually result in mishaps, whereas chronic
exposures are due principally to sustained and unrecognised conditions.
Sensitivities of various tissues of the body are shown in Table 12.9. The effects
that can be produced by various levels of acute exposure are given in Table 12.10,
with probable symptoms that will be shown by affected persons. The exposure in-
tensities indicate that the dosage is received by the “whole body”.
Radioactivity does not lose its potency by such processes as absorption or inges-
tion by living tissues. Thus the radioactive material from airborne fallout may land
on grass, where it may be eaten by cattle or sheep and subsequently by humans with
continued radioactivity.
12.6 Radiation protection considerations
A basic concept in radiation protection practice is the establishment of a controlled
area. Access to such an area must be controlled and supervision and control of occu-
pational exposures must be provided inside of it. The emergence of beams and the
escape of radioactive materials from controlled area should be controlled. The con-
trolled area must be identified by the use of a standard radiation symbol with associ-
ated warning notices (Figure 12.2).
(a) (b)
Figure 12.2 Radiation warning signs: (a) ionising radiation; (b) non-ionising radiation
The X-ray equipment should be within room or other enclosure with controls
outside and having interlocks to prevent the entry when equipment is energised (see
Section 21.3 for definition and examples of interlocks). Small devices and instru-
ments using X-rays, such as laboratory equipment, usually are totally enclosured
with adequate shielding. Accessibility to the inside of the shield requires special
consideration (interlocks, etc.).
162
Table 12.9 Effects of ionising radiation on some body tissues (Hammer and Price 2001: 510)
Tissue or
organ af- Effect
fected
White (leucocytes) are the most sensitive to radiation which will reduce their number and leave the body open to
Blood infection. In severe cases the number of platelets will drop after one week so that the bloods clotting capability is
reduced. Weeks later, the number of red cells will decrease to the point that anaemia results

The eyes are the parts of the body most sensitive to radiation, and the lens cells are the most easily damaged by
ionising radiation. The lenses gradually become opaque with “cataracts”, since the cells are not replaced as blood
Eyes
cells are. Other parts of the eye, such as retina, are less sensitive but will be affected by high exposures as any
other body cell would be.
Damage to the blood can be overcome if there is replacement of the injured blood cells by new ones form the
Bone marrow bone marrow. However, radiation damage can injure the bone marrow so that the cell replacement can not take
place. Damage to the body will be permanent in such cases.
Lymphatic sys- The lymph nodes, which filter foreign matter from the lymph, would be the first affected in this system by a
tem heavy dose of radiation. The spleen, which normally filters out dead cells from the blood, would be the next.
Immediate effects can be the same of those on other cells. To produce sterility in a person would require almost
Reproductive
fatal dose. Generic effects produced by radiation damage to reproductive cells can only be surmised and would
organs
not be known for several generations after the exposure.
Skin is easily damaged. However, since the outer layer is composed of dead cells, the skin has great recuperative
Skin powers. The dead layer prevents lower-level damage by alpha particles, and attenuates the effects of beta parti-
cles.
Radiation will lead to the loss of hair (epilation). The effect is generally temporary after the exposure stops;
Hair
however, the new hair may be of a new colour or have other characteristics different from the original.
Nervous sys- Damage may occur if blood vessels and the blood to it are damaged. The spinal cord and the nerves are highly

tem resistant to radiation.
Digestive sys- The various portions of the digestive system vary in sensitivity and types of the damage. The small intestine is
tem probably the most sensitive.
Part II Dealing with individual workplace hazards
Table 12.10 Symptoms and effects resulting from acute whole body exposure to radiation (Air Force Communications Service
1966)
Exposure (R) Symptoms and effects
12 Radiation hazards
0–25 No observable reactions. Delayed effects may occur.

Changes in blood detectable by clinical tests. Disabling sickness not common; individual should be able to con-
25–100
tinue usual duties. Delayed effects possible but serious effects on average individual unlikely.
Produces nausea and fatigue, with possible vomiting after 125 R. Changes in blood detectable by clinical tests.
100–200
Delayed effects may shorten life expectancy of exposed individual on the order of 1 %.
Produces nausea and vomiting on the first day following exposure. Latent period up to two weeks or longer, then
other symptoms (loss of appetite, general illness or discomfort, sore throat, etc.) appear but are not severe. Re-
200–300
covery is expected in about three months unless complicated by poor previous health, additional injuries, or in-
fections.
Produces nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea in the first few hours following exposure. Latent period, perhaps as
long as 7 days, with no definite symptoms. Symptoms are epilation (loss of hair), loss of appetite, general illness
300–600 or discomfort and fever during the second week, followed by haemorrhage, petechiae, inflammation of mouth
and throat, diarrhoea, and emaciation in the third week. Some deaths in 2–6 weeks. Possible eventual death of up
to 50 % of the exposed individuals for exposures of 450 R
Produces nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea in the first few hours following exposure. Short latent period with no
definite symptoms in some cases during the first week. Diarrhoea, haemorrhage, inflammation of mouth and
600 and over
throat, a fever toward the end of the first week. Rapid emaciation and death as early as the second week with
possible eventual death of up to 100 % of the exposed individuals.

163
Gamma radiation, usually from a sealed source, is used for variety of industrial
purposes. Gamma radiation can not be turned off like X-rays and this consideration
imposes a severe requirement for the retention of the sealed source at a predeter-
mined specific location where exposure control is assured or within appropriate
shielding at all times. The integrity of the encapsulation of the sealed source must be
assured at all times. Similar considerations must be given to radioactive neutron
sources which are commonly sealed by relatively substantial enclosures.
Beta radiation sources, which frequently are built into some piece of equipment
such as a thickness gauge, must be shielded and arranged so that access to the beta
radiation is prevented.
12.7 Non-ionising radiation
Non-ionising radiation is that radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum which lacks
sufficient energy to ionise atoms. Non-ionising radiation includes those regions of
the spectrum which extend from ultraviolet to radio waves (see Table 12.1). Radia-
tion at their frequencies does not have sufficient energy to shatter atoms and ionise
them. However, such radiation can cause blisters and blindness. In addition, there is
mounting evidence of a link between non-ionising radiation and cancer. Persons
who must work in the sun generally tan but long exposures sometimes cause skin
cancers. Four types of non-ionising radiation which can cause injury are:
Ultraviolet radiation (certain wavelengths of UV radiation are capable of pro-

ducing ionisations in certain gaseous components; thus UV is not purely non-
ionising radiation);
Visible light;
Infrared radiation;
Microwave.
Sources of non-ionising radiation can be found not only in the workshop but
also in administrative and physical plant activities. These sources include, but are
not limited to the following:
Static (DC) magnets;

Industrial alternating current (AC) line voltage;
Radiofrequency (RF) induction ovens;
RF heaters/sealers;
Hand-held two-way communications;
Microwave ovens;
Mobile (cellular) phones;
Sources of infrared radiation experienced as radiant heat (any high-temperature
processes in industrial plants: molten metal or glass chemical reactions, paint, or
enamel drying);
Sources of UV radiation (plasma torches, arc welding equipment, mercury dis-

charge lamps);
Lasers (visible and invisible).
Sources of ultraviolet radiation are sun, lasers, welding arcs, and ultraviolet
lamps (Figure 12.3). An overexposure of unprotected skin or eyes to ultraviolet ra-
diation could result on tissue inflammation. Repeated overexposures can result in
skin cancer and cataracts. Precautionary measures include special glasses, which
block out ultraviolet rays, and protective clothing.
Figure 12.3 Emission of electromagnetic fields by a spot welding gun (EASHW 2005b)
Visible radiation comes from light sources which create distortion. This can be
a hazard to employees whose jobs require colour perception. For instance, 8% of the
male population is red colour-blind and can not properly perceive red warning sig-
nals (Goetsch 2002: 388).
Primary sources of infrared radiation are high-temperature processes such as the
production of glass and steel. The problems associated with this kind of non-ionising
radiation involve heat stress and dry skin and eyes. Overexposure of unprotected
eyes to infrared radiation could give rise to cataracts. In order to protect against in-
frared radiation, every effort must be made to shield the emitting source by a heat-
absorbing materials. Eye protection of an approved type must be used to prevent
burns to eyes.
Microwave-producing devices may pose the normal hazards associated with all
electrical equipment as well as the danger of local burns caused by the contact with
the work coil or heat produced in conductors such as watches and rings. It is advis-
able to ground all radiofrequency work coils and isolate them form high voltages. In
areas where high power microwave equipment is used, a warning sign must be
posted to alert personnel of its radiation hazards.

1 Define the terms “ionising radiation” and “non-ionising radiation”.
2 List the major differences between ionising and non-ionising radiation.
3 List the major characteristics of alpha, beta, gamma, and X-rays.
4 Describe the effects of ionising radiation on human fertility.
5 How does ionising radiation generally injure the body? Describe the effects on skin,
eyes, blood, hair, and bone marrow.
6 List five potential sources emitting ionising radiation.
7 Describe four basic types of nuclear detection instruments recommended for the use
during radiological emergency.
8 What are the biological effects of non-ionising radiation on humans?
13 Pressure hazards 167
13 PRESSURE HAZARDS
A pressure hazard is defined as a hazard caused by a dangerous condition involving
pressure (Box 13.1). It is not necessary to have much pressure to have conditions
where serious injuries and damage can occur. It is commonly and mistakenly be-
lieved that injury and damage will result only from high pressures. Actually there is
no agreement on the term “high pressure” beyond the fact that it is greater than nor-
mal atmospheric pressure (Box 13.2). This term can therefore be almost any level
prescribed for the equipment or system in use. For accident prevention purposes, any
pressure system must be regarded as hazardous. Hazards lie both in the pressure
level and in the total energy involved.
Box 13.1: terms related to pressure hazards

Pressure: a physical force exerted against an opposing fluid or thrust distributed
over a surface. It is expressed in force or weight per unit area such as Pascal (Pa or
N/m2) or atmosphere (atm, 1 atm = 101 325 Pa). Pressures are often indicated by
other units of measurement: millimetres of mercury (1 mm Hg = 133,322 Pa), bars
(1 bar = 105 Pa), or pounds per square inch (psi, 1 psi = 6894,76 Pa). At sea level
the earth’s atmospheric pressure averages 1 atm, or 760 mm Hg, 1013,25 millibars
or 14,696 psi. This pressure is called the standard atmospheric pressure.
Pressure relief valve: a device which permits discharge of fluid from a system if it
exceeds a set value.
Water hammer: the transformation of the momentum of liquid into a shock wave
which is transmitted back upstream. The water hammer is caused by a sudden
stoppage of liquid flow so that a shock effect occurs. It can cause the rupture of a
line. The flow can be terminated abruptly by closing a valve at the downstream
end of a line.
Caustic stress corrosion (caustic embrittlemant): a form of intergranular corro-

sion. Mild steels (steels with low carbon and low alloy content) and stainless steel
will crack if they are exposed to concentrated caustic (high pH) environments with
the metal under a tensile stress. Caustic stress corrosion was first encountered in
the operation of riveted steam boilers. These boilers were found to fail on occa-
sion along riveted seams. Failure was attributed to caustic-induced cracking at the
highly stressed regions near and under the rivets. The combination of high stress
and high caustic concentrations eventually led to destructive cracking of the boiler
vessel.
Box 13.2: examples of “high pressures”*

A 113 km/h hurricane wind exerts a pressure of only 690 Pa (70 kg/m2). This rela-
tively low pressure can exert a force against a building that can devastate the
structure.
American Gas Association indicates that a high-pressure gas distribution line is

one which operates at a pressure of more than 2 psi (13,79 kPa).
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) rates only those boilers
which operate at more than 15 psi (103 kPa) as high pressure boilers.
The American Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) defines

high-pressure cylinders as those designated with a service pressure of 900 psi
(6206 kPa).
13.1 Cracking and rupture of pressure vessels

Pressure vessels are used in many different applications to contain many different
types of substances ranging from water to extremely toxic chemicals.
One of most serious hazards in pressure vessels is the potential for cracking.
Cracking can lead to either a complete rupture or to leaks. The consequences of a
complete rupture include:
Blast effects due to sudden expansion of the contents of the vessel; and
Possible injuries, fatalities, and damage from the shock wave and fragmentation
produced by rupture.
The consequences of a leak include the following:
Suffocation or poisoning of employees depending on the contents of the vessel;

Explosion and fire; and
Chemical and thermal burns from the contact with the contents of the vessel.
Leakage or rupture may occur in welded seams, bolted joints, or at nozzles.

Figure 13.1 depicts a pressure vessel and its potential points of leakage and/or rup-
ture. The types of vessels that are most susceptible to leakage and rupture, primarily
because of the processes they are a part of or their contents are listed in Box 13.3
(Goetsch 2002: 266).
Nozzle
Bolted joint
Weld seams
Figure 13.1 Potential points for leakage or rupture of a pressure vessel
Box 13.3: pressure vessels most susceptible to cracking and rupture

Deaerator vessels: vessels used for deaeration (removing non-condensable gases,
primary oxygen, used in a steam generator). Deaeration vessels are used in such
applications as power generation, pulp and paper processing, chemical processing,
and petroleum refining. The most common failures associated with deaerator ves-
sels are cracks caused by water hammer at welded joints that were not postweld
heat treated and cracks caused by corrosion fatigue.
Amine vessels: vessels used to remove hydrogen sulphide from petroleum gases
such as propane and butane. It can also be used for removing carbon dioxide in
some processes. Amine vessels are in petroleum refineries, gas treatment plants,
and chemical plants. The most common failures associated with amine vessels are
cracks in stressed and unrelieved welds.
Wet hydrogen sulphide vessels: vessels used to contain wet hydrogen sulphide.
These vessels are made of steel. Hydrogen is generated when steel is exposed to
the mixture wet hydrogen sulphide. Dissolved hydrogen can cause cracking, blis-
tering, and embrittlement, particularly in high strength steels. Consequently, low
strength steels are recommended for wet hydrogen sulphide vessels.
Ammonia vessels: vessels for containing ammonia. These vessels are widely used
in commercial refrigeration systems and chemical processes. Such ammonia ves-
sels are typically constructed as spheres of carbon steel. The water and oxygen
content in ammonia can cause carbon steel to crack, particularly near welds.
Pulp digester vessels: vessels used to digest pulp used for the manufacture of pa-
per. The digestion process involves the use of weak solution of sodium hydroxide
and sodium sulphide in a temperature range of 110ºC to 140ºC. The most common
failure in pulp digester vessels is cracking along welded seams due to primarily
caustic stress corrosion (Box 13.1).
Further hazards increasing possibility of cracking and rupture of vessels include:
1 Hazardous interaction between the material of the vessel and the materials that
will be processed in it;
2 Inability of the vessel to carry the weight of its contents and the corresponding
internal pressure;
3 Inability of the vessel to withstand the pressure introduced into it plus pressure
caused by chemical reactions that occur during processing;
4 Inability of the vessel to withstand any vacuum that may be created accidentally
or intentionally.
Boilers are hazardous pressure vessels in which water is heated to form steam,
hot water, or high-temperature water under pressure. The boiler rupture occurs when
the strength of a boiler is exceeded due to inadequately high internal pressure or
when at normal pressures its strength is degraded in any way (Figures 13.2 and 13.3).
Figure 13.2 Remains of the overheated boiler which exploded at a factory in Philippines on
April 8, 2009 (Daylife Publishers, see Appendix 2)
Figure 13.3 Collapsed building of the factory after an explosion of an overheated boiler in
Philippines on April 8, 2009 (Daylife Publishers, see Appendix 2)
The process by which a boiler rupture occurs can be described as described be-
low (Hammer and Price 2001: 314):
1 Under normal service conditions:

The temperature in the boiler subjected to heating increases to the boiling point.
This causes the water to evaporate and the steam to exert pressure;
The steam leaves the boiler and is replaced by new supplies of water. The input
from heat of the boiler equals to than removed from the steam flow. Equilibrium
is reached and pressure remains constant.
2 Under abnormal service conditions:
If steam flow output is prevented or restricted so it is inadequate to remove all

the excess heat supplied, the temperature in the boiler increases;
If adequate supplies of fresh water are not provided, any water vapour can turn
to dry gas and then increase in pressure;
If safety device is not provided or is inadequate to limit the gas pressure to a
safe value, the strength of the boiler might be exceeded and cause it to rupture.
Boilers are equipped with safety valves which permit pressures to be relieved if
they exceed set values (Box 13.1).
Safety fact*
Three five-year surveys (1962–1967, 1968–1973, and 1973–1978) of British pressure

vessels revealed a reasonably constant failure rate on this period. During this time, 229
accidents happened. Only 13 of these accidents were classified as catastrophic. Based on
a total experience of 310 202 vessels years, a catastrophic failure rate of 4,2×10–5 per
vessel year was derived.
West German reports covering the period 1956–1976 estimate the rate of explosive pres-
sure vessel failures as 6,9×10–5 per vessel year. This figure is broken down as 5,8×10–4
per boiler year for steam boilers but only 1,8×10–5 per vessel year for other vessels.
Hence the failure rate for boilers was some 32 times higher than for other categories of
vessel, and was attributed in many cases to water shortage.
* Hadley et al. (1995)
13.2 Hazards of unfired pressure vessels

Pressure vessels do not have to be fired to be hazardous. Inputs of heat can occur in
other ways. The heat of the sun on outdoor pressure vessels is a common example.
Unfired pressure vessels include air tanks, steam-jacketed kettles, digesters, and vul-
canisers, as well as others that can create heat internally by various means rather
than by external fire. Various means of creating internal heat include chemical ac-
tion within the vessel and application of some heating medium to the contents of the
vessel, for instance, electricity, steam, or hot oil.
Portable pressure vessels should be stored only in shaded areas. Pressure vessels
inside buildings should not be located near sources of heat, such as radiators, boilers,
or furnaces. Vessels containing cryogenic liquids can absorb heat from normal envi-
ronments that could cause boiling of liquids and very high pressures. Gas compres-
sion can cause an increase in temperature and very high pressures.
13.3 Dynamic pressure hazards
13.3.1 Rocketing of charged pressure cylinders
The pressures in cylinders of compressed air, oxygen, or carbon dioxide can be very
high. The force or thrust generated by gas flowing through the opening left when a
valve beaks down of a cylinder can be 20 to 50 times greater than the cylinder
weight (Hammer and Price 2001). This can be compared to the propulsion of a
rocket or a guided missile which generally produces a thrust only 2 to 3 times the
weight of the vehicle being propelled.
Spectacular accidents have occurred when such charged cylinders were dropped
or struck so that the valve broke off. The cylinders smashed through buildings and
rows of vehicles, created the tremendous havoc which a heavy steel projectile travel-
ling at high speeds can generate.
13.3.2 Whipping of hoses and lines

Whipping of flexible hoses and rigid lines separated from the stationary equipment
can also generate injury and damage. Such types of accidents occur with pressurised
gas lines and water hoses. A whipping line of any kind can tear through and break
bones, metal, or anything else with which it comes in contact.
All high pressure hoses and lines should be restrained from possible whipping
by chaining, clamping, and other means. Rigid lines should be preferred to flexible
hoses. If the latter must be used, they should be kept as short as possible.
13.3.3 Other effects
Failure to realise the consequences of the flow from a compressed gas system can
generate many injuries. No pressurised systems should be worked on. If a pressur-
ised line is suspected, no attempt should be made to use fingers to probe a leak.
They might be cut by the gas. A bit of cloth on a stick, a soap-and-water solution, or
sprays specifically made for the purpose can be used with safety.
Dirt, debris, fillings, and other particles can be blown by compressed gas into an
eye or through the skin.
13.4 Pressure hazards to humans
There are many sources of pressure hazard – some natural, most created by humans.
The collective name given to physical disturbances in the body caused by variations
in pressure is called dysbarism (Box 13.4). Many of these disturbances result from
and are particularly damaging because of rapid pressure changes. The disturbances
are produced by two basic causes:
Expansion of free gas in the body cavities;

Release from solution of gas in the blood.
Box 13.4: disturbances caused by variations in pressure

Dysbarism: a collective name given to physical disturbances in the body caused
by variations in pressure.
Decompression sickness: a general term which includes bends, caisson disease,

and aeroembolism.
Bends: an ailment involving pain in the joints, muscles, or bones, generally con-
sidered to be caused by the formation of gas bubbles due to a rapid ascent from
great depths of water.
Caisson disease: another name of the decompression sickness; caisson disease is

usually associated with the physical disturbances due to rapid decrease from high
air pressure to one atmosphere.
Aeroembolism: the physical disturbance due to a rapid decrease in pressure from

altitude. Aeroembolism involves one factor which may cause it to be more damag-
ing than that of caisson disease. At higher altitudes not only will gases physically
come out of solution, but oxygen will be released from its combination with the
red cells. This will lead to boiling of body fluids which occurs at altitudes of
19 km or more.
Aseptic necrosis: the blockage of the flow of blood to the bones caused by nitro-
gen released in the arteries. Unless the blockage is removed, the portions of bone
affected may begin to deteriorate from the lack of nourishment and oxygen. Sud-
den shocks and pressures before the bones heal can cause pieces of bones to break
off.
13.4.1 Gas in body cavities

Since the human body is comprised of approximately 85% liquid, which is virtually
incompressible, increasing pressure does not create problems by itself. Problems can
result from air being trapped or expanded within body cavities.
When sinus passages are blocked so that air can not pass easily from the sinuses
to the nose expansion of the air in these sinuses can lead to problems (Figure 13.4).
The same complications can occur with air trapped in the middle ear’s Eustachian
tube. When the ambient pressure decreases, expansion of the air in blocked sinus
passages or the middle ear occurs with a rapid increase in altitude or rapid ascent
underwater. This can cause pain and, if not eventually relieved, disease. Under ex-
treme circumstances of rapid ascent from underwater diving or high-altitude decom-

pression, lungs can rupture.
sinuses
Figure 13.4 Eustachian tube and sinuses
13.4.2 Gas in bloodstream

Gases in the bloodstream include oxygen, nitrogen, and other inerts. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide are chemically bound to the red cells. Nitrogen is present in blood in
solution, not in chemical combination. Nitrogen is the chief contributor to dysba-
rism.
Nitrogen absorption into the body tissues can become excessive during under-
water diving and breathing of nitrogen-enriched air. If the nitrogen is permeating
tissues faster than the person can breath it out, bubbles of gas may form in the tis-
sues.
A reduction impartial pressure can result from reduced available oxygen and
cause a problem in breathing known as hypoxia. Too much oxygen or oxygen
breathed under pressure that is too high is called hyperoxia. Another partial pressure
hazard, nitrogen narcosis, results from a higher-than-normal level of nitrogen pres-
sure. Breathing nitrogen at great depths underwater can cause a feeling of euphoria
and loss of reality. At depths greater than 30 m, nitrogen narcosis can occur when
breathing normal air. The effects may become pathogenic at depths greater than
60 m, with motor skills threatened at depths of 100 m.
Decompression sickness can result from a rapid decompression that accompa-
nies a rapid rise from the sea level to at least 5,5 kilometres or a rapid ascend from
around 40 m to 20 m underwater. Decompression sickness is a general term which
includes bends (due to a rapid ascent from great depths of water), caisson disease
(due to a rapid decrease in pressure from altitude), and aeroembolism (due to a rapid
decrease in pressure from altitude) (Box 13.4). Decompression sickness differs
slightly from dysbarism which also includes the effects caused by differences in
pressures between gases trapped in body cavities and barometric pressure.

1 Define the term “pressure”.
2 List and briefly describe the main three hazards related to the exploitation of pressure
vessels.
3 What leads to the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in tissues of a human body?
4 Briefly discuss the phenomenon of dysbarism.
5 What is the difference between dysbarism and decompression sickness?
14 FIRE HAZARDS
Fire hazards are conditions that favour fire development and growth. Three elements
are required to start and sustain fire (Box 14.1):
Fuel,
Oxygen,
Heat.
Since oxygen is naturally present in most earth environments, fire hazards usually
involve the mishandling of fuel and heat.
The statement that for a fire to start a fuel, and oxidiser, and a source of ignition
are required is an oversimplification. The process is more complex. First, both the
fuel and oxidiser must be in suitable proportions, in intimate contact with each other,
and in proper modes to enter into a reaction. The means by which permanent gases,
liquids, and solids reach states where they will burn are similar in certain respects
and far different in others.
Box 14.1: fire hazards defined

Fire or combustion: a chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible fuel.
Combustion converts fuel and oxygen into energy, usually in the form of heat. By-
products of combustion include light and smoke. For the reaction to start, a source
of ignition, such as a spark or an open flame, or a sufficiently high temperature is
needed. Given a sufficiently high temperature, almost every substance will burn.
Fuel: a necessary component of all combustion reactions. The fuel can be present
in a solid, liquid, vapour, or gaseous form. Fuel acts as a reducing agent giving up
electrons to an oxidiser in a chemical combination. It may be an element, such as
carbon, hydrogen, or magnesium; a single compound, such as carbon monoxide or
methane; a complex compound as wood or rubber; or mixtures of these.
Oxidiser: substance that acquires electrons from a reducing agent (fuel) in a

chemical reaction.
Ignition temperature or combustion point: the temperature at which a given fuel

can burst into a flame.
Auto-ignition temperature: the lowest temperature at which a vapour-producing

substance or a flammable gas ignites even without the presence of a spark or a
flame. This is sometimes called spontaneous ignition.
Flammability limits: the lowest and highest percentages by volume of fuel gas to
air at one atmosphere that will burn. The difference between the two limits is the
14 Fire hazards 177
flammability range. When the amount of fuel present is too little to permit a self-
sustaining reaction, the mixture is said to be “too lean”. It is below the lower
flammability limit. When the fuel is too plentiful that there is an inadequacy of an
oxidiser, the mixture is “too rich” . It is above the upper flammability limit. The
term “flammability limits” is sometimes used interchangeably with the term “ex-
plosive limits”. Technically this usage is not correct (Section 15.2.4).
Flash point: the lowest temperature at which a liquid fuel will give off enough
vapour to form a momentarily ignitable mixture with air. A fuel will not burn as a
liquid.
Fire point: the lowest temperature at which continuous burning occurs (with solid
fuels, this is also known as the kindling temperature). If the liquid is heated higher
than the flash point, the higher temperature will cause vapours to be produced rap-
idly enough to permit continuous burning after ignition by an open flame or spark.
Flash point versus fire point: the flash point is of more interest in safety engineer-
ing than the fire point since it indicates that the lower limit of flammability is ap-
proached. A high-flash-point liquid heated until its vapour pressure is equal to that
of a more volatile liquid at a lower temperature constitutes an equal hazard.
Flammable fluid: a flammable liquid or gas.
Hydrocarbon: a chemical compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon, such as

coal and gas.
14.1 Fuels
Almost everything in an industrial environment can burn. Metal furniture, machines,
plaster, and concrete block walls are usually painted. Most paints and lacquers will
easily catch fire. Oxygen is almost always present. Therefore the principle method
of fire suppression is passive – the absence of sufficient heat. Without a source of
fuel, there is no fire hazard. However, almost everything in our environment can be
a fuel. Fuels occur as solids, liquids, vapours, and gases. For identification, fires are
classified according to their properties, which relate to nature of the fuel. The prop-
erties of the fuel directly correspond to the best means of combating a fire (see
Box 14.2 retrieved from Goetsch 2002: 301).
Box 14.2: classes of fire

Class A fire Solid materials such as wood, plastic, textiles, and their
products: paper, housing, clothing
Class B fire Flammable liquids and gases
Class C fire Electrical (referring to life electricity situations, not in-
cluding fires in other materials started by electricity)
Class D fire Combustible, easily oxidised metals such as aluminium,
magnesium, titanium
Special category fires Extremely active oxidisers and mixtures, flammables
containing oxygen, nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, solid
missile propellants
14.1.1 Solid fuels

Solid fuels include wood, textiles, coal, paper, plastics, and some metals such as
magnesium and caesium. Few solid fuels are, or can be made, fireproof. Even fire
walls do not stop fires, although they are defined by their ability to slow the spread
of fire. Wood and textiles can be treated with fire- and flame-retardant chemicals to
reduce flammability.
14.1.2 Liquid fuels
Solid fuels are involved in most industrial fires but the mishandling of flammable
liquids and flammable gases is the major cause of industrial fires. Two often-
confused terms applied to flammable liquids are flash point and fire point
(Box 14.1). The flash point is the lowest temperature for a given fuel at which va-
pours are produced in sufficient concentrations to flash in the presence of a source of
ignition. The fire point is the minimum temperature at which the vapours continue to
burn, given a source of ignition.
Liquids are classified into flammable ones and combustible ones. The words
“flammable” and “combustible” may appear to be synonymous but they have differ-
ent connotations related to liquids. Any liquid having a flash point lower than a
stipulated temperature is considered “flammable”; above that point, “combustible”.
Hazard ratings by flash point differ from organisation to organisation. For instance,
American OSHA standards state that flammable liquids have a flash point below
37,8ºC (100ºF), combustible liquids have flash point at or higher 37,8ºC (Goetsch
2002: 301, Hammer and Price 2001: 384).
It should be emphasised that a liquid which is less than at the “flammable” tem-
perature but still “combustible” remains a dangerous material. It will ignite easily if
subjected to a high-energy ignition source, if heated to a temperature above its flash
point, or if it is in the form of a spray or mist.
14 Fire hazards 179
14.1.3 Sprays and mists

Sprays and mists are means by which extremely rapid vaporisation can be produced.
When the spray or mist particles are smaller than 10 micrometers, the mixture will
act as a pure gas mixture, with ignition temperature far below that of a liquid flash
point. Reduction in a droplet size in a spray will also reduce the lower flammability
limit.
Leakage from hoses and containers can occur either as sprays or as streams.
Sprays can be produced from high-pressure leaks through very small openings. Jets
of leaking fluids can turn into sprays and mists as they hit solid objects. Liquids in-
side a tank will do so as they hit its wall. This can happen when the tank is in a mov-
ing vehicle, such as a truck, aircraft, or car. This sloshing will produce the droplets
and mists over the liquid, making them easier to ignite.
Not only will fuel sprays and mists ignite more easily than a large mass of liq-
uid but ignition may occur at temperatures far below the flash point, which is based
on evaporation from the surface of a liquid mass. Mist will ignite at temperatures at
which vapour pressures from masses of liquids are inadequate to produce flammable
vapour-air mixtures. This increases the fire hazards. However, the hazard is still
lower than with a flammable gas mixture because a spray consists of a very fine
drops still in a liquid phase. To burn, the drop must vaporise which requires that the
heat of vaporisation must be provided.
14.1.4 Flammable gases
Gas is considered to be flammable if it satisfies either of the following criteria
(Kavarian and Wentz 1990: 167):
At ambient temperature and pressure it has an upper flammable limit of 13% or

less by volume;
At ambient temperature and pressure it has a flammability range that is wider
than 12%.
Generally, flammable gases pose the same type of fire hazards as flammable
liquids and their vapours. Some differences in properties, however, warrant discus-
sion.
Flammable gases have flash points only when they are liquefied at extremely
low cryogenic temperatures which are not used in most industrial applications.
Therefore, the use of the flash point or the fire point for flammable gases would not
serve any purpose in fire prevention.
It is important to distinguish between flammable gas and flammable vapour
with respect to fire safety. Flammable gases usually have wider flammability range
as compared to flammable vapours. Although all flammable vapours are heavier
than air, most flammable gases are lighter than air. This property would dictate the
nature of the design for ventilation systems.
14.2 Oxidisers
The commonest oxidiser is, of course, the oxygen in the air. Modern industrial proc-
esses now employ or produce oxidisers that may be far more hazardous than atmos-
pheric oxygen. Many substances considered non-flammable or of very low combus-
tibility in the air will burn in oxygen-rich atmospheres.
The burning of fuel in an oxidiser-rich atmosphere causes a higher, more in-
tense temperature and rate than would occur in a fuel-air mixture. Even slightly
pressurised air, such as is in bellows, will increase combustion of fuels.
When the fuel and oxidiser are both gases or vapour and gas, the mixture of the
two must be within flammable limits to ignite (Box 14.1). Flammability limits and
flammability ranges should be considered to be only relatively approximate, not
fixed, values. Table 14.1 summarises the lower and upper flammability limits for
vapours of some of the more commonly used flammable liquids.
Table 14.1 Flammability range for vapours of some common flammable liquids (Kavarian
and Wentz 1990: 161)
Lower flammability limit Upper flammability limit
Substance
(vol. % in air) (vol. % in air)
Gasoline 1,3 7,6
Acetone 2,6 12,8
Carbon disulfide 1,3 44,0
Ethanol 4,3 19,0
Methanol 5,5 36,5
Jet fuel 0,8 6,2
Toluene 1,3 7
Many factors can effect, extend, or constrain flammability limits. There may be
differences in the exact proportions of the mixture, its temperature, the type, shape,
magnitude, and direction of the ignition source, and other factors. Gas-air mixture
outside normal flammability limits can be ignited if the ignition energy, such as
from a welding or cutting torch, is very high.
14.3 Ignition
Ignition consists of energising the molecules of the fuel and oxidiser in a mixture so
they collide with each other with sufficient velocity and force to initiate a combus-
tion reaction. Most ignition sources can be divided into a number of categories:
Open flames,
Electrical sparks or arcs,
Hot surfaces,
Mechanical or chemical sparks,
Spontaneous ignition,
Adiabatic compression of gas,
Catalytic action.
14 Fire hazards 181
The configuration of the energy source can have a great effect on the energy re-
quired to ignite fuel. Far less energy is required for ignition with a point source, such
as a flame or spark, than with a diffuse source, such as hot surface. Point source has
higher energy intensity in a more limited volume of fuel.
Safety fact*
A common feature in a number of fire disasters in buildings is a sudden spread of fire

from an apparently small and limited fire to one that is highly threatening and disastrous.
There have been fires in which the rapid spread of smoke was the main cause of the dis-
aster.
A major feature of fire disasters in industry, particularly in manufacturing and transport

processes, has been an explosion, which was either solely responsible for the disaster or
worsened the fire situation greatly.
* Rasbach et al. (2003: 35)
14.4 Fire dangers to humans

Direct contact with the flame is obviously dangerous to humans. Flesh burns, as do
muscles and internal organs. Nevertheless, burns are not the major cause of death in
a fire. Most people die in fires from suffocating or breathing and toxic fumes. Car-
bon dioxide can lead to suffocation because it can be produced in large volumes,
depleting oxygen from the air. Carbon dioxide can quickly reach lethal dosage con-
centrations.
Table 14.2 shows the major chemical compounds of combustion. Other gases
may be produced under some conditions. Not all of these gases are present at any
particular fire site. Many of these compounds will further react with other substances
often present during a fire. For example, sulphur dioxide will combine with water to
produce sulphuric acid. Oxides of nitrogen may combine with water to produce ni-
tric acid.
Table 14.2 Major chemical products of combustion (Goetsch 2002: 305)

Product Fuels Pathology
Acrolein Cellulose, fatty substances, Highly toxic irritant to eyes and
woods, and paints respiratory system
Ammonia (NH3) Wool, silk, nylon, melamine, Somewhat toxic, irritant to eyes
refrigerants, hydrogen-nitrogen and respiratory system
compounds
Carbon dioxide All carbon and organic com- Not toxic but depletes available
(CO2) pounds oxygen
Carbon monoxide All carbon and organic com- Can be deadly
(CO) pounds
Product Fuels Pathology

Hydrogen chlorine Wool, silk, nylon, paper, polyure- Quickly lethal asphyxiant
(HCN) thane, rubber, leather, plastic,
wood
Hydrogen sulphide Sulphur-containing compounds, Highly toxic gas; strong odour of
(H2S) crude oil rotten eggs but quickly destroys
sense of smell
Metal fumes Electronic equipment, the com- Chronic toxic effects caused by
bustion of which causes melting fumes of lead, tin, and sometimes
and vaporisation of solder antimony
Nitrogen dioxide Cellulose nitrate, celluloid, Lung irritant causing death or
(NO2) textiles, other nitrogen oxides damage
Phosgene (COCI2) Chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., Deadly in extremely small
carbon tetrachloride, Freon, dosages
ethylene dichloride)
Soot and smoke Organic materials Burns to skin and burns and irrita-
tions to upper respiratory track,
tearing of the eyes, inflammation
of respiratory passages*
Sulphur dioxide Sulphur and sulphur-containing Toxic irritant
(SO2) compounds
* Soot and smoke can decrease visibility which may hamper escape and rescue efforts
14.5 Fires in industry

Most fire accidents in industrial plants occur inside buildings as combustion of solid
materials and are, to some degree, similar to fires in dwellings and office buildings
(Rasbach et al. 2003: 153). However, some types of fire accidents are characteristic
of industrial installations and transportation operations (Figures 14.1 and 14.2).
These accidents occur as fires initiated by component failures or human errors which
create specific conditions of combustion and then ignition and spread of fire. The
most common fuels in industrial fires are liquids and gases (Casal 2008: 64).
Fires occurring in industrial plants and during the transportation of hazardous
substances are classified according to the fuel involved in the fire and the character
of ignition. A classification of fires which may occur due to the loss of containment
of a flammable substance, gas or liquid, is shown in Figure 14.3.
Examples of industry-specific fires are pool fires, tank fires, and jet fires
(Box 14.3). These fires can produce very high heat fluxes; however, their effects are
limited to relatively short distance which is much shorter than the spread of effects
of explosions and atmospheric dispersion of toxins and/or pollutants. Despite the
local nature of pool fires, tank fires, and jet fires, they can severely damage equip-
ment within the fire area.
14 Fire hazards 183
Figure 14.1 Fire in the Buncefield oil storage and transfer facility on 11 December 2005
(Buncefield Major Incident Investigation Board 2008)
Figure 14.2 View of the Buncefield oil storage and transfer facility after the fires were all
out (Buncefield Major Incident Investigation Board 2008)
Box 14.3: several types of fire accidents*

Pool fire: a steady state of combustion of a pool of flammable liquid, usually hy-
drocarbon. The size and shape of the pool is determined by the presence of a dike
or ground slope. The pool fires occur usually in the open air. A pool fire can also
occur when a flammable, non-miscible liquid is spilled on the water.
Tank fire: this fire is similar to pool fire but the former usually has a circular
shape. The diameter of a tank fire is determined by the tank size. The flames are
located at a certain height above the ground (Figure 14.4).
Jet fire: steady state turbulent flames with a large length to a diameter ratio. Jet
fires are caused by the ignition of a turbulent jet of flammable gas or vapour. The
entrainment of air into the flame improves the combustion which is much more
intense than in pool fires.
Flash fire : a sudden, intense fire in which flames propagate through a mixture of
air and flammable gas or vapour within flammability limits (Box 14.1). Flash fires
are associated with the atmospheric dispersion of gas or vapour under certain me-
teorological conditions. When the cloud formed by the dispersion meets an igni-
tion source, the flame propagates through the flammable mixture. In certain condi-
tions, mechanical effects can also be generated by combustion of the cloud. If the
vapour comes from a liquid pool, the flash fire will lead to a pool fire.
Fireball: an ignition and combustion of a mass of liquid and vapour mixture

which typically occurs after the explosion of a vessel containing a superheated

flammable liquid. Since there is no oxygen inside the cloud, the fire only burns on
the outside of the fireball. As droplets evaporate due to the strong thermal radia-
tion, the density of the mixture decreases and the diameter of the fireball in-
creases. Large, but short in duration, fireballs can also occur in tank fires in the
event of a boil-over.
* Casal (2008: 5)
An industrial fire usually starts with the loss of containment of a flammable

fluid (a liquid or gas, Box 14.1). If the released substance is a liquid, the release can
create a poll on the ground or on the water. The pool spilled on the ground will
cover a limited area if a dike is present. The outcome is similar in the case of a tank,
which lost its roof structure due to an explosion. The ignition of the spilled material
or the liquid stored in the tank will initiate a pool fire or a tank fire, respectively. In
rare cases, the released liquid can be flowing. The ignition of such a flow will start a
running fluid fire which can be very difficult to extinguish. If the liquid undergoes a
flash vaporisation due to a sudden depressurisation, a fireball can be created in con-
sequence of ignition.
14 Fire hazards 185
Loss of containment of a flammable substance
Liquid Gas or vapour
Fireball Running liquid fire Pool fire Flash fire Jet fire
Tank fire Fire on the ground Fire on the water
Figure 14.3 Types of fires occurring in consequence of the loss of containment of a flamma-
ble substance (Casal 2008)
If the material released is gas or vapour, the immediate ignition of the escaping
flow will cause a jet fire. If the ignition is not immediate, a cloud containing a
flammable mixture of gas and air or vapour and air may build up certain meteoro-
logical conditions. The ignition of this cloud will cause a flash fire. A flash fire can
also occur after vaporisation of the pool if it did not ignite before the formation of
the flammable cloud.
Pool and jet fires are the most frequent types of industrial fire, followed by jet
fires, flash fires, and fireballs (Casal 2008: 64). Pool fires and jet fires may burn for
long periods, whereas a fireball will last less than one minute. A flash fire is a very
short phenomenon lasting only a few tens of seconds.
Figure 14.4 Fire of an 80 000 barrel storage tank in Glenpool, Oklahoma on April 7, 2003
(NTSB 2004, Bixbee fire department, see Appendix 2)
Of the various accidents which occur in industry and transportation, the effects
of fires are felt over the shortest distances. Toxic gas clouds and explosions usually
cover much greater areas. However, the effects of fires can be severe because the
thermal radiation may affect other equipment and give rise to other events (explo-
sions, releases) which can dramatically aggravate the accident. In many major acci-
dents, fire was an initial stage, followed by release of an explosion. In these acci-
dents different combinations have been observed: fire followed by a larger fire, fire
followed by the explosion, fire followed by the release of gas cloud, and fire and
fireball.

1 What are the three elements required to start a fire?
2 Fire is a chemical reaction. What is going on?
3 What is a fuel? List four forms of fuels.
4 What is an oxidiser? Which is the most common one? Name others.
5 Compare and contrast carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
6 What is the lower flammability limit and flammability range?
7 What is the difference between flammable and combustible liquid?
8 Are sprays easier to ignite than a larger mass of liquid?
9 List five harmful products of combustion which can be harmful.
10 List five types of fires which can happen in industrial plants.
15 Explosives and explosions 187
15 EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIONS

Activities at industrial plants can involve materials, processes, and equipment which
can explode with catastrophic effects although normally they are not considered ex-
plosive. Explosives are used in mining, quarrying, construction, demolition, and
seismograph work. Approximately 1700 tonnes of explosives and blasting agents are
used annually in the United States (Hammer and Price 2001: 427). The greatest use
of high explosives has been in coal mining and quarrying (terms related to explo-
sives and explosions are explained in Box 15.1). The explosive reaction of high ex-
plosives is detonation which generates a shock wave reaching sonic and supersonic
speed.
In industrial plants, the consumption of explosives is relatively minor. Small
amounts of these materials are used for explosive metal forming, explosive welding,
and explosive tools. Low explosives are used for these purposes (Box 15.1). The
explosive process in low explosives is deflagration and not detonation. Explosive
devices separate stages of launch vehicles and cut cables and bolts at precisely de-
termined time.
Box 15.1: key terms related to the hazard of explosions

Explosion: a rapid increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner,
usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases. An
explosion creates a shock wave.
Explosive: a material that either is chemically or otherwise energetically unstable
or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied by the

production of heat and large changes in pressure (and typically also a flash and/or
loud noise) upon initiation; this is called the explosion.
High explosive: high explosive compound which can detonate at rates ranging
from 3000 m/s to 9000 m/s. This velocity of detonation is used to compare the
performance of different explosives.
Conventionally, high explosives are subdivided into two classes, differentiated by
sensitivity:
Primary explosives are extremely sensitive to mechanical shock, friction, and
heat, to which they will respond by burning rapidly or detonating. Examples
include mercury fulminate, lead styphnate and lead azide (Table 15.1);
Secondary explosives, also called base explosives, are relatively insensitive to
shock, friction, and heat. They may burn when exposed to heat or flame in
small, unconfined quantities, but detonation can occur. These are sometimes
added in small amounts to blasting caps to boost their power. Dynamite,
TNT, RDX, PETN, HMX, and others are secondary explosives. PETN is the
benchmark compound; compounds more sensitive than PETN are classed as
primary explosives (Table 15.1).
Many, if not most, explosive chemical compounds may usefully deflagrate and
detonate, and are used in high- and low-explosive compounds. Thus, under certain
conditions, a propellant (e.g., nitrocellulose) might deflagrate if ignited, or may
detonate if initiated with a detonator.
Low explosive: usually a mixture of a combustible substance and an oxidant that

decomposes rapidly (deflagrates), as opposed to most high explosives, which are
compounds.
Low explosives can explode under confinement and this is a consequence of an

increase in pressure caused by the release of gaseous products. Under normal
conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few
centimeters per second to approximately 400 metres per second. It is possible for
them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to detonation. This
usually occurs when ignited in a confined space. Low explosives are normally
employed as propellants. Substances like gunpowder, smokeless powder, gun pro-
pellants, and pyrotechnics such as flares and illumination devices are included in
this goup.
Detonation: a process of combustion in which a supersonic shock wave is

propagated through a fluid or the air due to an energy release in a reaction zone. It
is more powerful of the two general classes of combustion, the other one being
deflagration. Detonations can be produced by explosives, reactive gaseous
mixtures, certain dusts and aerosols.
Deflagration: a technical term describing subsonic combustion that usually

propagates through thermal conductivity (hot burning material heats the next layer
of cold material and ignites it). Most "fire" found in daily life, from flames to
explosions, is technically deflagration. Deflagration is different from detonation
(which is supersonic and propagates through shock compression).
Exothermic reaction: a reaction in which heat is emitted.
The vast majority of explosions are controlled and benign. The safety problem
arises from accidental explosions which are usually unexpected and highly destruc-
tive events which occur as a result of:
The storage, transportation, and manufacture of explosives;

Chemical and petrochemical plant operations;
The failure of high pressure vessels;
Ruptures of boilers;
Molten metal contacting water in foundries;
Gas leaks in buildings;
Manufacture, transport, and storage of high vapour pressure or cryogenic fuels;

Cleaning of fuel vapour tanks in tanker vessels;
Manufacture, storage, and handling of combustible dusts.
A wide range accidents from the last century, which were caused by explosions
with a large spectrum of physical nature, is described by Baler et al. (1983: 180–204)
and Krehl (2009). Major accidents involving explosions are analysed by
Kirchsteiger et al. (1998: 71–99) and Lees (2001). Some of these accidents are
described in Chapter 4.
15.1 Explosions
The dictionary definitions of an explosion are: (a) bursting noisily, (b) undergoing a
rapid chemical reaction with the production of noise, heat, and violent explosive
gases, and (c) bursting violently as a result of pressure from within (Baker et al.
1983: 106). Explosions occur in air, water, and earth. The most concern about acci-
dental explosions essentially precludes underwater and underground explosions, be-
cause most explosions in industry and transportation occur in the atmosphere.
An explosion is said to occur in the atmosphere if “energy is released over a
sufficiently small time and in sufficiently small volume so as to generate a pressure
wave … travelling away from the source. This energy may have originally be
stored … in variety of forms; these include nuclear, chemical, electrical, or pressure
energy, for example. However, the release is not considered to be explosive unless it
is rapid enough and concentrated enough to produce a pressure wave that one can
hear.” (Baker et al. 1983: 106).
There are actually many types of processes which lead to explosions in the at-
mosphere. Box 15.2 contains a list of sources of intentional and accidental explo-
sions. This list is according to the type of energy release.
Box 15.2: intentional and accidental explosions*

Intentional explosions
Nuclear weapon explosions,
Condensed phase high explosives:
– Blasting,
– Military,
– Pyrotechnic separators,
Vapour phase high explosives (intentional detonation of fuel-air clouds),
Gun powders or propellants:
– Muzzle blast,
– Recoilless rifle blast,
Exploding spark,
Exploding wires,
Contained vessel explosives (e.g., in the internal combustion engine cyl-
inders).
Accidental explosions
Condensed phase explosions:
– Light or no confinement,
– Heavy confinement,
Combustion explosions in enclosures (no pre-pressure):
– Gases and vapours,
– Dusts,
Pressure vessels (gaseous contents):
– Simple failure (inert contents),
– Combustion generated failure,
– Failure followed by immediate combustion,
– Runaway chemical reaction before failure,
– Runaway nuclear reaction before failure,
BLEVEs (boiling liquid expansion vapour explosions of pressure vessels
containing a flash evaporating liquid, Box 15.3):
– External heating (with or without immediate combustion after
release),
– Runaway chemical reaction (with or without combustion after
release),
Unconfined or partially confined vapour cloud explosions (Box 15.3),
Physical vapour explosions.
* Baker et al. (1983: 107)

15.2 Explosive materials

15.2.1 Condensed explosives
All substances that release heat when they decompose must be considered hazard-
ous. This decomposition occurs as an exothermic reaction creating an explosion
(Box 15.1). In general, exothermic substances can be placed into one of four catego-
ries (Baker et al. 1983: 48):
1 Substances which are extremely unstable, can not be handled safely in any
quantity and must be avoided at all cost in an industrial environment (e.g., ni-
trogen trichloride, certain organic peroxides). Such a substance can be encoun-
tered in the industrial environment, where acetylene comes in contact with cop-
per or copper-containing alloy. This contact forms copper acetylide which can
be deposited in various parts of chemical apparatuses. After a sufficient quantity
is deposited, almost any kind of disturbance can cause local explosion;
2 Substances called primary explosives (e.g., lead azide). They are extremely sen-
sitive to a spark and shock. The main use of primary explosives is in the prepa-
ration of the primers that are applied to initiate charges of high explosives;
3 Substances called secondary high explosives. There are many examples of these
substances (Table 15.1). They require a relatively strong shock wave to initiate
the detonation. In general, secondary high explosives can be handled relatively
safely;
4 Substances classified as propellants. These substances are highly insensitive to
the shock; however, they can explode in two phases, detonate and then defla-
grate. They are used as propellants in rocket motors and guns. A typical exam-
ple is the double base propellant consisting of nitricellulose and nytroglycerin.
Boundaries between these categories are very diffused and sometimes depend
on the circumstances under which the substance is ignited.
Table 15.1 A selection of high explosives (Baker et al. 1983: 110, Fordham 1980: 20)
Mass spe- TNT
equivalent Detonation
cific en- Density
Explosive velocity
ergy, E/M E/M (kg/m3)
(km/s)
(kJ/kg) E/M TNT
Amatol 80/20 (80% ammonium 2650 0,586 1500 5,10
nitrate, 20% TNT)
Composition B (60% RDX, 40% 5190 1,148 1650 8,05
TNT)
Cyclonite (RDX) 5360 1,185 1600 8,75
Lead azide 1540 0,340 3800 5,18
Nitro-glycerine (liquid) 6700 1,481 1600 7,45
TNT (trinitrotoluene) 4520 1,000 1637 6,94

Torpex (mixture of RDX, TNT, 7540 1,664 1760 –
aluminium powder)
Tritonal (80% TNT, 20% alumin- 7410 1,639 1720 –
ium powder)
PETN 5881 1,490 1630 8,3
Certain substances, such as sulphuric or other strong, concentrated acids, react

violently with water to create minor explosions that have injured workers. Persons
who must mix any of these with water should wear protective means. Concentrated
acids should always be poured slowly into the water while being mixed constantly.
Water should never be poured into the acid.
15.2.2 Combustible dusts
Combustible dusts can ignite in a violent reaction. There are two major types of
dusts which can burn. These are the organic dusts and metal dusts. Dust clouds ex-
hibit auto-ignition at high temperatures. That is they suffer from spontaneous igni-
tion and combustion if held at a sufficiently high temperature for a sufficiently long
time (Bulson 1997: 60). The ease with which a cloud of dust can be ignited depends
on numerous factors:
Combustible nature of dust;

Size of the dust particles (the ease of ignition is increased with the decrease in
particle size);
Concentration of the particle size (dust clouds will ignite only when the concen-
tration of dust is between specific limits, similar to those for gases);
Temperature of the combustible mixture (a dust cloud at an elevated tempe-
rature is far more susceptible to inadvertent ignition than one which is cool);
Presence or absence of moisture (moisture acts as coolant, reduces possibility of
ignition by sparking, causes particles to cling together and form larger particles
which have lesser tendencies to ignite);
Presence of inert solid particles (incombustible particles in the dust reduce or
inhibits the possibility of ignition).
Organic dusts demonstrate a wide range of burning behaviour. The burning

process of metal dusts is inherently simpler than it is for organic dusts. A selection
of explosion properties of dusts, powders, and particles is given in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Explosion pressures and rates of pressure rise of dusts, powders, and particles
(Bulson 1997: 61)
Maximum explosion pressure Maximum rate of pressure rise
Substance
(kPa) (kPa/sec)
Asphalt 648 33 095
Charcoal 689 12411
Coffee 262 1034
Instant coffee 469 3447
Corn cob 876 25511

Maize husk 517 4826
Nylon 655 27579
Paper 662 24820
Pitch 607 41368
Polyethylene 552 51711
Rice 724 18616
Sawdust 669 13790
Sugar 752 34474
Wheat flour 752 25511
Wood 621 39300
Yeast 848 24132
Combustible dusts of coal and peat form a world-wide hazard in mines, industry
plants, and power plants. Explosions of grain dust have resulted in considerable loss
of life and structural disasters in grain elevator buildings (Figure 15.1). During one
winter of 1977–1978, grain elevator explosions killed more than 100 persons in the
United States; since 1900, 500 people have been killed and 1500 injured (Hammer
and Price 2001: 429).
Figure 15.1 Grain dust explosion at half-mile-long grain elevator consisting of 246 circular
silos killed 7 workers and injured 10 others in 1998 (Kansas, the United States): aerial view
of the elevator complex taken within one hour after the explosion (large picture) and struc-
tural damage to the elevator silos (small picture) (after Krehl 2009)
15.2.3 Explosive gases

The best-known example of accidental gas explosions in industry is associated with
coal mining. A major hazard in mining operations has always been the explosion of
coal dust and methane. The accumulation and subsequent explosion of methane is
not confined to coal mining, of course. In very recent times, there have been exam-
ples of methane explosions in civil engineering works (Bulson 1997: 65).
A non-explosive substance can decompose to give off a highly reactive gas
which, when confined, might explode. Hydrogen is given off when secondary batter-
ies are overcharged. If the gas is accumulated in the battery or under the hood of a
car or truck, a spark or other ignition source can cause it to explode.
Box 15.3: the main types of accidental explosions in industry*

Vapour cloud explosion: a chemical explosion involving a significant amount of a
flammable gas or vapour mixed with air. Explosion of this type is usually the re-
sult of an accidental release of flammable liquids and vapour-and-liquid mixtures.
A vapour cloud explosion is always accompanied by flash fire and by mechanical
effects (shock wave).
Vessel explosion: a physical explosion caused by sudden failure of a vessel con-

taining a pressurised gas or superheated liquid (a liquid at a temperature which is
significantly higher than its boiling temperature) in equilibrium with its vapour.
Examples of vessel explosions are the sudden rupture of a boiler or a compressed
air tank. One type of vessel explosions is referred to as BLEVE.
BLEVE (boiling liquid expansion vapour explosion): an explosion resulting from a

failure of a vessel containing a liquid at a temperature significantly above its boil-
ing point.
Dust explosion: a very fast combustion of finely divided oxidisable particulate

solids dispersed in the air (e.g., flour, sugar, cork, aluminium, aspirin, coal). Dust
explosions are determined by particle size and solid concentration in the air. They
occur in confined environments, commonly inside industrial equipment (silos,
dryers, cyclones). An initial explosion often generates strong turbulence which
disperses a large amount of dust. This process is then followed by a second, much
stronger explosion.
* Casal (2008: 6–7)
15.2.4 Vapour clouds

Clouds of flammable vapour can be released accidentally from large process plants
in the chemical and oil industries, particularly when the flammable substances are
under pressure and above their atmospheric boiling points. If the leak of flammable
substance occurs for a sufficient time and rate for a significant amount to form an
explosive mixture with air, then there is a strong possibility that an explosion will
occur if there is a source of ignition (Box 15.3). Experience shows that most major
leaks occur in external piping systems, atmospheric vents, pumps and compressors,
and that the most vulnerable part of any system is where smaller and branched pipes
join larger diameter, rigid pipes (Bulson 1997: 67). If an explosion does not occur,
there is always a possibility of flash fire or slow burning. Factors that influence the
size and effect of a vapour cloud explosion include:
The amount of material in the cloud,

The energy of the ignition source,
Turbulence,
Flame speed,
Wind direction.
If a vapour cloud is above its upper explosive limit, it can burn at a relatively
slow rate; if it is below this limit but above the lower explosive limit, an explosion
can occur.
The term “explosive limits” is sometimes used interchangeably with “flamma-
bility limits” (Box 14.1). That is, the terms in the pairs “lower flammability limit”
and “lower explosive limit” as well as “upper flammability limit” and “upper explo-
sive limit” are considered synonyms. Strictly speaking, this usage is not correct. Hy-
drogen in air will burn when in reaches at least 4% of the mixture by volume; it will
explode when it is 18,5–50% (Hammer and Price 2001: 376). Methane, propane, and
butane are burned as fuels for cooking and heating with few problems. However,
these gases have generated disasters when concentrations exceeding their lower ex-
plosive limits were ignited. Table 15.3 indicates the lower and upper flammability
limits for several air-gas mixtures formed by common gases.
Table 15.3 Limits of flammability and explosibility (Hammer and Price 2001: 428)
Gas in the Formula Lower limit (Mole %) Upper limit (Mole %)
mixture with air of gas Flammability Explosibility Explosibility Flammability
Hydrogen H2 4,0 18,3 59 74
Carbon monoxide CO+H2 12,5 19 58,7 74,2
and hydrogen
Acetylene C 2H 2 2,5 4,2 50 80
2-Butanol C4H10O 18,5 2,8 4,5 36,5
15.3 Damaging effects

There are three principal damaging effects of explosions:
Shock waves,
Fragments,
Body movement.
Detonation of high explosive or the sudden rupture of a highly pressurised ves-

sel, or a deflagration will produce a shock wave (blast). This can be damaging over
comparatively long distances. Most of the energy of the explosion is concentrated in
the shock wave. This energy is transferred to succeeding volumes of air as the shock
wave advances. The volume of the shock wave increases with the distance from the
source and therefore the energy decreases similarly as it is spread over the increasing
volume.
The ears would be the first part of the body to be effected by a shock wave. The
ears have a certain small amount of inherent protection against a sudden overpres-
sure. The level of self-protection is not great, and a blast wave can cause rupture of
the eardrums. Next is the pressure effect on the lungs and circulatory system, which
can also be damaged, especially if the person affected is in a confined location.
A shock wave approaching and interfering structure, such as a wall, compressed
the air to a much higher pressure than the incident pressure at or behind the front of
a shock front. The compressed-air (reflected) pressure may be 5 to 6 times as great
as the incident pressure. People caught against a wall by the blast wave have been
fatally injured while persons in the open air have suffered only minor injuries.
The second principal hazard of any violent explosion is the fragmentation into
missiles of the vessel in which the reacting material is contained. These missiles are
projected outside at high speeds induced by the blast pressures and can cover con-
siderable distances. Even an extremely small fragment can cause a penetrating and
damaging wound. Impacts by larger fragments can cause crushing of flesh and bone.
The third effect of a blast on personnel is that anyone hit by a shock wave may
be picked up and thrown against a wall or another hard object. A person may suffer
an impact injury. A 20 kPa overpressure will probably pick up a person who faces
the source of the blast. A person facing the source of the blast at the right angle will
be picked up by the overpressure of at least 34 kPa (Hammer and Price 2001: 434).
15.4 Accidental explosions in industry
The vast majority of harmful accidental explosions that take place in buildings or in a
plant occur as a result of the ignition of fuel-air mixtures (Rasbach et al. 2004: 122).
The fuel can be in the form of flammable gases, vapours, dusts, or mists. The combus-
tion process takes place in seconds or in fractions of a second. Unlike fires, there is no
lengthy period of development that allows time for escape, following initiation of the
explosion process. The major damage is caused by pressure and blast effects and to a
lesser extent by burns caused by flames and hot gases passing over people.
Unstable substances and physical effects resulting particularly from intermixing
of incompatible liquids may also be the source of dangerous explosions. Casal (2008:
6) states that the most frequent accidental explosions are vapour cloud explosions,
vessel explosions and dust explosions (Box 15.3 and Figure 15.2).
Explosions
Vessel
Detonations Deflagrations
explosions
Unconfined or
Confined
partially confined
Unsafely
Flammable gas Flammable gas or Boilers
handled Dust
or vapour vapour
explosives
Tanks with liquefied gases
(BLEVE type explosions)
The most frequent accidental explosions in industry
Compressed air tanks
Figure 15.2 The main types of accidental explosions in industry and transportation
There have been a number of catastrophic vapour cloud explosions in recent

times on the land, offshore and the sea. Among the well-known occurred in 1974
when the cyclohexame plant at Flixborough in the United Kingdom, exploded with
devastating results and the death of 28 people (Section 4.1). The leakage of flamma-
ble vapour came from damaged chemical reactors. A second remarkable catastrophe
was the explosions of the Piper Alpha offshore oil platform in 1987, again due to the
leakage of flammable vapour from pipework (Section 4.4). A relatively recent dev-
astating accident struck in 2004 in the refinery built outside Texas City, the United
States. A leakage of hydrocarbons from the equipment of a refinery caused a severe
explosion (Section 4.6).

1 Define the term “explosion”.
2 What is the difference between detonation and deflagration?
3 List five examples of accidental explosions.
4 Describe some substances, other than explosives, which can explode.
5 What is the difference between the lower flammability limit of a combustible gas and
the lower explosive limit?
6 How can explosion cause injury and damage?
7 List and briefly describe four types of explosions which can happen in industry.
16 HAZARDS OF TOXIC MATERIALS

Ideally all work environments should deal only with chemicals that are considered
safe and will have no harmful effects on the health of humans. However, no chemi-
cal can be considered completely safe because any chemical in a large enough
amount can do some harm. Similarly, there is no precise level of chemical exposure
that is safe for all people because individual human’s responses may vary signifi-
cantly.
During the 20th century there was an increase in concern for the health of work-
ers exposed to toxic chemicals. Fear of toxic chemical releases have increased be-
cause of industrial accidents such as at Bhopal (India) tank car wrecks, and in-
creased awareness of injuries to industrial plant workers, workers in the field, and
the general public. It has been estimated that a new potentially hazardous chemical
is introduced into industry every 20 minutes (Hammer and Price 2001: 440). Many
of these chemicals are belatedly found to be not only evidently and immediately
toxic but also insidious, carcinogenic, long lasting, and causes of previously unsus-
pected and long-lasting injuries. In addition to their toxicity, many substances are
radioactive. Thus the health hazards that tend to result from long-term or chronic
exposure are more difficult to detect than the effects of acute exposure which pro-
duces immediate health hazard.
Safety fact*
There are an estimated 167 000 work-related fatalities in the 27 countries of the Euro-
pean Union every year. About 159 000 are attributable to work-related diseases, of
which 74 000 may be linked to workplace exposure to hazardous substances.
* EASHW (2009a)
All matter and substances are composed of chemical elements and chemical
compounds, so it is difficult to understand which the word “chemical” is held in
such low regard in modern society. Our society portrays chemicals as a particularly
harmful part of people’s health concerns. This view has eroded the public trust in
many industries, and jeopardised the ability of these industries to compete effec-
tively. The chemical toxicity is not a function of whether or not a chemical is syn-
thetic or natural, is an element or a complex compound, is produced by a large com-
pany or a small research laboratory, is biodegradable or not, is polar or not polar, or
is a profitable product in the marketplace.
16.1 Toxic chemicals
A chemical can be considered toxic (poisonous) when a small quantity will cause
injurious effects in the body of an average normal, adult human. Almost all chemi-
cals are injurious to living organisms to some extent. Certain chemicals are toxic in
rare cases but are considered poisonous generally. Certain persons have unusual sus-
16 Hazards of toxic materials 199
ceptibilities to substances that produce violent or fatal reactions when absorbed in

small amounts harmless to most other persons. Such substances are called allergens.
A person is said to have allergy or to be allergic to the substance. Allergies have
been reported to almost every known common material.
Safety fact*
Some of the most toxic and carcinogenic chemical agents with high relevance to work-
places or industrial processes are:
Acrylonitrile, Mercury and compounds,
Asbestos, Nickel and compounds,
Arsenic and compounds, Lead and compounds,
Benzene, Chlorinated hydrocarbons (chloroform, p-dichlo-
Cadmium and compounds, robenzene, carbon tetrachloride).
* Bender and Eisenbarth (2007: 148)
Chemical can not be simply classified as toxic or non-toxic because of variances

in the dose level, the site of human contact with the chemical, the occupational hy-
giene of the worker and the general work environment, and other influences such as
lifestyle, diet, heredity, weather, age, sex, and resistance to disease. In combination,
these factors may be synergistic causing greater damage in their combined effect.
Their effects may be also antagonistic, so that they are less damaging together than
separately.
The exposure to toxic substances usually involves mixtures. Consequently, the
limits set by the government (regulatory organisations) for single substance expo-
sure should not be considered safe but rather as tolerable levels. As a practical mat-
ter, it is desirable to achieve the lowest workplace concentration of a toxic material
that is economically and technically feasible.
The mechanisms, by which toxic chemicals cause injury, differ. Some cause in-
jury by more than one means, the effects of some are immediately apparent while
those of others are delayed. They have been categorised broadly into seven types:
asphyxiants, irritants, systemic poisons, anaesthetics, neurotics, corrosives and car-
cinogens (Box 16.1).
Box 16.1: toxic agents*

Asphyxiants: gases which dilute air to such an extend that the blood receives an
inadequate supply of oxygen. Some of asphyxiants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
methane, hydrogen. Chemical asphyxiants are those toxic agents which enter into
reactions to cause oxygen deficiency (hypoxia). Some of these agents are carbon
monoxide, nitrites, hydrogen sulphide, and aniline.
Irritants: substances which injure the body by inflaming the tissues at the point of
contact. The inflammation is evident by heat, redness, swelling, and pain. An irri-
tant can be a gas, liquid, or fine particulate matter. Ammonia, acrolein, hydrazine,
and hydrofluoric acid cause injury to the upper respiratory tract; chlorine, fluorine,
and ozone cause injury along the entire length. Nitrogen tetroxide and nitric acid
injure the lower portion of the tract and alveoli.
Systemic poisons: substances which cause injury after they have been carried to
the tissues of the body. Systemic poisons are divided into four categories: (1) sub-
stances causing injury to one or more of the visceral organs such as kidneys or
liver (e.g., the majority of halogenated hydrocarbons); (2) substances causing in-
jury to the bone marrow, spleen and the blood forming system (e.g., naphthalene,
benzene, phenol, and toluene); (3) substances affecting nervous system and caus-
ing inflammation of the nerves and neuritis; (4) some toxic metals and non-metals
causing not only respiratory system damage but causing injury to the body by be-
ing swallowed or entering the bloodstream through the skin; these metals or non-
metals can be deposited in and interfere with functions of the body organs, bones,
and blood (e.g., arsenic compounds, lead, mercury, cadmium, antimony, phospho-
rus, and sulphur).
Anaesthetics: substances causing the loss of sensation in the body. They cause
respiratory failure by depressing the nervous system. A number of halogenated
hydrocarbons generally used as cleaning or degreasing agents can produce the
narcosis effect. Examples of anaesthetics are trichloroethylene, ethyl ether, chloro-
form, ethylene, and nitrous oxide.
Neurotics: substances which affect the nervous system, brain, or spinal cord. They
may be either depressants or stimulants. Depressants exhilarate for a short period

of time and then cause the person to become drowsy and lethargic. Breathing can
be encumbered, there may be the loss of consciousness. Alcohol and drugs belong
to the category of neurotics.
Corrosives: substances which damage by chemical reaction with the skin they
contact. In addition to injuring the skin and underlying tissues, corrosives provide
a point of entry for the toxicant to reach the bloodstream producing an effect
worse than skin damage. Corrosive burns can be caused by strong acids and alka-
lis. Alkalis can cause progressive burns, the injury increasing as the alkali moves
through the damaged tissue. If a corrosive chemical is swallowed, it will cause
pain in the mouth, throat, and stomach. Corrosives substances are concentrated
acids (e.g., nitric, sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids), strong alkalis (e.g., sodium
or potassium hydroxide), and some relative elements (e.g., iodine, chlorine, and
fluorine).
Carcinogens: chemicals which cause or are suspected of causing cancer to internal

organs and systems of the body. It is suspected that cancers of the skin could be
caused by tar bitumen, mineral oil, anthracene, and their compounds products, and
residues. A few of the widely used chemicals considered or suspected to be car-
cinogens include vinyl chloride, benzidene (and its salts), ethyleneimine, methyl
chloromethyl ether, and a long list of others found at one time in the workplace.
Many of these were found only after long complaints and tests.
* Hammer and Price (2001: 448–455)
16.2 Sources of toxic chemicals

The main sources of toxic chemicals are industrial process substances and emissions
fuels or heating and power materials, products of combustion, and agricultural mate-
rials. It was while an industrial chemical was being processed as an agricultural fer-
tiliser that an accident created the disaster at Bhopal (India). In spite of such events
and of the new industrial chemicals being developed, the most frequent damage is
caused by widely used substances which dangers have long been known.
Combustion of hydrocarbons results in products which are well-known for their
toxicity (Table 14.2). Besides being combustible, hydrocarbons provide a group of
substances which vary from simple asphyxiants to systemic poisons (Box 16.1). The
commonest of these hydrocarbons is natural gas which consists principally of meth-
ane and of lesser amounts of ethane, butane, and propane. None of these gases has a
detectable odour in the pure state. An easily noticeable odorant is therefore added to
allow detection of leaks. In spite of this, persons have been overcome and fatalities
ensued due to the presence of hydrocarbon gases.
Toxicity of hydrocarbon liquids, such as gasoline and jet fuels, is generally
higher than those of the gases. Hydrocarbon liquids and combustion gases are sys-
tematic poisons. Vapours from residues of hydrocarbon liquids have been sufficient
to overcome inadequately protected workers who have entered tanks for repairs,
maintenance, or cleaning.
16.3 Transport of toxic chemicals in the body
Toxic injury can occur at the first point of contact between the toxicant and the body
or as later, systematic injuries to various organs deep in the body (Figure 16.1). The
route of entry often has a profound effect on symptoms and injuries that can result.
Systematic injuries will occur most rapidly by the route that permits the easiest ac-
cess of the chemical into the bloodstream. Routes by which this can occur are:
through the respiratory system, the skin, or the gastrointestinal tract (Figure 16.2).
16.3.1 Inhalation
The inhalation of toxic substances into the air passages of the lungs and into the cir-
culatory system is a rapid and direct means of entry into the bloodstream. Contami-
nants present in the air from industrial operations can gain direct entry into the respi-
ratory system through inhalation and thereby created workplace hazards.
Figure 16.1 Target organs of some chemicals (Bender and Eisenbarth 2007)
Inhalation
Ingestion
Skin absorbtion
Figure 16.2 The routes of incorporation of toxic substances (Bender and Eisenbarth 2007)
There are two types of airborne toxic substances. They may exist in the form of
gases and vapours that are uniformly present in the atmosphere, or they may be
found as solid or liquid particles that are suspended in the air. Toxic gases of va-
pours usually dissolve or liquefy on the watery surface of the pulmonary tract. Oth-
erwise, they flow through the tract.
Many factors determine the degree of entry into the circulatory system. They
include the toxic chemical concentration and its exposure duration, the solubility and
reactivity of the substance in the blood and body tissues, and the respiration rate of
the chemical from the body.
16.3.2 Skin absorption

Humans skin is an important barrier that protects body tissues from harm and retards
the loss of water, an essential ingredient of life. The skin is composed from epider-
mis, dermis, and hypodermis layers. The relatively waterproof epidermis, or outer
skin layer, prevents the diffusion of fluids and is tough enough to withstand abrasive
contact.
Toxic substances have difficulty in entering the body through the skin because
of the epidermis layer. Chemical diffusion through the epidermis layer depends on
the nature of the chemical substance as well as the skin thickness and its condition at
the point of contact. Generally water-soluble compounds pass more easily through
the skin than water-insoluble substances. Diffusion occurs more readily in the skin
that has been damaged by physical abuse or chemical reaction than in intact skin.
Acids and bases are capable of causing severe corrosive burns when they con-
tact the skin. The severity of a burn from a corrosive chemical depends upon the fol-
lowing criteria: chemical type and concentration; the time length of contact; whether
the skin was covered; response of a first aid provider.
16.3.3 Ingestion
The mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, and gall bladder are an integral
part of the body during digestion process. The intestinal track processes the food
people eat by breaking down the complex proteins and polysaccharides into amino
acids and monosaccharides.
Absorption into the blood through the intestinal tract produces the same effects
as entry into the bloodstream through the respiratory system but the process is much
slower and food and body chemical may themselves cause changes. A number of
substances react quite differently if inhaled than if they must pass through the stom-
ach. Food and hydrochloric acid in the stomach may change and detoxify chemical
compounds and render them harmless. Conversely, more damaging materials can be
produced.
16.4 Effects of toxic chemicals
16.4.1 Acute and chronic toxicity
The ability of a chemical to cause systemic damage as a result of short term expo-
sure is called acute toxicity. Generally, acute toxicity is exhibited when the protec-
tive mechanisms of the body are overcome. Chronic toxicity involves long-term ex-
posure where the rate of chemical exposure is greater than the capacity of the body
to eliminate the substance or render it harmless. The toxic substance will accumulate
in the body under these circumstances, making the development and observation of
the body response much more complex and subtle.
Numerous variables are important in determining the chronic toxicity of a
chemical including the following:
Toxicity exposure categories (inhalation, skin, oral),

Health effects (carcinogen, mutagen, organ damage, etc.),
Population of concern (adult, female, children, etc.).
Much of the chronic toxicity information in the literature is based on oral data
because these data were obtained easily, and historically this type of exposure has
been of concern in food consumption (Kavarian and Wentz 1990: 96). It has since
been recognised that inhalation and dermal exposure also are important factors.
16.4.2 Effects of toxicity
Generally, a toxic substance may have either acute or chronic effects, or some com-
bination in between. Acute and chronic toxicity may cause the following health ef-
fects:
Irritation,
Carcinogenesis,
Mutagenesis,
Teratogenesis,
Organ damage,
Reproductive constraints.
Irritants, briefly described in Box 16.1, harm the body by causing inflammation
of body tissues such as eyes, skin, nose, and mouth at the point of contact. The ob-
servable effects include redness, swelling, heat, and pain. Blisters may also result
form the inflammation-induced by toxic substances.
Carcinogenesis is the production of cancer caused by abnormal growth or re-

production of cells. The observable health effects are tumours due to the uncontrol-
lable cell proliferation caused by chronic effects of the toxic substance. Sufficient
scientific evidence is available to list known carcinogens and suspected carcinogens
(Tables 16.1 and 16.2).
Mutagenesis, which is a formation of mutations or changes in hereditary mate-
rial, involves either a physical damage in chromosomes or a biochemical change in
genes. These changes are normally caused by chronic toxicity and may affect pre-
sent and future generations.
Teratogenesis is the formation of birth defects in foetuses. Teratogenesis results
from the alternation of developing cells. This typically is chronic effect of toxicity
but in some instances it has resulted from a single exposure.
Organ damage from toxicity generally is caused by a specific toxic substance
exposure. The effects of smoking on the heart and lungs, alcohol on the liver, and
lead on the kidneys are examples of organ damage due to exposure to toxic sub-
stances.
The reproductive constraints of toxic substances may include reductions in fer-
tility or live births. Tobacco and alcohol are common toxicants which can cause
these types of health effects.
Table 16.1 Known carcinogens (Kavarian and Wentz 1990: 363)

4-Aminobiphenyl; Coke oven emissions;
Analgesic mixtures containing phenacetin; Conjugated estrogens;
Arsenic and certain arsenic compounds; Cyclophosphamide;
Asbestos; Diethylstilbestrol;
Azathioprine; Haematite underground mining;
Benzene; Isopropyl alcohol manufacturing (stong-acid
Benzidine; process);
N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)2-naphtylamine Manufacture of auramine;
(chlornaphthazine); Melphalan;
Bis(chloromethyl)ether and technical grade Methoxsalen with ultraviolet A therapy
chloromethyl methyl ether; (PUVA);
1,4-Butanediol dimethylsulfonate (myleran); Mustard gas;
Certain combined chemotherapy for lym- 2-Naphthylamine;
phonas; Nickel refining;
Chlorambucil; Rubber industry (certain occupations);
Chromium and certain chromium com- Soots, tars, and mineral oils;
pounds; Thorium dioxide;
Vinyl chloride
Table 16.2 Suspected carcinogens (Kavarian and Wentz 1990: 364)

2-Acetylaminoflourene; 4,4′-Methylenebis (2-chloroaniline)
Acrylonitrile; (MBOCA);
Adriamicyn; 4,4′-Methylenebis (N,N-dimethyl) ben-
Aflatoxins; zenamine;
2-Aminoanthraquinone; 4,4′-Methylenenedianiline and its dihydro-

1-Amino-2-methylanthraquinone; chloride;
Amitrole; Methyl iodite;
o-Anisidine and o-anisidine hydrochloride; Metronidazoe;
Aramite; Michler’s ketone;
Benz(a)anthracene; Mirex;
Benzo(b)flourathene; Nickel and certain nickel compounds;
Beryllium and certain beryllium compounds; Nitrilotriacetic acid;
Bischloroethyl nitrosourea 5-Nitro-o-anisidine;
Cadmium and certain cadmium compounds; Nitrofen;
Carbon tetrachloride; Nitogen mustard;
1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1- 2-Nitropropane;
nitrosourea; N-Nitrosodi-n-butylamine;
Chloroform; N-Nitrosodiethanolamine;
4-Chloro-o-phenylenediamine; N-Nitrosodiethylamine;
p-Cresidine; N-Nitrosodimethylamine;
Cupferron; p -Nitrosodiphenylamine;
Cycasin; N-Nitroso-n-propylamine;
Dacarbazine; N-Nitroso-N-ethylurea;
DDT; N-Nitroso-N-methylurea;
2,4-Diaminoanisole sulphate; N-Nitrosomethylvinylamine;
2,4-Diaminotoluene; N-Nitrosomorpholine;
Dibenz(a,j)acridine; N-Nitrosodiethylamine;
Dibenz(a,h)acridine; N-Nitrosopiperidine;
7H-Dibenzo(c,g)carbozole; N-Nitrosopyrrolidine;
Dibenzo(a,h)pyrene; N-Nitrososarcosine;
Dibenzo(a,i) pyrene; Norethisterone;
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane; Oxymetholone;
1,2-Dibromoethane (EDB); Phenacetin;
3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine; Phenazopyridine hydrochloride;
4-Dimethylhydrazine; Phenytoin and sodium salt or phenytoin;
3,3'-Dimethylhydrazine; Polybrominated biphenyls;
Dimethyl sulphate; Polychlorinated biphenyls;
14-Dioxane; Procarbazine and procarbazine hydrochlo-
Direct Black 38; ride;
Direct blue 6; 1,3-Propane sultone;
Epichlorohydrin; Prophylthioracil;
Estrogens (not conjugated): 1. Estradiol 17β β-Propiolactone;
Estrogens (not conjugated): 2. Estrone; Reserpine;
Estrogens (not conjugated): 3. Ethinylestra- Saccharin;
diol; Safrole;
Estrogens (not conjugated): 4. Mestranol; Selenium sulphide;
Ethylene oxide; Streptozotocin;
Ethylene thiourea; Silfallate;
Formaldehyde (gas); 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
Hexachlorobenzene; (TCDD);
Indeno (1,2,3-cd)pyrene; Thioacetamide;
Kepone (Chlordecone); Thiourea;
Lead acetate and lead phosphate; Toluene diisocyanate;

Lindane and other hexachlorocyclohexane o-Toluidine and o-toluidine hydrochloride;
isomers; Toxaphene;
2-Methylaziridine (propyleneimine); 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol;
Tris (1-aziridilyn) phosphine sulphide;
Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate;
Urethane
16.5 Toxic release accidents

Most accidents in industrial plants as well as on road and rail occur due to loss of
containment in pipes and tanks used to store or transport gas or liquid materials
(Casal 2008: 195). Most of these substances are threat to health and the environ-
ment. The released toxic substance can give rise to gas or vapour cloud. The predic-
tion of the evolution of this cloud in atmosphere is an important issue. Such a cloud
was formed in the Bhopal accident which is the worst accident in the history of
chemical industry (Section 4.3).
The cloud formed by a release of a hazardous material can be heavier or lighter
than air. Depending on the density of the cloud and on meteorological conditions,
the cloud can be dispersed quickly into the atmosphere or evolve close to the ground
and move with the speed of wind.
The loss of containment can be caused by an impact, by the failure of a certain
component (e.g., pipe, tank, or valve) due to corrosion, by human error during load-
ing or unloading operation, or by various other factors. The loss of containment can
also be a consequence of the accident itself. For example, a pressurised tank can ex-
plode and so cause a release of toxic material.
Once the release has taken place, the evolution will depend on the physical state
of the substance spilled (Figure 16.3). The typical scenarios following the release are
as follows:
1 When a liquid is spilled onto the ground and no concrete layer is present, the
soil and underground water can be contaminated;
2 If the spill occurs on water or the spilled substance reaches water (e.g., the wa-
ter in the port), the water will be polluted;
3 If the product is less dense than water and is non-miscible in water, the sub-
stance can evaporate into the atmosphere. An example of such substance are
hydrocarbons;
4 If the pool is formed by the spill and the material spilled is flammable, an igni-
tion of the pool can cause fire. If no immediate ignition occurs, a toxic or flam-
mable cloud can develop.
The evolution of the toxic or flammable cloud in the atmosphere is called the
dispersion of the cloud. This process occurs by diffusion. The cloud is transported in
the direction of the wind and spreads perpendicularly to the wind, both horizontally
vertically.
The dispersion of gas clouds is significantly influenced by the wind and atmos-
pheric turbulence. Humidity and temperature have lesser effect than wind and turbu-
lence. The thermal inversion can have a decisive influence on the dispersion in spe-
cific cases.
If the spilled material is a vapour and liquid mixture, as in the case of a hot,
pressurised liquid released into the atmosphere, the formation of vapour cloud is
very likely. A vaporisation of liquid droplets will increase the concentration of the
mixture with air.
If the material released is a gas or vapour and the exit velocity is sufficiently
low, a cloud may still be formed. If the exit velocity is high, the large entrainment of
air will dilute the mixture and the release will be dispersed into the atmosphere. A
formation of a flammable cloud is unlikely; however, the toxic effects can affect a
significant area.
208
POTENTIAL
ACCIDENT EFFECT
DAMAGE
Liquid
Spill onto soil Soil pollution W S
Liquid
Spill on water Water pollution W A
Liquid
Evaporation Fire Thermal radiation P E A L

Flammable Flash fire or Thermal radiation,
P E L
Liquid & cloud explosion overpressure, missiles
Vapour cloud
vapour Atmospheric
Toxic cloud Toxic dose P A
dispersion
Gas &
Release Low speed Fire Thermal radiation P E A L
vapour
Gas & Atmospheric

High speed Toxic dose P A
vapour dispersion
Dust
Explosion Overpressure, missiles P E L
Thermal radiation,
Explosion BLEVE or fireball P E A L
overpressure, missiles
P = people E = environment W = water A = air L = loss of benefits

Figure 16.3 Scenarios of accidents which can be initiated by a loss of containment and release of toxic and/or flammable material
(Casal 2008)
In the case of gases which are heavier than air, the dispersion may proceed even
against the wind direction. The dispersion of a substance released into the atmos-
phere can be greatly influenced by its density. This influence can be especially im-
portant in the first moments of the release. The release substance can be heavier than
the air due to various reasons (Casal 2008: 219):
If the molecular weight of the substance released is greater than that of the air,
the gas or vapour will be heavier than the air. Examples of such substances are
chlorine and propane;
If the substance released is a cold gas or it is cooled because of the evaporation
from a pool of liquid, it may be heavier than the air. An example of such a sub-
stance is a liquefied natural gas (LNG);
If a pressurised liquid undergoes strong depressurisation, flashing can occur and
a mixture of aerosol and vapour will be released. The average density of this
mixture can be higher than the density of the vapour. Furthermore, the evapora-
tion of the droplets in the aerosol will have a cooling action and will maintain
the cloud at a lower temperature;
Some reactive materials can undergo chemical reactions that modify their mo-
lecular weight during the dispersion into the atmosphere. Examples of such re-
actions are polymerisation and hydration.
Common dense gases are chlorine hydrogen fluorine, ammonia, propane and
LNG. Chlorine behaves like a dense gas both in liquefied and gaseous releases. The
molecular weight of chlorine is 71 and the boiling point is –34ºC. Hydrogen fluoride
has a molecular weight of 20 and a boiling point of 20ºC but nevertheless it often
behaves like a dense gas. Ammonia has a molecular weight of 17 and a normal boil-
ing point of –33ºC. A release of ammonia originates a dense gas cloud. Propane has
a molecular weight of 44 and a normal boiling temperature of –42ºC. Its releases,
whether in the form of liquid or gas, are always dense. Finally, LNG originates
dense releases, not because of its molecular weight, which is approximately equal to
16, but due to the temperature effects. The boiling point of LNG is –161ºC.
If the substance released is heavier than the air, it will first descend to the
ground and then spread radially. The release will start from initial puff, which is
similar to a cylinder, will be followed by a stratified dispersion by the wind, and will
end in natural dispersion. The cloud will reach the density similar to that or the sur-
rounding air.

1 Discuss why the term “chemical” is looked upon unfavourably by the society.
2 What is considered a toxic chemical? What is an allergen?
3 What is an asphyxiant and a chemical asphyxiant?
4 How does an irritant injure the body?
5 What is an anaesthetic and a neurotic?

6 List the main sources of toxic chemicals in the workplace.
7 Discuss how toxic gases and vapours could enter the bloodstream through the process of
inhalation.
8 Discuss how toxic liquids could enter the bloodstream through the process of skin ab-
sorption.
9 Define acute and chronic toxicity.
17 Hazards in workplace environments 211
17 HAZARDS IN WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENTS

17.1 Diversity of environments
The term environment is used variously to denote the atmosphere, or the place in
which people work or live. Therefore considerations or references to environment
can differ tremendously. An environment can range from a worker’s protective suit
to a space such as a small shop, to a larger one where a micrometeorological envi-
ronment exists. Some enclosed structures are so large, as aviation hangars, they have
their own micrometeorological environments.
Workplace environments are divided into either natural or induced, and then
into those that might be controlled or artificial, free or closed. Figure 17.1 provides
several examples of these types of workplace environment.
Workplace environments
Natural Non-natural
Induced Controlled Artificial
Free environments Closed environments

(fully or almost fully)
Local temperatures Nitrogen

Air-conditioned
emitted by atmosphere to
rooms
equipment prevent fires
Low-pressure pure
Ground vibration Air pressure in a
oxygen in pressure
due to vehicles caisson
suit
Dust emitted by
handling coal
Figure 17.1 Classification of workplace environments
17.1.1 Natural and induced environments

A natural environment is one generally considered to be a meteorological condition
without any man-made change or effect. Each type of natural environment involves
hazards or combinations of hazards that can reach out and cause fatalities and inju-
ries. The magnitude and forces of some natural environments can be so great that
little can be done to prevent their recurrence. On these occasions it is possible to
provide alerts for their impending occurrence and give warning to seek self-shelter
for, say, wind-storms and hurricanes, floods, rainstorms.
Another common hazard in the natural environment is the presence of flamma-

ble or toxic gas such as methane (“swamp or marsh gas”) or hydrogen sulphide
which is sometimes released from excavations in the earth. The sun gives heat and
light, but also too much solar radiation can cause skin burning or excessive heat to
pressurised unshaded tanks in the open. Only strongest structures can withstand the
wind of above 120 km/h (hurricane threshold), but even moderate winds have
caused serious damage.
Induced environments are those that have been affected in some way by the
human action:
Local temperatures rise because of heat emitted by a chemical processing plant;

Radiation from a concrete surface during a hot summer;
The heat generated by the friction between the metal and the air of a high-speed
aircraft;
Dust blows from mining or combustion of coal;
The ground vibration due to trains or other ground vehicles;
Gathering of liquid particles from spray equipment.
17.1.2 Controlled and artificial environments

A controlled environment is one that has been modified in some respect to mitigate
or avoid an undesirable or adverse condition of the natural or induced environment.
A space either fully or partially air-conditioned is a controlled environment. A con-
trolled environment may change the temperature, humidity or the pressure in com-
pressed air operations in a caisson (Figure 17.2).
Pressurised air Personnel access tube

supply
Muck Airlock
Ballast weights tube
Water Water
Workspace Workspace
Figure 17.2 A schema of a pressurised caisson (after Wikipedia, see Appendix 2)
An artificial environment differs either entirely or in a substantial part from a

controlled one. It may be either of nitrogen to prevent fires or material degradation
of rubber and metal if oxygen is present, or of low-pressure pure oxygen in a pres-
sure suit. An environment might be artificial created by humans because without it
the existing environment (for example, in the underwater space) might be unbear-
able. The air in submarines creates artificial environments so that they protect hu-
mans against the environment of sea water.
17.1.3 Closed and free environments
A controlled or artificial environment can exist only in a restricted or confining
space. Such space might constitute one that is “closed” or almost so. A closed envi-
ronment can even be one that protects against the natural environment without other
modifications, such as a building or another structure which protects against rain or
wind. A “free” environment imposes no interference to the movement of the air.
17.2 Hazards of workplace environments
Figure 17.3 presents zones of luxury, comfort, and discomfort for persons in the air-
craft. They are similar to those in an industrial plant. However, these zones may vary
by each person’s metabolism, the activity undertaken, and numerous other factors.
Physiological boundary
Psychological boundary
Discomfort Comfort Comfort Discomfort

zone zone zone zone
Carbon dioxide Humidity
10% 0,50% 0% 20% Dry
Carbon monoxide Ventilation cu ft/pass./min

10% 0,17% 0% 20 13 5
Undesirable zone
Undesirable zone
Cold Heat
Luxury
−1°C 18°C 25°C 45°C
zone
Noise Vibration
120 dB 85 dB 70 dB 0 in. 0,008 in. 0,05 in.
Fore & aft angle Altitude

20° 5° 0° Sea level 3 km 6 km
Acceleration Gradual pressure change

1,0 G 0,1 G None 30 m/min 60 m/min 300 m/min
Figure 17.3 Zones of luxury, comfort, and discomfort for humans (data for aircraft passen-
gers, some units in this figure are not SI units; modified from McFarland (1953))
Other than large disasters that have taken place, such as windstorms, the most
hazardous environments are those that are limited in spaces. This is because a very
small amount of contaminant may be highly toxic and injurious. Persons have died
in closed vehicles or rooms because of comparatively small amounts of carbon
monoxide, absence of oxygen in breathable amounts, or chlorine generated by the
mixture of two chemical cleaners.
The effects induced by environment can directly be workplace hazards or in-
duce conditions which occur as hazards. If the effect can cause sickness or serious
discomfort to workers, it is called the environmental stressor. Industrial hygiene is
an area of specialisation within the broader field of the occupational safety and
health which is concerned with predicting, recognising, assessing, controlling, and
preventing environmental stressors in the workplace (Goetsch 2002: 327).
Safety fact*
An estimated 5 million workers are required to wear respirators in 1,3 million US work-
places.
* Institute of Medicine and National Research Council (2008: 19)
Many of the occupational hazards described in Chapters 6 to 16 occur as envi-

ronmental effects and/or are stimuli which cause stress and so are classified as envi-
ronmental stressors. The effects induced by an environment can directly be work-
place hazards or induce conditions which occur as hazards. A broad selection of
them is listed in Table 17.1.
Each environmental effect can be expressed individually but will never exist
alone. An environment can produce effects because it is hot or cold (or between), at
the same time it could be humid or dry, windy or calm, or involve to some degree
any or all of these effects. Each effect in some aspect can provide a hazard which at
other times can be moderate and acceptable. For example, even moderate tempera-
tures, when combined with high humidity, can create serious environmental prob-
lems:
In such an environment, steel products must be protected against rust or other

corrosion or failures of mechanical equipment and structures;
Moisture absorption can cause non-metallic materials to swell and bind;
High relative humidity and accumulations of moisture can lead to electric short
circuits and malfunctions or to deterioration of electronic equipment.
On the other hand, dry weather can also lead to environmental problems as de-
structive as humid weather, although in a different way. It can cause cracking of
wood products, dry skin, losses of body fluids, and other water. It is a perennial
problem for forested or grassy areas, creating conditions where fires can be gener-
ated easily. Low humidity may tend to increase generation of static electricity.
Table 17.1 Environmental effects inducing workplace hazards (modified from Hammer and
Price 2001: 481)
Environmental effect Hazard or stressor to a worker or workplace
High humidity conditions
Rain, clouds, fog, dew, snow; Loss of visibility due to fog, clouds, or
Tides and floods; condensation;
Lakes, rivers, and other natural water Possibility or acceleration of corrosion;
sources; Short circuits, inadvertent activations, or
Vegetation and animal respiration; disruptions of electrical systems by mois-
Temperature decrease without re- ture condensation in electrical devices;
moval of moisture; Surface friction for traction reduced by wet
Condensation on cold surfaces; surfaces;
Flooding and immersion in water; Flooding of facilities, shops, vehicles, and
Naturally high atmospheric humidity; equipment;
Personnel perspiring in inadequately Drowning of personnel;
ventilated enclosure, equipment, or Swelling of water absorbent materials;
impermeable covering; Warping and sticking of wood doors,
Presence of humidifying equipment drawers, and similar items
Low relative humidity
Hot weather with the little moisture; Drying out and cracking of organic materi-
Heat in a closed room in winter; als;
Moisture removed by air-conditioning Generating dusty conditions;
Increased tendency for creation of static
electricity;
Easier ignition of accidental fires;
Increase in airborne salts, sand, dirt, and

fungi
Sunlight
The total spectrum of the electromagnetic Ultraviolet radiation effects of sunlight;
radiation given off by the Sun Infrared radiation effects;
Snow blindness;
Difficulty in guiding a vehicle or in read-
ing dials and meters caused by strong
sunlight
High temperature conditions
Summer heat; Melting of metals and sealants;
Heat from engines; Fires and conditions which permit vapori-
Heat from chemical processes and sation;
reactions; Skin burns;
Body heat; Heat exhaustion, heat prostration;
Welding; Loss of ability of persons to function;
Friction Rapid evaporation of liquids;
Reduced reliability of electronic equip-
ment;
Loss of lubricant effects;
Increased gas pressure

Low temperature conditions
Winter cold; Cold “burns”;
High altitudes; Frostbite, chilblains;
Refrigerated surfaces; Plastics and metals become brittle;
Cryogenic lines and equipment Lubricants congeal;
Freezing of liquids;
Failure of engines and thermal processes
Airborne salts, dusts, sand, dirt, etc.
Desert and beach areas; Contamination by salt, sand, dirt, moisture,
Dry areas subject to much traffic; fungi;
Sandstorms; Concentration of toxic gases, smog or par-
Windblown dusts, dirt, and other solid ticulate matter caused by inversions;
matter; Electric conductivity of water increased by
Salt used to melt ice on roads; salt, thus reducing insulation value and
Marine environment permitting galvanic coupling and deteriora-
tion of adjacent dissimilar materials
Meteorological and micrometeorological conditions
Wind, Wind chill;
Hail Overloading, movement, toppling of struc-
tures caused by wind pressure;
Sudden accelerations due to turbulence and
gusts of wind;
Energised power lines blown down by
wind;
Impact damage caused by hail
Lightning
Atmospheric discharge of electricity which Shock to personnel;
typically occurs during thunderstorms Overloading of electric circuits and equip-
ment;
Ignition of combustible materials;
Other electrical effects
High or low pressure
Water pressure, atmospheric pressure; Implosions and crushing of closed vessels;
Reduced atmospheric pressure; Pressure vessel ruptures;
Changes in pressure Dysbarism and bends in humans
Radiation
Ultraviolet, Eye damage: temporary and permanent
Visible light, blindness, snow blindness;
Infrared, Skin burns, cancer, thickened skin;
Microwave, Overheating and high temperature effects;
Ionising Excessive perspiration;
Internal heating;
Heating of metals;
Tissue sensitivity, cancer, anaemia, cata-
racts, sterility

Vibration and sound
Impact equipment, Breakage of metals or plastic parts glass,
Unbalanced rotating parts, Metal fatigue,
Vibrating tools, Raynaud’s phenomenon (hand injury),
Loose, rattling parts, Annoyance,
Water hammer, Degradation of hearing ability,
High velocity in air conducts, Interference with communications
Loud music
17.3 Hazard recognition and evaluation

The degree and nature of the hazard present in a workplace environment must be
understood before hazard control procedures can be applied. This involves recognis-
ing that a hazard exists and then making judgements about its magnitude with regard
to chemical, physical, biological, and/or ergonomic stresses.
For hazard evaluation, the following considerations are important: (i) the nature
of the substance (material) involved in the production process, (ii) the intensity of
the employee’s exposure, and (iii) the duration of the exposure. Key factors to con-
sider are:
How much exposure is required to produce injury or illness?

The likelihood that enough exposure will take place to produce injury or illness;
The rate of generation of hazardous air-born contaminants;
The total duration of exposure;

The prevention or control measures used in a workplace.
A starting point for a complete assessment of the hazards posed by a workplace

environment is a complete knowledge about the substances to which workers are
exposed. Systematic recognition of all possible hazards requires a review of invento-
ries of the materials brought into the workplace, descriptions of all production proc-
esses, and identification of any new substances, byproducts, and wastes. However,
these sources of information may not be enough to identify all substances, particu-
larly those, present as trace contaminants or substances generated by the production
process either inadvertently or as unknown byproducts. To complete the identifica-
tion of all substances present, it may be necessary to make some substance recogni-
tion measurements. These measurements are typically made by such techniques as
gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (DiBerardinis 1999: 239).
17.4 Entry into confined space
A confined space is any area with limited means of entry and exit which is large
enough for a person to enter and perform an assigned task but is not designed for
continuous occupancy (Figure 17.4). Examples of confined spaces are presented in
Box 17.1. These spaces have limited means of ingress and egress. Open-topped
spaces can be difficult to ingress and egress (Figure 17.5). It is evident that confined
spaces can be found in many, if not most, industries.
Figure 17.4 Entering the confined space of a tank for a scheduled/investigave operation
Box 17.1: examples of confined spaces

Storage bins, Ship compartments,
Boilers, Silos,
Degreasers, Vats,
Digesters, Vaults,
Ventilation and exhaust ducts, Process vessels,
Pipelines, Reaction vessels,
Pits, Wells,
Tanks, Train compartments,
Sewers, Tunnels
Figure 17.5 Confined space entry operation (retrieved from Texas Rope Rescue, see Appen-
dix 2)
A confined space contains or has a known potential to contain a hazardous at-

mosphere which includes chemicals, sludge, or sewage. The hazardous atmosphere
of a confined space may expose to the hazard of death, incapacitation, impairment of
ability to self-rescue, injury, or acute illness from one or more of the following
causes:
Flammable gas, vapour, or mist in excess of 10 percents of its lower flammabil-

ity limit (Box 14.1);
Airborne combustible dust at a concentration that meets or exceeds flammabil-
ity limit;
Atmospheric oxygen concentration below 19,5% or above 23,5%;
Atmospheric concentration of any substance for which a dose or permissible
exposure limit could result in employee’s exposure in excess of its domes or
permissible exposure limit;
Any atmospheric condition recognised as immediately dangerous to life or
health.
A confined space may contain a material which has the potential for engulfing
an entrant. The engulfment occurs as surrounding and effective capture of a person
by liquid or finely divided (flowable) solid substance. This liquid of flowable solid
substance can be aspirated and cause death by filling or plugging the respiratory sys-
tem or exert enough force on the body and cause death by strangulation, constriction,
or crushing.
A confined space may have an internal configuration or shape that could trap an
entrant or contribute to the asphyxiation of an entrant. A confined space with in-
wardly converging or a floor which slopes downward and tapers to a smaller cross
section is an example of such a potentially dangerous configuration for an entrant.
Hazards inherent in confined spaces can include physical, electrical, mechanical,
chemical, biological, radiation, temperature extremes, and structural hazards. At-
mospheric hazards in confined spaces are expressed by the oxygen content of the air,
the flammability characteristics of gases and vapours, and the concentration of toxic
substances which may be present in the atmosphere of a confined space (Box 17.2).
Box 17.2: classification of confined spaces in terms of atmospheric hazards*

CLASS A: immediately dangerous to life
Oxygen: 16% or less or greater than 25%,
Flammability: 20% or greater of lower flammability
limit;
Toxicity: immediately dangerous to life or health;
CLASS B: dangerous by not immediately life threatening
Oxygen: 16,1% to 19,4% or 21,5% to 25%,
Flammability: 10–19% of lower flammability limit,

Toxicity: greater than contamination level;
CLASS C: potential hazard
Oxygen: 19,5% to 21,4%,
Flammability: 10% of lower flammability limit or less,
Toxicity: less than contamination level
* NIOSH (1994)
Physical hazards of confined spaces include those associated with the unwanted
flow of energy in a confined space. These include mechanical, electrical, and hy-
draulic energies, engulfment, communication problems, noise, and the size of in-
gress and egress openings.
Engulfment hazards often are associated with bins, silos, and hoppers used to
store and transfer grain, sand, gravel, or other loose materials. These materials can
behave unpredictably and entrap and bury a person in a matter of seconds. The flow
rate of the material stored in these containers can become too great for a worker who
is caught in the flow path to be able to escape. Material can cling on the sides of a
container or vessel that is being emptied for the bottom and form a “bridge”. The
bridge may collapse suddenly and without warning upon workers below. Engulf-
ment can happen in a matter of seconds.
Safety fact*
The American epidemiologic data show that in 1980–1989 there were 585 fatal accidents
in confined spaces, claiming 670 victims. Seventy two (12%) of the fatal accidents in-
volved multiple victims. There was an average of 67 deaths per year. An average rate of
the accidents was 0,08 per 100 000 workers per year.
* NIOSH (1994: 13)
Activation of mechanical and electrical equipment (agitators, blenders, stirrers,

fans, augurs, pumps, machinery with moving parts, etc.) can cause injury to workers
in confined spaces. Release of material into or out of confined space can be life
threatening to those who are within. Fluids under pressure pose a hazard. Objects
falling into confined space are hazardous as such. The hazard is also increased by
limited evasive potential if the object is detected. The entry in a confined space and
work within it are exacerbated by the following hazards:
Slippery surfaces made sometimes slick by material residuals,

Hot and cold extreme temperatures,
Inadequate lighting,
Limited work space,
Excessive noise and,

Sources of electrocution all are physical hazards that exacerbate.
The oxygen content in confined spaces can be reduced not only by acids, corro-
sives, and toxic substances but also by inert materials. Biological hazards from in-
fectious micro-organisms and biological wastes are found in waste streams, pools
and ponds, sludge pits and sewers.

1 What is the difference between a natural environment and an induced environment?
Give an example.
2 How does an induced environment differ from a natural environment?
3 Which can be the most hazardous environment in the workplace? Why?
4 List several examples of hazards induced by high humidity, low humidity, sunlight, and
temperature extremes.
5 Define the term “confined space”. Give five examples.
6 What hazards are inherent in confined spaces?
7 How are confined spaces classified in terms of atmospheric hazards?
18 HAZARDS POSED BY PERSONNEL

18.1 Human factor in workplace safety
Humans design, produce, install engineering systems, and act as indispensable com-
ponents in systems where monitoring, diagnosis, control, maintenance, calibration,
or test operations are not automated. Humans can operate systems manually when
automatic control fails. However, it is inevitable that humans will err. Human error
is the basic cause behind all accidents (Sanders and McCormick 1993: 662). Persons
whose errors can contribute to an accident are operators, managers, system design-
ers, maintainers, and co-workers. As Hammer and Price (2001: 127) put it, almost
every accident can be ultimately traced to a personal error, either
On the side of the person immediately involved in the accident;

Of the designer who made a mistake in calculation;
Of a worker while incorrectly manufacturing the product;
Of a maintenance man;
Or almost everyone involved.
Human error can be a direct cause of an accident or initiate (escalate) a se-

quence of generally adverse events which lead to an accident (Figure 18.1). Inade-
quate design may be a leading cause of accidents or contribute to worker’s error. In
addition, worker’s error alone is a major cause of workplace accidents. A worker’s
error may cause the well-designed equipment to fail. On the other hand a well-
designed product may have not adverse effect even if an operator makes a mistake.
Human error Accident

Erroneous touching of electrified equipment → electric shock
Human error in
Failure of error- Accident
operation
free equipment
Failure to reduce overpressure → bursting of pressure vessel
Human error in Failure of properly Accident

design or operated
manufacturing equipment
Not accounting for vibration → mechanical disintegration
Figure 18.1 The “role” of a human error in occupational accidents
18 Hazards posed by personnel 223
Operator’s errors may be due to a multiplicity of reasons. An often-met example

is a lack of consideration of worker’s capabilities or their limitations. Errors and ac-
cidents frequently occur because the equipment is designed for statistical persons
rather than actual ones. Measurements and statistical data may show what an aver-
age person can reach so far, push so hard, and react so fast. However, there may be
occasions when the worker’s capabilities are lower in some respect than of the statis-
tically created person. Much equipment was designed for man-sized equipment
which proved unsuitable for use by women operators in World War II because of
their smaller body (Hammer and Price 2001: 127).
Cars are designed to go faster than most drivers are capable of driving safely.
This is proved by sad road accident statistics. Industrial machines may be impres-
sively designed for high speed operations. However, such machines can involve
their operators in accidents because operators could not work fast enough. Excessive
speeds may happen when there is an increase in required output, or when operator’s
capabilities are reduced because of fatigue or a hot/cold environment. Machine op-
erations involving workers must be undertaken with due consideration to all factors
involved, otherwise errors and accidents will result.
It has been pointed out that the latest modern safety practice is to provide and
ensure
Designs that will eliminate the possibility of errors and accidents;

Procedures that will minimise the possibility of errors by operators;
Designs and safety measures which will prevent injury if an error is made that
causes an accident.
Properly designed features are far more satisfactory in preventing accidents than
are procedures such as safety work rules, which are often ignored.
Safety fact*
An investigation carried out by HSE has suggested that 90% of all accidents are due to
human error and 70% of all accidents could have been avoided by earlier (proactive)
action by management. It is clear from many research projects that the major factors in
most accidents are human factors.
* Hughes and Ferrett (2007: 53)
18.2 Human errors and misbehaviour
18.2.1 Definition and classification
Human error is defined as an inappropriate or undesirable human decision or behav-
iour which reduces, or has the potential of reducing, effectiveness, safety, or system
performance (Sanders and McCormick 1993: 656). Over the years, various human
error classification schemes have been developed. One of the simplest classifications
subdivides errors into two categories: predictable and random (Figure 18.2).
Human errors
Predictible Random (Non-predictable)
Occur under similar conditions

Are unique & can not be
&
attributed to a specific cause
can be foreseen
Figure 18.2 Predictable and non-predictable human errors
Experience suggests that predictable errors are those which will occur under
similar conditions and can be foreseen because their occurrence has taken place
more than once (Hammer and Price 2001: 130). It is known that a person will gener-
ally tend to follow those courses of actions which involve minimal physical and
mental effort, discomfort, or time. Any course of action contravening this basic prin-
ciple is certain to be modified or ignored at some time by persons who are supposed
to carry it out. One can expect that for those reasons an error may result unless the
possibility has been eliminated.
Random errors are non-predictable and can not be attributed to a specific cause
because of their uniqueness. For instance, as Hammer and Price (2001: 131) put it, a
person may be highly competent as an operator but may be annoyed by a fly or
mosquito. Swatting at it, the worker hits a critical control or a piece of sensitive
equipment. The number of possible random errors is fewer than the number of pre-
dictable errors, and the possibility of random errors is reduced as experience in-
creases. If insects become a frequent irritating and swatting in the presence of a
critical task presents a hazard, it may become a predictable cause of an error for
which suitable precautions can be taken. In many cases, the effects of random errors
and predictable errors can be minimised by the same precautionary measures. The
only difference in such measures is that a general safety precaution may be taken to
minimise many random errors, whereas specific safety measures may be provided
for predictable errors.
Another simple classification of scheme subdivides human errors into the fol-
lowing categories (Sanders and McCormick 1993: 657):
Errors of omission involve failure to perform a required function. Such errors

occur when an operation is left out of a prescribed procedure, inadvertently or
intentionally, or a sequence of operations is not completed. Omissions of re-
quired function may also be due to the procedures which are overwhelmingly,
badly expressed, deviously formulated, in defiance of usual tendencies and ac-
tions, or lead to a lack of understanding of required actions;
Errors of commission involve performing an act incorrectly. These errors occur

when a worker performs a function which is not required, includes unnecessary
repeating a procedure or a procedural step, adds unnecessary steps to a sequence,
or substitutes an erroneous step;
Sequence errors (actually a subclass of errors of commission) occur when a
worker performs some task, or step in a task, out of sequence;
Timing errors (also a subclass of errors of commission) occur when a person
fails to perform an action within the allotted time, either performing too fast or
too slowly.
This classification of human errors does not contain any references to why the
error occurred, but instead focuses on the consequences of the error for the system
(loss or unavailability of a required function).
Analysis of industrial accidents indicates that they rarely arise from a single
human error or component failure. Often there is a combination of some triggering
event (hardware or human) together with preexisting conditions such as design er-
rors, maintenance failures or hardware deficiencies. It is therefore useful to distin-
guish between active and latent errors (AIChE 1994:41):
An active human error is an unintended action or an intended action based on a

mistaken diagnosis, interpretation, or other failure, which is not recovered and
which has significant negative consequences for the system.
A latent human error on the operational error is similar to an active error, but
the consequences of the error may only become apparent after a period of time
or when combined with other errors or particular operational conditions.
A latent human error on the engineering design or management level is an in-
adequate or nonexistent management policy which creates the preconditions for
active or latent human, hardware, or software failures. A latent error due to lack
of design knowledge was the triggering event of the Flixborough disaster (Sec-
tion 4.1).
Because errors are frequently recoverable, it is also appropriate to define an-

other category of errors, namely, recovery errors. These are failures to recover a
chain of events leading to a negative consequence (assuming that such a recovery
was feasible) before the consequence occurs. This includes recovery from both ac-
tive and latent failures.
For the sake of completeness, it is also useful to define the category of errors
known as violations. Violations occur when a worker carries out actions that are ei-
ther prohibited or are different from those which are prescribed by the organization
and carry some associated risks. Since violations are deliberate acts, they are not,
strictly speaking, errors. However, the violations category is useful when classifying
human caused failures.
18.2.2 Errors in design

The person who designs equipment or plans an operation can not only commit an
error in calculations, but be guilty of failing to remove or control a hazard, or of
omission in failing to incorporate desirable features as safety measures to prevent
accidents or protect personnel. When a designer or planner can not completely
eliminate a hazard or the possibility of an accident completely, he/she must attempt
to minimise the possibility that other personnel will commit errors leading to acci-
dents. In effect, the designer, through foreseeability, must attempt to make the sys-
tem “idiot-proof”, although knowing he/she will always be subject to the inevitabil-
ity of Murphy’s Law (Box 18.1).
Box 18.1: Murphy’s law*
Murphy’s Law is an adage in Western culture that broadly states that things go
wrong in any given situation, if you give them a chance. “If there’s more than one
possible outcome of a job or task, and one of those outcomes will result in disaster
or an undesirable consequence, then somebody will do it that way”. It often cited
as “Whatever can go wrong, will go wrong”. Or alternatively, “Whatever can go
wrong will go wrong, and at the worst possible time, in the worst possible way”,
or also “Anything that can go wrong, will”, or “If anything can go wrong will go
wrong, and usually at the most importunate moment”.
* Retrieved from Wikipedia, see Appendix 2

There are hundreds of fanciful versions of Murphy’s Law, each containing a

grain of truth that makes them sadly applicable. Four of the many versions are:
Any task that can be done incorrectly, no matter how remote the possibility, will
some day be done that way;
No matter how difficult is to damage equipment, a way will be found;
Any item that can fail can be expected to fail at the most inopportune and dam-
aging time;
Instructions will be ignored when the most dangerous and complicated task is
being accomplished.
The word “error” in designing or planning includes more than making a mistake
in calculation. It also includes any design or plan that is technically practical but im-
proper, inadequate, or unsuitable for the intended operation conditions. For example,
each control chosen for the use on an operating panel may be excellent for its pro-
posed individual function but the overall arrangement of them all may cause confu-
sion and errors. Designer’s errors may invite mistakes in reading dials or meters or
may increase operator’s reaction times. With a multiplicity of widely spaced instru-
ments, for an operator to review them properly and frequently enough might require
a person with four eyes or two heads. If two persons are used, there might be inter-
ference or failure to communicate when more than one control is required. Inability
to act or respond properly may generate difficulties for the operators, errors, or acci-
dents.
A design error can also be the one that violates a normal tendency or expectancy.
People expect that on a vertically numbered instrument, the higher-value numbers
will be at the top; on a circular dial they expect values to increase clockwise. An
improper design can place undue stress on the operator. Instead of providing means
to avoid an environmental problem such as noxious gas, poor design may require the
user to wear burdensome protective respiratory equipment. The resulting fatigue
may lead to errors. A few other fatigue-producing designs are those that fail to
eliminate glare, inadequate lighting, uncomfortable chair seats, vibration and noise,
undue strength requirement for activation of controls, or proximity to very hot sur-
faces.
18.2.3 Production errors
A production error can occur in one of two ways: directly when a worker makes an
error with an immediately known effect, or when the effect only becomes evident
later. Manufacturing errors can ruin any design and make a product unsafe. This po-
tential for accidents can sometimes be minimised by providing special care and at-
tention to critical components during their production and during their assembly into
larger units.
During assembly, personnel can make errors that could later cause failures and
problems for operators. An under-torquing of connections causing their loosening
and leakage is common. A over-torquing may cause them to crack and leak. Failure
to keep electrical connections clean, dry, and free of loose wire strands can permit
short circuits when the system is energised. Scratches, dents, corrosion, tool marks,
and other rough finishes may lead to stress concentrations and structural failures un-
der operational loads.
18.2.4 Operations errors
An operation error is a mistake in following a prescribed procedure or controlling a
process. Operations errors are divided in procedural and control errors (Figure 18.3).
Many procedural and control errors can occur during the operation of a system.
18.2.5 Problem personnel
Some workers may have emotional or mental problems that can lead to accidents. A
person may have a minor emotional or mental problem which would not preclude
him/her from obtaining employment. After employment, the conditions of work,
especially when the worker is subjected to mental stress, such as a hazard that must
be constantly guarded against, or a constantly critical supervisor, can cause worsen-
ing of the condition until he/she is no longer capable of performing the stipulated
duties properly.
Operations errors
Procedural errors Control errors
Mistakes at carrying out a task Not carrying out a procedure in

required by the prescribed stipulated sequence or incorrect
procedure reading of indicators
Figure 18.3 Two types of operations errors
Most of the persons who fall into the mental problem category are neurotics.
The degree of neuroses will change with changes in mental stress. Persons with psy-
choses have much more serious mental problems than neurotics do. Experts gener-
ally without difficulty distinguish a person who is neurotic rather than psychotic.
However, a fundamental problem with the psychotic, too, is the worker whose men-
tal illness is imperceptible when hired first but worsens during employment. Exam-
ples of the delusions of psychotic workers are believing that supervisors assign only
dangerous jobs to them, or that other workers are trying to involve them in accidents
because the other workers are jealous of their capabilities.
All workers and supervisors must be alert to behaviour that might be considered
neurotic or psychotic. Tendencies for such behaviour to manifest itself may occur at
any time, since such persons may imagine many of the situations which they believe
affect them. However, neurotic conditions, especially, should be watched for if a

worker is involved in a serious personal event:
Divorce or separation,
Death in the family,
Financial problem,
Accusation of crime,
A large fine.
18.3 Managing the hazard of human errors

18.3.1 Designing and planning against errors
Designers, planners, and supervisors can use measures to eliminate and minimise
errors that can be committed by workers and operators. Table 18.1 indicates numer-
ous causes of personnel errors and measures to be taken to prevent them. Certain of
these measures are mandatory in any design in that they constitute good engineering
practice. Other measures may be more costly and are provided only when required.
Table 18.2 shows preventive actions which can be used by a supervisor (safety engi-
neer) to deal with workers’ errors.
Table 18.1 Examples of preventive measures to be taken by the designer (Hammer and Price 2001: 133)
No Causes of primary errors Preventive measures
1 Improvising procedures that are lacking in the Provide adequate instructions.

field.

2 Following prescribed but incorrect procedures. Ensure that procedures are correct.
18 Hazards posed by personnel
3 Failure to follow prescribed procedures. Ensure that procedures are not too lengthy, too fast, or too slow for good
performance, and are not hazardous or awkward.
4 Lack of adequate planning for error or unusual Provide backout or emergency procedures in instructions.
conditions.
5 Lack of understanding of procedures. Ensure that instructions are easy to understand.
6 Lack of awareness of hazards. Provide warnings, cautions, or explanations in instructions.
7 Ensure that instructions are easy to understand. Untimely activation of equipment.
8 Errors of judgement, especially during periods Minimise requirements for making hurried judgements, especially at criti-
of stress. cal times through programmed contingency measures (see Box 21.5).
229
230
No Causes of primary errors Preventive measures
9 Critical components installed incorrectly. Provide designs permitting such components to be installed only in the
proper ways. Use asymmetric configurations on mechanical equipment or
electrical connectors; use female or male threads or different connections

on critical valves, filters, or other components in which direction of flow is
important.
10 Exceeding prescribed limitations on load, Provide governors or other parameter limiters. Provide warnings on exceed-
speed or other parameters. ing limitations, inadequate loading of stressed parts, use of excessive me-
chanical leverage.
11 Lack of suitable tools or equipment. Ensure that the need for special tools or equipment is minimised; develop
those that are necessary; stress their need in instructions.
12 Interference with normal habits. Ensure that recognition and activation patterns are in accordance with usual
practices and expediencies.
13 Lack of data on which to make correct or Ensure that recognition and activation patterns are in accordance with usual
timely decisions. practices and expediencies.
14 Hampered activities because of interference Ensure that space is adequate to perform required activities simultaneously.
between personnel.
15 Inability to concentrate because of unsafe Ensure that personnel must not work close to unguarded moving parts, hot
conditions or equipment. surfaces, sharp edges, or other dangers.

Table 18.2 Examples of preventive measures to be taken by a supervisor or safety engineer

(Hammer 1989: 150)
1 Make certain that the employee receives the procedures he must follow.
2 Prior to issuing the instructions, ensure that they are correct for the equipment, op-
eration, locations, and local conditions.
3 Review the procedures to ensure that the employee can accomplish them without
difficulty.
4 Instruct the employee in procedures to follow if he/she makes an error that jeopard-
ises safety, or if an emergency arises.
5 Make certain that the employee understands the instructions he/she receives.
6 Point out precautionary measures that must be observed.
7 Where safety measures have been provided make certain that the employee knows
he/she is to make no bypass or inactivate them; periodically ensure that he/she has
not done so.
8 Instruct the employee on actions to be taken in the event any contingency or ab-
normal situation arises (see Box 21.5).
9 Instruct employees responsible for maintenance and repairs, especially on safety
devices, that they are to be installed or replaced only as designed. No change is to
be made. If a part does not appear to fit when attempting to reassemble a unit, de-
termine that it is the correct part and that it is oriented correctly, but make no modi-
fications to make it fit.
10 Warn employees against excessive use of force on parts that could be broken, not to
exceed vehicle speed limits and not to operate equipment faster than the speed for
which it has been designed unless previously approved.
11 Ensure that tools designed for a specific purpose are used for that purpose and are
available when required.
12 In checking new equipment, make certain that the dials and directions in which
pointers move agree with common practice. Avoid equipment in which recognition
and operation patterns differ from usual patterns so that mistakes are easy to make.
13 Check equipment during selection process to ensure that machine functions are not
too fast for the operator, leading him to errors and accidents.
14 Ensure that too many persons do not try to work in the same area at the same time
so that they interfere with each other and cause accidents.
15 Ensure that guards and other devices are provided where necessary.
18.3.2 Two-men concept

Two or more persons can be used to minimise the possibility of human error in any
procedure involving a potentiality of an accident. Each of them must be capable of
undertaking the prescribed task and of detecting if an incorrect or unauthorised step
in a procedure had been taken. One person accomplishes a step in the procedure and
the other checks the action to make sure the step has been accomplished correctly.
The possibility of omission or of an error is thereby reduced.
The two man-concept is focused of potential human errors and is therefore dif-
ferent from the buddy system considered in Section 21.5.3 (see also Figure 18.4).
Buddy system Two man concept
… for increasing worker’s … for minimising the possibility of

safety an error
Two persons subjected to the 1. Two or more persons are used.

same hazard monitor each 2. Each is capable to detect an
other to increase safety incorrect or unauthorised step in the
procedure.
3. One person accomplishes a step in
the procedure and the other checks
One person (outside buddy) the action.
monitors the other person 4. A re-inspection of the accomplished
subjected to hazard operation is also possible.
Figure 18.4 Two-men system and buddy system: orientation to avoiding errors and increas-
ing safety
18.3.3 Application of ergonomics

Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary subject which is concerned with optimizing the
role of the individual in man-machine systems (Chapter 10). Ergonomics attempts to
obtain maximum effectiveness in any man-machine operation by integrating the best
capabilities of both. It is concerned with the design of equipment so it can be oper-
ated easily and rapidly with a minimum of undue effort and strain.
Safety fact*
Ergonomics came into prominence during and soon after the World War II as a result of
experience with complex and rapidly evolving weapons systems. At one stage of the
war, more planes were being lost through pilot error than through enemy action. It be-
came apparent that the effectiveness of these systems, and subsequently other systems in
civilian sectors such as air transportation, required the designer to consider the needs of
the human as well as the hardware in order to avoid costly system failures.
* AIChE (1994: 55)
A control panel designed for the operation by a single person can overwhelm
the worker’s mental and physical capabilities if an excessive amount of data from
instruments must be monitored or its controls operated at one time. Should the in-
struments on a panel be located in widely separated areas, an operator would either
be quickly exhausted trying to perform an almost impossible task, make errors, or
ignore some of the instruments possibly leading to an accident. Investigations of the
accident of nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island cited two principal causes: hu-
man error and bad ergonomics (US NRC 2009). Much of the operator error was due
to the need for decisions and responses because of inadequate designs.
From the traditional perspective of ergonomics, human error is seen as a conse-
quence of a mismatch between the demands of a task and the physical and mental
capabilities of an individual or an operating team (AIChE 1994: 56). The basic ap-
proach of ergonomics is to reduce the likelihood of error by the application of design

principles and standards to match human capabilities and task demands. These en-
compass the physical environment (e.g., heat, lighting, vibration), and the design of
the workplace together with display and control elements of the man-machine inter-
face.
18.3.4 Procedural means of error prevention
Workers can be motivated to minimise actions that could lead to accidents. In an
industrial plant, to avoid errors and accidents, workers can be alerted to follow safe
procedures by warning signs and posters, lectures and supervisory means. Firm su-
pervisory control can be a definite force in error prevention. Supervisors can not
only indicate the error or warn workers of hazards and forbidden acts, but if the
worker continues to act unsafely, a penalty such as time off or demotion can be
sometimes imposed.
Common examples of disregard for safety include smoking in not designated
areas; failure to wear protective helmets, face shields, goggles, or respiratory equip-
ment; blocking fire exits and routes to them; failure to secure ladders properly; and
poor housekeeping, to mention a very few. Front-line supervisors should be held
directly responsible by higher managers for ensuring that workers observe the safety
rules and maintain safe working habits; supervisors in turn must hold workers re-
sponsible for safe conduct.
In some instances workers may unknowingly be conducting themselves in un-
safe ways. This is often the case with two types of workers:
Newly employed or inexperienced workers;

Previously employed workers who may disregard established procedures by
doing things through habit as they did them previously elsewhere.
Both of these types of new employees must be checked frequently and carefully
by supervisors until they are certain the workers have safe work habits.
18.3.5 Control of critical operations
Errors can be far more critical in certain operations than in others. Closer control
must be maintained in those cases, both to minimise possibilities of an error and the
injury or damage that could result if an error is made.
Very often a system is initiated under which these operations will be accom-
plished only after a permit for this work has been approved. The safety representa-
tive will then review existing conditions and precautions; check the workers to en-
sure they are physically qualified, understand what is to be accomplished, realise
hazards involved and how to recognise any adverse situations; and ensure the buddy
system is used and that the “buddy” understands what to do and is properly equipped
(see Section 21.5.3 for the description of the buddy system).
A few of the critical operations include:
Tank entry; this may be done to clean or repair the tank or other restricted space;
Welding operations; welding can be very dangerous in terms of fire safety and
have disastrous results unless proper safety measures are employed;
Laboratory operations; operations involving high-energy reactions;
Explosives; operations involving the presence, use, handling, or transportation
of explosives;
Toxic substances; operations involving the presence, use, handling, or transpor-
tation of highly toxic substances;
High-voltage systems; repair, modification, or maintenance of high-voltage sys-
tems.
18.3.6 Increasing worker’s responsibility
Making the worker individually responsible for not following some specific proce-
dures may make him/her less susceptible to committing errors. Thus the worker
should be individually responsible for:
1 Knowing that he/she is personally responsible for keeping himself/herself, fel-

low personnel, vehicles, and other equipment free of mishaps to the best of
his/her ability;
2 Being constantly alert for any hazardous condition or practice;
3 Acting as necessary to protect his/her own well-being and that of other person-
nel;
4 Applying at all times the principles of accident prevention in daily work;
5 Following prescribed procedures to the best of his/her abilities in any emer-
gency;
6 Promptly reporting to their supervisor or medical office about any injury, re-
gardless of the severity, and any illness that might adversely affect safe per-
formance;
7 Ensuring that, after receiving instructions, he/she understands them completely
before starting work;
8 Knowing where and how medical assistance and other emergency help can be
obtained;
9 Abstaining from removing, inactivating, damaging, or destroying any working
or safety device, or interfering with another person’s use of it;
10 Observing all posted warning signs.
18.3.7 Procedure analysis

Explanation
A procedure analysis is a set of instructions for sequenced actions to accomplish a
task such as a method for an operation, maintenance, or repair, assembly, test, cali-
bration, transportation, handling, emplacement, or removal. Procedure analysis is a
review of the actions that must be performed, generally in relation to a mission task,
the equipment that must be operated, and the environment in which both must exist.
Analyses must ensure that the procedures are not only effective and efficient but
safe. Such analyses involve
Determinations of the required tasks,

Exposure to hazards,
Criticality of each task and procedural step,
Equipment characteristics,
Mental and physical demands for personnel.
The procedure analysis, from the safety point of view, explores all related mat-
ters that could degrade the performance or cause an accident or injury. The possibil-
ity of an error during an operation is one problem. The other is that although the
worker may perform correctly, the designer may have stipulated a task incorrectly.
The designer’s vision and understanding must be passed on the less well-informed
operator in as simple an explanation as possible. Complexities in explanations and
procedures are generally detriment to understanding and tend to lead to errors and
accidents.
The first step of the analysis
The first part of any procedural analysis is to review the task and procedure to be
followed by the worker. Some of the basic concepts that must be considered are in-
dicated in Table 18.1. However, the person who prepares and reviews them must
realise that:
Any equipment or procedure that can be used incorrectly will someday be em-
ployed the wrong way (a corollary of Murphy’s Law). The effect of such ac-
tions must therefore be investigated and preventive measures taken to eliminate
possibilities of deviates and error to minimise the effects if an error does occur;
No matter how simple a procedure appears, it should be examined critically for
possibilities of an error and danger;
Personnel tend to take shortcuts to avoid arduous, lengthy, uncomfortable, unin-
telligible procedures. These shortcuts frequently are open to error which can
generate accidents. A procedure calling for equipment that is difficult to main-
tain will suffer from the lack of maintenance;
Most of human-machine relationships now involve procedural problems in the

use of equipment rather than in failures of the equipment itself. On the average,
reliability of equipment which has passed “burn-in” operations fail on the aver-
age of one in thousand times; personnel, one in hundred times;
Personnel believe they themselves are so knowledgeable, careful, and adept at
the tasks involved that they will make no error, although other persons might.
Personnel who are so assured of their own capabilities are the ones who espe-
cially must be protected;
All procedures and each step within a procedure should be examined for neces-
sity. All extraneous operations should be eliminated because their inclusion
might provide confusion as workers debate why they were necessary. Highly
critical steps should be accented;
Requirements for special training for personnel should be kept to a minimum. In
addition, the procedures analysis should assume that at certain times training
may be lacking or faulty;
Procedures requiring person-to-person communications should be also kept to a
minimum and be as simple as possible. Errors in communication are frequent
sources of procedural failures that can cause accidents;
Procedures involving interruptions will generate circumstances under which
steps may be forgotten when a procedure is resumed. Such interruptions are es-
pecially prevalent in maintenance and repair where there are no instructions re-
garding the parts or tools required for carrying out the procedure. Later, the
need for obtaining the parts and tools after the work has begun will cause inter-
ruptions and possibly omissions and mistakes.
A safety engineer may undertake to review any of the procedures developed by

a designer and to identify any hazard for which a safety measure has not been pro-
vided. Wherever possible, safety measures should be designed into a system or
product and the need eliminated for warnings, cautions, and other procedural means
to avoid accidents.
The problem which then might arise is that an operator might deviate for the
safe procedure prescribed by a designer and do something that might result in a mis-
hap. The deviation may be deliberate or by mistake, but in either cases it is neces-
sary to evaluate what it might be and the consequences it might generate. If a devia-
tion would generate no problems, no further action need to be taken; if it might, then
a measure should have been incorporated that will either prevent the deviation or
will either eliminate or minimise the adverse effects.
By going through any procedure step by step and evaluating it in this way, with
suitable controls where advisable, an analyst can prevent accidents too often attrib-
uted to a worker error.
The second step of the analysis

The next step in making the procedure analysis is to ensure the procedure contains
the following:
Preparatory assembly, installation, and servicing instructions;

Instructions for the proper operation of the equipment, including, where appli-
cable, tables, charts of operating data, adjustments, warnings, and precautions;
Instructions for stopping the operation and disassembling or disconnecting
equipment;
Emergency shutdown and backout instructions.
The safety engineer may undertake to review any of the procedures developed
by the designer and to identify any hazard for which a safety measure has not been
provided. It should be pointed out here: wherever possible safety measures should be
designed into a system or product and the need eliminated for warnings, cautions,
and other procedural means to avoid accidents.
Outputs of procedure analysis
A good procedure analysis can lead to:
Corrective or preventive measures that should be taken to minimise the possibil-

ity that any error will result in either an emergency or an accident;
Recommendations for changes or improvements in hardware or operations to
improve efficiency and safety;
Assurance that warning and caution notes are included where required, only
when required, in the most effective locations in the procedures, and by the best
suitable means;
Requirements for the special training of personnel who will carry out the opera-
tion are reviewed;
Recommendations for special equipment, such as protective clothing, which
would be required for the conduct of the operator to be undertaken. Elimination
of unnecessary clothing and equipment, often very costly, would be minimised.
Probably the most notable publicised accidental event involving the lack of
proper procedures took place at the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Island in 1973
(US NRC 2009). Because of the lack of preparation of proper procedures, a contin-
gency took place that left the operators at a loss as to what was happening and what
to do about it. The contingency devolved into an accident in which luckily no one
was hurt before it was contained but which proved extremely costly.
18.3.8 Contingency analysis
Contingency analysis is predicated on the concept that if a hazard can not be elimi-
nated completely, the possibility, even small, will always exist and accident will oc-
cur. The contingency analysis considers something has gone wrong in an operation
and emergency measures may be necessary.
If an effective action is taken early enough, the contingency might be contained
easily and an eventual mishap avoided. If a proper contingency analysis has been
made, the analyst will have determined what could cause degradation into an emer-
gency or worse and made provisions for minimising adverse effects. Types of emer-
gency equipment that would be needed could be selected and where they might be
needed and stored. Escape routes could be developed and rescue procedures evalu-
ated. The training to be given to workers, operators, and other personnel to cope
with any severe contingency could be developed. But the most important, a proce-
dure must be prepared to cope with each contingency. The methodology mentioned
under the procedure analysis can be used effectively here (Section 18.3.7).
Procedure analysis Contingency analysis
… is carried out to indicate

… is carried out to minimise corrective measures that should
the possibility of accidents take place in the event of failure,
material or human
Figure 18.5 Procedure analysis and contingency analysis: two means of the procedure design
allowing to minimise the possibility of a human error and occupational accidents
Both types of analysis, procedure analysis and contingency analysis, can be

used hand in hand; the procedure analysis must be done and done properly to mini-
mise the possibility of accidents; and the contingency analysis must be done to indi-
cate corrective measures that should take place in the event a failure, material or
human, takes place (Figure 18.5). Unfortunately, designers and planners so often
believe the products they design and the operations they plan are so fault-free that
they neglect to provide for contingencies. When contingencies do occur which could
have been avoided or controlled by adequate planning, operators may be at a loss as
to what to do and disasters may result. The operator may be blamed then.
1 Discuss the types of errors that can place a worker in jeopardy through no fault of the
worker.
2 What is Murphy’s Law?
3 List seven actions designers can take to reduce personnel error. What causes them?
4 List seven actions supervisors can take to reduce personnel error. What causes them?
5 What role can be played by ergonomics in safety enhancement?
6 Why would a procedure analysis be beneficial? Describe some of the items that should
be studied.
7 What are the benefits of a contingency analysis? What is the difference between proce-
dure analysis and contingency analysis?
19 Emerging hazards 239
19 EMERGING HAZARDS
19.1 New and increasing hazards
The evolution of society and the changing world of work bring new risks and chal-
lenges for workers and employers. Working environments have changed considera-
bly during the last decades and are continuing to evolve as a result of (OECD 2003,
EASHW 2005b):
Changes in the structure of the workforce related to the ageing workforce and
increasing participation of women;
Changes in the structure of the labour market due to globalisation and growth of
the service sector;
New forms of employment and jobs;
The intensification of work; and
The introduction of new technologies and work processes.
Safety fact*
The “top” ten emerging risks as mentioned by the European experts:
1 Lack of physical activity (e.g., prolonged sitting at the workplace, during business
trips, or due to the use of automated systems, etc.);
2 Combined exposure to vibration and awkward postures;
3 Poor awareness of thermal risks among low-status worker groups exposed to unfa-
vourable thermal conditions (e.g., workers in agriculture and construction area);
4 Combined exposure to MSD risk factors and psychosocial risk factors (e.g., fear of
future, insecurity);
5 Multi-factorial risks (e.g., combined effects of poor ergonomic design, poor work
organisation, mental and emotional demands);
6 Combined exposure to vibration and muscular work;
7 Thermal discomfort (there are prescriptions only against thermal stress, but not
against thermal discomfort at industrial workplaces);
8 Complexity of new technologies, new work processes and human-machine inter-
faces leading to increased mental and emotional strain;
9 Insufficient protection of high-risk groups (older workers, low status workers, for-
eign workforce, etc.) against long-standing ergonomic risks;
10 General increase of exposure to UV radiation (during leisure time; occupational
outdoor activities; new UV technologies at the workplace)
* EASHW (2005b)
New technologies, manufacturing processes, and disassembly techniques often

bring with them newly emerging occupational safety and health concerns (Ta-
ble 19.1, Boxes 19.1 and 19.2). Recent examples include workplace use and produc-
tion of genetically modified organisms and nanotechnology. There is growing con-

cern about the exposure to various toxins in the disassembly of electronic waste as
well.
Table 19.1 Examples of emerging hazards (ETPIS 2006: 134)

The area posing hazards Example of hazards
Health Hazards of artificial organs
Food, agriculture and biotechno- Hazards related to long-term effects of genetically
logy modified food
Information and communication Hazards of crashes of large-scale information and
technologies communication technology systems
Nanosciences, nanotechnologies, Toxicology and explosivity of nanoparticles
materials and new production
technologies
Energy Long term hazards of renewable technologies
Environment (including climate Interaction between nature and technology hazards/
change) disasters
Transport (including aeronautics)
Hazards related to transportation of new hazardous
materials by new means of transportation
Socio-economic sciences and the Societal hazards related to possible failures of critical
humanities industrial plants and systems
Security and space Hazards related to “garbage” in space, or hazards
related to terrorists’ attacks on industrial installations
Due to the increasing complexity and interdependencies of industrial systems as

well as global (political) disturbances, there is an urge to emphasise emerging and

cross-cutting hazard and safety issues that are not traditionally covered under the
terms “occupational safety” and “industrial safety”. Emerging hazards are consid-
ered as both “new” and “increasing”, and a multitude of trends, developments, driv-
ing forces and obstacles affects the nature of hazards and the context in which they
are managed (OECD 2003, EASHW 2005b; see also “Emerging risks” in the
EASHW website, Appendix 2). The hazard is considered “new” if:
1 The hazard was previously unknown and is caused by new processes, new tech-
nologies, new types of workplace, or social or organisational change (e.g., haz-
ards linked with nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and communica-
tion technologies, new chemicals, etc.); or,
2 A long-standing issue is newly considered as a hazard due to a change in social
or public perceptions (e.g., stress, bullying); or,
3 New scientific knowledge allows a long-standing issue to be identified as a new
hazard (e.g., in the situations where cases have existed for many years without
being identified as hazard because of lack of scientific knowledge).
The hazard is “increasing” if the:
1 Number of hazards leading to the risk of an accident is growing; or

2 Likelihood of the exposure to the hazard leading to the hazard is increasing,
(exposure level and/or the number of people exposed); or
3 Effect of the hazard on workers’ health is getting worse (e.g., seriousness of
health effects and/or the number of people affected).
Box 19.1: emerging biological risks*

Biological agents are ubiquitous and, in many workplaces, workers face very
harmful biological risks. The top emerging biological risks are:
Global epidemics: most at risk workers are those in contact with infected animals.
Workers involved in global trade and those exposed to infected people such as
healthcare staff and aircrews are high-risk groups.
Drug-resistant organisms: healthcare workers and workers in contact with animals

are at risk due to the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant organisms.
Poor assessment of biological risks: despite the obligation to assess biological

risks laid down by the directive 2000/54/EC (see Table 2.1), knowledge and in-
formation about biological risks is still relatively undeveloped. In practice, a
proper assessment of biological risks is difficult.
New and complex exposure situations in waste treatment industry: the major
health problems observed in workers are caused by bioaerosols, which contain a
variety of airborne microorganisms and volatile organic compounds. Handling
medical waste and sharps may lead to other infections, including hepatitis and
human immunodeficiency virus infection (HIV).
Poor indoor air quality: airborne moulds are ubiquitous in traditional workplaces,
such as offices. Exposure to moulds can lead to asthma, upper respiratory tract
diseases, headaches, flu-like symptoms, infections, allergic diseases, and irritation
of the nose, throat, eyes and skin, and contribute to the sick building syndrome.
Airborne moulds are also found in waste and sewage treatment, cotton mills, and
the agricultural sector.
Exposure to endotoxins: endotoxins can be found in all occupational settings

where organic dust is present. Those at risk include workers in the livestock indus-
try, workers in waste and sewage treatment, and even indoor workers. The clinical
effects range from fever to septic shock, organ failure and even death.
Combined exposure to biological agents and chemicals: if the risks from biologi-
cal agents are difficult to assess, those resulting from combined exposure to bio-
logical agents and chemicals pose even more problems. While the range of poten-
tial health effects is wide, it is difficult to determine which of these constituents
accounts for which health effects.
EASHW (2007a,b)
Box 19.2: top emerging chemical risks*

Nanoparticles: can cause toxicity, cardiopulmonary effects, modification of pro-
tein structures, autoimmune effects, oxidative stress, and cancers (see also Box
19.3).
Diesel exhaust: is the fourth most common carcinogen found in the workplace and
may cause lung cancer as well as non-cancer damage to the lung.
Man-made mineral fibres: continuously evolving fibrous materials, the inhalation

of which increases inflammatory, cytotoxic, and carcinogenic potential – the
longer and thinner the fibres, the more dangerous they are.
Allergenic and sensitising agents: new epoxy resins with enhanced properties
(e.g., for the manufacture of adhesives, paints, coatings and polymer composite
structures) may introduce unknown adverse health effects. Epoxy resins are a ma-
jor cause of occupational allergic contact dermatitis.
Carcinogens, mutagens and reprotoxic substances: asbestos, crystalline silica,

wood dust, organic solvents, endocrine disruptors, persistent organic pollutants,
aromatic amines, biocides, azodyes, and combined exposures to several carcino-
gens were identified as emerging risks. No fewer than 32 million people in the
European Union are exposed to such carcinogens at levels considered unsafe.
About 95 500 fatal cancers each year could be work-related, which would make
cancer one of the main occupational causes of death.
Sector-specific chemical risks: dangerous substances in the construction sector and

in waste treatment were highlighted as emerging risks. The illness rate is 50%
higher in waste workers than in other sectors. High levels of dust and over 100
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were found. Electrical and electronic equip-
ment and end-of-life vehicles are increasingly being recycled and contain lead,
cadmium, mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Combined risks: in addition to mixed dangerous substances, combined chemical

and psychosocial hazards were identified as emerging ones (e.g., poor control of
chemical hazards in SMEs and increasing subcontracting practices, e.g. in mainte-
nance and cleaning, whereby subcontracted workers are less aware of chemical
hazards and hence more vulnerable to dangerous substances). Considering each
risk factor independently may lead to an underestimation of the real risks to
workers.
EASHW (2009b,c)
The potential of new hazards requires to develop knowledge and solutions to

solve the new problems, new technologies, new processes, new materials, new work
organisations and work force, like for instance those related to (but not limited to):
New/emerging technologies (e.g., nanotechnology, biotechnology, etc.);

New materials and chemicals;
Energy (e.g., renewable energy technologies);
Interlinking and interaction between industrial safety and natural hazards (e.g.,
natural hazards triggering threat to industrial safety);
Information and telecommunication technologies;
New characteristics of work force and work organisation (e.g., networks, indus-
trial parks and other interdependencies);
Transportation of hazardous goods and materials;
Banking and finance;
Power and water systems and other utilities;
Emergency services, both governmental and private;
Prevention strategies development, testing, and their socio-economic assess-
ment;
Future trends of economical and competitiveness-related aspects of hazards and
risk management (e.g., in cases when the decision is to build a new plant rather
than “retrofitting” the old/existing one);
Attacks on and against industrial installations (security aspects in safety of in-
dustrial plants);
Globalisation.
Another dimension of the new hazards is related to the “globalised” market. For
instance, toady it is a usual practice that industrial plants have multiple and com-
bined vendors, suppliers or subcontractors. During the life time of a plant they may
be “disappearing” in mergers and acquisitions, and communication to them may be
hampered due to language barriers. The use of the web can bring additional chal-
lenges to the dissemination and making available of confidential or sensitive data.
That all can end up by putting the risk assessor/manager in front of insurmountable
problems.
The future management approaches to the emerging and cross-cutting hazards
must capture the interdependencies and interactions among the complex systems,
and the increasingly important international dimensions.
19.2 Hazards of new technologies and aged plants

Industry has to deal with both new and ageing technology and their combinations.
Emerging risks are connected to new technologies like developments of nanotech-
nology, biotechnology, and new chemicals as well as the increasing use of informa-
tion and communication technologies. Many new innovations offer appealing solu-
tions to industry, but too often all their properties and possible influences on other
systems are not known.
Introducing more and more decentralised and combined plants, diversifying,
e.g., energy production with renewable energy systems and similar measures lead to
completely new issues: How to assess the risks of the unknown? Especially of long-
term and complex impacts and effects? How to obtain data needed for reliability or
risk assessments for the “one-of-the-kind” systems components and systems with
virtually no operation record? These issues are still completely open, especially for
industries which are traditionally less “risk-aware”. The questions like, e.g., how to
assess the risks of the unknown remain. Practices are to be developed, which include
the hazard scenarios identification into the design and development of new products
and technologies as well as a requirement and a procedure on the generation (labora-
tory testing, etc.) and collection of the data needed in the risk assessment of the new
product or technology.
Speaking about ageing plants, industry is facing new challenges when the life-
time of the plant and its systems is prolonged well beyond its designed lifetime. Old
plants are often economists’ short-term favourites – economic pressure to increase
the plant life can be huge and possible benefits (e.g., no need to ask for new permits,
etc.) appealing. But the decisions can be made on unrealistic basis, when assessing
risks of old plants is often done by younger engineers who do not have experience of
the plant and who may lack reliable, even basic data. It is important to keep in mind,
that in many cases the decision to build a new plant rather than “retrofitting” the
old/existing may have dramatic (positive!) influence on the competitiveness and in-
novation in Europe.
Safety fact*
An increasing number of structures, plants and aircraft, etc. are expected to reach their
declared design service goal during the coming decade. In fact in Europe, a significant
part of structural components is aged and methods to assess their integrity and to extend
their lifetime in safe conditions are essential for efficient management of assets and re-
sources. Research should provide knowledge and procedural basis to justify extended
limits of those aged or repaired structures regarding the susceptibility to local or global
failures.
* ETPIS (2006: 24)
Real integration of the life-cycle of the plant and the technology and assessment
of medium and long-term risk is not necessarily the priority for the owner or for the
inspector. Nevertheless, for the society, especially if combined with new technolo-
gies or refurbished plants it can be really a huge problem, in particular, when the one
responsible for the risks/causes/consequences (e.g., a bankrupt company) is not ac-
countable any more.
19.3 Hazards in networks and other interdependencies
Nowadays the industry has outsourced maintenance and other activities that are not
considered as their core business. This way they have created complicated networks,
where service providers have also outsourced their activities to subcontractors,
which use other subcontractors and so on. Industrial sites are also split into several
companies according to the different production activities and activities supporting
production. This trend is creating industrial parks where several separate organisa-
tions are working on the same site and responsibilities are not always clear. How to
ensure safety, security, and reliability of the networks and industrial parks is one of
the key questions in the field.
Today industrial installations have several interdependencies with systems and
installations that are not under the same (safety) management. This has increased
their vulnerability against secondary hazards when the primary source of hazard is
one or several of their network partners. That creates situations in which all risks are
not identified or identified risks cannot be affected by the identifier. For instance,
large industrial areas involving chemical installations with substantial amounts of
dangerous substances hold the risk of one accident triggering a chain of reactions of
major incidents at neighbouring plants. These chains of hazardous events are called
“domino effects”. Domino effects can also be caused by other interdependent sys-
tems than neighbouring chemical installations.

The evaluation of these multi-risk scenarios requires multi-scientific approach
and cooperation between experts from different fields of technology, social and eco-
nomical sciences.
19.4 Natural hazards triggering threat to industrial safety
There is growing evidence that climate in different regions of Europe is changing
and unexpected natural hazards like floods and forest fires are occurring across
Europe. Natural hazards can trigger the industrial site beyond its safety measures
and cause technological hazards. Natural disaster is also affecting several industrial
plants simultaneously and critical utilities like water, power, and communications
may not be available. Most industrial sites are not prepared for unexpected natural
phenomena, which overloads their system capacity and makes them vulnerable to
technological accidents and loss of production capabilities. Natural hazards affecting
industrial safety are cross-cutting risks that require expertise from different scientific
fields.
Safety fact*
The observed number of natural disasters, including floods, storms and droughts, has
risen dramatically since the beginning of the 1960s (Figure 19.1a). In the past decade,
such disasters have resulted annually in some 79 000 fatalities, with 200 million people
affected. In financial terms, damage caused by natural disasters has grown exponentially,
and was concentrated in developed countries (especially if insured damage is considered)
(Figure 19.1b). Hurricane Andrew, which hit the United States and the Bahamas in Au-
gust, 1992, caused 38 fatalities and economic losses close to US$30 billion in 2000
prices. By comparison, Tropical Cyclone Gorky killed 138 000 people in Bangladesh in
April, 1991 but had only a modest impact in terms of insured losses.
* OECD (2003: 34)
Financial costs (billions of US$)

Number of events
Year Year
(a) (b)
Figure 19.1 Long-term trends in natural disasters (after OECD 2003)
19.5 Attacks on and against industrial installations

Many industrial installations and especially chemical processes can be operationally
risky, environmentally harmful, and potentially dangerous when abnormal or de-
structive situations occur. This makes them attractive to extremist groups to attack a
plant. In the third millennium people can realise a new observation of the influence
of terrorism on new risks emergence. Geopolitical context has induced risks which
cannot be completely avoided. It is illustrated by a lot of events: Sarin Attack in To-
kyo Subway (1995), Anthrax Letters (2001), Limburg Attack (2003), September 11,
2001, in New York, London attacks in July 2005, etc. Moreover, we can note the
appearance of new threats and new hazards: drinking water contamination, bacteria
use, attacks on industrial sites, etc.
Chemical and nuclear installations can be seen as especially potential targets
that can cause massive devastation outside their fences. They can also provide raw
materials for other activities, or they can be used simply for the purposes of intimi-
dation. Industrial installations are also more and more interdependent with other sys-
tems and organisations. This increases their vulnerability against domino effects and
secondary hazards. Attacks against external services can cause unexpected interrup-
tions on the vital utilities causing unidentified interferences in the process. On the
other hand, outsourced services grant an access for employees of the service provid-
ers, which are not under the company's own recruitment system. And most sites are
accessible by transportation of raw-materials and products, which may be used as an
access route to the site.
Box 19.3: terms of nanotechlology

Nanotechnology: the manipulation of matter on a near-atomic scale to produce
new structures, materials, and devices.
Nanomaterial: material consisting of engineered nanoparticles.
Nanoparticles: material purposefully produced with at least one dimension be-

tween 1 and 100 nano-meters (“nano-” means 10–9).
19.6 Hazards of nanotechnologies

Industrial needs for nanomaterials are increasing (Box 19.3). Many sectors are con-
cerned, ranging from mature high volume markets like automotive applications, high
added value parts like space and aeronautic components or even emerging activities
like new technologies for energy. Domains with a planetary impact like the envi-
ronment and new products and functions for health and safety of people are also
concerned.
Research on the potential applications of nanotechnology continues to expand
rapidly worldwide. New nanotechnology consumer products emerge at a rate of
three to four per week. Over the course of the next decade, nanotechnology could
have a $1 trillion impact on the global economy and employ two million workers –
half of them residing in the United States (NIOSH 2009a).
Nanotechnologies will play a key role in promoting innovation in design and re-
alisation of multifunctional materials for the future, either by improving usual prod-
ucts or creating new functions and new products. Nevertheless, this huge evolution
of the industry of materials could only happen if the main technological and eco-
nomic challenges are solved with reference to the societal acceptance. Technical
issues related to nanosafety are:
Chemical reactivity of nanoparticles (in gas, solid and liquid phases, catalysis,
fires);
Explosivity (detonation) of nanoparticles;
Initiating sources leading to reactivity and explosibility (i.e., thermal runaway,

electrostatics, mechanical sparking, etc.);
Life cycle risk analysis (from the creation to disposal of nanomaterials);
Dispersion of nanoparticles in the air, water, soils;
Toxicology and ecotoxicology (human, animal, vegetal);
Epidemiology (possible spread of diseases caused by nanotechnologies).
Nanotechnology has the potential to dramatically improve the effectiveness of a

number of existing consumer and industrial products and could have a substantial
impact on the development of new products in all sectors, ranging from disease di-
agnosis and treatment to environmental remediation. Because of the broad range of
possible nanotechnology applications, continued evaluation of the potential health
risks associated with exposure to nanomaterials is essential to ensure their safe han-
dling.

1 Define the terms “new hazard” and “increasing hazard”.
2 Enumerate at least five risks which belong to the list of the top emerging risks identified
by the European experts.
3 What are the emerging biological and chemical risks arising in waste treatment industry?
4 Briefly describe how new technologies and aged plants affect safety.
5 How are natural hazards related to safety of industrial plants?
6 What are nanotechnology, nanomaterial, and nanoparticle?
7 List at least five technical issues related to nanosafety.

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5 Occupational and industrial hazards 77

5 OCCUPATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS

A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled;

Box 5.1: explanation of terms related to the term “hazard”

Danger: expresses a relative exposure to a hazard. A hazard may be present, but

A person working on a very high structure is subject to a hazard that he

Damage: severity of injury or the physical, functional, or monetary loss that

An unprotected man falling from a steel beam 3 m above a concrete pave-

The same hazard of electrocuting an energized person:

Locked underground vault

Unprotected: Completely enclosed: Enclosed by a fence:

the protection of a transformer bank

Pre-accident time Moment of

Figure 5.2 Relation between terms “hazard”, “outcome”, “damage”

An occupational hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to a worker,

Active: the hazard is certain to cause harm, as no intervention is possible before

Natural: natural hazards include anything which is caused by a natural process,

Activity-related: some hazards are created by the undertaking of a certain activ-

Table 5.1 Severity definitions (retrieved from Wikipedia, see Appendix 2)

Table 5.2 Likelihood of occurrence (retrieved from Wikipedia, see Appendix 2)

Qualitative: Anticipated to occur one or more times during the en-

5.3 Common workplace hazard groups

Slips and trips,

Many chemical agents are used in workplaces in specific processes, as cleaning

When a work activity involves the deliberate, intentional use of biological

1 Infections caused by parasites, viruses, or bacteria;

There is increasing awareness that psychosocial issues pose a significant danger,

demands made on fewer workers can lead to an increase in work-related stress

Work-related stress is a symptom of an organisational problem, not an individual weak-

blame, phobias, sleep disturbances, digestive and musculoskeletal problems. Post

Uncivil behaviour (lack of respect for others),

Aim to prevent work-related stress as well as workplace bullying and violence;

Guidance for assessing risks induced by psychosocial issues and recommenda-

5.4 Review questions and exercises

6 FALLS, IMPACT, FALLING OBJECTS AND LIFTING

Contact with objects and equipment 26,2% of all cases

6.2 Slip and fall prevention measures

ity of falls can not be entirely eliminated.

Box 6.1: coefficient of friction

0,2 0,3 0,4

Very slippery and Slippery and Slippery but not

Slip prevention should be a part of companies OSH management system. Seven

face completely, this surface should be retrofitted with friction enhancement

Leading edges in all

Channel width: 2 mm minimum for lubricant

Figure 6.3 Attributes of slip resistant soling (Di Pilla 2003)

7 A frequent inspection of surfaces. Employees who are working to meet produc-

Figure 6.5 Slip resistant strips on steps (Di Pilla 2003)

6.3 Impact and acceleration hazards

The protection of head impact and acceleration hazards includes:

Figure 6.7 Manual handling of loads (EASHW 2007e)

Determine if you can lift the load;

2 Lift with your legs not your back:

Bent your knees, keeping your back straight;

3 Push, don’t pull:

Pushing puts less strain on your back; don’t pull objects;

6.5 Review questions and exercises

2 Explain briefly the most common kinds of falls.