Human Respiratory System

Dr. Ishan Y. Pandya

DSc. hc., PhD., FBSS, FISCA, FSIESRP, FIRSP, MABRF, MIBRF, MIVS, MISEB, MAZRA Gold
medallist
The trachea is surrounded by 16-20 rings of hyaline cartilage; these 'rings' are
incomplete and C-shaped.
Parameters Trachea Bronchi
A large membranous 10-15cm long tube Any of the major air passages
reinforced by rings of cartilage, of the lungs which diverge from
Length extending from the larynx to the the windpipe.
bronchial tubes and conveying air to and
from the lungs.
Airways which connect the larynx to the Airways which connect the
Connect bronchi. trachea to the lungs

Count 1 2
Thin. Thick due more numbers of
Wall
smooth muscle
Contains C-shaped cartilaginous rings. Contain irregularly arranged
Structure plates and islands.
 Parameters The right bronchus The left bronchus
Length 2.5cm, short 5.0cm, long
Location It enters the lung opposite T5It enters the lung
opposite T6
Branch or Right bronchus divides into 3 Left bronchus divides
divides branches. into 2 branches.

Pulmonary The right pulmonary artery The left pulmonary

artery crosses in front of right artery crosses in front
bronchus. of left bronchus.
Arches Azygous vein arches on right The arch of aorta
bronchus. crosses the left
bronchus.
 The difference between Bronchi and Bronchioles
Characteristics Bronchi Bronchioles
Definition Bronchi are the tubules that form the Bronchioles are the minute branches that
main passageway of air into lungs. forms alveoli.

Made up of Fibrocartilaginous layer Smooth muscles, elastic tissues, and

epithelium
Divided into Primary bronchi, Secondary bronchi, Lobular, Terminal, and Respiratory
tertiary bronchi bronchioles
Cartilaginous Present Absent
support
Histology Pseudostratified columnar Simple cuboidal ciliated epithelium
epithelium
Diameter High Less
Clinical condition Bronchitis Emphysema

Note: The canals of Lambert are located at the terminal bronchioles. These connect the
terminal bronchioles to the alveoli and surround the alveoli.
Parameter Right Lung Left Lung

Lobes 3 2

Bronchi 2 1

Weight Heavier 700gm Lighter 650gm

Provide space for Liver Heart

Fissure 2 (1 oblique + 1 1 oblique

horizontal)
Volume Larger Shorter

Anterior border Straight Interrupted by

cardiac notch
Bronchopulmonary 10 8-9
segments
Lingula Absent Present

Branchial artery 1 2
Pores of Kohn are small communications
between adjacent pulmonary alveoli and provide
a collateral pathway for aeration. They are poorly
formed in children and along with poorly formed
canals of Lambert, are thought to be responsible
for the frequency of round pneumonia in that age
group.
The blood–air barrier exists in the gas
exchanging region of the lungs. It is formed by the
type I pneumocytes of the alveolar wall, the
endothelial cells of the capillaries and the
basement membrane between the two cells. It
exists to prevent air bubbles from forming in the
blood, and from blood entering the alveoli.
Failure of the barrier may occur in a pulmonary
barotrauma.
Mechanism of respiration steps
• Respiration involves the following 5 steps:

• Step-1: Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is

drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.

• Step-2: Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.

• Step-3: Transport of gases by the blood.

• Step-4: Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.

• Step-5: Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant

release of CO2
Parameter Inspiration Expiration

Diaphragm muscles Contract Relax

External intercoastal muscle Contract Relax

Internal intercoastal muscle Relax Contract

Abdominal muscles Relax Contract

Pulling ribs Upwards and Outwards Inwards and Downwards

Pressure IPP<AP IPP>AP

Volume of thoracic cavity Increase Decrease

Note: During Inspiration; diaphragm, and external intercoastal muscles participate.

During Expiration; diaphragm, and internal intercoastal muscles, and abdominis recti
muscles participate.
Mechanism of Inspiration
INSPIRATION = IPP < AP

Inspiration is initiated by the contraction

of diaphragm which increases the volume
of thoracic chamber in the antero-
posterior axis.
The contraction of external inter-costal
muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum
causing an increase in the volume of the
thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral
axis.
Mechanism of expiration

• Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-

costal muscles returns the diaphragm and
sternum to their normal positions and
reduce the thoracic volume and thereby
the pulmonary volume.
• This leads to an increase in intra-
pulmonary pressure to slightly above the
atmospheric pressure causing the
expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e.,
expiration.

EXPIRATION = IPP > AP

INSPIRATION = IPP < AP EXPIRATION = IPP > AP

IPP – Intrapulmonary pressure

AP – Atmospheric pressure
 Volumes or Capacities Formula ml
Dead space/ volume TV - breath 0-250
TV Dead space x 2 250-500
IRV Normal breath + TV 2500-3000
ERV IRV/2 1000-1100
RV IRV/2 1000-1100
IC IC = TV + IRV 3000-3500
EC EC = TV + ERV 1500-1600
FRC FRC = ERV + RV 2100-2300
VC VC = TV + IRV + ERV 4000-4600
TLC TLC = TV x 12-16 5000-8000
Mechanism of respiration at cellular level
• Blood – RBC, biconcave disc – lighter in weight, diameter – 7.4 micrometer.
• RBC – Quaternary protein – Hemoglobin. 7.4 crore molecules. 12-16gm/ml.
Fe2+.
• Pure oxygen ?
• Hb x O2---→ oxy-hemoglobin - --→ oxygenated blood -→ artery; exception
– pulmonary artery.
• Hb x CO2--→ Carbamino-hemoglobin-→ deoxygenated blood -→ veins
• Partial pressure - Dalton’s law. pO2, pCO2, pN2, pCO, pF.
• Hb – active site = CO2 – pCO2+, pO2 - ; gas affinity, p (+).
 Pressure in mmHg
Respiratory Atmospheric Blood Blood
gas pressure Alveoli (Deoxygenated) (Oxygenated) Tissues
O2 159 104 40 95 40
CO2 0.3 40 45 40 45

Transport of Gases
Transport of O2 Transport of CO2
In dissolved
In dissoved form As
form As By RBCs as
through plasma oxy-Hb
through Plasma Bicarbonate ions Carbamino-Hb Reaction
3% 97% 7% 70% 20-25% -

Pressure in mmHg
Alveolar Systemic Systemic
Air air artery vein
pO2 104 95 40
pCO2 40 40 45
• The pO2 in oxygenated blood is …….
• The pO2 in deoxygenated blood is …….
• The pO2 in tissue is …….
• The pCO2 in oxygenated blood is …….
• The pCO2 in deoxygenated blood is …….
• The pCO2 in atmosphere is ……
• The pCO2 in alveoli is ………
• The pO2 in alveoli is ………
• O2 = 100% = 97% OXY-Hb; 3% blood plasma
• CO2 = 100% = 7% blood plasma; 93% = 70%HC03-; 93-70 = 23%
carbamino form
 Hb level in humans
Normal condition Exercise condition
[1dL = 100ml]
O2 level falls 14.4ml/100ml blood O2 level falls 4.4ml/100ml blood Male 13.5-17.5gm/dL
O2 transported 5ml O2 transported 15ml Female 12.0 - 15.5gm/dL
 OD-CURVE RIGHT LEFT Factors
Control Factors Change Shift of OD-Curve
HALDANE EFFECT
↑ →
pO2
↓ ←
↑ →
pCO2
↓ ←
↑ →
H+ conc.
↓ ←
↑ →
pH
↓ ←
↑ →
Acidity
↓ ←
↑ → BOHR EFFECT
Temperature
↓ ←
↑ →
2,3, Diphosphoglyceric acid
↓ ←
Note: ↑ - Increase, ↓ - Decrease, → - Right, ← - Left
Mechanism of chloride shift

Keep remember:

Bohr effect shift OD-

Curve Right Side.

Haldane effect shift

OD-Curve Left Side.
 Bohr Haldane
Parameter
effect effect
Site Tissues Lungs
Gas release O2 CO2
pO2 ↓ ↑
Blood pH ↓ ↑
Hb Affinity for O2 ↓ ↑
Hb Affinity for CO2 ↑ ↓
pCO2 ↑ ↓
The respiratory centre is divided into three major groups, two in the medulla
and one in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the dorsal respiratory
group and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory
group is made up of two areas – the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic
centre. The dorsal and ventral medullary groups control the basic rhythm of
respiration.
Regulation of respiration
Respiratory Location Effect
switches
DRG (dorsal Dorsally in medulla Mainly causes inspiration. Sends signals to inspiratory
respiratory oblongata muscles for 2 seconds and silent for 3 seconds which
group) contract causing inspiration.
VRG (ventral Ventrolateral part of Sends signals for both inspiration and expiration. Active
respiratory medulla oblongata when respiratory activity increases. Causes forceful
group) inspiration and expiration.
Pneumotaxic Dorsal in Pons varoli Sends signal to DRG and VRG. Limits inspiration by
centre controlling switch off point of inspiratory signal.
Apneustic Lower part of Pons In association with pneumotaxic centre of inspiration it
centre varoli checks depth of inspiration.
❖ Medical cases
❖ Asthma
❖ Rhinitis
❖ Pneumonia
❖ Bronchitis
❖ Lung cancer
❖ Emphysema
❖ COPD – Asbestosis, Silicosis
❖ Dysbarism
❖ Pharyngitis
Medical cases
Carbon monoxide poisoning
• Symptoms - headache, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, chest pain, and
confusion. Hb + CO → HbCO
Asthma is a major noncommunicable disease (NCD).
• Capnography is the monitoring of
the concentration or partial pressure
of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
respiratory gases. Its main
development has been as a
monitoring tool for use during
anesthesia and intensive care.
Metacresol purple dye used in this
procedure.
• Respiratory arrest is a sickness caused by apnea (cessation of breathing) or
respiratory dysfunction severe enough it will not sustain the body.
• Respiratory failure is the inability to provide adequate ventilation for the
body's requirements.
• Hypoxemia is an abnormally low level of oxygen in the arterial blood.
• Hypercapnia or hypercarbia or CO2 retention, is a condition of abnormally
elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the blood. Eg. Acute hypercapnic
respiratory failure (AHRF).
• Hypocapnia is the opposite of hypercapnia.
• Tachypnea, also spelt tachypnoea, is a respiratory rate greater than normal,
resulting in abnormally rapid and shallow breathing.
• Bradypnea is opposite to tachypnea.
• SARS – Severe acute respiratory syndrome – CO-V-II.