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 CONTENT
CLASS: 6TH – OUR PASTS – I........................ 4 CHAPTER: 7 - CIVILISING THE "NATIVE",
EDUCATING THE NATION .................................. 79
CHAPTER: 1 - WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND
CHAPTER: 8 - WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM 82
WHEN? ...................................................................... 4
CHAPTER: 9 - THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL
CHAPTER: 2 - ON THE TRAIL OF THE EARLIEST
MOVEMENT: 1870S-1947...................................... 85
PEOPLE ..................................................................... 5
CHAPTER: 10 - INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
CHAPTER: 3 - IN THE EARLIEST CITIES ............. 7
.................................................................................. 91
CHAPTER: 4 - WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS
TELL US .................................................................. 10 CLASS: 9TH – INDIAN AND THE
CHAPTER: 5 - KINGDOMS, KINGSAND AN CONTEMPORARY WORLD - I .................... 94
EARLY REPUBLIC ................................................ 12
CHAPTER: 1 - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ...... 94
CHAPTER: 6 - NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS .. 14
CHAPTER: 2 - SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE
CHAPTER: 7 - ASHOKA, THE EMPERORWHO
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION ...................................... 98
GAVE UUP WAR.................................................... 16
CHAPTER: 3 - NAZISM AND THE RISE OF
CHAPTER: 8 - VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING
HITLER ................................................................. 102
TOWNS ................................................................... 18
CHAPTER: 4 - FOREST SOCIETY AND
CHAPTER: 9 - TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
COLONIALISM .................................................... 106
................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER: 5 - PASTORALISTS IN THE MODERN
CHAPTER: 10 - NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS
WORLD ................................................................. 109
................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER: 11 - BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND CLASS: 10TH – INDIAN AND THE
BOOKS .................................................................... 24 CONTEMPORARY WORLD - II ................ 113
CLASS: 7TH – OUR PASTS - II....................... 27 CHAPTER: 1 - THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN
EUROPE ................................................................ 113
CHAPTER: 1 - TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A
CHAPTER: 2 - NATIONALISM IN INDIA .......... 118
THOUSAND YEARS .............................................. 27
CHAPTER: 3 - THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL
CHAPTER: 2 - NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS ... 29
WORLD ................................................................. 121
CHAPTER: 3 - THE DELHI SULTANS ................. 32
CHAPTER: 4 - THE AGE OF
CHAPTER: 4 - THE MUGHAL EMPIRE ............... 36
INDUSTRIALISATION ........................................ 124
CHAPTER: 5 - RULERS AND BUILDINGS ......... 40
CHAPTER: 5 - PRINT CULTURE AND THE
CHAPTER: 6 - TOWNS, TRADERS AND
MODERN WORLD ............................................... 127
CRAFTSPERSONS ................................................. 43
CHAPTER: 7 - TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED CLASS: 11 - THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
COMMUNITIES ..................................................... 47 ...................................................................... 130
CHAPTER: 8 - DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE
DIVINE .................................................................... 50 CHAPTER: 2 – WRITING AND CITY LIFE ........ 130
CHAPTER: 9 - THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CHAPTER: 3 – AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE
CULTURES ............................................................. 54 CONTINENTS....................................................... 132
CHAPTER: 10 – EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CHAPTER: 4 - CENTRAL ISLAMIC ISLANDS . 136
POLITICAL FORMATIONS .................................. 59 CHAPTER: 5 - NOMADIC EMPIRES .................. 140
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CHAPTER: 6 – THE THREE ORDERS ................ 145

CLASS: 8TH – OUR PASTS - III ..................... 62 CHAPTER: 7 – CHANGING CULTURAL
CHAPTER: 1 - HOW, WHEN AND WHERE ......... 62 TRADITIONS ........................................................ 148
CHAPTER: 2 - FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY CHAPTER: 8 - CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES
(THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER)......... 63 ................................................................................ 151
CHAPTER: 3 - RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE .... 67 CHAPTER: 9 - INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION .... 155
CHAPTER: 4 - TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE CHAPTER: 10 - DISPLACING INDIGENOUS
VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE ................................ 71 PEOPLES ............................................................... 158
CHAPTER: 5 - WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND CHAPTER: 11 – PATHS TO MODERNISATION161
AFTER ..................................................................... 73 CLASS: 12 – THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY
CHAPTER: 6 - WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND ...................................................................... 168
FACTORY OWNERS ............................................. 76
CHAPTER: 1 - BRICKS BREADS AND BONES 168

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CHAPTER: 2 - KINGS FARMERS AND TOWNS
(EARLY STATES AND ECONOMICS) .............. 172
CHAPTER: 3 - KINSHIP CASTE AND CLASS... 177
CHAPTER: 4 - THINKERS BELIEF AND
BUILDINGS CULTURE DEVELOPMENT......... 180
CHAPTER: 5 - THROUGH THE EYES OF
TRAVELLERS ...................................................... 184
CHAPTER: 6 - BHAKTI SUFI TRADITIONS ..... 187
CHAPTER: 7 - AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL
VIJAYANAGARA ................................................ 193
CHAPTER: 8 - PEASANT ZAMINDARS AND
STATE ................................................................... 197
CHAPTER: 9 - KINGS AND CHRONICLES ....... 200
CHAPTER: 10 - COUNTRYSIDE ........................ 203
CHAPTER: 11 - REBELS AND THE RAJ ............ 207
CHAPTER: 12 - COLONIAL CITIES ................... 210
CHAPTER: 13 - MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE
NATIONALIST MOVEMENT ............................. 214
CHAPTER: 14 - UNDERSTANDING PARTITION
............................................................................... 215
CHAPTER: 15 - FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION
............................................................................... 218

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 CLASS: 6th – OUR PASTS – I
CHAPTER: 1 - WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND
WHEN?
 There are several things we can find out
about our past, like what people ate, the kinds
of clothes they wore andthe types of houses
in which they lived.
Where Did People Live?
 People have lived along the banks of this
river for several hundred thousand years.
Some of the earliest people who lived here
were skilled gatherers, - that is, people who
gathered their food. They knew about the vast
wealth of plants in the surrounding forests,
and collected roots, fruits and other forest
produce for their food.
 They also hunted animals. Sulaiman and
Kirthar hills are some of the areas where
women and men first began to grow crops
such as wheat and barley about 8000 years
ago are located here. People also began
rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle,
and lived in villages. Garo hills in north-east
were some of the other areas where
agriculture developed.
 The places where rice was first grown are to
the north of the Vindhyas. Indian
Subcontinent: II includes the present
countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Nepal, Bhulan and Sri Lanka and the
neighbouring countries ofA/ghanistan, Iran,
China and Myanmar. South Asia is ofen
called a subcontinent because although it is
smaller than a continent, it is very large, and
is separatedfrom the rest of Asia by seas, hills
and mountains.
 About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest
cities flourished on the banks of river Indus
and its tributaries. Later, about 2500 years
ago, cities developed on the banks of the
Ganga and its tributaries, and along the
seacoasts. In ancient times the area along Son
and to the south of the Ganga was known as
Magadha. Its rulers were very powerful, and
set up a large kingdom. Kingdoms were set
up in other parts of the country as well.
Names of the Land
 Two of the words we often use for our
country are India and Bharat. The word India
comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in
Sanskrit. The Iranians and the Greeks who
came through the northwest about 2500 years
ago and were familiar with the Indus, called it
the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the
east of the river was called India.
 The name Bharata was used for a group of
people who lived in the north-west, and who
are mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest
composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500
years ago). Later it was used for the country.
Finding Out About the Past
 There are several ways of finding out about
the past. One is to search for and read books
that were written long ago. These are called
manuscripts, because they were written by
hand (this comes from the Latin word 'manu',
meaning hand). These were usually written
on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared
bark of a tree known as the birch, which
grows in the Himalayas.
 Manuscripts wereoften preserved in temples
and monasteries. These books dealt with all
kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and
practices, the lives of kings, medicine and
science. Besides, there were epics, poems,
plays. Many of these were written in
Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages
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 We can also study relatively hard surfaces
such as stone or metal. Sometimes, kings got
their orders inscribed so that people could
see, read and obey them. There are other
kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and
women (including kings and queens)
recorded what they did. For example, kings
often kept records of victories in battle.
 There were many other things that were made
and used in the past. Those who study these
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 objects are called archaeologists. They study
the remains of buildings made of stone and
brick, paintings and sculpture. They also
explore and excavate (dig under the surface
of the earth) to find tools, weapons, pots,
pans, omaments and coins. Some of these
objects may be made of stone, others of bone,
baked clay or metal. Objects that are made of
hard, imperishable substances usually survive
for a long time.
One Past Or Many?
 Did you notice the title of this book, Our
Pasts? We have used the word ‘pasts’ in
plural to draw attention to the fact that the
past was different for different groups of
people. For example, the lives of herders or
farmers were different from those of kings
and queens, the lives of merchants were
different from those of crafts persons, and so
on. Also, as is true even today, people
followed different practices and customs in
different parts of the country. For example,
today most people living in the Andaman
Islands get their own food by fishing,
hunting, and collecting forest produce. By
contrast, most people living in cities depend
on others for supplies of food. Differences
such as these existed in the past as well.
 Besides, there is another kind of difference.
We know a great deal about kings and the
battles they fought because they kept records
of their victories. Generally, ordinary people
such as hunters, fishing folk, gatherers,
farmers or herders did not keep records of
what they did. While archaeology helps us to
find out about their lives, there is much that
remains unknown.
What Do Dates Mean?
 If somebody asks you the date, you will
probably mention the day, month and year,
2000 and something. These years are
counted from the date generally assigned to
the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of
Christianity. So, 2000 means 2000 years after
the birth of Christ.
 All dates before the birth of Christ are
counted backwards and usually have the
letters BC (Before Christ) added on. In this
book, we will refer to dates going back from
the present, using 2000 as our starting point.
CHAPTER: 2 - ON THE TRAIL OF THE
EARLIEST PEOPLE
How Do We Know About Hunter-Gatherers?
 Archaeologists have found some of the things
hunter gatherers made and used out of stone,
wood and bone, of which stone tools have
survived best.
Choosing A Place to Live In
 Look at Map below. All the places marked
with red triangles are sites from which
archaeologists have found evidence of
hunter-gatherers. Many sites were located
near sources of water, such as rivers and
lakes. As stone tools were important, people
tried to find places where good quality stone
was easily available. Places where stone was
found and where people made tools are
known as actory sites.
 How do we know where these factories were?
Usually, we find blocks of stone, tools that
were made and perhaps discarded because
they were not perfect, and chips of waste
stone left behind at these sites.
 Sometimes, people lived here for longer
spells of time. These sites are called
habitation-cum-factory sites. Sites are
places where the remains of things (tools,
pots, buildings etc.) were found. These were
made, used and left behind by people. These
may be found on the surface of the earth,
buried under the earth, or sometimes even
under water.
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Making Stone Tools
Stone tools were probably made using two different
techniques:
1. The first is called stone on stone. Here, the
pebble from which the tool was to be made
(also called the core) was held in one hand.
Another stone, which was used as a hammer.
The second stone was used to strike off flakes
from the first, till the required shape was
obtained.
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 CLASS: 7th – OUR PASTS - II
CHAPTER: 1 - TRACING CHANGES
THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS
New and Old Terminologies
 If the context in which information is
produced changes with time, what about
language and meanings? Historical records
exist in a variety of languages which have
changed considerably over the years.
Medieval Persian, for example, is different
from modern Persian. The difference is not
just with regard to grammar and vocabulary;
the meanings of words also change over time.
 The areas included in this term shifted with
the extent of the Sultanate but the term never
included south India. By contrast, in the early
sixteenth century Babur used Hindustan to
describe the geography, the fauna and the
culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent.
 As we will see later in the chapter, this was
somewhat similar to the way the fourteenth-
century poet Amir Khusrau used the word
“Hind”. While the idea of a geographical and
cultural entity like “India” did exist, the term
“Hindustan” did not carry the political and
national meanings which we associate with it
today.
Historians and their Sources
 Historians use different types of sources to
learn about the past depending upon the
period of their study and the nature of their
investigation. Last year, for example, you
read about rulers of the Gupta dynasty and
Harshavardhana. In this book we will read
about the following thousand years, from
roughly 700 to 1750.
 Manuscripts were collected by wealthy
people, rulers, monasteries and temples. They
were placed in libraries and archives. These
manuscripts and documents provide a lot of
detailed information to historians but they are
also difficult to use.
 On occasion authors revised their chronicles
at different times. The fourteenth-century
chronicler Ziyauddin Barani wrote his
chronicle first in 1356 and another version
two years later. The two differ from each
other but historians did not know about the
existence of the first version until the 1960s.
It remained lost in large library collections.
New Social and Political Groups
 The study of the thousand years between 700
and 1750 is a huge challenge to historians
largely because of the scale and variety of
developments that occurred over the period.
At different moments in this period new
technologies made their appearance - like the
Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning
wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat.
New foods and beverages arrived in the
subcontinent - potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and
coffee. Remember that all these innovations-
new technologies and crops came along with
people, who brought other ideas with them as
well. As a result, this was a period of
economic, political, social and cultural
changes.
 This was also a period of great mobility.
Groups of people travelled long distances in
search of opportunity. The subcontinent held
immense wealth and the possibilities for
people to carve a fortune. One group of
people who became important in this period
were the Rajputs, a name derived from
"Rajaputra", the son of a ruler. Between the
eighth and fourteenth centuries the term was
applied more generally to a group of warriors
who claimed Kshatriya caste status.
 The term included notjust rulers and
chieftains but also soldiers and commanders
who served in the armies of different
monarchs all over the subcontinent. A
chivalric code of conduct extreme valour and
a great sense of loyalty - were the qualities
attributed to Rajputs by their poets and bards.
Other groups of people such as the Marathas,
Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a caste of
scribes and secretaries) also used the
opportunities of the age to become politically
important.
 These new peasant groups gradual influenced
by regional markets, chieftains, priests,
monasteries and temples. They became part
of large, complex societies, and were
required to pay taxes and offer goods and
services to local lords. As a result, significant
economic and social differences emerged
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amongst peasants.
 As society became more differentiated,
people were grouped into jatis or sub-castes
and ranked on the basis of their backgrounds
and their occupations. Ranks were not fixed
permanently, and varied according to the
power, influence and resources controlled by
members of the jati. The status of the
samejati could vary from began to be area to
area.
 Jatis framed their own rules and regulations
to manage the conduct of their members.
These regulations were enforced by an
assembly of elders, described in some areas
as the jati panchayat. But jatis were also
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 required to follow the rules of their villages.
Several villages were governed by a
chieftain. Together they were only one small
unit of a state.
Region and Empire
 Large states like those of the Cholas,
Tughluqs or Mughals encompassed many
regions. A Sanskrit prashasti praising the
Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-
1287) explained that he was the ruler of a
vast empire that stretched from Bengal
(Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in
Afghanistan in the west and included all of
south India (Dravida). People of different
regions- Gauda, Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Gujarat apparently fled
before his armies. Historians regard these as
exaggerated claims of conquests.
Fig. Provinces of the Delhi Sultanate during Muhammad
Tughluq’s reign according to the Egyptain source Masalik al-
Absar fi Mamalik al-Amsar of Shihabuddin Umari.
 By 700 many regions already possessed dis
tinct geographical dimensions and their own
language and cultural characteristics. You
will learn more about these in Chapter 9.
They were also associated with specific
ruling dynasties. There was considerable
conflict between these states.Occasionally
dynasties like the Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs
and Mughals were able to build an empire
that was pan-regional - spanning diverse
regions. Not all these empires were equally
stable or successful. When the Mughal
Empire declined in the eighteenth century, it
led to the re-emergence of regional states.
But years of imperial, pan-regional rule had
altered the character of the regions. Across
most of the subcontinent the regions were left
with the legacies of the big and small states
that had ruled over them.
 This was apparent in the emergence of many
distinct and shared traditions: in the realms of
governance, the management of the economy,
elite cultures, and language. Through the
thousand years between 700 and 1750 the
character of the different regions did not
grow in isolation. These regions felt the
impact of larger pan- regional forces of
integration without ever quite losing their
distinctiveness.
Language and region - In 1318 the poet Amir Khusrau
noted that there was a dilferent language in every region
of this land: Sindhi, Lahori, Kashmiri, Dvarsamudri (in
soulhern Karnataka), Telangani (in Andhra Pradesh),
Gujari (in Gujarat'), Mabari (in Tamil Nadu', Gauri, (in
Bengal). Awadhi (in eastern Uttar Pradesh) and
Hindarwi (in the area around Delhi Amir Khusrau went
on to explain that in contrast to these languages there
was Sanskrit which did not belong to any region. It was
an old language and "common people do not knowit,
only the Brahmanas do". Make a list of the languages
mentioned by Amir Khusrau. Prepare another list of the
names of languages spoken today in the regions he
mentioned. Underline names that are similar and circle
those that are different.
Old and New Religions
 The thousand years of history that we are
exploring witnessed major developments in
religious traditions. People's belief in the
divine was sometimes deeply personal, but
more usually it was collective. Collective
belief in a supernatural agency -religion - was
often closely connected with the social and
economic organisation of local communities.
As the social worlds of these groups altered
so too did their beliefs.
 Do you remember whal Amir Khusrau had to
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say regarding Sanskrit, knowledge and
Brahmanas? It was during this period that
important changes Occurred in what we call
Hinduism today. These included the worship
of new deities, the construction of templesby
royalty and the growing importance of
Brahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups
in society. Their knowledge of Sanskrit texts
earned the Brahmanas a lot of respect in
society. An influential, wealthy individual
who supports another person an artiste, a
craftsperson, a learned man, or a noble.
 One of the major developments of this period
was the emergence of the idea of bhakti -of a
loving. Personal deity that devotees could
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 CLASS: 8th – OUR PASTS - III
CHAPTER: 1 - HOW, WHEN AND WHERE
How Important Are Dates?
 History is a record of significant events that
haveoccurred over a period of time or on a
particularday in the past.
 History is a subject which deals with past
events, such as when a battle was fought,
period of dynasties, when a king was
crowned, birth of any religion and various
other changes, etc.
 History is also important to know the exact
date and year of any particular event.
 Hence, we continue to associate history with
a string of dates, since details of any such
events which have occurred in the past cannot
be determined without referring to the
specific dates. So, in other words, we can say
that history is synonymous with dates.
Which dates?
 By what criteria do we choose a set of dates
as important? The dates we select, the dates
around which we compose our story of the
past, are not important on their own. In the
histories written by British historians in
India, the rule of each Governor General was
important. These histories began with the rule
of the first Governor-General, Warren
Hastings, and ended with the last Viceroy,
Lord Mountbatten. In separate chapters we
read about the deeds of others Hastings,
Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning,
Lawrence, Lytton, Ripon, Curzon, Harding,
and Irwin.
 It was a seemingly never-ending succession
of Governor Generals and Viceroys. All the
dates in these history books were linked to
these personalities – to their activities,
policies, achievements. It was as if there was
nothing outside their lives that was important
for us to know. The chronology of their lives
marked the different chapters of the history of
British India. When we write history, or a
story, we divide it into chapters. In the
process we focus only on those events that
help us to give shape to the story we are
telling. In the histories that revolve around
the life of British Governor-Generals, the
activities of Indians simply do not fit, they
have no space. Clearly, we need another
format for our history. This would mean that
the old dates will no longer have the
significance they earlier had. A new set of
dates will become more important for us to
know.
How do we periodise in History?
 History is a record of significant events
written in chronological order.
 It is the subject from where we find out how
things were in the past and how things have
changed in the past.
 We periodise a time in order to characterise it
into different periods on the basis of some
significant events that have happened during
those days.
 These demarcations of time into different
periods in the past is known as
'Periodisation', which become important for
history.
 They help to reflect our ideas quickly about
the happenings and changes from one period
to the next.
Method of periodization of the English
historians
 The British historians divided Indian history
into three periods, namely, ancient, medieval
and modern.
 This method of periodization was not suitable
in context to India because this method had
various limitations.
 Except in Europe, we cannot find any such
type ofsequence and evidence to define these
three ages in any other country in the world.
 The Britishers came in India and rule over
here without following the principles of
equality, freedom, democracy, etc.
 In Europe, presence of these symbols denoted
modern age.
What is 'Colonization'?
 In history we can find that whenever one
countryinvaded or conquered another, it
brought aboutsome changes in the society in
terms of values, customs and practices.
 These kind of political, economic, social and
culturalchanges as a result of subjugation of
one country byanother are termed as
'Colonization' in history.
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How Do We Know?
 What sources do historians use in writing
about the last 250 years of Indian history?
Administration produces records
 One important source is the official records
of the British administration. Every
instruction, plan, policy decision, agreement,
investigation had to be clearly written up.
Once this was done, things could be properly
studied and debated. This conviction
produced an administrative culture of memos,
notings and reports.
 The British also felt that all important
documents and letters needed to be carefully
62
 preserved. So they set up record rooms
attached to all administrative institutions. The
village tahsildar’s office, the collectorate, the
commissioner’s office, the provincial
secretariats, the lawcourts – all had their
record rooms. Specialised institutions like
archives and museums were also established
to preserve important records.
 You can also study the notes and reports that
district officials prepared, or the instructions
and directives that were sent by officials at
the top to provincial administrators.
 In the early years of the nineteenth century
these documents were carefully copied out
and beautifully written by calligraphists –
that is, by those who specialised in the art of
beautiful writing. By the middle of the
nineteenth century, with the spread of
printing, multiple copies of these records
were printed as proceedings of each
government department.
Surveys become important
 By the early nineteenth century detailed
surveys were being carried out to map the
entire country. In the villages, revenue
surveys were conducted. The effort was to
know the topography, the soil quality, the
flora, the fauna, the local histories, and the
cropping pattern – all the facts seen as
necessary to know about to administer the
region. From the end of the nineteenth
century, Census operations were held every
ten years.
 These prepared detailed records of the
number of people in all the provinces of
India, noting information on castes, religions
and occupation. There were many other
surveys – botanical surveys, zoological
surveys, archaeological surveys,
anthropological surveys, forest surveys.
What official records do not tell?
 They tell us what the officials thought, what
they were interested in, and what they wished
to preserve for posterity. These records do
not always help us understand what other
people in the country felt, and what lay
behind their actions.
 We have diaries of people, accounts of
pilgrims and travellers, autobiographies of
important personalities, and popular booklets
that were sold in the local bazaars. As
printing spread, newspapers were published
and issues were debated in public. Leaders
and reformers wrote to spread their ideas,
poets and novelists wrote to express their
feelings.
 All these sources, however, were produced
by those who were literate. From these we
will not be able to understand how history
was experienced and lived by the tribals and
the peasants, the workers in the mines or the
poor on the streets. Getting to know their
lives is a more difficult task.
CHAPTER: 2 - FROM TRADE TO
TERRITORY (THE COMPANY
ESTABLISHES POWER)
 Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful
Mughal rulers. He established control over a
very large part of the territory that is now
known as India. After his death in 1707,
many Mughal governors (subadars) and big
zamindars began assertingtheir authority and
establishing regional kingdoms. As powerful
regional kingdoms emerged in various parts
of lndia, Delhi could no longer function as an
effective centre.
 By the second half of the eighteenth century,
however, a new power was emerging on the
political horizon - the British. Did you know
that the British originally came as a small
trading company and were reluctant to
acquire territories? How then did they come
to be masters of a vast empire? In this chapter
yo u will see how this came about.
East India Company Comes East
Fig. Routes to India in the eighteenth century

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In 1600, the East India Company acquired a
charter from the ruler of England, Queen
Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade
with the East. This meant that no other
trading group in England could compete with
the East India Company.
 With this charter the Company could venture
across the oceans, looking for new lands from
which it could buy goods at a cheap price,
and carry them back to Europe to sell at
higher prices. The Company did not have to
fear competition from other English trading
companies. Mercantile trading companies in
those days made profit primarily by
63
 CLASS: 9th – INDIAN AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD - I
CHAPTER: 1 - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
 On the morning of 14th July 1789, the city of
Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had
commanded the troops to move into the city.
Rumours spread that the king would soon
order the army to open fire upon the citizens.
Some 7,000 men and women gathered in
front of the town hall and decided to form a
peoples' militia. They broke into a number of
government buildings in search of arms.
 Finally, a group of several hundred people
marched towards thhe eastern part of the city
and stormed the fortressprison, the Bastille,
where they hoped to find hoarded
ammunition. In the armed fight that followed,
the commander of the Bastille was killed and
the prisoners released.
 The days that followed saw more rioting both
in Paris and the countryside. Most people
were protesting against the high price of
bread. Actually, it was the beginning of a
chain ofevents that ultimately led to the
execution of the king in France, though most
people at that time did not anticipate this
outcome.
French Society during the Late 18th Century
 In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of
kings ascended the throne of France.
 Causes for an empty treasury of France under
Louis XVI:
1. Long years of war had drained the
financial resources of France.
2. High cost of maintaining an
extravagant court at the immense
palace of Versailles.
3. Under Louis XVI, France helped the
thirteen American colonies to gain their
independence from the common
enemy, Britain.
4. The war added more than a billion
livres to a debt that had already risen to
more than 2 billion livres.
5. Lenders, who gave the state credit, now
began to charge 10 per cent interest on
loans. The French Society in the
eighteenth century was divided into
three Estates, and only members of the
Thirds Estate paid taxes.
6. The members of the First Estate, that is
the clergy, enjoyed certain privileges by
birth. The most important of these was
exemption from paying taxes to the
state.
7. The members of the Second Estate
were the nobilty. They enjoyed feudal
privileges by birth. These included
feudal dues, which they extracted from
the peasants. They were also exempted
from paying taxes.
8. The Third Estate comprised of
peasants, artisans, landless labour,
servants, lawyers, doctors,
administrative officials, traders, etc.,
they had to pay all taxes to the state.
 Peasants made up about 90% of the
population. However, only a small number of
them owned the land they cultivated.
 Peasants were obliged to render services to
the lord, work in his house and fields, and
serve in the army or to participate in building
roads.
 All members of the Third Estate had to pay
taxes to the state including a direct tax, called
'taille' and a number of indirect taxes which
were levied on articles of everyday
consumption like salt or tobacco.
The Struggle to Survive
 Increasing population of Franceled to a rapid
increase in the demand for food grains. But
the production of grains could not keep pace
with the demand. So the price of bread rose
rapidly.
 Wages of the workers did notkeep pace with
the rise in prices. Sothe gap between the poor
and the rich widened.
 Things became worse whenever drought or
hail reduced the harvest. This led to a
subsistence crisis, something that occurred
frequently in France during the Old Regime.
A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to
Privileges
 The eighteenth century witnessed the
emergence of social groups, termed the
middle class. They earned their wealth
through an expanding overseas trade and
from the manufacture of goods such as
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woollen and silk textiles that were either
exported or bought by the richer members of
society.
 Member’s of the middle class were educated
and believed that no group in the society
should be privileged by birth. Rather, a
person's social position must depend on his
merit.
 These ideas envisaging a society based on
freedom and equal laws and opportunities for
all were put forward by philosophers such
as.John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.
 In his two Treatises of Govemment, Locke
sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and
94
 absolute right of the monarch. Rousseau
carried the idea forward, proposinga form of
government based on a social contract
between people and their representatives.
 In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu
proposed a division of power within the
govermment between the legislative, the
executive and the judiciary.
The Outbreak of the Revolution
 Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to
be able to meet the expenses of the State.
 In France of the Old Regime, the monarch
did not have the power to impose taxes
according to his will alone. Rather he had to
call a meeting of the Estates General to pass
the proposals for new taxes.
Fig.The spread of the Great Fear. The map shows how bands
 On 5th May 1789, Louis XVI called an of peasants spread from one point to another.
assembly of the Estates General to pass France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy
proposals for new taxes. Peasants, artisans  The National Assembly completed the draft
and women were denied entry to the of the Constitution in 1791. Its main
assembly and from participating in the objective was to limit the powers of the
meeting. monarch.
 Voting in the Estates General in the past had  These powers were now separated and
been conducted according to the principle assigned to different institutions - the
that each estate had one vote. But this time, legislature, executive and judiciary. This
members of the Third Estate demanded that made France a constitutional monarchy.
voting now be conducted by the assembly as  Not all citizens, however, had the right to
a whole, where each member would have one vote. Only men above 25 years of age who
vote. When the king rejected this proposal, paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a
members of the Third Estate walked out of labourer's wage were given the status of
the assembly in protest. active citizens and were entitled to vote. The
 On 20th June 1789, the representatives of the remaining men and all the women were
Third Estate assembled in the hall ofan classed as passive citizens.
indoor tennis court in the grounds of
Versailles under the leadership of Mirabeau
and Abbé Sieyès. They declared themselves a
National Assembly and swore not to disperse
till they had drafted a constitution for France
that would limit the powers of the monarch.
 Because of bad harvest, increase in demand
for food grains and high price of bread,
people of France were becoming angry day
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by day. At the same time, the king ordered

the troops to move into Paris. Finally, on 14th
July, the agitated crowd stormed and
destroyed the Bastille.
 On the night of 4th August 1789, the
Assembly passed a decree abolishing the
feudal system of obligations and taxes.
Members of the clergy too were forced to
give up their privileges. Tithes were
abolished and lands owned by the Church
were confiscated. As a result, the government
acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.
 The Constitution began with a Declaration of
the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as
the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom
of opinion, equality before the law, were
established as 'natural and inalienable rights'.
These rights belonged to each human being
by birth and could not be taken away.
The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
1. Men are born and remain free and equal in
rights.

95
 CLASS: 10th – INDIAN AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD - II
CHAPTER: 1 - THE RISE OF NATIONALISM
IN EUROPE
 During the nineteenth century, nationalism
emerged as a force which brought about
sweeping changes in the political and mental
world of Europe. The end result of these
changes was the emergence of the nation-
state in place of the multi-national dynastic
empires of Europe. The concept and practices
of a modern state, in which a centralised
power exercised sovereign control over a
clearly defined territory had been developing
over a long period of time in Europe.
 But a nation-state was one in which the
majority of its citizens, and not only its
rulers, came to develop a sense of common
identity and shared history or descent. This
commonness did not exist from time
immemorial; it was forged through struggles,
through the actions ofleaders and the
common people. This chapter will look at the
diverse processes through which nation-states
and nationalism came into being in
nineteenth-century Europe.
 Nationalism in Europe can betraced back to
the decline of Feudalism and the beginning of
Renaissance. The Renaissance in Europe
fostered new political ideas.
 Nationalism is a feeling of oneness with the
society or the state, love and devotion for the
motherland and belief in the political identity
of one's country are the basic attributes of
nationalism.
 Nationalism is a sense of identity with the
nation. The concepts of liberty, equality,
fraternity and nationalism dominated the
social and political scene of Europe in the
19th century.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the
Nation
 The first clear expression of nationalism
came with the French Revolution in 1789.
France, as you would remember, was a full-
fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule
of an absolute monarch. The political and
constitutional changes that came in the wake
of the French Revolution led to the transfer of
sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of
French citizens. The revolution proclaimed
that it was the people who would henceforth
constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
 When the news of the events in France
reached the different cities of Europe,
students and other members of educated
middle classes began setting upJacobin clubs.
Their activities and campaigns prepared the
way for the French armies which moved into
Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of
Italy in the 1790s. With the outbreak of the
revolutionary wars, the French armies began
to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.
 Within the wide swathe of territory that came
under his control, Napoleon set about
introducing many of the reforms. Through a
return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt,
destroyed democracy in France, but in the
administrative field he had incorporated
revolutionary principles in order to make the
whole system more rational and efficient. The
Civil Code of 1804 usually known as the
Napoleonic Code - did away with all
privileges based on birth, established equality
before the law and secured the right to
property. This Code wasS exported to the
regions under French control i.e. in the Dutch
Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and
Germany. Peasants, artisans, workers and
new busine ssmen enjoyed a new-found
freedom.
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 Businessmen and small-scale producers of
goods, in particular, began to realise that
uniform laws, standardised weights and
measures, and a common national currency
would facilitate the movement and exchange
of goods and capital from one region to
another.
 However, in the areas conquered, the
reactions of the local populations to French
rule were mixed. Initially, in many places, the
French armies were welcomed as harbingers
of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon
turned to hostility, as it became clear that the
new administrative arrangements did not go
113
 hand in hand with political freedom.
Increased taxation, censorship, forced
conscription into the French armies required
to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to
outweigh the advantages of the administrative
changes.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
 If you look at the map of mid-eighteenth-
century Europe you will find that there were
no'nation-states as we know them today.
Eastern and Central Europe were under
autocratic monarchies within the territories of
which lived diverse peoples.
 They did not see themselves as sharing a
collective identity or a common culture.
Often, they even spoke different languages
and belonged to different ethnic groups.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
 Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy
was the dominant class on the continent. The
members of this class were united by a
common way of life that cut across regional
divisions. They owned estates. Their families
were often connected by ties of marriage.
This powerful aristocracy was, however,
numerically a small group. However, the
majority of the population was made up of
the peasantry.
 In Western and parts of Central Europe the
growth of industrial production and trade
meant the growth of towns and the
emergence of commercial classes.
Industrialisation during the nineteenth
century in France & Germany led to rise of
new social groups: a working-class
population, and middle clases made up of
industrialists, businessmen, professionals. It
was among the educated, liberal middle
classes that ideas of national unity following
the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained
popularity.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
 Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-
century Europe were closely allied to the
ideology of liberalism. The termliberalism'
derives from the Latin root liber, meaning
free. For the new middle classes liberalism
stood for freedom for the individual and
equality of all before the law. Politically, it
emphasised the concept of government by
consent. Since the French Revolution,
liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy
and clerical privileges, a constitution and
representative government through
parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also
stressed the inviolability of private property.
 Yet, equality before the law did not
necessarily stand for universal suffrage. The
right to vote and to get elected was granted
exclusively to property-Owning men. Men
without property and all women were
excluded from political rights. Only for a
brief period under the Jacobins did all adult
males enjoy suffrage. However, the
Napoleonic Code went back to limited
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a
minor, subject to the authority of fathers and
husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries women and non-
propertied men organised opposition
movements demanding equal political rights.
 In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for
the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state-imposed restrictions on the movement
of goods and capital. During the nineteenth
century this was a strong demand of the
emerging middle classes. Let us take the
example of the German-speaking regions in
the first half of the nineteenth century.
Napoleon's administrative measures had
created out of countless small principalities a
confederation of 39 states. Each of these
possessed its own currency, and weights and
measures. A merchant travelling in 1833
from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his
goods would have had to pass through 11
customs barriers and pay a customs duty of
about 5 per cent at each one of them. Duties
were often levied according to the weight or
measurement of the goods. As each region
had its own system of weights and measures,
this involved time-consuming calculation.
 Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to
economic exchange and growth by the new
commercial classes, who argued for the
creation of a unified economic territory
allowing the unhindered movement of goods,
people and capital. In 1834, a customs union
or zollverein was formed at the initiative of
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Prussia and joined by most of the German
states. The union abolished tariff barriers and
reduced the number of currencies from over
thirty to two. The creation of a network of
railways further stimulated mobility,
hanessing economic interests to national
unification. A wave of economic nationalism
strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments
growing at the time.
A New Conservatism after 1815
 Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815,
European governments were driven by a
spirit of conservatism. Conservatives
believed that established, traditional
114
 CLASS: 11 - THEMES IN WORLD HISTORY
CHAPTER: 2 – WRITING AND CITY LIFE
Mesopotamia and Its Geography
 City life began in Mesopotamia
(Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek
words ‘mesos’, meaning middle, and
‘potamos’, meaning river.)
 It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the
Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic
of Iraq.
 In the north, there is a stretch of upland called
a steppe, where animal herding offers people
a better livelihood than agriculture
 Agriculture began between 7000 and 6000
BCE.
 Soil was very fertile here but agriculture was
threatened because of natural causes.
 Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some
of its important cities.
 The excavation work started 150 years ago.
MAP. Mesopotamia: Mountains, Steppe, Desert, Irrigated
Zone of the South.
The Significance of Urbanisation
 Mesopotamian civilization was based on
definite plan.
 Cities and towns are develop when an
economy develops in spheres other than food
production that it becomes an advantage for
people to cluster in towns.
 Urban economies comprise besides food
production, trade, manufactures and services.
 There is social organisation in place
 Helpful for the city manufacturers.
 The division of labour is a mark of urban life.
Movement of Goods into Cities
 However rich the food resources of
Mesopotamia, its mineral resources were few.
 Most parts of the south lacked stones for
tools, seals and jewels; the wood of the Iraqi
date-palm and poplar was not good enough
for carts, cart wheels or boats; and there was
no metal for tools, vessels or ornaments.
 So we can surmise that the ancient
Mesopotamians could have traded their
abundant textiles and agricultural produce for
wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell and
various stones from Turkey and Iran, or
across the Gulf. These
 The canals and natural channels of ancient
Mesopotamia were in fact routes of goods
transport between large and small
settlements, and in the account on the city of
Mari later in the chapter, the importance of
the Euphrates as a ‘world route’ will become
clear.
The Development of Writing
 The first Mesopotamian tablets, written
around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like
signs and numbers.
 Writing began when society needed to keep
records of transactions – because in city life
transactions occurred at different times, and
involved many people and a variety of goods
 Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.
Fig. A clay tablet written on both sides in cuneiform. It is a
mathematical exercise – you can see a triangle and lines
across the triangle on the top of the obverse side. You can see
that the letters have been pressed into the clay.
1. Political Factors
 From about 1100 BCE, when the
Assyrians established their kingdom in
the north, the region became known as
Assyria. The first known language of
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the land was Sumerian.
 Writing was used not only for keeping
records, but also for making
dictionaries, giving legal validity to
land transfers, narrating the deeds of
kings, and announcing the changes a
king had made in the customary laws of
the land.
 It can be inferred that in Mesopotamian
understanding it was kingship that
organised trade and writing.
2. Religious Factors
 Early settlers (their origins are
unknown) began to build and rebuild
130
 temples at selected spots in their
villages. The earliest known temple
was a small shrine made of unbaked
bricks. Temples were the residences of
various gods.
 Temples were centres of religious
activities. They were dedicated to
different gods and goddess. (5000 BCE
– Settlements began to develop in
southern Mesopotamia).
3. Social Factors
 Life in the City – Mesopotamian
society the nuclear family was the
norm, although a married son and his
family often resided with his parents.
The father was the head of the family.
 A ruling elite had emerged
 Had a major share of wealth
 Followed nuclear family system
and patriarchal system
 Condition of women
 System of marriages
 In Mesopotamian tradition, Uruk was
the city par excellence, often known
simply as The City.
4. Economic Factors
 Writing began in Mesopotamia in 3200
BCE.
 Writing became as a records of
transactions
 2600 BCE the letters became cuneiform
and language was Sumerian
1. Urbanism
2. Trade
3. Record of transaction
System of Writing
 Writing was skilled craft. It conveyed in
visual form of system of sounds of a
particular language
 Thus, the signs that a Mesopotamian scribe
had to learn ran into hundreds, and he had to
be able to handle a wet tablet and get it
written before it dried.
Literacy (Upscsummarynotes.Com)
 Writing reflected the mode of speaking
 King and very few could read and writing.
 Official letter from a king could be read
 For the most part, however, writing reflected
the mode of speaking.
The Uses of Writing
 Connections between city life trade and
writing is brought out.
 It has brought out in a long Sumerian epic
poem about Enmerkar (king)
 Kingship was able to organise trade and
writing
 Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli and precious
metals for the beautification of a city temple
and sent his messenger out to get them from
the chief of a very distant land called Aratta.
Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia:
Temples and Kings
 From 5000 BCE, settlements had begun to
develop in southern Mesopotamia. The
earliest cities emerged from some of these
settlements. These were of various kinds:
those that gradually developed around
temples; those that developed as centres of
trade; and imperial cities.
 Early settlers (their origins are unknown)
began to build and rebuild temples at selected
spots in their villages. The earliest known
temple was a small shrine made of unbaked
bricks
 In spite of natural fertility, agriculture was
subject to hazards. The natural outlet
channels of the Euphrates would have too
much water one year and flood the crops, and
sometimes they would change course
altogether.
 At Uruk, one of the earliest temple towns, we
find depictions of armed heroes and their
victims, and careful archaeological surveys
have shown that around 3000 BCE, when
Uruk grew to the enormous extent of 250
hectares – twice as large as Mohenjo-daro
would be in later centuries – dozens of small
villages were deserted. There had been a
major population shift.
Life in the City
 What we have seen is that a ruling elite had
emerged: a small section of society had a
major share of the wealth.
 Nothing makes this fact as clear as the
enormous riches (jewellery, gold vessels,
wooden musical instruments inlaid with
white shell and lapis lazuli, ceremonial
daggers buried with some kings and queens
at Ur.
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 In Mesopotamian society the nuclear family
was the norm, although a married son and his
family often resided with his parents. The
father was the head of the family.
 Ur was a town whose ordinary houses were
systematically excavated in the 1930s.
 There were no street drains of the kind we
find in contemporary Mohenjo-daro.
A Trading Town in a Pastoral Zone
 After 2000 BCE the royal capital of Mari
flourished. Herders need to exchange young
animals, cheese, leather and meat in return
for grain, metal tools, etc., and the manure of
131
 CLASS: 12 – THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY
CHAPTER: 1 - BRICKS BREADS AND
BONES
Period
1. Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE
2. Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900
BCE
3. Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE
4. Extent of Harappan civilisation:-
a) Northern boundary- Manda Southern
Boundary- Daimabad
b) Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western
boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics
of the Harappan Civilisation.

Beginnings
 There were several archaeological cultures in
the region prior to the Mature Harappan.
These cultures were associated with
distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture
and pastoralism, and some crafts.
 Settlements were generally small, and there
were virtually no large buildings. It appears
that there was a break between the Early
Harappan and the Harappan civilisation,
evident from large-scale burning at some
sites, as well as the abandonment of certain
Agricultural technologies:
 Representations on seals and terracotta
sculpture indicate that the bull was known,
and archaeologists extrapolate from this that
oxen were used for ploughing.
 Terracotta models of the plough have been
found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali.
Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan
has also been found.
 Traces of irrigation canals have been found at
Shortugahi in Afghanistan.
 Traces of rainwater harvesting found in
Dholavira in Gujarat through water
reservoirs.
MOHENJODARO: A planned urban city
Two Sections of settlement:-
Laying out drains
 One of the most distinctive features of
Harappan cities was the carefully planned
drainage system. If you look at the plan of the
Lower Town you will notice that roads and
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settlements. streets were laid out along an approximate

Subsistence Strategies “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles. It
 The Harappans ate wide range of plants and seems that streets with drains were laid out
animal products. first and then houses built along them. If
domestic waste water had to flow into the
 Animal bones found at Harappan sites
street drains, every house needed to have at
include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo
least one wall along a street.
and pig.
 The bones of wild species found suggest the
Harappans hunted these animals themselves
or obtained meat from other hunting
communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also
found.

168
Domestic architecture
 The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides
examples of residential buildings. Many were
centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all
sides. The courtyard was probably the centre
of activities such as cooking and weaving,
particularly during hot and dry weather. What
is also interesting is an apparent concern for
privacy: there are no windows in the walls
along the ground level. Besides, the main
entrance does not give a direct view of the
interior or the courtyard.
Fig. This is an isometric drawing of a large house in
Mohenjodaro. There was a well in room no 6.
The Citadel
 These were constructed on mud brick
platforms and were walled, which meant that
it was physically separated from the Lower
Town
 These include the warehouse – a massive
structure of which the lower brick portions
remain.
 The upper portions, probably of wood, was –
the Great Bath. It was a large rectangular tank
in courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all
four sides.
Fig. Plan of the Citadel
The Lower Town
 It had carefully planned drainage system. The
roads and streets were laid out along an
approximate “grid” pattern.
 It provides examples of residential buildings.
Many were centred on a courtyard, with
rooms on all sides.
 Every house had its own bathroom paved
with bricks, with drains connected through
the wall to the street drains.
 The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the
context in which it was found (the Citadel,
with several distinctive buildings), has led
scholars to suggest that it was meant for some
kind of a special ritual bath.
Tracking Social Differences
 Burials: At burials in Harappan sites the
dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes,
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there were differences in the way the burial
pit was made. Some graves contain pottery
and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief
that these could be used in the afterlife.
Jewellery has been found in burials of both
men and women.
 Looking for “luxuries”: The artefacts are
classified as utilitarian and luxuries by
the archaeologists. Utilitarian objects are of
daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary
materials such as stone or clay. Luxuries are
those items if they are rare or made from
costly, non-local materials or with
complicated technologies. The situation
169