Electric Charges and Field

Electrostatic: - It is that branch of electricity in which properties of static electrical charges are
studied
Nature has its two Forms which they show their characteristics
Matter: -It has Particle in nature like mass, shape volume, momentum energy etc.
Radiation: - It has wave nature like wave length vibrations, speed, etc. it also energy carrier
Matter can apply force due to its two characteristics
1. Mass: - due to this characteristic Gravitational force act between bodies
2. Electric charge: - Electrostatic force is applied between Static charges
Magnetic force applied between moving charges
Electric charge: - It is a property carried by a matter due to which it can apply force on other
matter particles.
A matter can have two States “Charged and Uncharged”

A charge metal can apply force and this force is found to be of two types. force of repulsion and
force of attraction. like charges repel and unlike charges attract to each other
To explain it we have to discover that charges
are of two types. types of charges where name Force of Attraction
as +ve and -ve by Benjamin Franklin +q -q

This nomenclature was given because charges

can be added to Zero like quantities which are Force of Repulson
+ve and -ve +q +q
A body can be charged by many processes and
one of them is rubbing during rubbing one Fig. 1.1 Force due Electric charge
object become +ve and other compulsorily -ve
Electrostatic series: - Two substances are
rubbed together former in following series will
be +ve and other will be -ve
1. Glass 2. Flannel
3. Wool 4. Silk
5. Metal 6. Hard Rubber
7. Wax 8. Resin
9. Sulphur
Electroscope: - It helps to know the presence of
electric charge on a material. It uses property of
repulson of charges
It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a box,
with two thin gold leaves attached to its bottom end.
When a charged object touches the metal knob at the
top of the rod, charge flows on to the leaves and they
diverge. The degree of divergence is an indicator of
the amount of charge.

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Electron Theory: -
1. In nucleus, protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged.
2. They are equal in numbers. Net charge of atom is zero.
3. During rubbing, electrons are exchanged. This explains developing opposite charges.
4. The body with excess electrons become negative and the body which loose the elec-
tron become positive.
5. Whenever there is need to move a charge electron will always move, which moves
being 1837 times lighter.
Note: - Only electron is responsible for electrification.
6. Charge is always carried on particle, therefore in vacuum charge cannot move.
7. Negatively charged body become heavier, positively charged body become lighter.
8. The charge on electron is known as elementary charge. It is denoted by ‘e’.
Charge on electron (e)=1.6x10-19C
Mass of electron (Me)= 9.109x10-31kg.
Classification of Materials w.r.t Charge Movement: -
1. Conductors: -The materials which allow charges to move within it.
Example: - Metals, Electrolytes, tap water, human body, etc.
2. Insulators: - The materials which do not allow charges to move through it.
Example: - Non-metals, Plastic, Gasses, Pure water etc.
3. Semiconductor: - At low temperature this material behaves like insulator and at
room temperature this material become conductor.
Example: - Silicon Germanium etc.
4. Superconductor: - A superconductor is an element or metallic alloy which, loses all
electrical resistance at very low temperature. In principle, superconductors can al-
low electrical current to flow without any energy loss.

Dielectric strength of insulators: - Dielectric strength of insulators is the maximum electric

Field, it can with stand before it breaks down and become a conductor.
For better insulator dielectric strength should be more.
Charging a body:- Uncharged Uncharged
cloth Plastic rod
1. By rubbing: - Electron get en-
tangled and transferred from one -vely charged +vely charged
object to another object. cloth Plastic rod

Rubbing a neutral rod with a neutral cloth can result in them both
becoming charged

2. By Conduction: - When metals (conductor) come in contact with each other the charges
get transferred from one to another this phenomenon is called conduction
+I +I +I +I
+I +I +I +I
+I +I +I +I

I I +I +I +I
+I I I I I +I
+I I I +I I I
+I + II
I+I+I+

+I+I+I
I I + II

II+II I

+I +I I
I I +I I
I+III+

Before contact Nuetral After Contact Charged

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 3. Charging by Induction: -
Electrostatic Induction: - When a charged body is brought near (not in contact) an
uncharged body the charges in uncharged body gets polarized this phenomenon is called
electrostatic induction.
Step 1: - An uncharged metallic body
and a positive charge rod bring close
Step-1 together as shown in figure 1.5. the rod
Polarized
+ + + + + + + +
+I+I+I+I+I+I

+ +I I+ + + + + +
I II I II II I II II II II II I I
is brought close to the metallic body. the
+I+I+I+I+I
I+I+I+I+I+

++ + + +
positive charge in the body moves away
due to repulsion and start pilling up at
the farther and. the near end becomes
negatively charged due to deficit of elec-
Earth trons this process of charge distribution
Neutral Neutral
stops when the net force on the positive
charges inside the metal is zero.
Step-2 Step-3 Step 2: - Connect the metal to the earth
by connecting wires. the positive charge
+ + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + +

+ +I I I + I + I +
will flow to the earth when the negative
I II I II II I II II II II II I I
+ +I I I + I + I +

+ +I I I + I + I +
I II I II II I II II II II II I I

I II I II II I II II II II II I I

+ I + I +

charges at the near end will remain held

+ I + I +

+ I + I +

Remove
Cut Earth Wire
Conductor
there due to the force of attraction. as
shown in figure.
Step 3: - Disconnect the metal from the
Charged ground the negative charge continuous
Charged
to be held at the near end. remove
Fig. 1.5 Charging by Induction the electrified rod the negative charge
will spread uniformly over the body as
shown in figure

Basic Properties of Electric Charges: -

1. Additivity: - Charges can be added by simple rules of algebra. [(+) +(-) =0]
2. Quantization of Charges: - Electric charge on a body is not a continuous quantity
but it is integral multiple of charge on one electron, Q= ±ne. The electron cannot be
divided further, therefore charge is always integral multiple of ‘e’ (1.6x10-19C).

Q= ±ne
3. Conservation of Charges: - Isolated electric charge can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only be transferred.

U 94  Th92  He2 (Radioactive Decay Law)

238 234 4

The charges in pair can be created or destroyed.

i. Annihilation: -
Electron (e-) + Positron (e+) = γ + γ (Radioactive Gamma Rays)
ii. Pair Production: -
Heavy Metal (P+) + Gamma Rays (2γ) = Electron (e-) + Positron (e+)

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Coulomb’s Law in Electro-statics: -
The Force between two-point charges placed at some distance is directly proportional to
product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.
Let two-point charges Q1 and Q2 placed at a distance ‘r’. Then the force between them is
F  Q1  Q2

 It's also called as inversse square law 

1
F
r2
Q1  Q2
F
r2
Q1  Q2  1 2 
F  C  C= 4  9  10 Nm C 
9 2
,
r 2
 0 
where “C “ is Coulomb’s constant depends on medium.
Permittivity: - It is a characteristic of a medium between two charges which effect the force
between them. The measurement of it has a symbol Epsilon (Ɛ).
1
C
4 0
1 Q1  Q2
F
4 0 r 2
Ɛ0 (Epsilon naught) is permittivity of free space which means minimum permittivity
1
 9  109 Nm 2 C 2
4 0
 0  8.85  1012 C 2 N 1m 2

Relative Permittivity (ε r ): -
Let Permittivity of medium is ε m and Electrostatic Force due to this medium is
1 Q1  Q2
Fm 
4 m r 2
1 Q Q
 1 2 2
Force in Free space 4  r
Relative permittivity of medium ( r ( m ) )   0

Force in Medium 1 Q Q
 1 2 2
4 m r
m
r 
0
m  0  r
1 Q1  Q2
Fm 
4 m r 2
1 Q1  Q2
Fm 
4 0  r r 2

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Note: - 1. Relative permittivity is also equal to Dielectric constant (k)
2. Relative permittivity of Free space = 1
3. Force is maximum in Free space.
4. Any medium has Permittivity >1
Vector form of Coulomb’s Law:- vector notation of force and distance as follows
Fon.by , rto , from
 
 
Force always act along the line joining the to point r21
F12 F21
 Q1 Q2
Unit vector of r 21 will be r 21
 1 Q Q Or we can write r 2 =r 2 
F21   1 2 2 r 21
40  21

r 21

 1 Q Q
F21   1 2 2 r 21
40 r
∵ r  r
21 12  Both aree in opposite direction 
 F12   F21 The Forces are equal and Opposit 

  r 21  r 21  r 
 1 Q1  Q2 r 21   
F21     r 21 
40 r2 r r 
 21 r 
 
 1 Q1  Q2  r 21  1 Q1  Q2  r 21
F21   (OR) F21    3
40 r3 40 r 21

In Position Vector Form:-

  
r 1  r 21  r 2 
   F12
r 21  r 2  r 1
  

 1 Q1  Q2 (r 2  r 1 ) Q1 r21
F21     3 
40 r 2  r1 r1 
F21
  
 1 Q1  Q2 (r 1  r 2 ) Q2
F12     3 r2
40 r r1 2

The Force Between Multiple charges: -

The force due to the multiple charge on a charged particle is the vector sum of all forces due
to each charge.
The force between two charges is independent of presence of any other charge.
−Q2
Q5 Q1

Q3
−Q4

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Principle of Super Position: - Force on a charge is vector sum of forces due to different
charges around at
   
F 1  F 12  F 13  F 14  ...........
 1  Q1  Q2  Q1  Q3  Q1  Q4  
F1   r  r  r  ...........
4 0  r12 3
12 13 14
r13 r14
3 3


Electric Field:-
Electric field is space around a charge where its effect of electrostatic force can be experi-
enced by other charges. The effect may be strong or weak, we call it intensity of electric field.
It is denoted by “E”.
The force on a test charge ‘q’ kept in electric field of a source Charge Q with an intensity ‘E’ is
F
F  qE  E
q
If distance between source charge Q and test charge q is r
1 Qq
F 
40 r 2
1 Qq
qE    F  qE 
40 r 2
1 Q
E  2 This is for point charge only
40 r
Intensity of Electric Field:- It’s force experienced by a unit test charge kept at that location in
electric field of source charge
Electric field is a vector quantity.
 
 F  Direction of E is the direction of force 
E  
q experrience by test charge 
1 2 1
Unit  N .C , in MKS  kg .m.sec C
Dimension   MLT 3 A1 

Physical Significance of Electric Field:-

Electric field lines are imaginary smooth curves drawn in space to represent electric field
over there.
Characteristics of Electric Field Lines:-
• The lines will always start from a positive charge and terminate at negative charge
and the lines are discontinuous curves.
• The lines will always carry an arrow.
• Field lines are always smooth curves. Tangent at any point gives direction of electric
force field at that point.
• Two lines never cross each other because if they cross that will indicate two di-
rection of force at that point which is not possible. Hence crossing two lines is not
possible.
• Crowding of electric field lines indicate relative strength of electric field.
• Electric field lines are always at right angle to the surface.

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• The electric field lines act as stretched • The lines laterally repel each other
string trying to decrease their length. This (normal to line) that indicates the
explains force of attraction between posi- force of repulsion between similar
tive and negative charges. charges.

Distribution of charges: -
Due to force of repulsion between like charges distribute themselves in a conductor. They
remain at the distances such that the net force on each charge is same. The net force on
each charge is zero
+
1. Linear distribution: - +
Linear charge density is charge per unit length. +
dl +
charge p
  charge    length + r
length
+
dq    dl +
Electric Field at a point p is +
1 dq
dE   2 [dE  electric field due to dl ]
40 r
1   dl
dE   2  dq    dl 
40 r

Net Electric field is

 dl
40  r 2
E

2. Areal Distribution: -
Areal charge density is charge per unit area ++
+ ++ + +

charge
 charge    area + ++ds + p
area ++ + + r
dq    ds + ++ + +
+ ++ + +
+ ++
Electric Field at a point p is
1 dq
dE   2 [dE  electric field due to ds ]
40 r
1   ds
dE   2  dq    ds 
40 r

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 Net Electric field is
 ds
E 
40 r 2
3. Volumetric Distribution: -
Volumetric charge density is charge per unit volume ++++
++ +
++ + ++ +dv ++ + ++ r
charge p
  charge    area
area ++ + + + + + ++
dq    ds ++ + + + + + ++
+ +
Electric Field at a point p is
+++

1 dq
dE   [dE  electric field due to ds ]
40 r 2
1   ds
dE   2  dq    ds 
40 r

Net Electric field is

 ds
E 
40 r 2
Electric Dipole:-
Two equal and opposite charges attached at a fixed distance is called electric dipole.

Example:- Na + Cl- molecule

The molecules make two types of dipole.
1. Polar Molecules: - When centre of positive and negative charges do not coincide
and have distance between them are called polar molecules or the dipole.
Example:- NaCl, H 2O
2. Non-Polar Molecules: - If centre of positive and negative charges coincide of a
molecule then it’s called as Non-Polar molecules
Only in under the effect of external electric field a distance is created between
them and they behave as dipoles.
Example:- CO 2 , CH 4 (Fig)
The effectiveness of electric dipole is known as dipole moment is given by
Dipole moment (Fig)
Dipole moment is a vector quantity. Its direction is along the line from negative to
positive charge.
Electric Field Due to dipole at Point on Axial Line:-
Let m is a point on axial line at distance r from centre of dipole having charges +q and –q and
distance between the charges is 2l.distance of point m from –q charge is r-l and from +q is r+l
+q −q
l l
r
r  l 
r  l 

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Electric field at m due to the +q and –q is
1 q
E q  
40 (r  l ) 2
1 q
E q   
40 (r  l ) 2
NET E  E q  E q
 1 q   1 q 
E     
 4 0 ( r  l )2   4 0 ( r  l )2 
 1
q 1 
E   
40
 ( r  l ) 2
( r  l )2 
q  (r  l )2  (r  l )2 
E  
40  (r  l ) 2 (r  l ) 2 
q  r 2  l 2  2rl  r 2  l 2  2rl 
E  
40  (r  l ) 2 (r  l ) 2 
q 4rl 2r.2ql
E  
40 (r 2  l 2 ) 2 40 (r 2  l 2 ) 2
2 Pr
E
40 (r 2  l 2 ) 2
If  l  r. then r 2  l 2  r 2
2 Pr 2P  Direction of Electric field is in
E  E  the direction of dipole moment
40 r 4 40 r 3 
1 1
Epoint charge Edipole
r2 r3
The Electric field due to dipole deplete faster than point charge

Electric Field Due to dipole at Point on Equatorial Line:-

Let a point p on equatorial line of a dipole at a distance r.
Distance of point p from +q and –q is (r 2 + l 2 )
 1 q
Electric field due to +q  E  q  
40 (r 2  l 2 )
 1 q E− q
Electric field due to  q  E  q   2 2
E sin θ

40 (r  l ) E cos θ
   E cos θ
NET E  E  q  E  q
Magnitude of electric field due to both the charges is equal let E+ q
E sin θ
) 2

it is E Direction due to the +q along the line BA and due to –q

+l 2 1

(r
2

along the line AC. As shown in figure components of E ( E sin 

+l
(r 2

2
)

which are normal to axis of dipole are cancelled.

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θ θ
Components ( E cos  which are along the dipole axis are add −q l l +q
up The net E is opposite in the direction to dipole moment P is

9
 E  2 E cos 
1 2q
E  2 2 2 cos 
40 (r  l )
1 2q l  l 
   ∵ cos   2 2 1 2 
40 (r 2  l 2 ) 2 (r 2  l 2 )1 2  ( r  l ) 
1 2ql
  2 2 32
4 0 (r  l )
1 P
  2 2 32  P is dipole moment 
4 0 (r  l )
if r  l Then r 2  l 2  r 2
1 P
 
40 r 3
Its direction is in equatorial position is opposite to P
Electric Field Due to dipole at any general position:-
Let m is point at distance r such that r makes angle θ with P
 is resolve in two directions
P  
along r  P cos andnormal to r  P sin  
θ P
m is on axial line of P cos 
−q l l +q
2 P cos 
 Eax 
40 r 3
P cos θ
m is on equtorial line of P sin 
P sin 
 Eeq 
40 r 3
   
θ P
net E is E net  E ax  E eq
 −q +q
magnitude of E is
P sin θ
 Eax    Eeq 
2
Enet 
2

2 2
 2 P cos    P sin   P
Enet   3 
 3 
 4 cos 2   sin 2 
 4  0 r   4  0 r  4 0 r 3

P
Enet  4 cos 2   1  cos 2  ∵sin 2   1  cos 2 
40 r 3
P
Enet  3 cos 2   1
40 r 3

direction of E is
Eeq 1
tan   tan 
Eax 2
1 
 tan 1  tan  
2 

10
 
Dipole kept in Electric field: - E B
+q
Dipole in uniform electric field experience F   qE

the electrostatic force on both the charges P
due to electric field. Forces are equal and 2l
opposite therefore dipole do not have any F  qE θ
A −q C
linear motion
There are two equal and opposite forces
acting on the dipole having distance between
them it creates Torque in dipole.
Torque  Force  distance between forces  qE  BC
 BC 
 qE  2l sin  sin   2l  BC  2l sin  
 
 PE sin 
Dipole have rotational motion
  
Vector form   P  E

NOTE: - If electric field is not uniform. Then forces on both charges are not equal in magni-
tude. The motion of dipole will be translational as well as rotational
Special cases:
 - 
1. P Along E    00
 PE sin   PE sin 0
 0
 
2. P Normal E    900
 PE sin   PE sin 90
 PE  MAX 
 
3. P and E are opposite direction    1800
 PE sin   PE sin 180
 0

Stability at equilibrium: -

Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium

   
P Along E P Opposite to E
   
P E P E
−q +q +q −q
+q −q
   
P θ E P θ E

−q +q

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Work done in rotating a dipole: -
A dipole of dipole moment P in uniform electric field E is rotating from . 00 to θ 0
Work done is
W  Force  displacement
W  Fx
x
W  Fr   multiplying and devviding by r 
r
 x
W  Ä.  Ä Fr and  = r 
 
work done due to angular displacement d is
dw  Ä.d
Net work done in angular dislacement from 1 to  2
2
 dw   1
Ä.d
2
W   PE sin  d
1

W  PE   cos  2

1

W  PE  cos 1  cos  2 
work done for rotaation from 00 to  0
W00 ¸ 0  PE 1  cos  
from 00 to 900 W00 900  PE
0
from 0 to 180 0
W00 1800  2 PE

Energy in dipole: -
Energy in dipole is amount of net work done to bring it from infinity to a point in electric
field At infinity E and F is zero
+q is brought from infinity to point N let the work on charge +q be +u
+q is brought from infinity to point N the work on charge -q be –u
Now –q is brought further from N to M. the work done is
W  qE.2l
W   PE
Total work done on both the charges
W   u    u     PE   W   PE
 Potential energy of dipole keppt along E is U   PE
At a position when P is normal to E the energy is zero
Now if dipole is rotated by dθ. Work done is dw  Ä.d
hence total work done for rotating is from 900 to 00
 
 PE   cos  90

W900  0   Ä.d   PE sin  .d
90 90

W900  0  PE   cos   0
 
U   PE cos   U  P  E

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Energy in dipole on rotation: -

Potential Work during Net Potential

Angle b/w P & E
energy rotation energy
 
P   00 E -PE 0 -PE


P
  900  -PE +PE 0
E
 
P   1800 E -PE 2PE +PE

  2700 E

P
-PE +PE 0

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