Buckling Behavior and Failure of Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced

Polymer Pultruded Short Columns

M. M. Correia 1; F. Nunes 2; J. R. Correia 3; and N. Silvestre 4

Abstract: This paper addresses the buckling behavior and strength of hybrid pultruded short profiles subjected to uniform compression.
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Since the design of glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) pultruded profiles is often governed by deformations and buckling phenomena, the
introduction of carbon fibers in GFRP (hybrid) profiles has been proved to increase both strength and stiffness of flexural members. In the
context of short compression members (columns), experimental, numerical, and analytical studies were carried out, with particular attention
being given to the local buckling. Two series of 660-mm-long I-section profiles (200 × 100 × 10 mm) were tested under uniform compres-
sion. In order to evaluate the advantages of introducing carbon fiber reinforcement in the flanges, two profile types were tested: bare GFRP
profile (reference column) and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strengthened GFRP profile (hybrid column). Shell finite-element
(SFE) models were developed and validated, based on experimental data. After that, and in order to predict the critical buckling loads of the
tested columns, a study was performed using analytical solutions based on the orthotropic plate theory. Both numerical and analytical results
presented a good agreement with experimental data. Results obtained show that the critical load, the ultimate load, and the axial stiffness
considerably increase with the introduction of CFRP sheets in the flanges of the GFRP profile. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614
.0000339. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Fiber reinforced polymer; Hybrid methods; Columns; Buckling; Experimentation; Tests; Failures.
Author keywords: Pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP); Hybrid carbon fiber-reinforced polymer–glass fiber-reinforced
polymer (CFRP-GFRP) profiles; Short columns; Local buckling; Experimental tests; Shell finite-element (SFE) models; Analytical formulas.

Introduction considered to have linear elastic and orthotropic behavior until

During the last decades, the costs related to strengthening and
maintenance of civil engineering structures made of traditional
materials (such as steel or reinforced concrete) have been rising
considerably. Moreover, there has been an even greater demand
for lighter and faster construction (Correia 2004).
Due to their low self-weight, high durability, and reduced
maintenance requirements, fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
pultruded profiles are becoming a competitive option as structural
materials. However, their use is still hindered by high deformability
(serviceability limit states), buckling sensitivity (ultimate limit
states), and lack of consensual design codes.
The structural behavior of FRP pultruded profiles is slightly
different from that exhibited by traditional materials. They are
1
Civil Engineer, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical Univ. of Lisbon,
Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal (corresponding author).
E-mail: manuelmendescorreia@ist.utl.pt
2
Research Assistant, Ph.D. Student, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Technical Univ. of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal.
E-mail: francisco.nunes@civil.ist.utl.pt
3 experimental program consisted in testing several beams with and
Assistant Professor, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical Univ. of
Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal. E-mail: jcorreia@
civil.ist.utl.pt
4
Assistant Professor, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical Univ. of
Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal. E-mail: nunos@
civil.ist.utl.pt.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 8, 2012; approved on
October 15, 2012; published online on November 28, 2012. Discussion
period open until January 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Composites for
Construction, Vol. 17, No. 4, August 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 1090-0268/
2013/4-463-475/$25.00.
failure, which occurs generally in a brittle manner (Keller 2001).
Conventional FRP pultruded profiles, usually made of glass
fibers embedded in polyester or vinylester polymeric matrix
(GFRP), are particularly susceptible to local buckling due to their
low in-plane moduli and wall slenderness. Such a phenomenon has
been studied by many researchers by experimental, numerical, and
analytical means.
Bank and Yin (1999) developed numerical solid finite-element
(FE) models aiming to study the postbuckling behavior of GFRP
beams. The authors simulated the web-flange junction failure with
a progressive failure analysis using the node separation technique.
Insausti et al. (2009) studied the interaction between local and
lateral buckling in pultruded GFRP beams in a modified three-point
bending test with both ends clamped. Results showed that such in-
teraction clearly reduces the lateral buckling load for members with
low slenderness. Correia et al. (2011) carried out experimental and
numerical studies on simply supported GFRP beams and GFRP
cantilevers. Service and ultimate behavior were governed by
excessive deformation and local or global buckling, respectively.
Borowicz and Bank (2011) studied the behavior of pultruded GFRP
beams subjected to concentrated loads in the plane of the web. The
without bearing plates and also varying the plate’s thickness and
width. Results showed that both the plate thickness and width in-
crease the load capacity by 65% or more. Numerical simulation was
performed showing good agreement with the experimental results.
Tomblin and Barbero (1994) studied the same phenomenon on
GFRP pultruded members under compression. Experimental and
analytical results presented good agreement using a modified
Southwell method to evaluate experimental data. Turvey and Zhang
(2006) performed experimental and numerical studies aiming
to study the initial failure on postbuckled GFRP short columns.

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 A phenomenological failure criterion was proposed to simulate the
web-flange junction initial failure in the FE models used, revealing
good correlation with the experimental results.
Using numerical analyses, Silvestre and Camotim (2003)
studied the effect of adding edge stiffeners to GFRP channels to
increase their local buckling load (columns) and moment (beams).
Mottram (2004) proposed analytical expressions to determine
the flange critical local buckling load. Kollár (2002) developed
explicit expressions for axially loaded orthotropic plates. Those
expressions showed good correlation with experimental data.
Barbero (2000) studied the interaction between local and global
buckling modes and proposed an empirical constant of interaction
for design equations. The definition of such constant was supported
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by experimental results.
Vanevenhoven et al. (2010) estimated load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) factors for pultruded wide-flange columns for dif-
ferent reliability indices, using test results available in the literature.
With that purpose, the authors used a unified buckling equation.
The global buckling load was computed based on Euler’s equation,
corrected in order to account for the influence of the low shear
stiffness of pultruded profiles, as suggested by Zureick and Scott
(1997). The local buckling load was determined using Kollár’s
equations (Kollár 2002). To take into account the interaction
between global and local buckling modes Barbero’s equation
was used (Barbero 2000). The comparison between buckling load
predictions and corresponding experimental data showed that in the
global buckling range results are much less scattered than in the
local buckling one. The work of Vanevenhoven et al. (2010)
was later discussed by Zureick (2012), who also provided an
historical account on the derivation of Barbero’s equation.
The above mentioned deformability and buckling issues might
be mitigated by the introduction of carbon fibers, which although
being more expensive than glass fibers are considerably stiffer
(Bank 2006; Sorina et al. 2010). Until now, work regarding hybrid
carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and GFRP structural
elements has been still relatively scarce.
Hai et al. (2010) carried out flexural tests on hybrid I-beams
comprising glass fibers in the webs and different contents of carbon
fibers in the flanges (14%, 33%, and 52%). The introduction of the
hybrid reinforcement in the flanges had a very considerable effect
on both stiffness and strength of the beams tested: while stiffness
consistently increased with the carbon fiber content, the maximum
strength was obtained for the intermediate carbon fiber content
of 33%. Unfortunately, results of tests on a reference beam
(i.e., reinforced only with glass fibers) were not reported.
Sorina et al. (2010) performed flexural tests on hybrid channel
beams, with their flanges comprising 20% of carbon fibers in vol-
ume. Compared with a reference beam, reinforced only with glass
fibers, the hybrid beam provided stiffness and strength increases of
40% and 41%, respectively.
Ragheb (2010) reported a numerical study in which the
effectiveness of incorporating carbon fibers in the flanges, as well
as in the web-flange junction of GFRP pultruded beams, was
investigated. In this study, particular attention was given to the local
buckling of the compressed flange. The author concluded that, de-
pending on the carbon fiber volume and disposition in the cross
section, the hybridization is able to provide an increase up to
70% of the critical buckling load and 50% of the bending stiffness.
The above mentioned studies concerning hybrid FRP profiles
solely addressedthe structural behavior of flexural members. To
the authors’ best knowledge, up to the present no studies have been
reported about the compressive behavior of hybrid FRP members.
Therefore, the novelty and objectives of this study are threefold:
(1) to propose new hybrid CFRP-GFRP compressive members
464 / JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES FOR CONSTRUCTION © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2013
J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.
for structural applications where stiffness (deflection and buckling)
demands are relevant, (2) to study the buckling and failure behavior
of these new hybrid compressive members, both experimentally
and numerically, and (3) to apply available analytical techniques
to predict these buckling/failure loads. In particular, the work
developed aims at studying the local buckling phenomenon in
hybrid columns.
To accomplish those objectives, two series of pultruded profiles
are tested under uniform compression: (1) a bare GFRP profile
(reference column) and (2) a CFRP strengthened GFRP profile
(hybrid column). Test results are analyzed in terms of load-
deflection behavior, stiffness, buckling, and failure loads, as well
as failure modes. Together with the experimental campaign,
numerical and analytical investigations are also carried out in order
to evaluate the applicability of conventional Shell finite-element
(SFE) models and the accuracy of analytical formulae in predicting
the buckling behavior and strength of these types of profiles.
Experimental Study
Experimental Program
The experimental program comprised two stages: (1) mechanical
characterization tests of the materials that constitute the reference
and hybrid profiles studied; and (2) full-scale compression tests of
short columns.
In a first stage, mechanical characterization tests were
performed on coupons extracted from both types of profiles.
The strength and stiffness properties were determined by means
of tension, compression, bending, interlaminar shear, and in-plane
shear tests.
On a second stage, reference and hybrid short columns were
tested under uniform axial compression. These tests allowed
evaluation of the influence of introducing carbon fiber reinforce-
ment in the flanges of the columns, in terms of elastic modulus,
axial shortening, critical buckling loads and modes, and
ultimate loads.
Materials
Both the reference and the hybrid FRP pultruded profiles used
in the experimental program were produced by ALTO Perfis
Pultrudidos, Lda. The reference profiles are made of E-glass fibers,
combining alternating layers of unidirectional roving and strand
mats embedded in an isophthalic polyester matrix (68% of
inorganic content in weight). The hybrid profiles are similar to
the reference ones but include also standard modulus carbon fiber
sheets on the flanges.
As shown in Fig. 1, the cross sections of both reference and
hybrid profiles are identical, with nominal dimensions of
200 mm × 100 mm × 10 mm (web height × flange width × wall
thickness). The carbon sheets (800 g=m2 ) have a nominal thickness
of 1.5 mm and are located in the outer face of both flanges of the
hybrid profile.
Mechanical Characterization Tests
The following five types of coupon tests were performed in
specimens extracted from the web and flanges of both types of
pultruded profiles, in the longitudinal and transverse directions
(the geometry of all types of specimens is described in Table 1):
1. Tensile tests [according to ISO (1997)] allowed the determina-
tion of the elastic modulus in tension (Et;L ), the tensile strength
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Fig. 1. I-profiles cross section (mm): (a) reference; (b) hybrid

(σtu;L ), and the Poisson ratio (ν L ) for the longitudinal elastic behavior of the materials, for both reference and hybrid pro-
direction; files. The different properties obtained for the longitudinal and
2. Compressive tests [according to ASTM (2002)] allowed the transverse directions indicate an orthotropic behavior, as expected.
determination of the elastic modulus in compression (Ec;i ), Failure always occurred in a brittle manner. In the tensile tests,
the compressive strength (σcu;i ), and the strain at failure failure was due to the tensile rupture of the fibers [Fig. 2(a)]. In the
(εcu;i ) for both longitudinal and transverse material directions compressive tests, the failure mode occurred with material crushing
(i ¼ L, T); and delamination [Fig. 2(b)]; for specimens extracted from the
3. Bending tests [according to ISO (1998)] allowed the flanges of the hybrid profile, delamination of the CFRP sheet oc-
determination of the elastic modulus in bending (Ef;L ), the curred for a strain of approximately 0.5%. In the bending tests, the
flexural strength (σfu;L ), and the strain at failure (εfu;L ) for failure mode occurred with tensile failure of the lower face fibers
the longitudinal direction; [Fig. 2(c)]; for specimens extracted from the flanges of the hybrid
4. Interlaminar shear tests [according to ASTM (2000)] allowed profile, delamination of the CFRP sheet occurred for a strain of
the determination of the interlaminar shear strength (Fsbs ); and approximately 0.6%. In the interlaminar shear tests, the failure
5. In-plane shear tests [ISO 527-5 according to Hodgkinson mode was characterized by interlaminar failure at the fiber-matrix
(2000), with 10° off-axis tension] allowed the determination interface [Fig. 2(d)]. Finally, in the in-plane shear tests, the failure
of the shear modulus (GLT ) and the in-plane shear surfaces were oriented roughly at a 10° off-axis, parallel to the
strength (τ u ). pultrusion (roving) direction; the longitudinal fibers did not break,
The results obtained in the material characterization tests are but the superficial mats were torn [Fig. 2(e)].
summarized in Table 2 for web and flange specimens. The load- In terms of mechanical properties of the web, results were very
displacement curves obtained in all tests attest the typical linear similar for both types of profiles. As the fiber architecture of the
web (and resin matrix) was similar for both profiles, those
properties were grouped together. On the other hand, elastic proper-
Table 1. Specimen Testing Standards, Dimensions, and Spans ties of the flange specimens from the reference and hybrid profiles
Specimen nominal presented significant differences due to the influence of the CFRP
dimensions sheets, namely the longitudinal tensile modulus (Fig. 3), which
Test
increased 54% with the introduction of the carbon fiber reinforce-
Length Width Thickness span
Test type Standard (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) ment. Despite that fact, the strength obtained was roughly similar
for both profiles (Fig. 4).
Tension ISO 527-4 300.0 25.0 10.0 150.0
Compression ASTM D695-02 40.0 12.7 10.0 —
(longitudinal) Short Column Tests
Compression ASTM D695-02 30.0 12.7 10.0 —
(transverse) To study the structural behavior of both types of pultruded profiles,
Bending ISO 14125 300.0 15.0 10.0 200.0 four reference and four hybrid short columns were tested under uni-
Interlaminar shear ASTM D2344/ 60.0 15.0 10.0 39.0 form axial compression. In these tests the critical buckling loads
D2344M-00 (Pcr ), the ultimate loads (Pu ), the maximum axial shortening
In-plane shear ISO 527-5 250.0 25.0 10.0 150.0 (ΔLmax ), and the effective elastic modulus in compression (Eeff )
(10° off-axis)
were obtained.

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 27.5
3.4 3.70
0.2
The columns were cut with 660 mm nominal length using a

(GPa)
GLT

—
water cooled (Cosen) cutting tool. Both ends of each column were
embedded in a 300 × 200 × 30 mm3 epoxy resin solid block in or-
In-plane
shear
der to restrain the warping and the local rotations of the wall edges.

(MPa)
The nominal free length of each column was then 600 mm.
τ u;LT

—
The columns test setup is shown in Fig. 5. Tests were conducted
under load control at an average speed of 50 kN= min. The load
was applied to the lower plate by an Enerpac hydraulic system with
Interlaminar

30.4
2.1

29.4
1.1

31.5
0.3
a capacity of 3000 kN and a maximum stroke of 400 mm. The ap-
(MPa)
shear
Fsbs

plied load was measured by means of a Microtest load cell with

3000 kN capacity. The axial shortening was measured considering
the relative displacements of both plates (Fig. 5, Section AA’). On
1.5
0.1b
2.3
0.3a
2.8
0.2

2.3
0.2

the upper plate, deflections were measured with three TML-10

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εbu;L
(%)

displacement transducers (10 mm range and 0.01 mm precision).

The displacements on the lower plate were measured with two
APEK-25 and one TML-25 displacement transducers (25 mm
Flange/hybrid 412.7
16.1 55.2
3.1 — 485.0
23.6 25.7
2.7 2.3
0.2 92.3
10.7 10.2
1.6 1.5
0.2 422.1
25.0a 44.24
7.7a
620.4
37.2b 48.1
4.4b
Webs/reference 385.3
23.7 33.0
1.2 0.279 460.4
64.4 26.7
1.2 2.3
0.3 106.1
28.5 7.67
2.0 2.1
0.4 492.8
30.3 23.1
1.8

414.2
21.0 35.9
2.1 0.285 388.6
59.2 33.9
3.4 2.2
0.2 70.4
17.4 5.9
0.6 2.1
0.3 486.8
34.3 25.9
3.4

stroke and 0.01 mm precision). Two additional TML-500 displace-

longitudinal

(GPa)
direction
Bending

Eb;L

ment transducers (500 mm stroke and 0.01 mm precision) were

used to measure the web and flange lateral displacements at 3=4
of the free length of the columns (Fig. 5, Section CC’). Five
TML-FLK strain gauges were adhesively bonded at mid height
of one specimen of each type (Fig. 5, Section BB’). Data was
(MPa)
σbu;L

acquired at a rate of 1 Hz using a National Instruments SCXI-

1001 data logger and registered in a PC.
Fig. 6 shows the load versus axial shortening curves for refer-
ence and hybrid columns (in those curves, the initial nonlinear
εcu;T
(%)

phase due to adjustments of the test fixture are already corrected).

The apparent longitudinal elastic stiffnesses, obtained from the
slope (ΔP=ΔL) of those curves, were 112.7 kN=mm for the
Compression
transversal

reference profile and 146.9 kN=mm for the hybrid profile. Thereby,
(GPa)
direction
Ec;T

the introduction of CFRP sheets provided an increase of 30.3% in

the apparent longitudinal elastic stiffness in compression. The
above mentioned stiffnesses correspond to apparent longitudinal
(MPa)

elastic moduli (Eap ) in compression of 19.1 GPa and 25.0 GPa,

σcu;T

for the reference and hybrid profiles, respectively.

The full-section elastic modulus (Eeff ) in compression of each
profile was determined from the recorded stress-strain data (strains
εcu;L (%)

in the range between 0.05% and 0.25%). Elastic moduli in

compression of 31.6 GPa and 37.6 GPa were obtained for the
reference and hybrid profiles, respectively. Therefore, the introduc-
tion of CFRP sheets led to an increase of 19.0% in the effective
Compression
longitudinal
Table 2. Specimen Test Results of Both Reference and Hybrid I-Profiles

(GPa)
direction

longitudinal elastic modulus in compression.

Ec;L

The difference between the apparent and effective longitudinal

elastic moduli in compression (40.0% and 33.5% in the reference
and hybrid profiles, respectively) stem from the test setup, namely
(MPa)

the adjustments of its components and the local bearing of the

σcu;L

material at the end sections in contact with the steel supports, which
CFRP sheets in compression (superior face in bending).

naturally influences the load versus axial shortening curves.

CFRP sheets in tension (inferior face in bending).

The critical load (Pcr ) for each short column test was
ν (-)

determined applying the modified Southwell method proposed

by Barbero and Trovillion (1998)
(GPa)
longitudinal

Et;L

1
direction
Tension

P ¼ Pcr þ Pð2Þ s2 ð1Þ

2

where P = applied load; Pð2Þ = curvature of the postcritical

(MPa)
σtu;L

path; and s = perturbation parameter. The linear term is absent from

Eq. (1) because the local postbuckling behavior of thin-walled
columns is symmetrical, i.e., is equivalent for equal amplitude im-
perfections with opposite sign. In this work, lateral displacements
Wall/profile

of both the web and flanges of each column were used as

and hybrid

reference

perturbation parameter. The representative load versus lateral

Flange/

displacements curves are depicted in Fig. 7 for a reference profile

(C_Ref_1) and in Fig. 8 for a hybrid profile (C_Hyb_4).
b
a

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Fig. 2. Failure modes in material characterisation tests: (a) tension; (b) compression; (c) bending; (d) interlaminar shear; (e) in-plane shear
Fig. 3. Comparison between the elastic moduli obtained in compres-
sive tests in the longitudinal (CL) and transverse (CT) directions, and
tensile tests in the longitudinal direction (TL)
Fig. 4. Comparison between the compressive strengths in the longitu-
dinal (CL) and transverse (CT) directions, and the tensile strength in the
longitudinal direction (TL)
The critical loads were determined from the intersection of the
vertical axis with the trend line of P versus 1=2ðs2 Þ results. The
lower bound of the perturbation parameter was considered to be
equal to the wall thickness (1998). Fig. 9 illustrates the application
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J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.
of the above mentioned method—Fig. 9(a) plots the P versus
1=2ðs2 Þ curve, together with the linear regression of the postcritical
path, while Fig. 9(b) plots the P versus s curve.
The determination of the local buckling load was only possible
for columns which buckled with two half-waves [Fig. 10(a)]. The
lateral displacements were measured near an inflection point (see
Section CC’ of Fig. 5) of the buckling mode with one half-wave
[Fig. 10(b)].
In some columns, it was not possible to determine accurately the
critical buckling load, namely in columns C_Ref_4 and C_Hyb_3,
which buckled with one longitudinal half-wave, and in columns
C_Ref_3 and C_Hyb_2, in which at a certain point there was some
influence of bending.
The critical load (Pcr ), the ultimate load (Pu ) and the maximum
axial shortening (ΔLmax ) of each short column are presented in
Table 3. The postbuckling strength (computed as the percentage
difference between the ultimate load and the buckling load) was
roughly 6.5% for the reference profile and 2.0% for the hybrid
profile. Collapse occurred with total or partial web-flange separa-
tion followed by delamination (Fig. 11).
The introduction of CFRP sheets on the profile’s flanges
significantly influenced the column stiffness (þ30.3%), the critical
load (þ13.8%), and the ultimate load (þ14.3)—Table 4.
Finite-Element Numerical Study
Finite-element numerical models of both reference and hybrid short
columns were developed using the ABAQUS Standard software
(Abaqus Standard 6.5). Regarding the several topics involved in
the numerical analysis, the following should be addressed:
• Mesh and discretization: The cross-section dimensions were ta-
ken as 200 × 100 × 10 mm and the column length was set as
660 mm. Isoparametric shell elements with four nodes with full
integration (S4) and five integration points across the thickness
were used. A 23-node cross section was used. The flanges and
web were meshed uniformly, using 66 elements along the
length, 6 elements across the width of each flange and 10 ele-
ments across the web height. Thus, the elements had aspect ra-
tios of 1.7∶1 and 2.0∶1 for the flanges and web, respectively,
which were considered to be small enough not to affect the ac-
curacy of numerical calculations (Turvey and Zhang 2006).
Four groups of rigid elements (R3D3) were disposed near each
column end to simulate the restriction imposed by the epoxy
blocks [Fig. 12(a)]. The total number of elements was 1,692
and the total number of nodes was 1,541.
• Elastic properties: the material was considered to be composite,
laminated and elastic. The elastic properties obtained
in the mechanical characterization of both profiles were used,
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Fig. 5. Column test setup

Fig. 6. Load versus axial shortening curves for reference and hybrid
column tests Fig. 8. Load versus lateral displacement for the hybrid profile: experi-
mental representative curves and FE model curves

except the longitudinal elastic moduli, for which values obtained

in the full-scale tests were used (Table 5). Full-scale longitudinal
moduli were chosen for the FE models, since no strain gauges
were used in compression coupon tests. As already mentioned,
the load-axial shortening curves were influenced by the test
setup, providing an apparent axial stiffness (Eapp A). To take this
effect into account in the numerical study, two rows of elements
located close to the column end sections [Fig. 12(b)] were con-
sidered to have a longitudinal elastic modulus lower than that of
the remaining column. To determine the elastic modulus (Emod )
of the column in those rows, the following equation derived
within the present study was used:
Eeff
Emod ¼
 ð2Þ
Eeff
Eapp − 1 LLmod
col
þ1
Fig. 7. Load versus lateral displacement for the reference profile:
where Eeff = longitudinal elastic modulus obtained from
experimental representative curves and FE model curves
strain gauge measurements; Eapp = apparent longitudinal elastic

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Fig. 9. Application of the modified Southwell method: (a) P versus 1=2 s2 curve; (b) P versus s curve

Fig. 11. Failure modes for (a) reference; (b) hybrid short-columns

Fig. 10. Buckling modes with (a) two (C_Hyb_4); (b) one (C_Hyb_3)
longitudinal half-waves Table 4. Increase of Stiffness, Buckling Loads, and Ultimate Load Due to
the Introduction of CFRP sheets
Experimental Reference Hybrid Increase (%)
ΔP=ΔL (kN=mm) 112.70 146.90 30.3
Table 3. Buckling Loads, Ultimate Loads, and Maximum Axial Pcr (kN) 560.9 638.5 13.8
Shortening of Both Reference and Hybrid I-Profiles Pu (kN) 597.2 651.4 9.1

Column Note: Experimental tests.

type Specimen Pcr (kN) Pu (kN) ΔLmax (mm)
Reference C_Ref_1 588.4 593.4 5.36 modulus obtained from the P − ΔL experimental curves; Lcol =
C_Ref_2 533.6 561.3 4.90 total length of the column (660 mm); and Lmod = sum of the
a
C_Ref_3 611.9 4.39 lengths of the rows with modified elements (20 mm).
b
C_Ref_4 622.2 5.11
• Strength properties: The material strength properties adopted
Average
Standard 560.9
38.9 597.2
33.4 4.94
0.41
deviation (Cv) (6.9%) (4.5%) (8.3%) were those obtained from the characterization of both profiles.
Hybrid C_Hyb_1 625.2 644.4 5.07 As in other investigations (Turvey and Zhang 2006), the pre-
C_Hyb_2 a
587.9 4.14 sent numerical model does not include progressive failure of
b the composite material. Thus, the Tsai-Hill failure criterion
C_Hyb_3 706.9 4.65
C_Hyb_4 651.8 666.4 4.24 (Jones 1999) was used to predict the initial failure load of
Average
Standard 638.5
18.8 651.4
49.7 4.53
0.43 the columns. This criterion considers the interaction between
deviation (Cv) (2.9%) (7.6%) (9.4%) the several material strengths (longitudinal, transversal, shear)
Note: Average, standard deviation, and variation coefficient values. and gives satisfactory correlation with experimental results
a (Jones 1999). The Tsai-Hill failure index (I F ) is given by
Column buckled with one longitudinal half-wave.
b
Column subjected to combined bending and axial compression. the following equation:

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J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.

 • End supports and loading: Regarding the boundary conditions,
all rotations and displacements were prevented at the bottom
end section (clamped end). At the top end section, the rotation
about the y-axis (s; see Fig. 12) and the cross section in-plane
displacements (u and w; see Fig. 12) were also set to null. The
vertical displacement (v; see Fig. 12) of the top end section cen-
troid is free to displace. To enforce a rigid body rotation of the
top end section about either z- or x-axis, (r and t; see Fig. 12)
were set coupled for all end section nodes. The compressive
load was uniformly distributed across the top end section and
applied in the direction of the y-axis.
• Types of analysis: In order to obtain the column critical buckling
loads (Pcr ) and the corresponding buckling mode shapes, linear
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buckling analyses (LBA) were first performed. Subsequently,

aiming at determining the linear and postbuckling behaviors
as well as predicting the column failure loads, nonlinear analysis
(NLA) were carried out. For the NLA, the modified Riks method
with arc-length control was used to determine the incremental-
iterative equilibrium configurations of the column. Initial geo-
metrical imperfections were considered in the model. They have
the shape of the first buckling mode previously obtained from
LBA and exhibit maximum amplitude of 0.01 mm. Since geo-
metrical imperfections were not measured, we decided to adopt
Fig. 12. SFE model with (a) highlighted rigid elements; (b) highlighted a very small value, being sufficiently large to avoid numerical
modified elements problems close to the bifurcation point but small enough not
to influence the postbuckled shape. Therefore, NLA enabled
determination of initial failure loads (Pu ) and maximum axial
σ2L σ σ σ2 τ2 shortening (ΔLmax ). It should also be pointed out that NLA also
IF ¼ 2
− L2 T þ 2T þ LT < 1.0 ð3Þ
σu;L σu;L σu;T τ 2u provided the means to determine the elastic critical load (Pcr;SM )
by applying the modified Southwell method. With this purpose,
Eq. (1) was used and the web lateral displacement was chosen as
where σL = longitudinal stress; σT = transversal stress; τ LT = the perturbation parameter s, with s > 1.0 mm.
shear stress; σu;L = longitudinal strength; σu;T = transversal After having described the finite- element model, the numerical
strength; and τ u = shear strength. For an equilibrium config- results are presented and discussed and, whenever possible,
uration determined from the analysis, the failure index was compared with the experimental ones.
computed for all the nodes. When the failure index exceeds From LBA of each type of column (reference and hybrid), the
the unit value (I F > 1.0) in a given node, it means that first two buckling modes were determined and the corresponding
this node failed. The analysis evolves without considering buckling loads (Pcr ), half-wave number (nhw ) and half-wave length
the loss of stiffness of the failed nodes and progressive failure (a) are presented in Table 6. The buckling mode shapes are iden-
is not accounted. However, the load level at the first failure tical for both profiles and are shown in Fig. 13 (first or critical and
should give a conservative prediction of the column second buckling modes). This figure shows that the short column
ultimate load. buckles in local modes with two half-waves (first mode) and single
half-wave (second mode). The node of maximum displacement is
Table 5. SFE Stiffness and Strength Properties for Both Profiles located in the web, which means that elastic local buckling of the
columns is triggered by the web instability rather than the flange
Flange
instability. This is due to the fact that the I-section flange is a
Parameter Web Reference I-profile Hybrid I-profile narrow outstand element while its web is an interior but wider
EL (GPa) 30.2/27.8 a,b
32.8 b
46.4b element. The critical load values (Table 6) of the hybrid
ET (GPa) 7.7 5.9 10.2 column (Pcr:1 ¼ 667.9 kN and Pcr:2 ¼ 720.5 kN) were 13.9%
ν (−) 0.279 0.279c 0.279c and 14.9% higher than those of the reference column
G (GPa) 3.70 3.70c 3.70c (Pcr:1 ¼ 586.4 kN and Pcr:2 ¼ 627.3 kN). Regarding the
σtu;L (MPa) 385.3 414.2 412.7 half-wavelength (a), similar values were obtained for both
σcu;L (MPa) 460.4 388.6 485.0
columns. From the NLA of each type of column (reference and
σtu;T (MPa) 106.1d 70.4d 92.3d
σcu;T (MPa) 106.1 70.4 92.3 hybrid) and using the Southwell method, the critical load
τ u (MPa) 27.5 27.5e 27.5e estimates were Pcr;SM:1 ¼ 549.0 kN (reference column) and
a Pcr;SM:2 ¼ 626.4 kN (hybrid column). A comparison between both
For the reference and the hybrid profile, respectively.
b
Elastic modulus obtained in the mechanical characterization stage reduced
according to the full-scale test. Table 6. SFE Buckling Modes for Both Reference and Hybrid Profiles
c
The test to obtain this parameter was not performed for flange specimens;
the value from the web specimens was used. Reference Hybrid
d
The test to obtain this parameter was not performed; the value from Buckling mode Pcr (kN) nhw a (mm) Pcr (kN) nhw a (mm)
transverse compressive test was used.
e 1st 586.2 2 209.3 667.9 2 215.5
The test to obtain this parameter was not performed for flange specimens;
2nd 627.3 1 222.0 720.5 1 222.0
the value from the web specimens was used.

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J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.


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Fig. 13. (a) First and (b) second buckling modes deformed shapes
(SFE)
LBA and NLA critical loads and the experimental results is pre-
sented in Table 7. The critical loads determined via LBA provided
an error of roughly 4.5% when compared with the experimental
results. Despite being an accurate approximation, the critical load
obtained from the NLA had a smaller error (roughly 2.0%). We
conclude that both analyses give accurate predictions of the critical
load, but NLA provides slightly better and conservative estimates
of theexperimental buckling loads.
Now, let us discuss the column strength and collapse. The initial
failure loads obtained from the Tsai-Hill criterion were 605.2 kN
(reference column) and 682.7 kN (hybrid column). These values
are higher than the critical buckling loads and suggest the existence
of postbuckling strengths up to 3.2% and 10.2% using the LBA and
NLA critical loads, respectively. A relevant conclusion is that the
addition of CFRP to the flanges increases the buckling load but
does not have any effect on the postbuckling strength of the
column.
Next, the initial failure loads determined from the NLA were
compared with the ultimate loads obtained from the experimental
tests. It should be pointed out that this comparison has some level
of uncertainty: the NLA were able to determine the initial failure
loads but not the ultimate loads (progressive failure not considered)
while the experimental tests were capable of evaluating the
ultimate loads but some difficulties arose in measuring the initial
failure loads. From the NLA, the initial failure loads were
Pif ¼ 605.2 kN (reference column) and Pif ¼ 682.7 kN (hybrid
Table 7. Comparison between Experimental, LBA and NLA Numerical,
and Analytical Critical Buckling Loads
Reference Hybrid
I-profile I-profile
Source Load (kN) Δ ð%Þ Load (kN) Δ ð%Þ
Experimental 560.9 — 638.5
Numerical (LBA) 586.2 þ4.5 667.9 þ4.6
Numerical (NLA) 549.0 −2.1 626.4 −1.9
Analytical 520.9 −7.1 653.8 þ2.4
Note: Δ = percentage difference to experimental loads.
JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES FOR CONSTRUCTION © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2013 / 471
J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.
column). Since the average ultimate loads were Pu ¼ 597.2 kN
(reference column) and Pif ¼ 651.4 kN (hybrid column), unex-
pectedly, minor differences (1.3% reference; 4.8% hybrid) were
identified between the initial failure loads (NLA) and ultimate loads
(experimental tests). The good agreement between the initial failure
loads and ultimate loads may stem from the brittle collapse of
GFRP profiles. Once the failure index is higher than one, the first
point rupture is achieved and progressive failure quickly spreads in
the column, leading to its collapse.
Load versus axial shortening curves for both reference and hy-
brid profiles are depicted in Fig. 14. From the comparison shown, it
is observed that, for both profiles, the numerical curves are close to
the experimental ones. Concerning the load versus lateral displace-
ment curves for both reference and hybrid profiles, depicted in
Fig. 7 and Fig. 8, it is seen that the numerical and experimental
curves agree well. From these results (load-deflection curves),
we conclude that the developed finite-element model provides a
valid and accurate prediction of the column experimental behavior.
Now, let us look at the nodes that triggered the column collapse.
In both profiles, the nodes in which failure first occurred were
located at the web-flange junction in midheight section, as depicted
in Fig. 15(a). Looking at the critical buckling mode shape
[Fig. 13(a)], it is possible to conclude that initial failure occurs near
the inflection point of the buckling mode. Fig. 15(b) shows the
shear stress (τ LT ) distributions at the onset of hybrid column failure
(the shear stress distribution in the reference profile is very similar).
If we look at this figure, we easily conclude that (1) shear stresses
(τ LT ) accumulate near the web-flange junctions at the column mid-
height, and (2) their maximum values are very close to the shear
strength derived from experimental tests and shown in Table 2
(τ u ¼ 27.5 Mpa). Despite considering all the stress components
(σL , σT and τ LT ), the results show that the Tsai-Hill failure index
exhibits a strong dependency on the shear strength: in both models,
the unit failure index was reached for roughly τ LT ¼ 0.95τ u
(Fig. 16). Based on the fact that (1) the column behavior is mostly
affected by the level of longitudinal normal stresses (σL ) and (2)
local buckling phenomena are closely linked with the development
of high transversal normal stresses (σT ) arising from cross-section
deformation, it is quite surprising that column failure becomes
mostly from acting shear stresses (τ LT ).
Finally, the evolution of the index failure (I F ) with the axial
strain (ε) is shown in Fig. 17, for both profiles. The I F − ε curve
shows two different paths: (1) before reaching the critical buckling
—
Fig. 14. Load versus axial shortening curves for both reference and
hybrid profiles: experimental representative curves, SFE model curves
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Fig. 15. (a) Nodes where initial failure occurred: hybrid profile (H) and reference profile (R); (b) shear stress contour for the hybrid profile (scale
values in MPa)
load, the index is controlled by the longitudinal stresses (σL ); and
(2) for loads higher than the critical load, the index is hugely
governed by the shear stress (τ LT ). Note also that the slope of these
two paths is clearly different, the latter being much steeper than the
former. The transition between those two slopes is due to the
triggering of the column local buckling and the influence of such
phenomenon on the increase of shear stresses.
The numerical results indicate that the introduction of CFRP
sheets on the profile’s flanges has significant influence in
terms of column stiffness, critical load, and initial failure load
(see Table 8).
Fig. 16. Relative stress versus strain curves for both reference and hy-
brid profiles (SFE); S11 is σL and σcu;L ¼ 460.4 MPa; S22 is σT and
σcu;T ¼ 106.1 MPa; S12 is τ LT and τ u;LT ¼ 27.5 MPa
472 / JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES FOR CONSTRUCTION © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2013
J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.
Analytical Study
In the previous section, we have shown that the critical buckling
load provides a safe (conservative) and reasonably accurate
estimate of the column ultimate load. However, the use of numeri-
cal models such as the ones previously presented is not a straight-
forward tool to use in design practice. Thus, the use of analytical
formulae is preferable. In this section, we assess the accuracy of the
local buckling formulas proposed by Kollár (2002). The method
adopts the analytical solutions obtained from plate buckling under
uniaxial uniform compressive stress. The walls of given cross-
section can be classified as (1) outstand wall, if it has one longi-
tudinal edge simply supported and the other free; and (2) internal
Fig. 17. Tsai-Hill failure index (IF;Tsai-Hill ) versus axial strain curves for
both reference and hybrid profiles (SFE)
 Table 8. Increase of Stiffness, Buckling Loads and Ultimate Load Due to Table 9. Analytical Determination of the Critical Buckling Stresses and
the Introduction of CFRP Sheets Loads in Both Profiles
Numerical Reference Hybrid Increase (%) Parameter Reference profile Hybrid profile
ΔP=ΔL (kN=mm) 118.26 131.26 11.0 σfcr;0 (MPa) 210.0 237.2
Pcr —LBA (kN) 586.2 667.9 13.9 σwcr;0 (MPa) 114.4 111.7
Pcr —NLA (kN) 549.0 626.4 14.1 εfcr;0
(%) 0.64 0.51
Pif (kN) 605.2 682.7 12.8
εwcr;0
(%) 0.38 0.40
Note: Shell finite-element model. σcr (MPa) 138.9 133.6
Pcr (kN) 520.9 699.7
wall, if both wall edges are simply supported. In the case of an
I-section, each half flange is considered asan outstand wall while
the web is classified as internal wall. edges of the web. Thus, the following edge restraint coefficient
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The critical buckling stress of the half flange (outstand wall) is should be considered in the calculation of the critical stress:
given by DT;w
    ζw ¼ ð7Þ
π2 bf =2 2 12 kdw
σfcr;0 ¼ σout ¼ D þ D ð4Þ
tf ðbf =2Þ2 π2
cr;0 L S
a where k = stiffness of a rotational spring that takes into account the
web-flange restraint, which reads
where tf = flange thickness; bf = flange width; a = half- !
wave-length; DL = longitudinal stiffness; and DS = shear stiffness. 4DT;f σwcr;0 EL;w
After having performed the numerical analyses, we know that the k¼ 1− f ð8Þ
bf σcr;0 EL;f
critical buckling mode exhibits two half-waves, and each half-
wavelength is approximately a ¼ 0.35 L; note that each half-wave
The critical buckling stress of the web (conditioning wall), con-
has an effective length equal to 0.7 × L=2 because the column
sidering the web-flange rotational stiffness, is given by
buckles in two half-waves and it is clamped at supports.
On the other hand, the critical buckling stress of the web 2
 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
π 1
(internal wall) is given by σwcr ¼ 2 DL;w DT;w 1 þ 4,139
tw b2w 1 þ 10ζ w
2π2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi   2 
σwcr;0 ¼ σint
cr;0 ¼ ð DL DT þ DLT þ 2DS Þ ð5Þ 1
tw d2w þ ðDLT þ 2DS;w Þ 2 þ 0; 62 ð9Þ
1 þ 10ζ w
where tw = web thickness; dw = web depth; DT = transverse
stiffness; and DLT = longitudinal-transversal coupling stiffness. Finally, the critical load (Pcr ) is determined from
In Eqs. (4) and (5), the orthotropic plate bending stiffness compo- σwcr
nents (DL , DT , DLT , and DS ) are needed. Pcr ¼ ðE A þ 2EL;f Af Þ ð10Þ
EL;w L;w w
The elastic properties obtained in the mechanical characteriza-
tion of both profiles were used, except for the longitudinal elastic where Aw = web area; and Af = flange area. Table 9 also presents
moduli, for which values obtained in the full-scale tests were used. the web critical buckling stresses (σwcr ) and critical buckling loads
They were chosen for the analytical calculations since, as already (Pcr ) for the reference and hybrid columns. The introduction of
mentioned, no strain gauges were used in the compressive tests on CFRP sheets led to an increase of 34.3% of the critical load, con-
small-scale coupons. sidering the plate models with web-flange junction stiffness. Such
In order to evaluate which wall buckles first, and keeping in increase is very significant considering that in both cases the wall
mind that both wall (flange and web) materials have different that buckles first is the web (similar material in both profiles). This
longitudinal elastic moduli (EL ) and are set in parallel, we should is due to the fact that in the hybrid profile, since the flanges are
calculate the lower critical axial strain εcr;0 rather than the lower stiffer, the web is subjected to a lower stress than in the reference
critical stress σcr;0 only. Thus, the critical axial strain is given by profile (uniform stress distribution along the cross section) for the
 same load.
σfcr;0 σwcr;0 Finally, we apply a formula proposed by Barbero (2000)
εcr;0 ¼ minfεfcr;0 ; εwcr;0 g ¼ min ; ð6Þ
EL;f EL;w
Pcr ¼ kint Plocal
cr ð11Þ
The flange and web (1) critical stresses (σfcr;0 ; σwcr;0 )
and (2)
This formula considers interaction between local and global
critical strains (εfcr;0 ; εwcr;0 ) are given in Table 9. From these values,
buckling by means of an interaction coefficient given by
it is possible to identify the wall that buckles first and triggers the
local buckling of the column. In this study, and for both profiles, the   sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
1 þ 1=λ2 1 þ 1=λ2 2 1
web is the conditioning wall in terms of local buckling. This result kint ¼ − − ð12Þ
agrees with the one previously mentioned in the context of LBA 1.6 1.6 0.8λ2
(section 3), where it was stated that the web governs the local
buckling of the column. where λ is the relative local-global slenderness obtained from
Despite the correct identification of the most relevant wall, the sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
critical stresses (σfcr;0 ; σwcr;0 ) cannot be used to evaluate accurately Plocal
cr
λ¼ global
ð13Þ
the critical buckling load. Due to the lack of compatibility between Pcr
the flange and web rotations at their common node, the previous
formulas did not consider any type of rotational restraint. In this If the local and global buckling loads are equal, the relative
case, it is the flanges that provide rotational restraint to longitudinal slenderness is 1.0. For relative slenderness values lower than

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J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.

 one (λ < 1), local buckling governs, while for relative slenderness
values higher than one (λ > 1), the global buckling governs. The
interaction between local and global buckling gets more relevant
for relative slenderness values around 1.0 (0.5 < λ < 1.5). In the
present case, the global buckling load (Pglobal
cr ) is determined from
the classical Euler formula with the effective length being 0.7L. For
the reference profile, the relative slenderness is λ ¼ 0.47 and,
therefore, no reduction is needed. For the hybrid profile, the relative
slenderness is λ ¼ 0.57 and the buckling load is reduced to
653.8 kN (−5.7%). Comparing the above mentioned analytical
critical loads with the experimental results, differences of 7.1%
(reference column) and 2.4% (hybrid column) were obtained.
A full comparison between the analytical critical loads and the
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experimental results is presented in Table 7.
Conclusion
This paper presented an experimental, numerical and analytical
investigation on the buckling behavior and strength of hybrid
CFRP-GFRP short columns. The following conclusions may
be drawn:
1. The material properties obtained from coupon tests were
consistent with those provided by the supplier, showing the
reliability of these values. Additionally, the short column tests
confirmed those properties, in particular the longitudinal elas-
tic modulus and the shear strength. Regarding local buckling
behavior, and regardless of being CFRP strengthened (hybrid
columns) or not (reference columns), the short columns
buckled in modes with one or two longitudinal half-waves.
Regarding their strength, and regardless of being CFRP
strengthened (hybrid columns) or not (reference columns),
the failure always occurred with clear separation between
the flanges and the web.
2. The results determined from shell finite-element (SFE)
analyses showed a good correlation with the results obtained
from experimental tests. The buckling mode deformed shapes
observed experimentally were accurately predicted by the SFE
models. When compared to the test results, the buckling loads
determined from linear buckling analyses (LBA—solution of
eigenvalue problem) and nonlinear analysis (NLA—solution
of Southwell method) had differences of þ4.5% and
−2.1%, respectively. The initial failure load obtained from
NLA with Tsai-Hill failure criterion showed a difference up
to þ4.8%, in comparison with the experimental ultimate load.
3. Although the column behavior is mostly affected by the level
of longitudinal normal stresses and local buckling phenomena
is closely related with the development of high transversal
normal stresses stemming from cross-section deformation, nu-
merical results indicate that failure of both profiles resulted
mostly from acting shear stresses. In fact, the unit failure index
was reached for roughly τ LT ¼ 0.95τ u.
4. From the comparison with experimental results, the analytical
approach proposed by Kollár (2002) showed differences of
−7.1% for the reference columns and þ2.4% for the hybrid
columns. The interactive approach between global and local
buckling proposed by Tomblin and Barbero (1994) was also
applied. Due to the short columns studied herein, local
buckling prevails over global buckling and marginal interac-
tive local-global behavior was found.
5. The introduction of CFRP sheets in pultruded GFRP profiles
benefits their structural behavior. An increase of roughly 14%
in the critical buckling load was found, both in the experimen-
tal and numerical studies. An increase of nearly 13–14% in the
474 / JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES FOR CONSTRUCTION © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2013
J. Compos. Constr. 2013.17:463-475.
ultimate load was determined, both in the experimental numer-
ical models. As for the axial stiffness, a more relevant increase
of about 30% was obtained from experimental tests.
The authors are aware that the findings of this investigation
should be extended to other cross section shapes (H-section, tubes,
channels) and other CFRP strengthening configurations (web, web-
flange junctions) before a final statement is reached with respect to
the profit of using hybrid profiles. In order to prove such evidence,
test programs and numerical analyses involving other cross section
shapes and strengthening configurations are currently under way.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge FCT, ICIST and ADI (Project no.
3456/2009) for funding the research and company ALTO Perfis
Pultrudidos, Lda. for supplying the pultruded material used in
the experiments.
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