C HA P T ER

4
Motivation and Affect

Chapter Objectives
When you finish reading this chapter you will:

1 Understand that it is important for marketers to
recognize that products can satisfy a range of
consumer needs.
2 Understand that there are different theories that can
be used to predict what will motivate consumers.
3 Understand that consumers can experience different
types of motivational conflicts that can impact their
purchase decisions.
4 Understand that Maslow’s hierarchy outlines how
various levels of needs can motivate consumers.
5 Understand that the way we evaluate and choose a
product depends on our degree of involvement with
the product, the marketing message, and/or the
purchase situation.
6 Understand that consumers can experience different
types of affective responses, which can influence
consumption behaviours.
7 Understand that marketers can tap into various
discrete emotions to influence consumer responses.

Introduction
Fitness trackers like the FitBit Force, Jawbone Up, and Nike+ Fuelband are rapidly increas-
ing in popularity, and experts say this trend will continue in the coming years. What is the
driving force behind this trend? These devices capitalize on consumers’ health and fitness
goals in a way that makes their progress concrete and easy to track. As we will see, goals
that can be measured or tracked in some way are easier to achieve. While this example
relates to the consumer’s conscious motivation to reach a particular goal, motivations can
also operate outside the consumer’s consciousness.
To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what they do. Why do
some people choose to bungee-jump off a bridge or go whitewater rafting in the Yukon,
while others spend their leisure time playing chess or gardening? We do everything for a
reason, whether to quench a thirst, to kill boredom, or to attain some deep spiritual experi-
ence. Marketing students are taught from day one that the goal of marketing is to satisfy
consumers’ needs. However, this insight is useless unless we can discover what those
needs are and why they exist.

The Motivation Process CO 1

Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. It occurs when
a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy. Once a need has been activated,
a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate
the need.
94 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

A want is a manifestation of a need. This ad

from Singapore reminds us that consumer
society tempts us with wants.
Courtesy of M&C Saatchi (S) Pte Ltd, Creative Director:
Terence Tan, Photographer: Jimmy Fok

This need may be utilitarian (a desire to achieve some functional or practical ben-
efit, as when a person requires a pair of durable sneakers), or it may be hedonic (an
experiential need involving emotional responses). For example, the Tourism Las Vegas
tagline “What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas” highlights positioning in a way that
appeals to hedonic motives. The desired end state is the consumer’s goal. Marketers
try to create products and services that will provide the desired benefits and permit
the consumer to reduce this tension.
Whether the need is utilitarian or hedonic, a discrepancy exists between the con-
sumer’s present state and some ideal state. This gulf creates a state of tension. The
magnitude of this tension determines the urgency the consumer feels to reduce the
tension. This degree of arousal is called a drive. A basic need can be satisfied any
number of ways, and the specific path a person chooses is influenced by his or her
unique set of experiences and by the values instilled by the culture in which the per-
son has been raised.
These personal and cultural factors combine to create a want, which is one mani-
festation of a need. For example, hunger is a basic need that must be satisfied by all;
the lack of food creates a tension state that can be reduced by the intake of such prod-
ucts as cheeseburgers, Oreo cookies, raw fish, or bean sprouts. The specific route to
hunger reduction is culturally determined.
Once the goal is attained, tension is reduced and the motivation recedes (for the
time being). Motivation can be described in terms of its strength, or the pull it exerts
on the consumer, and its direction, or the particular way the consumer attempts to
reduce motivational tension.

Motivational Strength
The degree to which a person is willing to expend energy to reach one goal as opposed
to another reflects his or her underlying motivation to attain that goal. Many theories
have been advanced to explain why people behave the way they do. Most share the
basic idea that people have some finite amount of energy that must be directed toward
certain goals. Two basic theoretical categories that account for motivational strength
are drive theories and expectancy theories.
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 95

Drive Theory CO 2
Drive theory focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal
(such as your stomach grumbling during a morning class). We are motivated to reduce
the tension caused by this physiological arousal. Tension reduction has been proposed
as a basic mechanism governing human behaviour.
In marketing, tension refers to the unpleasant state that exists if a person’s con-
sumption needs are not fulfilled. People may be grumpy if they haven’t eaten. This
state (of hunger, for example) activates goal-oriented behaviour that attempts to reduce
or eliminate this unpleasant state and return to a balanced one, called homeostasis.
Those behaviours that are successful in reducing the drive by eliminating the
underlying need are strengthened and tend to be repeated. (This aspect of the learning
process was discussed in Chapter 3.) Your motivation to leave class early to grab a
snack would be greater if you hadn’t eaten in 24 hours than if you had eaten only two
hours earlier. If you did sneak out and had indigestion after, say, wolfing down a pack-
age of chips, this behaviour would be less likely to be repeated the next time you
wanted a snack. A person’s degree of motivation, then, depends on the distance
between his or her present state and the goal.
Drive theory, however, runs into difficulties when it tries to explain some facets of
human behaviour that run counter to its predictions. People often do things that
increase a drive state rather than decrease it. For example, people may delay gratifica-
tion. If you know you are going out for a lavish dinner, you might decide to forgo a
snack earlier in the day even though you are hungry at that time.

Expectancy Theory
Most current explanations of motivation focus on cognitive factors rather than only
biological ones to understand what drives behaviour. Expectancy theory suggests that
behaviour is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes—positive
incentives—rather than pushed from within. We choose one product over another
because we expect this choice to have more positive consequences for us. Under expec-
tancy theory, positive incentives could include things like money or even social status.

Motivational Direction
Motives have direction as well as strength. They are goal-oriented in that specific
objectives are desired to satisfy a need. Most goals can be reached by a number of
routes, and the objective of marketers is to convince consumers that the alternative
they offer provides the best chance to attain the goal. For example, a consumer who
decides that he needs a pair of jeans to help him reach his goal of being accepted by
others or of projecting an appropriate image can choose among Diesel, True Religion,
GUESS, 7 For All Mankind, and many other alternatives, each of which promises to
deliver certain benefits.

Needs versus Wants

The specific way a need is satisfied depends on the individual’s unique history and
learning experiences and his or her cultural environment. The particular form of con-
sumption used to satisfy a need is termed a want. For example, two classmates may
feel their stomachs rumbling during a lunchtime lecture. If neither person has eaten
since the night before, the strength of their respective needs (hunger) would be about
the same. However, the way each person goes about satisfying this need might be quite
different. The first person may be a health-conscious individual who fantasizes about
gulping down vegetable tofu stir-fry, while the second person may be equally excited
by the prospect of a greasy cheeseburger and fries.
96 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Magnum brand of ice cream encourages

consumers to satisfy their wants.
Newscast/Alamy

Types of Needs
People are born with a need for certain elements necessary to maintain life, such as
food, water, air, and shelter. These are called biogenic needs. People have many other
needs, however, that are not innate. Psychogenic needs are acquired in the process of
becoming a member of a culture. These include the need for status, power, affiliation,
and so on. Psychogenic needs reflect the priorities of a culture, and their effect on
behaviour will vary in different environments.
Consumers can also be motivated to satisfy either utilitarian or hedonic needs.
The satisfaction of utilitarian needs implies that consumers will emphasize the objec-
tive, tangible attributes of products, such as kilometres per litre of gas in a car; the
amount of fat, calories, and protein in a cheeseburger; or the durability of a pair of
jeans. Hedonic needs are subjective and experiential, leading consumers to rely on a
product because it meets their needs for excitement, self-confidence, or fantasy, per-
haps to escape the mundane or routine aspects of life.1 Of course, consumers may be
motivated to purchase a product because it provides both types of benefits. For exam-
ple, a Louis Vuitton handbag may be bought because of the luxurious image it portrays
and because it can carry items needed when out and about.

CO 3 Motivational Conflicts
A goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or negative. A positively val-
ued goal is one toward which consumers direct their behaviour; they are motivated to
approach the goal and will seek out products that will be instrumental in attaining it.
However, not all behaviour is motivated by the desire to approach a goal. As we saw in
Chapter 3, sometimes consumers are motivated to avoid a negative outcome. They will
structure their purchases or consumption activities to reduce the chances of attaining
this end result. For example, many consumers work hard to avoid rejection, an avoid-
ance goal. They will stay away from products that they associate with social disap-
proval. Products such as deodorants and mouthwash frequently rely upon consumers’
avoidance motivation by depicting the onerous social consequences of underarm
odour or bad breath.
Because a purchase decision may involve more than one source of motivation,
consumers often find themselves in situations in which different motives conflict with
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 97

Snickers humorously reminds us that the

biogenic need of hunger must be fulfilled
or else there can be unfortunate
consequences!
SNICKERS® is a registered trademark of Mars,
Incorporated. The SNICKERS® advertisement and
trademark are used with permission of Mars,
Incorporated.

one another. Since marketers are attempting to satisfy consumers’ needs, they can also
help by providing possible solutions to these dilemmas. As shown in Figure 4–1, three
general types of conflict can occur: approach–approach, approach–avoidance, and
avoidance–avoidance.

Ap p roa c h– A p p ro a c h C on f l ict
In an approach–approach conflict, a person must choose between two desirable alter-
natives. A student might be torn between going home for the holidays or going on a ski
trip with friends. Or she might have to choose between two different concerts because
she only has enough money to attend one of them.

FIGURE 4–1

Three Types of Motivational Conflict

Approach–Approach

Approach–Avoidance

Avoidance–Avoidance
98 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

The theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the premise that people have a
need for consistency in their lives and that a state of tension is created when beliefs or
behaviours conflict with one another. The conflict that arises when choosing between
two alternatives may be resolved through a process of cognitive dissonance reduction
in which people are motivated to reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance) and thus
eliminate unpleasant tension.2
Post-decision dissonance can arise when the consumer must make a choice between
two products, both of which possess good and bad qualities. By choosing one product and
not the other, the person gets the bad qualities of the chosen product and loses out on the
good qualities of the unchosen one. This loss creates an unpleasant, dissonant state that
the person is motivated to reduce. One way this dissonance can be resolved is by the con-
sumer convincing himself after the fact that choices he made were smart ones by finding
additional reasons to support the alternatives he chose, or perhaps by “discovering” flaws
with the options he did not choose. Marketers often attempt to reduce approach—approach
conflicts by highlighting the superiority of their brand. Take, for example, the long-running
“Mac versus PC” campaign: Apple did an excellent job of highlighting the unique positive
attributes of its brand, while depicting the downsides of competing products.

A p p r oa c h –Avo id an ce Co n flict
Many of the products and services we desire have negative consequences attached to
them as well as positive consequences. We may feel guilty or ostentatious when buy-
ing a status-laden product such as a luxury fur coat or feel like a glutton when contem-
plating a bag of potato chips. When we desire a goal but wish to avoid it at the same
time, an approach–avoidance conflict exists.
Some solutions to these conflicts include the proliferation of fake furs, which
eliminate guilt about harming animals while still allowing you to make a fashion
statement, and the success of diet foods, such as the Weight Watchers brands, which
promise good food without the calories. Indeed, the development of hybrid vehicles
is one attempt to resolve approach–avoidance conflicts; the consumer can still have a

By offering consumers the great taste of

fudge brownies (approach), while reducing
the amount of fat (avoid), Breyers is able to
resolve an approach–avoid conflict for con-
sumers.
Reproduced with kind permission of Unilever PLC and
group companies
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 99

new car while reducing the negative impact on the environment. Many marketers try
to overcome guilt by convincing consumers that they are deserving of luxuries (such
as when L’Oréal cosmetics reminds the consumer “Because you’re worth it”).

Avo i da nc e – Avoid a n c e C o n f l ic t
Sometimes consumers find themselves caught “between a rock and a hard place”:
They face a choice between two undesirable alternatives. A person may be faced with
the option of either throwing more money into an old car or buying a new one. Market-
ers frequently address this conflict through messages that stress the unforeseen bene-
fits of choosing one option (emphasizing special credit plans to ease the pain of
new-car payments, for example).

Classifying Consumer Needs

Much research has been done on classifying human needs. On the one hand, some
psychologists have tried to define a universal inventory of needs that could be traced
systematically to explain virtually all behaviour. One such effort, developed by Henry
Murray, delineates a set of psychogenic needs that (sometimes in combination) result
in specific behaviours. These needs, shown in Figure 4–2, include such dimensions as
autonomy (being independent), defendence (defending the self against criticism), and
play (engaging in pleasurable activities).3
Murray’s need structure serves as the basis for a number of widely used personal-
ity tests, such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Edwards Personal
Preference Schedule (EPPS). In the TAT, test subjects are shown four to six ambiguous
pictures and asked to write answers to four directing questions about the pictures.
These questions are: (1) What is happening? (2) What has led to this situation? (3)
What is being thought? (4) What will happen? The subject is allowed four minutes of
writing time to answer these questions for each story. Each answer is then content-
analyzed for references to certain needs and scored whenever that need is mentioned.
The theory behind the test is that people will freely project their own subcon-
scious needs onto the ambiguous picture. By getting their responses to the picture, you
are really getting at the person’s true needs for achievement or affiliation or whatever
other needs may dominate. Murray believed that everyone has the same basic set of
needs but that individuals differ in how they prioritize them.

Sp e c ific Ne e d s a n d Bu y in g Be h av io ur
Other motivational approaches have focused on specific needs and their ramifications
for behaviour. For example, individuals with a high need for achievement strongly
value personal accomplishment.4 They put a premium on products and services that
signify success because these consumption items provide feedback about the realization
of their goals. These consumers are good prospects for products that provide evidence of
their achievements. One study of working women found that those who were high in

FIGURE 4–2

Types of Needs, as Defined by Murray

Biogenic Psychogenic

Food Dominance Autonomy Assistance

Water Superiority Affiliation Change
Air Emotional Stability Analysis Endurance
Sleep Achievement Dependence Aggression
Sex Compliance Self-Depreciation Defendence
Shelter Order Exhibition Play
100 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

achievement motivation were more likely to choose clothing they considered business-
like and less likely to be interested in apparel that accentuated their femininity.5 Other
important needs that are relevant to consumer behaviour include the following:
• Need for affiliation (to be in the company of other people):6 This need is relevant
to products and services that alleviate loneliness and that are consumed among
groups of people at places such as athletic venues, bars, and shopping malls.
• Need for power (to control one’s environment):7 Many products and services,
ranging from “souped-up” muscle cars to hotels, restaurants, and resorts, promise
to respond to the customer’s every whim, allowing consumers to feel that they
have mastery over their surroundings.
• Need for uniqueness (to assert one’s individual identity):8 This need is satisfied by
products that pledge to accentuate a consumer’s distinctive qualities. For exam-
ple, Rocketcases is a Vancouver company that allows you to personalize your cell
phone case to suit your unique personality.

CO 4 Masl o w ’s Hier ar ch y o f Need s

One influential approach to motivation was proposed by the psychologist Abraham
Maslow. Maslow’s approach is a general one originally developed to understand per-
sonal growth and the attainment of “peak experiences.”9 Maslow formulated a hierar-
chy of biogenic and psychogenic needs in which levels of motives are specified. A
hierarchical approach implies that the order of development is fixed—that is, a certain
level must be attained before the next, higher one is activated. This universal approach
to motivation has been adopted by marketers because it (indirectly) specifies certain
types of product benefits that people might be looking for, depending on the different
stages in their development and/or their environmental conditions.
These levels are summarized in Figure 4–3. At each level, different priorities exist
in terms of the product benefits a consumer is looking for. Ideally, an individual pro-
gresses up the hierarchy until his or her dominant motivation is a focus on “ultimate”
goals, such as justice and beauty. Unfortunately, this state is difficult to achieve (at
least on a regular basis); most of us have to be satisfied with occasional glimpses of
peak experiences.

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 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 101

Volvo strongly positions its brand on the

need for safety.
Courtesy of Volvo do Brasil

Marketing
Insight
Social needs are met by seeking warm and satisfying human relationships. Although Maslow’s hierarchy outlines needs at a
When the social needs are more or less satisfied, the esteem or ego needs emerge. relatively general level, this can be a starting
Inwardly directed ego needs reflect an individual’s need for self-acceptance, self- point for marketers in terms of developing seg-
esteem, achievement, and success. Outwardly directed ego needs include the needs mentation and positioning strategies. For exam-
for prestige, reputation, status, and recognition from others. Most people spend most ple, people purchasing cosmetics, grooming
of their lives trying to fill their ego needs and never move on to the fifth level of self- products, and plastic surgery are likely looking
actualization. This need refers to individuals’ desire to fulfil their own potential, to to fulfil esteem or ego needs, while those looking
become everything they are capable of becoming, so that they are completely satis- to purchase a home security system are likely
fied with their lives. motivated to fulfil safety needs. Marketers who
In summary, Maslow’s need hierarchy predicts that higher-order needs will are able to position products in ways that appeal
become the driving force behind human behaviour as the consumer’s lower-level needs to the specific needs of the target market are
are satisfied. The theory says, in effect, that satisfaction does not motivate behaviour; likely to be successful. In one example, the
dissatisfaction does. It is important to note that lower needs are never totally satisfied Canadian Army uses taglines that appeal to
but are ongoing. We do not need to satisfy one need totally before the next level of need higher-order needs such as self-actualization.
motivates our behaviour. Sometimes certain behaviours satisfy two needs at once. For One study found that the majority of participants
example, a Mercedes might satisfy the safety need and the ego need for prestige. preferred statements such as “Be All You Can
Although Maslow’s theory is interesting and applicable to marketing, it has not Be” and “Accelerate Your Life,” and that those
gone without criticism. There is no measurement tool for researchers to test the need who are high in the motivators of esteem, self-
actualization, and autonomy find these types of
hierarchy empirically. Also, they cannot measure precisely how well satisfied one
taglines most appealing. Thus, positioning
need is before the next-higher need becomes operational. Another problem with tak-
strategies that resonate with relevant consumer
ing Maslow’s hierarchy too literally is that its assumptions may be particular to West-
needs are most likely to be successful.10
ern culture. People of other cultures may question the order of the levels as specified.
For most Canadians, the biogenic or physi-
Many Asian cultures operate on the premise that the welfare of the group (belonging-
ological needs are regularly and easily satis-
ness needs) is more highly valued than the needs of the individual (esteem needs).
fied. Thus, the higher-level needs are usually
The point is that this hierarchy is widely applied in marketing because it dominant. Safety and security become the next
reminds us that consumers may have different need priorities at different times and driving force of behaviour. These needs are
stages of their lives—not because it exactly specifies a consumer’s progression up concerned with much more than physical
the ladder of needs. safety. They include order, stability, routine,
familiarity, and certainty—the knowledge, for
Motivation and Goal Fulfillment example, that you will eat dinner not only today
and tomorrow, but also far into the future.
People often set goals that are related to consumption.11 Many consumers set goals to lose Safety needs are met by RRSPs, social welfare
weight, to consume less energy, or to exercise more often. Consumers are more likely to programs, and insurance policies.
achieve such aims when they set goals that are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
 102 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals
Consumers
its in Focus
Theories such as Maslow’s hierarchy cannot
account for all of consumers’ needs and moti-
vations. For example, while belonging needs
can account for some behaviours on social
media such as finding a friend on Facebook or
following someone on Twitter, social media
activities may serve other needs as well. Why,
for example, are consumers addicted to apps
such as Instagram and Pinterest? Obviously
these platforms, which allow us to share pho-
tos and visual images with others, serve to
connect people and allow them to project a
particular image to others. One additional pos-
sibility is that the act of depicting one’s life
digitally can confirm and enhance one’s experi-
ence, as well as allow for aesthetic apprecia-
tion and creativity.12
Steve Nash Fitness World and Sports Club
encourages consumer goal attainment with
motivational messaging.
Courtesy of Steve Nash Fitness World & Sports Club
Relevant, and Time-bound). The goal needs to be Specific in that it is easier to achieve a
clearly specified goal than a more general one. The goal needs to be Measurable, which
means there need to be concrete criteria by which goal attainment can be assessed. The
goal needs to be somewhat challenging, but also Attainable, meaning realistic. The goal
should also be Relevant, something important to the goal setter. And finally, the goal
needs to be Time-bound, which refers to the notion that the goal should have a targeted
time point for completion.13
In a unique marketing strategy, Nike created its Nike+ platform and began sell-
ing compatible Fuelbands—sport watches that provide an online platform for con-
sumers to directly track their goal progress and set specific goals, such as “run
farther,” “burn calories,” or “run faster.” The social aspect of the online platform can
also prove very motivating by allowing consumers to challenge others, provide feed-
back, and get encouragement as they set new goals. Importantly, this innovation has
helped consumers set and track goals in ways that are specific and measurable.
There has been a proliferation of smartphone apps aimed at tracking fitness and
weight management goals, and it is notable that the most popular ones do a nice job
of replicating the SMART goal-setting formula, along with other elements that allow
consumers to compete with others and motivate themselves.14
What happens when consumers get closer to attaining a particular goal? Intuition
might suggest that they would work harder as the end goal gets within reach. However,
consumers who subjectively feel as if they’re closer to attaining a goal such as weight
loss are ironically more likely to change course and pursue an alternative goal such as
enjoyment. Interestingly, this may lead to actions that are incongruent with the origi-
nal goal. In one study, consumers who felt they were closer to attaining their
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 103

Running Room sets up training programs

that motivate individuals by using social
support and setting specific and measurable
goals. Consumers are more likely to be
successful when they set these types of
goals.
Courtesy of the Running Room

weight-loss goal were subsequently more likely to choose a chocolate bar over an
apple!15 Goal progress does not have to be real, and can simply be perceived to have
strong effects on behaviour. For example, the mere presence of a healthy option on a
fast-food menu can fulfil nutrition-related goals, and in turn, provide consumers with
a “licence” to indulge.16 That is, simply having a healthy option like a salad or apple
slices on the menu can lead consumers to end up choosing a less than healthy option
for their meal.
One question that has puzzled consumer researchers is whether the motivation to
attain goals is always conscious, or if sometimes this can occur below the threshold of
awareness.17 The evidence seems to suggest that sometimes the motive to attain a goal
can be activated in consumption contexts without the consumer even being aware of
it. For example, exposing consumers to the Apple brand name enhances motivations
to be different and unique as compared to exposure to the IBM brand name, while
exposure to the Disney brand name resulted in consumers being more honest than
exposure to the E! brand name. These were incidental effects of brand exposure that
consumers were not aware of.18

Incidental brand exposure, such as seeing an

advertisement or a product, can activate con-
sumer goals. The Apple brand can activate
the motivation to be unique and different.
Photo by Steve White
 104 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Marketing
Insight
As we saw in Chapter 3, gamification is a red-
hot marketing strategy today; it refers to the
application of gaming principles to non-gaming
contexts. Gamification is also a very effective
means of enhancing consumer involvement,
especially for activities that can benefit from a
bit of motivation. In one example, when the
researchers wanted to promote financial liter-
acy, they created the Money Smart program.21 It
is designed to look like a board game similar to
Monopoly, and it challenges players to learn
financial skills such as setting up a bank
account, paying bills on time, and avoiding
identity theft. The game attracted over 40 000
users in a year. In another example, when a uni-
versity wanted to ramp up undergraduates’
interest in corporate finance, it did so by placing
students, à la Harry Potter, into one of four
“houses” for the year, each with its own name
and shield. Students could earn points for
attending optional lectures and other finance-
related activities. The winning team at the end
of the year received a party with the dean, and
also a “house cup,” just like in the movie.22
Consumer Involvement CO 5
A consumer’s motivation to attain a goal influences his or her desire to expend the
effort necessary to attain the products or services believed to be instrumental in satis-
fying that objective. However, not everyone is motivated to the same extent; that is,
one person might be convinced that he or she can’t live without the latest style or
modern convenience, while another is only marginally interested in these items.
Involvement can be defined as “a person’s perceived relevance of the object based on
their inherent needs, values and interests.”19 The word object is used in the generic
sense and refers to a product (or brand), an advertisement, or a purchase situation.
Consumers can find involvement in all these “objects.”
Since involvement is a motivational construct, it can be triggered by one or more
of the different antecedents shown in Figure 4–4. The antecedents can be something
about the person, something about the object, or something about the situation. On the
right side of Figure 4–4 are the results or consequences of being involved with the
object. When consumers are intent on doing what they can to satisfy a need, they will
be motivated to pay attention to and process any information felt to be relevant to
achieving their goals.
Involvement can be viewed as the motivation to process information.20 To the
degree that there is a perceived link between a consumer’s needs, goals, or values and
product knowledge, the consumer will be motivated to pay attention to product
information. When relevant knowledge is activated in memory, a motivational state
FIGURE 4–4
Conceptualizing Involvement
CONCEPTUALIZING INVOLVEMENT

Possible Results of
Antecedents of Involvement Involvement
Person Factors
— needs elicitation of counter-
— importance arguments to ads
— interest
— values effectiveness of ad
to induce purchase
Object or Involvement
Stimulus Factors relative importance
— differentiation of the product class
of alternatives
with advertisements
— source of perceived differences
communication in product attributes
— content of
communication with products
preference for a
particular brand
Situational Factors
— purchase/use with purchase
— occasion decisions influence of price
on brand choice

amount of information
search

Involvement = f (Person, Situation, Object) time spent deliberating

The level of involvement may be influenced by alternatives
one or more of these three factors. Interactions
among person, situation, and object factors are type of decision rule
likely to occur. used in choice

Source: J.L. Zaichkowsky, “Conceptualizing Involvement,” Journal of Advertising 15(2) (1986): 2–14. © Taylor & Francis. Used with permission.
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 105

is created that drives behaviour (e.g., shopping). As involvement with a product

increases, people devote more attention to ads related to the product, exert more cog-
nitive effort to understand these ads, and focus their attention more on the product-
related information in them.23

Levels of Involvement: From Inertia to Passion

The type of information processing that will occur thus depends upon the consumer’s
level of involvement. It can range from simple processing, in which only the basic
features of a message are considered, all the way to elaboration, in which the incoming
information is linked to preexisting knowledge systems.24
A person’s degree of involvement can be conceived as a continuum, ranging from
absolute lack of interest in a marketing stimulus at one end to obsession at the other.
Consumption at the low end of involvement is characterized by inertia, where deci-
sions are made out of habit because the consumer lacks the motivation to consider
alternatives. At the high end of involvement we can expect to find the type of passion-
ate intensity reserved for people and objects that carry great meaning to the individual.
When consumers are truly involved with a product, an ad, or a website, they enter
what has been called a flow state. This state is the Holy Grail of Web designers who
want to create sites that are so entrancing the consumer loses all track of time as he or
she becomes engrossed in the site’s contents. Flow is an optimal experience character-
ized by the following:

• A sense of playfulness
• A feeling of being in control
• Concentration and highly focused attention
• Mental enjoyment of the activity for its own sake
• A distorted sense of time
• A match between the challenge at hand and one’s skills25

A more sophisticated view of involvement recognizes that besides the level of

involvement there may be a type of involvement. A person may be emotionally or
affectively involved with an object (such as an advertisement), or rationally or cogni-
tively involved with a product or purchase situation, and so on. The advertising
industry has long held this view and advocates different types of advertising strategies
depending on the level and type of involvement. This is shown in Figure 4–5.

FIGURE 4–5

Foote, Cone, and Belding's Involvement and Product Typology

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QH /GFKCRTKPVQPNKPGKPHQTOCVKQPDCUGF /GFKC68XKFGQKOCIGDCUGF
+PXQNXGOGPV
.QY r)TQWPFDGGH r%CPF[
r*QWUGJQNFENGCPUGTU r.KSWQT
/GFKCUGE+&U215TGOKPFGT /GFKC215CVVGPVKQPITCDDKPI

Source: Adapted from Richard Vaughn, “How Advertising Works: A Planning Model,” Journal of Advertising Research 20 (October 1980): 31. See also
Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky, “The Emotional Side of Product Involvement,” in Advances in Consumer Research 14, eds. Paul Anderson and
Melanie Wallendorf (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research): 32–35.
106 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

The Many Faces of Involvement

As previously defined, involvement can take many forms. Involvement can be cogni-
Nike
tive, as when a student is motivated to learn all she can about the latest specs of the
new iPad release, or emotional, as when the thought of a new Armani suit gives a
clothes horse goosebumps.26 To complicate matters further, advertisements, such as
those produced for Nike or Adidas, may themselves be involving for some reason
(because they make us laugh or cry or inspire us to work harder). It seems that involve-
ment is a fuzzy concept, because it overlaps and means different things to different
people. Indeed, the consensus is that there are actually three broad types of involve-
ment—that relate to the product, to the message, and to the situation.27

P r o duc t In vo lvem en t
Product involvement is related to a consumer’s level of interest in a particular prod-
uct. Many sales promotions are designed to increase this type of involvement. Perhaps
the most powerful way to enhance product involvement is to invite consumers to play
a role in designing or personalizing what they buy. Mass customization is the custom-
ization and personalization of products and services for individual customers at a
mass production price.28 Improved manufacturing techniques in many industries are
allowing companies to produce made-to-order products for many customers at a time.
This strategy applies to a wide range of products and services, from news websites
that allow readers to choose which categories of information they want to see, to com-
puters you can configure to your specification, to blue jeans you can buy that have a
right leg that’s one inch shorter than the left leg to fit an asymmetrical body (this is
more common than you think). Mars introduced personalized M&M’s to encourage
consumers to bond with its chocolates. At www.mymms.com you can upload a photo
and order a batch of M&M’s with a face and personal message printed on the candy
shell. Nike allows consumers to design their own running shoes on NikeID.com. Lexus
sponsored a project with Time Inc. and American Express Publishing (AEP) to produce
a customized magazine. Consumers can choose content from a set of magazines such
as Time, Sports Illustrated, and Food & Wine, then receive their personalized magazine
either in print, online, or via RSS feeds on their cell phones.29

Messa g e - Respo nse In vo lvemen t

Message-response involvement refers to how the medium through which the message
is communicated can increase consumer involvement. One example of this is to create
spectacles or performances, in which the message is itself a form of entertainment. In
the early days of radio and television, ads literally were performances—show hosts
integrated marketing messages into the episodes. Today live advertising is making a
comeback, as marketers try harder and harder to captivate jaded consumers. For exam-
ple, the infamous T-mobile “flash mob” in London’s busy Liverpool Street station fea-
tured a spontaneous-yet-choreographed dance routine by a massive cast of dancers.
More recent techniques include guerrilla marketing, in which marketers use low-cost,
unconventional marketing tactics to gain consumers’ attention and involvement.
These can range from events like flash mobs to using novel and unexpected ways of
displaying information to consumers.
Marketers are also increasing message-response involvement by connecting with
consumers about real-time events on social media, a tactic referred to as real-time
marketing. For example, during a power outage in the middle of the 2013 Super Bowl,
Oreo cleverly (and very quickly) crafted a visual and tweeted “You can still dunk in
the dark,” a move that got it considerable media attention and over 16 000 retweets
from consumers.30
The quest to heighten message involvement is also fuelling the rapid growth of
interactive mobile marketing, in which consumers participate in real-time promotional
campaigns via their cell phones. One form of this approach is SMS marketing, in which
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 107

Science World in Vancouver uses unexpected

marketing stimuli to increase message-
response involvement.
Courtesy of TELUS World of Science/ReThink
Communications

retailers and brands offer discount coupons to customers in an effort to engage them. Mobile
users like text messaging, and 95 percent of all texts get opened within five minutes, which
is faster than email and social media updates.

Pu r c hase S ituat ion I n v o lv em e n t

Purchase situation involvement refers to differences that may occur when buying the same
object for different contexts. Here the person may perceive a great deal of social risk or
none at all. What people think when they consume the product for themselves, or when
they know others will consume the product they buy, is not always obvious or intuitive.
For example, when you want to impress someone, you might try to buy a brand or product
with a certain image that you think reflects good taste. When you have to buy a gift for
someone in an obligatory situation, such as a wedding gift for a cousin you do not really
like, you might not care what image the gift portrays, or you might actually pick something
cheap that reflects your desire to distance yourself.31 Again, some smart retailers are wak-
ing up to the value of increasing purchase situation involvement by appealing to hedonic
shoppers who are looking to be entertained or otherwise engaged in addition to simply
“buying stuff.”32

Segmenting by Involvement Levels

A measurement approach that segments involvement by levels allows consumer research-
ers to capture the diversity of the involvement construct, and it also allows for involve-
ment to be used as a basis for market segmentation. For example, a yogurt manufacturer
108 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

might find that even though its product is low in sign value for one group of consum-
ers, it is highly related to the self-concept of another market segment, such as health-
food enthusiasts or avid dieters. The company could then adapt its strategy to account
for the motivation of different segments to process information about the product.
One study looked at the roles of affective versus cognitive involvement and of
level of involvement (high versus low) in promoting Canadian universities. The
researchers found that students with a high level of cognitive involvement conducted
an intense search for information about universities, while those students who had a
low level of cognitive involvement and were affectively involved made their univer-
sity choice mainly on the basis of emotional factors.33

Strategies to Increase Involvement

Although consumers differ in their levels of involvement with respect to a product
message, marketers do not have to just sit back and hope for the best. By being aware
of some basic factors that increase or decrease attention, they can take steps to increase
the likelihood that product information will get through. The marketer can enhance
the consumer’s motivation to process relevant information fairly easily by using one or
more of the following techniques:34

• Appeal to consumers’ hedonic needs. For example, ads with sensory appeal gen-
erate higher levels of attention and involvement.

Big Rock does an excellent job of encourag-

ing high-quality consumer-generated ads.
Courtesy of Big Rock Brewery
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 109

• Use novel stimuli, such as unusual cinematography, sudden silences, or unex-

pected movements in commercials. Marketing
• Use prominent stimuli, such as loud music and fast action, to capture attention in Insight
commercials. In print formats, larger ads increase attention. Also, viewers look
longer at coloured pictures than at those in black and white. When we have the opportunity to personalize a
product, our involvement increases because
• Include celebrity endorsers to generate higher interest in commercials. This strat- the item reflects our unique preferences. But
egy will be discussed in Chapter 8. how about when we build the product our-
• Build a bond with consumers by maintaining an ongoing relationship with them. selves? Researchers term this the IKEA effect.
Aside from these guidelines, perhaps the best way to boost consumers’ involve- Self-made (or at least assembled) products,
ment with the marketing messages they see and hear is to allow them to be involved including furniture, Lego, and even origami,
in the marketing process. One example is crowdsourcing, in which the marketer enhance the value we attach to them because
our own labour is involved.36 Of course, there
enlists a larger group of consumers to assist in some aspect of the marketing process.
may also be that unsettling feeling when you
For example, the Lay’s “Do Me a Flavour” contest asks consumers to submit ideas on
finish assembling a bookcase and there’s still
new, innovative flavours of potato chips (think Jalapeño Mac and Cheese) and then
one part left over . . .
asks other consumers to vote on the winner. The winning flavour is then put into
production. As we’ve already seen, another example of this is consumer-generated
content, in which consumers produce their own commercials for their favourite
brands. For example, Big Rock Brewery, based in Alberta, has an event called the
Eddies, in which consumers submit their own executions of print and video ads.
This practice creates a high degree of message-response involvement (also called
advertising involvement), which refers to the consumer’s interest in processing mar-
keting communications.35

Affect CO 6

Types of Affective Responses

Affect refers to the experience of emotionally laden states, which can range from
evaluations, to moods, to full-blown emotions. Evaluations involve valenced (i.e.,
positive or negative) reactions to events and objects, that are not accompanied by high
levels of arousal. For example, when a consumer evaluates a movie as being positive
or negative, this involves some degree of affect accompanied by low levels of arousal.
Moods involve temporary positive or negative affective states accompanied by
moderate levels of arousal. Moods tend to be diffuse and are not necessarily linked to
a particular affect-arousing event. Emotions (happiness, anger, fear, etc.), in contrast to
moods, tend to be more intense and are often related to a specific triggering event.
Marketers use affective states in many ways. First, positive moods and emotions
are often highlighted as a product benefit. Take, for example, Viagra’s marketing cam-
paign that uses humour and music to convey the positive affective quality of the prod-
uct. Certainly, some product categories, such as fragrances, alcohol, tobacco, and
caffeinated beverages, are consumed for their mood-altering qualities. Marketers will Consumers
also sometimes highlight the avoidance of negative affect as a product attribute; for
example, lottery corporations might ask consumers to consider how they would feel if in Focus
they hadn’t played the extra bonus draw.
The next time you’re feeling down and you think
Another way negative moods are sometimes utilized is by activating a negative
about cheering yourself by checking your
mood on the part of the consumer (e.g., by showing a picture of starving children in
Facebook page, think again: Researchers report
Africa), and then giving the consumer a means by which to make him- or herself feel
that the longer people stay on Facebook, the
better—by donating to the cause. Helping others as a means of resolving one’s own
worse they feel. Apparently this activity makes
negative moods has been referred to as negative state relief.37 One other way consum- you feel as though you’re wasting your life.
ers can repair negative moods is by purchasing and consuming mood-enhancing prod- People say that compared to browsing the
ucts such as chocolate. Internet (or perhaps studying!), Facebook
Another way marketers capitalize on affect is through mood congruency effects. checking is less meaningful or useful. This
Mood congruency is the notion that our judgments are often consistent with our judgment in turns leads to bad feelings.38
existing mood states. For example, consumers judge the very same products (cars,
110 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

Coca-Cola’s “Open Happiness” campaign is

an excellent example of highlighting positive
affect–inducing properties as a product
benefit.
Richard Drew/AP Photo/CP Images

TVs, etc.) more positively when in a positive as opposed to a negative mood.39 This
is why advertisers may attempt to have ads placed after humorous television pro-
gramming40 or endeavour to create uplifting ads.41 This is also why retailers often
employ mood-enhancing stimuli, such as pleasing background music, friendly staff,
and spatial aesthetics.42 If the retailer can create a positive mood on the part of con-
sumers, hopefully consumers will evaluate the merchandise more positively too!

This advertisement uses sad imagery to

evoke negative moods on the part of
consumers. Consumers are likely to donate
to the cause to repair such negative moods.
Courtesy of The United Way of Greater Toronto
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 111

Mood congruency effects are not inevitable, however. Researchers find that moods
are often used as a source of information when evaluating an object.43 That is, the
­consumer says to herself, “If I feel happy, I must like this camera I’m considering
buying.” But if the consumer realizes that her positive mood is due to some other
source, such as the upbeat music playing in the background, and not to the camera
itself, mood is less likely to bias her judgments.44 Moods are most likely to be influen-
tial when they are considered relevant to the particular purchase decision.45

How Social Media Taps into Our Emotions

Social media platforms can also play on affect. We may share particularly good or bad
feelings on Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat, or even resort to emoji and emoticons
such as ☺ in texts or emails to convey how we feel.
In fact, it’s so common for people to express their moods and also their emotional
reactions to products that these posts can be a treasure trove for marketers who want
to learn more about how their offerings make people feel. Sentiment analysis
(sometimes called opinion mining) is a process that scours the social media universe
to collect and analyze the words people use when they describe a specific product or
company. When people feel a particular way, they are likely to choose certain words
that tend to relate to the emotion. From these words, the researcher will create a

As I See It
Think of brand names such
as Hubba Bubba, Tutti Frutti,
Jelly Belly, KitKat, Bits &
Bites, Lululemon, and Tostitos.
Courtesy of Monica Popa
features/services for the phone, particularly when the extra fea-
tures are hedonic (e.g., downloadable iTunes, personalized ring
tones) rather than utilitarian (e.g., extended warranty and
increased internal memory). Furthermore, the affect triggered by

Now say these names out loud!
If you found yourself giggling
afterward, don’t worry: It’s nor-
mal. What you have just experi-
enced is the positive affect
Monica Popa University of generated by words that con-
Saskatchewan tain sound repetition in their
linguistic structure. Brands
with linguistic devices of repetition (e.g., alliteration and rhyme) in
their names have a way of putting a smile on our face. Their posi-
tive impact on our emotions is particularly strong if we hear or say
the brand names out loud, as opposed to merely seeing these
names written on a page.
My colleagues and I explored in a series of experiments
what happens when consumers experience positive feelings as a
result of exposure to brand names containing sound repetition.1
We found that positive affect prompts consumers to have higher
evaluations of these brands and to choose them over brands that
do not have sound repetition in their names. Our studies also reveal
that positive feelings have consequences beyond the focal brands.
For example, positive affect not only prompts consumers to prefer
a mobile phone named “Shonoshon” to one named “Shonufam,”
but also increases consumers’ likelihood of buying add-on
the name of a service establishment such as a restaurant influ-
ences consumers’ choice of menu items. For example, if con-
sumers go to a restaurant called “Rantifanti” (as against a
restaurant called “Rantifumte”), they are more likely to select
from the menu an indulgent dessert (e.g., chocolate cake) than
a healthy product (e.g., fruit salad). These findings have impor-
tant implications for manufacturers in naming their brands and
designing their product portfolio, for retailers deciding which
brands and products to sell, and for managers training their
sales force to cross-sell or up-sell. For instance, salespeople are
more likely to succeed in cross-selling hedonic products when
consumers experience positive affect (as a result of hearing
brand names with sound repetition or as a result of other pleas-
ant stimuli such as background music or enjoyable pictures).
In a related stream of research, I currently explore how
social interaction impacts consumers’ feelings and in turn, their
behaviour. The motivation for this research direction is my fasci-
nation with emotions, and my continuous quest to understand
the interplay between affect and cognitions in guiding consump-
tion decisions. The sweeping effects of positive affect never
cease to amaze me. At the end of the day, little things that make
us smile or have a good laugh can often work wonders in market-
ing and in life.

1 Jennifer Argo, Monica Popa, and Malcolm Smith, “The Sound of Brands,” Journal of Marketing 74(4) (2010): 97–109.
112 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals

word-phrase dictionary (sometimes called a library) to code the data. A computer

program will then scan social media text to identify whether the words in the
dictionary appear.
Consider this example. A review on Epinions, a product review site, included
the statement, “The Canon PowerShot A540 camera had good aperture and excellent
resolution.” A sentiment analysis would extract the entities of interest from the sen-
tence, identifying the product as the Canon PowerShot A540 and the relevant dimen-
sions as aperture and resolution. The sentiment would then be extracted for each
dimension; the sentiment for aperture is good while that for resolution is excellent.
Text mining software would collect these reactions and combine them with others to
paint a picture of how people are talking about the product. There are several senti-
ment analysis programs that do similar things; one called ToneCheck even reports on
the emotions it detects in people’s emails.46

CO 7 Discrete Emotions
Consumer researchers have become increasingly interested in investigating the
importance of specific emotions in the consumption environment. While the gen-
eral notion of positive and negative emotion does have importance in understand-
ing consumer behaviour, the examination of specific emotional reactions during
consumption episodes can provide additional insight. For example, envy and
embarrassment are both negative emotions, but consumers who experience these
emotions while out on a shopping trip are likely to have very different reactions to
the shopping event.

Hap p in e ss
Happiness is a mental state of well-being characterized by positive emotions.
Researchers have understandably long been interested in what it is that truly makes
people happy. Material goods, it seems, are not the secret to happiness. The higher

The Moodagent app generates a music

playlist based on the user’s mood.
Copyright Syntonetic Media Solutions A/S, 2015
 C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 113

people score on materialism scales, the less happy they seem to be.47 In one study
respondents were asked to think of either a material purchase (defined as a pur-
chase made with the primary intention of acquiring a material possession) or an
experiential purchase (defined as a purchase made with the primary intention of
acquiring a life experience), which were matched for price. 48 The authors found Marketing
that experiential purchases brought respondents more happiness than did material
purchases. This is because experiential purchases are more open to positive reinter-
Insight
pretations, are a more meaningful part of one’s identity, and contribute more to suc- You are watching a horror flick and just so hap-
cessful social relationships. pen to be eating a bag of a new brand of candy.
Other research also finds that how we spend our money can influence happiness. What impact would the unrelated emotion of
For example, people report increased levels of happiness when they spend money on fear have on how you feel about the candy
others, as opposed to on themselves.49 Finally, one possibility is that the key to hap- brand? Although, intuitively, one might predict
piness does not involve money at all; it involves time. Cassie Mogilner, a professor at that this would lead to negative brand evalua-
the Wharton School of Business, suggests that thinking about time, rather than tions, researchers have found that this is not
necessarily the case. In particular, they discov-
money, influences how effectively people pursue personal happiness goals.50 This is
ered that fear led to a desire for affiliation and
because encouraging people to think about time motivates them to spend more time
that people felt more connected to the brand
with family and friends and less time working. Thinking about money, on the other
when they experienced fear. The authors pro-
hand, induces people to socialize less and work more. It turns out that the secret to
pose that, in the absence of the social support
happiness might be fostering social connections with the people who are important
of other people, the brand itself can fulfil the
to us!
interpersonal psychological need for affiliation.
What makes us happy can also vary throughout the lifespan. That is, the meaning This work suggests that marketers don’t have
of happiness is not fixed and can shift as people get older. Whereas younger people are to avoid social media, movies, and video
more likely to associate happiness with excitement, older people are more likely to games that might incidentally create fear and
associate happiness with feelings of calm and peacefulness.51 It has been suggested could instead use such contexts to try to create
that this is due to increased feelings of connectedness to others and to the present a sense of attachment to the brand.52
moment as one ages.

This advertisement from Mercedes-Benz

highlights an affective benefit of the product.
Courtesy of Mercedes-Benz Canada Inc.

Converts gasoline to adrenaline.

With its bold, dynamic AMG styling, the all-new 2012 SLK 350 instantly attracts attention.
And with our dynamic handling package and 302 horsepower at your disposal, the ride is as
exhilarating as its look. For ultimate closed-top cruising, raise the power retractable vario-roof
and witness MAGIC SKY CONTROL – our innovative panoramic sunroof that adjusts from
tinted to clear at the touch of a button. Visit mercedes-benz.ca/slk

© 2011 Mercedes-Benz Canada Inc.

[Dealer Name], [Dealer Address], [Dealer Telephone Number], [Dealer Website]

!"#$%&%$'()(*+,-./001112 2+3(,322111,4*(1'!
 114 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals
Consumers
in Focus
Purchasing fitness-tracking wearable technol-
ogy; learning a new language; choosing a per-
formance enhancing sport drink; meeting a
financial planner. All of these consumption
decisions reflect the goal to become better in
domains that are important to the self. Recent
research suggests that the negative emotion of
guilt activates self-improvement motives,
which can lead consumers to be more likely to
choose products that are aimed at improving
the self. What was interesting was that guilt
experienced in one domain (for example, guilt
over not donating blood) was shown to “spill
over” into other domains (for example, leading
consumers to choose an energy drink that was
positioned on the basis of its ability to improve
mental performance). Notably, only guilt had
this motivational abilility to spur a desire for
self-improvement; sadness, shame, and
embarrassment did not.62
Envy
Envy is a negative emotion associated with the desire to reduce the gap between one-
self and someone who is superior on some dimension.53 As the phrase “keeping up
with the Joneses” suggests, consumers often experience envy. It has been suggested
that two distinct types can emerge. Benign envy occurs when the individual believes
that the superior other deserves his or her status. Researchers find that when con-
sumers experience benign envy over a product (e.g., the newest model of the iPhone),
they are willing to pay more for it.54 Malicious envy occurs when the consumer
believes that the superior other does not deserve his or her status. In this case, con-
sumers do not desire the focal product (iPhone), but are instead willing to pay more
for a different product in the same category (a Samsung phone). Feelings of mali-
cious envy have also been shown to produce negative attitudes and actions toward
the envied other. In these instances, envy can result in negative word of mouth, and
even acts of sabotage.
Gu ilt
Guilt is defined as “an individual’s unpleasant emotional state associated with possi-
ble objections to his or her actions, inaction, circumstances, or intentions.”55 Guilt is
often activated in contexts where marketers want consumers to engage in prosocial
behaviours, such as charitable giving. Marketing communications that activate a sense
of guilt on the part of the consumer, or “guilt appeals,” can be particularly compelling
when other people are present, because this activates a sense of consumer social
responsibility.56 However, extreme guilt appeals can sometimes backfire, and it can be
more effective to activate guilt more subtly. For example, the context itself—simply
presenting a green, environmentally friendly option alongside a non-green one—can
give rise to a sense of anticipatory guilt on the part of the consumer. That is, consum-
ers worry about how guilty they might feel in the future if they were to choose the
alternative, non-green option.57 The authors of this study found that subtler forms of
guilt induction were more effective than explicit guilt appeals in encouraging consum-
ers to select green products.
Consumer guilt can be activated in retail settings, too. One field study found that
when a consumer fails to make a purchase, this can lead to a guilt response when he or
she feels a sense of social connectedness with a salesperson.58 In such situations, con-
sumers not only feel guilt, but are also likely to engage in reparative actions. For exam-
ple, they might decide to make their lack of purchase up to the salesperson the next
time around.
Embar r assmen t
Embarrassment is a social emotion driven by a concern for what others are thinking
about us. It typically occurs when unwanted events communicate undesired infor-
mation about oneself to others. To be embarrassed, one must be aware of, and care
about, the evaluating social audience, whether real or imagined.59 Embarrassment
in the consumer context most often arises when socially sensitive products are pur-
chased. For example, condoms, adult diapers, tampons, hair-lice shampoo, and
pornography can be embarrassing products for some consumers.60 The feeling
exists here because the purchase of these items involves exposure of personal infor-
mation to a social audience. Interestingly, research has shown that familiarity with
a product (e.g., previous purchase) can reduce the embarrassment a consumer feels
in a shopping environment.61 Consumers have also been shown to adopt strategies
to alleviate embarrassment in such circumstances. For example, they might attempt
to hide an embarrassing product among others in the shopping basket, or they might
choose a cashier who looks “more friendly” when paying. Embarrassment can also
arise between consumers when a social custom or norm is violated. For example,
when one is out on a dinner date, rejection of one’s credit card can be a very embar-
rassing experience.