Textbook Animal Breeding and Genetics

Chapter 5.1 Phenotype and environment during life

history
Generally not all variation in observed phenotypes is a result of differences in genetic makeup
between animals. Part of it is determined by variation in what we call . Often
the environment has a very important influence on the animal’s phenotype. An impression of
what type of influence the environment has in the phenotype is given in figure 1. The figure
represents the life span of an animal, indicated by the green arrow. The vertical bars in the
arrow represent important events in life that indicate the start of a new phase in the
of the animals. Above these bars are text boxes that describe the type of event. Below the
arrow are text boxes that indicate what kind of environmental influences act on the animal
during each stage of its life history.

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Chapter 5.1.1 Events before birth

The life history of an animal starts with the fusion of an oocyte and a spermatozoid: the
conception. What happened to these two before conception has an influence on their quality,
and thus with the start-up conditions of the animal. The next important phase is that of
development through embryonic an foetal phase to the birth of the animal. In mammals this
phase occurs in the uterus and the mother has more or less continuous influence, in egg laying
species it occurs in the egg and the mother’s influence mainly lays in the composition of the
yolk and white components. During its time until birth, the animal encounters certain so-called
windows of development: periods during which certain parts should develop. These windows
often have a fixed time-frame. That means that the development has to take place during that
time-frame. After the window closes again, development in that aspect is no longer possible.
The development will depend on the genetics of the animal, but also on the environment. If that
is not sufficient, the development will be sub-optimal.

Chapter 5.1.2 Events after birth

After birth or hatch, the influence of the mother continues, provided the offspring is allowed to
be with the mother. However, the influence of the environment prior to birth is still present. So if
there was shortage of something in the uterus or egg, then the development will have adjusted
accordingly. After birth there may be compensatory growth, but if the organs were not optimally
developed then that is a given fact that cannot be corrected anymore. The development
continues after birth, also with a number of windows of development. Post-birth development
does not only involve development of the physical part of the animal, but also of the emotional
part. Many components of the character are developed during the first few weeks after birth. A
sub-optimal early environment can have irreversible influence on the emotional development of
the animal. Until weaning the environment of the animal is influenced by the maternal care,
including food provision, but also by the other members of the environment, for example litter
mates.

Chapter 5.1.3 Events after weaning

After weaning, the irreversible part of the influence of the early environment on the
development of the animal remains. On top of that, the current environment of the individual
animal will have its influence. For example, whether there is food and water and of what quality,
what type of housing, how other animals influence its development, etc. The development of
the animal continues until it has finished growing. This may be after it has matured in the sense
of after the start of its reproductive life. The first oestrus or fertile sperm production, and
sometimes the birth of the first offspring, occur before the animal has finished growing.
Therefore, the term maturity is a bit misleading in the figure. It often represents the age at first
reproduction, but in this case it represents the end of the animal’s development.

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Chapter 5.1.4 Events after maturity

After maturity there is the rest of the animal’s life. It will depend on the environmental quality
how that will influence the animal’s phenotype. However, the animal has finished development
so many of the environmental influences will be reversible. It may start its reproductive life and
create its own influences on its offspring. And because it was influenced by its parents itself,
you can imagine that those influences may still be of influence on the development of the
animal’s offspring. In fact, these influences of the parents of the animal of the development of
its offspring would be trans generational effects. This is a relatively new area of research and
not a lot is known about the importance of trans generational effects. An example is that of food
deprivation of the mother of the animal during pregnancy or before laying the egg. This will
have influenced the development of the animal. And because the development was influenced,
this in turn may influence the development of its offspring. For example, if the growth of the
animal was restricted and it remained small as adult, this will have influenced the size of the
uterus as well, and thus the environment of its developing offspring.

Chapter 5.1.5 Events after reproductive phase

After the reproductive phase, some domestic animals are allowed to retire. Also with its own
environmental influences on top of its past experiences during life. In nature animals usually do
not retire but die before they reach that age. Farm animals are usually culled even before the
end of the reproductive period. Note that environmental influences early in life may influence
the phenotype later in life. However, not ALL early influences have a lasting effect. Some of the
influences will be reversible or of insignificant influence.

Chapter 5.2 Phenotype in a model

As we have seen, anything that has happened during the life history of the animal may have an
influence on the current phenotype. For example, if you measure the height of an animal, then
that is its phenotype. Genetics will play a role in the height because if the genes determine that
the animals will stay small, it can eat as much as it likes but it will never grow big:
. However, if that same animal does not get fed properly, or gets ill,
or lives in a very cold climate, or his mother was ill when she was pregnant of the animal, the
animal will not even reach that boundary and stay smaller than an animal of the same genetic
makeup that had the best circumstances for growth. These environmental influences are not
always easy to pinpoint because they start so early (oocyte and sperm experience
environmental influences as well), but also because it is not always clear what is of influence
and what not.

Definition

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