RADIOACTIVITY

Saviya Masih
[ACCESS TO HE-RADIOGRAPHY] [ID number: 637846]
 Contents

Introduction 2

Radioactive Decay 2-5

• Alpha Decay 2-3

• Beta Decay 3-4
• Gamma Decay 4-5

Decay Series of Thorium 5

Radiation Dosing 6

Uses and Safe Handling of Radioactive Sources 7

Conclusions 8

Reference links for figures 8

Bibliography 8-9

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 Radioactivity

Introduction
This report explains the main types of radioactive decay, their characteristics, and equations.
It explores the origins, penetration, energy deposition, and measurement of different
radiations, illustrates and explains the Thorium decay series, includes radiation dose
calculations, and discusses the uses and safe handling of radioactive sources in industry,
medicine, and scientific research.

Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is a fundamental process in nuclear physics, where unstable atomic nuclei,
or radionuclides, emit energy as radiation spontaneously to attain greater stability. The three
main types of decay- alpha, beta, and gamma, involve the release of unique particles, each
causing alterations to the atomic composition (EPA, 2024).

Particles symbols:

• alpha particles ()

• beta particles ()
• gamma particles ()

Alpha Decay
Alpha decay occurs when an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle, which consists of two
protons and two neutrons (essentially a helium nucleus). This process decreases the atomic
number by 2 and the mass number by 4 (CK-12, 2019).

Figure 1: Alpha Decay (CK-12, 2019)

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Alpha decay frequently occurs in heavy elements like uranium, thorium, and radium. The
release of an alpha particle causes a reduction in the atomic number by two and the mass
number by four, ultimately changing the identity of the initial element. An instance of this is
when uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay, changing into thorium-234 (Ready, 2024).

Figure 2: Equation for alpha decay (Ready, 2024)

Alpha particles, due to their significant size, have limited penetration capabilities, making
them unsuitable for external medical radiation therapy. Despite their shallow penetration,
substances undergoing alpha decay can be harmful if ingested or inhaled. This is because
alpha particles deposit high energy over short distances, causing substantial ionisation and
potential damage to biological tissues upon contact with membranes and living cells
(Education, 2024).

Detection instruments such as scintillation counters, alpha spectrometers, and Geiger-Muller

counters (with thin windows) are used to measure alpha radiation by detecting the light
flashes or energy spectra produced by alpha particle interactions (epearl, 2024).

Beta Decay Figure 3: Beta-minus decay (Education, 2024)

Beta decay involves an unstable nucleus emitting
particles to attain stability, occurring in two forms:
beta minus and beta plus. Both types involve nucleon
transformation and moderate penetration, allowing
radiation to penetrate solids deeply. Additionally,
electron capture, akin to beta plus decay, involves an
electron becoming trapped in the nucleus (Education,
2024).

Beta minus decay happens when a nucleus has an excess of neutrons. In this form, a neutron
within the nucleus changes into a proton and an electron, with the electron being expelled
from the nucleus. In order to maintain the laws of particle physics, a minuscule particle
called an anti-neutrino is also emitted (Education, 2024).

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Beta particles can penetrate a few millimetres of plastic or a few centimetres of air due to
their moderate penetration capability. Beta radiation is able to penetrate more than alpha
radiation, yet it is still not as penetrating as gamma radiation. Overall, beta radiation is
mostly worrisome when ingested rather than being a significant penetration hazard. If the
body is exposed to a beta source, it can lead to tissue damage and increase the risk of cancer
(Education, 2024). Beta particles, with moderate linear energy transfer, cause ionisation over
a larger area than alpha particles. Detection methods include Geiger-Muller counters,
scintillation counters, and beta spectrometers, which analyse particle interactions and
energy spectra (epearl, 2024).

Figure 4: Beta decay equation (Ashika, 2024)

Gamma Decay
Gamma decay, another form of radioactive decay, involves the emission of gamma rays from
a nucleus without the release of charged particles like alpha or beta decay. These gamma
rays are highly ionising photons with significant energy but do not alter the atomic structure
of the nucleus. Instead, they only change the atom's energy state as they are weightless and
carry no mass. For gamma decay to occur, the nucleus must be in an excited energy state,
typically following alpha or beta decay. This emission of gamma photons happens when
protons or neutrons transition from higher to lower energy levels within the nucleus
(Education, 2024).

Figure 5: Gamma decay

(Education, 2024)

Gamma rays, with high penetration, demand significant shielding like lead or concrete to
attenuate effectively due to their high energy levels. Despite posing potential danger, their
4
penetrative ability renders them valuable in medical applications (Education, 2024). Gamma
radiation, with low linear energy transfer, traverses the body, causing widespread ionisation.
Detection methods include scintillation counters, gamma spectrometers, and ionisation
chambers, which analyse gamma photon interactions and energy (epearl, 2024).

Figure 6: Gamma decay equation (Linstitute, 2022)

Decay Series of Thorium

Thorium-232 undergoes a decay series involving multiple alpha and beta decays until it
reaches a stable isotope, Lead-208. The decay series includes isotopes like Radium-228,
Actinium-228, Thorium-228, Radium-224, Radon-220, Polonium-216, Lead-212, Bismuth-
212, Thallium-208 and Polonium-212, to finally Lead-208 which is stable.

Figure 7: Thorium Decay Series Diagram (commons, 2024)

5
Radiation Dosing

Figure 8: calculating radiation

dosage (epearl, 2024)

Dose Formulas
• Dose = Rate x Time
• Rate = Dose  Time
• Time = Dose  Rate

Rate Time

Suppose:

• Activity (A): 5 x 106 Bq

• Energy per decay (E): 5 MeV
• Time (t): 1 hour = 3600 seconds
• Energy conversion: 1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 Joules

Calculation 1: Dose from Alpha Radiation

Scenario: a sample contains an alpha-emitting isotope with an activity of 5 x 106 Bq, each
alpha particle has an energy of 5 MeV. Calculate the dose absorbed over 1 hour.

Steps:

1. Total decays in 1 hour:

5 x 106 decays/s x 3600 s = 1.8 x 106 decays

2. Total energy released:

1.8 x 1010 decays x 5 MeV = 9 x 1010 MeV

3. Convert to Joules:

9 x 1010 MeV x 1.602 x 10-13 J/MeV = 1.442 x 10-2 J

4. Dose in Grays (assuming 1 kg tissue):

1.442 x 10-2 J 1 kg = 14.42 mGy

Result: The dose received is 14.42 mGy.

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Calculation 2: Dose from Gamma Radiation

Scenario: a worker is exposed to a gamma source with an activity of 1 x 107 Bq, each photon
has an energy of 0.662 MeV. Calculate the dose over 30 minutes with an absorbed fraction
of 0.1.

Steps:

1. Total decays in 30 minutes:

1 x 107 decays/s x 1800 s = 1.8 x 1010 decays

2. Total energy released:

1.8 x 1010 decays x 0.662MeV = 1.1916 x 1010 MeV

3. Convert to Joules:

1.1916 x 1010 MeV x 1.602 x 10-13 J/MeV = 1.909 x 10-3 J

4. Absorbed energy (10% absorbed):

1.909 x 10-3 J x 0.1 = 1.909 x 10-4 J

5. Dose in Grays (assuming 1 kg tissue):

1.909 x 10-4 J  1 kg = 0.19 mGy

Result: The dose received is 0.19 mGy.

Uses and Safe Handling of Radioactive Sources

In industry, radioactive materials are used for radiography to inspect welds and for thickness
gauging in manufacturing, with safe handling involving shielding, remote tools, and strict
safety protocols. In medicine, they are used in diagnostic imaging (e.g., PET scans) and
cancer treatment (e.g., brachytherapy), with safety measures including lead shielding,
dosimeters for staff, and proper disposal of radioactive waste. In scientific research,
radioactive materials trace biological pathways and study nuclear reactions, with safety
ensured by using glove boxes, fume hoods, and thorough training for personnel (epearl,
2024).

7
Conclusions
This report thoroughly explores alpha, beta, and gamma radioactive decay, covering their
radiations, equations, origins, energy transfer, and measurement. It illustrates Thorium's
decay series, provides radiation dose calculations, and discusses safe handling in industry,
medicine, and research. In essence, the report emphasises key aspects of radioactive decay
and safe practices across various fields.

Word count: 1250

Reference links for figures

Figure 1
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-
2.0/section/8.5/primary/lesson/alpha-decay-ms-ps/

Figure 2
https://scienceready.com.au/pages/radioactive-decay

Figure 3
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Beta_decay

Figure 4
https://www.savemyexams.com/a-level/physics/ocr/17/revision-notes/6-particles--medical-
physics/6-9-radioactivity/6-9-3-alpha--beta-decay-equations/

Figure 5
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Gamma_decay

Figure 6
https://www.hanlin.com/archives/668239

Figure 7
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Decay_chain%284n,Thorium_series%29.PNG

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[Accessed May 2024].

8
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[Accessed May 2024].

commons, W., 2024. File:Decay chain(4n,Thorium series).PNG. [Online]

Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Decay_chain%284n,Thorium_series%29.PNG
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Education, E., 2024. Beta decay. [Online]

Available at: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Beta_decay
[Accessed May 2024].

Education, E., 2024. Gamma decay. [Online]

Available at: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Gamma_decay
[Accessed May 2024].

EPA, 2024. Radioactive Decay. [Online]

Available at: https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radioactive-
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[Accessed May 2024].

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[Accessed May 2024].

Linstitute, 2022. Edexcel IGCSE Physics 复习笔记 7.1.5 Decay Equations. [Online]
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Available at: https://scienceready.com.au/pages/radioactive-decay
[Accessed May 2024].