S207 LP01 Week1 Notes

OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE
S207
Biopsychosocial Aspects of Ageing
School of Sports, Health and Leisure

Learning Package 1 – Week 1
Perspectives and Theories of Ageing
Learning Outcomes
1. Describe the interdisciplinary approach in the study of

ageing.
2. Apply the key biological theories of ageing related to
ageing.
3. Analyse the biological needs of an elderly in

the community.
4. Relate the ageing theories to the biological needs of an

elderly.
Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

What is Ageing?
Defined as the process of getting older. It starts at the moment when
one is born. While the age of an individual is measured
chronologically, one ages biologically, psychologically and socially.

What is Ageing?
Gerontologists define ageing as:
Biological Ageing: Changes reducing efficiency of

organ system
Chronological Ageing: Number of years since birth
Psychological Ageing: Memory, learning, adaptive

capacity, personality and mental functioning
Social Ageing: Social roles, relationships and overall

social context in which we grow old.

Biological Ageing
Without the biological ageing

process, we can all theoretically
live forever.
Causes of biological ageing still not

clearly understood.
Biological health affected by

lifestyle and genetic background.

Basic Concepts in Biological Ageing
Lessened Slowness One becoming slower

than they once were
Reserve
Capacity Stress Effect of stress is greater
on older adults
With age, it is harder for

Homeostatic regulatory mechanisms
Equilibrium in the body to maintain
and restore health
Allowing older adults to

Pacing complete a task with a
longer time frame

Basic Concepts in Biological Ageing

Several A new condition may
be masked by another
Health and medications may
exacerbate another
Issues condition
Symptoms described
No Classic by an older person
may not be the classic
Symptoms symptoms experienced
Pattern of by an younger
individual
Disease in
an Older May not
Older persons tend to
expect discomfort and
Person Report
pain as they age and
may not report
symptoms until the
Symptoms medical problem is
too advanced

Psychological Ageing
Psychological locus of inquiry is on the individual.
Psychological constructs of motivation, adaptability, self-

concept, self-efficacy, and morale have an impact on how
one age.
Perception, motor skills, memory,

emotions, and other mental
capacities change over time.

Social Ageing
How the norms and values of
the society influence the way
one perceives and reacts to the
ageing process.
A society that accords the aged

a high status can expect a more
positive outcome for its aged
population.

Biological Theories of
Ageing
Wear and Tear Theory
• Views the body as similar to a machine, like an old

car or truck, that simply wears out.
• Difficult to test because we do not know what

constitutes normal wear and tear.
• Idea of wear and tear implies that a more active

organism should age more quickly.
• Yet, the opposite is true in humans.

Programmed Ageing Theory

• Hayflick and Moorehead (1961) raised the possibility that a
biological or genetic clock may determine the ageing
process.
• Believed that human fibroblastic cells (connective tissue
cells) maintained in tissue cultures outside the body (in
vitro) were able to divided approximately 50 times before
deteriorating.
• Life expectancy is thought to be preprogrammed in a
species-specific range.
*Also referred as Genetic Control Theory
Retrieved from : http://saiaustralia.org.au/blog/2016/02/24/act-healthy-ageing-geriatric-workshop/

Error Theory
• Cumulative mistakes that occur in DNA(deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA(ribonucleic acid) with age.
• Random errors occur, when inaccurate genetic information

is copied and reproduced, leading to impaired cell functions.
• Ageing and death are presumed the results of these errors

and are transmitted at cellular level.

Somatic Mutation Theory
• Over a lifetime, a person’s body is exposed to external

insults from air pollution, chemicals in food and water, and
radiation.
• These insults cause mutations (genetic damage) to somatic
(body) cells.
• Proposes that harmful or deleterious mutations, that is,

genes that are incorrectly copied, will accumulate with
advancing age.
• Will lead to an increase in pathological changes in body
systems.

Autoimmune Theory
• The basic function of the immune system is surveillance.
• It is the body’s army, constantly on alert, programmed

before birth to recognize and destroy invaders.
Based on two scientific discoveries.
• The body’s protective immune reactions decline with age
• The aging immune system loses some of its ability to

distinguish between self and non-self.
• Instead, the immune system attacks proteins of the body as if they

were invaders.

Cross-Linkage Theory
Our cells are composed mostly of protein. Collagen is a

common protein found in tendons, ligaments, bone, cartilage,
and skin.
• Collagen is the glue that binds cells together by cross-links,

like the rungs of a ladder that connect the two side boards.
• The accumulation of cross-linked collagen is responsible for

such changes as the loss of elasticity of the skin, hardening
of the arteries, and stiffness of joints.

Free Radical Theory
Free radicals are unstable molecules that are produced when the
body transforms food into chemical energy.
• They are a by-product of normal cells.
• When free radicals try to unite with other molecules, they can
damage the cell or cause cell mutation.
• Most changes associated with aging result from damage caused
by free radicals.
• Useful for understanding why some individuals are at greater risk
of certain diseases than others and for describing part of the aging
process.
*It is not, in itself, a general theory of biological aging.

Neuroendocrine Theory
Proposes that a functional loss in neurons and their

associated hormones is central to the aging process.
• As individuals age, the body produces lower levels of

hormones that are vital for well-being.

The Aging Body
• Biological aging refers to the structural and functional

changes that occur in an organism over time.
• Period in the life history of an organism that begins at

maturity when development is complete and lasts for the
rest of the life span.

Active Life Expectancy
The measure of the number of years a person can expect to

live without a disability.
• Older men enjoy more disability-free years than women and
that advantage has been increasing.
• Women are more likely than men to live past 85 when the
risk of chronic illness increases. However, they are more
prone to disabling conditions like arthritis and osteoporosis.
Obesity among older people has increased significantly over
the past two years.
• Increase in obesity has had a significant negative impact on
active life expectancy (Zhang, Saito, and Crimmins, 2019).

Aging of the Exterior Body: Skin
Wrinkles and sagging skin.
• One of the most obvious signs of aging

• Occur when the deeper layers of skin lose their elasticity.
Skin discoloration.
• Lentigo: Discoloration or spotting that appears on the face,

back of hands, and forearms of people older than 50.
• Senile purpura: Sites where fragile blood vessels have
ruptured.

Aging of the Exterior Body: Hair
• Hair turns gray because active pigment-producing cells

decrease.
• Baldness is more common in males and occurs when

testosterone acts with genes.

Aging of the Nervous System
• As people grow older, neurons in the brain die and are not
replaced.
• Some areas in the brain lose few cells, whereas other areas
may lose up to 30 to 40 percent.
• Loss of cells causes decreased flexibility, slowness of
movement, and stooped, shuffling gait.
• Cerebellum is in charge of the body’s movements and
balance.
• When damaged, balance and muscular movements are
disrupted, which can increase the risk of falling.
• Strength and balance training can help prevent them.


As people grow old, the normal sleep pattern changes.
• In older people, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

decreases.
• Older people sleep less each night, awaken more often after
falling asleep, and spend less time in deep sleep.
• By age 70, few people experience stage 4 deep sleep at all

(Ramanand, Bruce, and Bruce, 2010).


As people grow old, the normal sleep pattern changes.
• In older people, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

decreases.
• Older people sleep less each night, awaken more often after
falling asleep, and spend less time in deep sleep.
• By age 70, few people experience stage 4 deep sleep at all

(Ramanand, Bruce, and Bruce, 2010).

Aging of the Sensory Organs

Vision
As we age, changes in various parts of the eye reduce the
ability to receive visual stimulation. Older people need more
light to perceive depth and to see clearly.
• Presbyopia is the inability to focus on near objects
• Cataract is caused when the lens of the eye becomes

cloudy, and light cannot penetrate.
• Glaucoma is a serious condition that can lead to blindness

(Wiggs and Pascuale, 2017).Occurs when fluid cannot
leave the anterior cavity of the eye through the normal
channels.


Hearing.
• As they age, individuals’ ability to receive and interpret
sound declines.
• The normal loss of hearing with age is termed

presbycusis.
• This makes it hard to hear high-pitched sounds.

Smell and taste.

• Loss of taste is caused by degeneration of the taste buds or
by a change in the way the brain perceives the information
from the taste buds.
• Can lead to poor nutrition.
Touch and temperature.

• Old people lose some ability to regulate heating and
cooling.
• Older people have problems staying warm because of the
loss of the layer of fatty tissue beneath the skin that helps
insulate the body.

Aging of the Skeletal System

Bone is a dynamic tissue made up of calcium and
protein. When calcium is needed by the body, old bone
is removed; then new bone is formed as calcium is
added back.
• As people grow, older bone is broken down faster than it is
made, resulting in bone loss.
• Arthritis
• Afflicts more than one-third of men and one-half of women
over 65.
• Indications: Joint inflammation and pain, swelling, and
deformity.
• Causes: Overuse, trauma from injury, bacterial or viral
infections, and the immune system attacking the tissues in the
joint.

Aging of the Skeletal System

Osteoporosis occurs when outside walls of the bone become
thinner and inner part becomes spongy.
• Symptoms include loss of height, back pain, and
curving of upper back or spine.
Fig. 6.3: The Progression of Osteoporosis

Aging of the Muscular System

• Between 30 and 80, a person can lose 30 percent of
muscle mass.
• Loss of muscular mass and strength is not life threatening

but can make daily activities more difficult and reduce
levels of overall physical activity.

Aging of the Cardiovascular System
Heart
• Many age-related changes occur in the heart.
• Some of the changes include muscle atrophy and a

reduction in the amount of blood pumped with each
contraction.
Blood vessel changes.

• One change that occurs with aging is the loss of
elasticity of the blood vessels.
• Since these veins or arteries are not as elastic, the

blood pressure increases.

Aging of the Cardiovascular System

Hypertension and heart attacks.
• Hypertension is high blood pressure.

• Occurs when arteries are no longer elastic.
• Hypertension leading to a heart attack is called hypertensive

cardiovascular disease.
• Factors.
• Genetic predisposition and environmental factors such as stress,
smoking, obesity, lack of exercise, and low socioeconomic status.

References
• Hayflick, L., & Moorehead, M. (1961). The serial cultivation of
human diploid cell strains. Experimental Cell Research, 25, 585-
621.
• Sue, V.S., Mary, J.E. and Elizabeth, A.P. (2015). Physical Change &
Aging. 6th Edn. Springer Publishing Company, LLC.
• Susan, M.H. and Georgia M.B. (2011). Aging, The Individual, and
Society. 9th Edn. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
• Quagagno, J. (2021) Aging and the Life Course: An Introduction to

Social Gerontology. 8th Edn. McGraw Hill

S207 LP01 Week1 Notes

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OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

School of Sports, Health and Leisure

1. Describe the interdisciplinary approach in the study of

3. Analyse the biological needs of an elderly in

4. Relate the ageing theories to the biological needs of an

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Biological Ageing: Changes reducing efficiency of

Chronological Ageing: Number of years since birth

Psychological Ageing: Memory, learning, adaptive

Social Ageing: Social roles, relationships and overall

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Without the biological ageing

Causes of biological ageing still not

Biological health affected by

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Basic Concepts in Biological Ageing

Lessened Slowness One becoming slower

With age, it is harder for

Allowing older adults to

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Basic Concepts in Biological Ageing

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Psychological constructs of motivation, adaptability, self-

Perception, motor skills, memory,

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

A society that accords the aged

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Wear and Tear Theory

• Views the body as similar to a machine, like an old

• Difficult to test because we do not know what

• Idea of wear and tear implies that a more active

• Yet, the opposite is true in humans.

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Programmed Ageing Theory

*Also referred as Genetic Control Theory

Retrieved from : http://saiaustralia.org.au/blog/2016/02/24/act-healthy-ageing-geriatric-workshop/

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

• Random errors occur, when inaccurate genetic information

• Ageing and death are presumed the results of these errors

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Somatic Mutation Theory

• Over a lifetime, a person’s body is exposed to external

• Proposes that harmful or deleterious mutations, that is,

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

• The basic function of the immune system is surveillance.

• It is the body’s army, constantly on alert, programmed

Based on two scientific discoveries.

• The body’s protective immune reactions decline with age

• The aging immune system loses some of its ability to

• Instead, the immune system attacks proteins of the body as if they

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Our cells are composed mostly of protein. Collagen is a

• Collagen is the glue that binds cells together by cross-links,

• The accumulation of cross-linked collagen is responsible for

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Free Radical Theory

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

Proposes that a functional loss in neurons and their

• As individuals age, the body produces lower levels of

Copyright © Republic Polytechnic

The Aging Body

• Biological aging refers to the structural and functional