Science: using evidence to solve problems that are hard/impossible to solve

#1: science organizes things in a way that makes the world easier to understand
#2: science changes over time, accumulated over 1000’s of years

Biology: study of life and living organisms

Scientific process starts with observations, we uses our senses to gather information
When 1 or more senses are eliminated, the brain focuses on a remaining sense.
The information that is gathered is called data and there are 2 types of data.

#1: quantitative: involves numbers: ex: 7 birds

#2: qualitative: characteristics that aren’t easily measured: ex: color, shape, texture, etc

Observations are followed with inferences. An inference is a theory based on the evidence that’s
given. Inferences aren’t always correct.

Inferences are based on your prior knowledge and experience and they can change with age.
When you are younger, you go along with the values that were instilled in you and as you age
you are exposed to other beliefs and your values change and the same thing can happen with
science.

Scientific method: process that everyone used to solve a problem

#1: problem based on your observation
#2: hypothesis (educated guess)
#3: create an experiment
#4: collect data (tables, graphs, etc)
#5: Conclusion: Did the data support your hypothesis?
Your conclusion may not support your hypothesis and you don’t change your hypothesis to go
with the new data, the work isn’t changed. Science is an ongoing process and based on
judgements. Findings are subject to revision and change.

Rules of the Experiment:

Control group: things that are kept the same: same amount of subjects/materials
Placebo effect: positive effect created by the placebo and the subject thinks that the placebo is
helping them.

The experimental group(s) are tested with 1 variable. Variables are never mixed.

The experimental group is compared to the control group

No experiment is a waste of time, there is always something to be learned from the experiment.
Smallest to largest units
#1: molecules (nonliving)
#2: cells (smallest living thing)
#3: tissues
#4: organ
#5: organ systems (reproductive systems, skeletal systems, etc)
#6: organism (organs come together to make one, think school)
#7: population (only applies to 1 species)
#8: community (made of different populations are species)
#9: ecosystems (includes living and nonliving)
#10: biome (desert, tundra, temperate deciduous forest, etc)
#11: biosphere (earth)

Metric system is based on multiples of ten (10, 100, 1000, etc)

Celsius: standard unit of temperature (0 is freezing, boiling is 100)

Meter: standard unit of length
Liter: standard unit of volume
Gram: standard unit of mass

Tools used by biologists:

Microscopes: enlarge objects

Light Microscope: uses light to bend rays using lenses (can see living subjects)
Electron Microscope: uses beam of electrons and vacuums to see subject (no living subjects, this
will kill them)

TEM: Transmission electron microscope (transmits electrons to obtain image)

SEM: scanning electron microscope (bombards subjects with electrons to create 3D image)
Ultrasound uses sound waves to obtain the image
Chapter 2 Bio Notes:
Scientific Approaches

Holistic: approach that looks at the big picture first before treating a specific are
Reductionist: approach that looks at the individual components of a system first. Reductionists
start at the bottom of the hierarchy of biological structure and holists start at the top.
23 chromosomes from 1 parent and 23 from the other parent.

Matter: has mass and takes up (doesn’t have to be seen)\

Chemical elements make up all mass, 92 naturally occurring, 25 are needed for life, calcium (C),
oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), iron, sodium, carbon, etc

H,O,N,C make up 96% of the body Trace elements: needed in small amounts (iron, iodine, etc)
Things like goiter can happen when you don’t get the trace amounts.

Compounds: substances created by combining 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio (H20 (water)
NaCal (sodium chloride) C6 H12 O6 (sugar)
Mass number = atomic weight (protons + neutrons)
Isotopes = atom with the same # of protons but different # of neutrons
Carbon-12 is normal Carbon-13 and 14 have different neutron #s

Radioactive isotopes: can be used to trace biological processes in plants and animals

Electron shells: # in the outermost shell determines the chemical activity of an element (1st shell
holds 2, 2nd shell holds 8)
Unstable elements become stable when they combine with other unstable elements.
Ion: atom/molecule with an electric charge from gain (-) / loss (+) of electrons.
Ionic Bond: (NaCl) attraction that holds elements together. crystals/salt: synonym for ionic bond
+ Tells you it lost electron(s), - tells you it gained electron(s)
Covalent bonds: share electrons, form molecules
Molecular formula: H20, C6 H12 O6 Structural formulas: shows # of atoms and how they are
bonded.
Single Covalent: 2 atoms share 1 electron (c-c)
Double covalent: 2 atoms share 2 electrons (c=c)
Triple covalent bond: 2 atoms share 3 electrons (c = c)

Each element is made of atoms. Atoms are the smallest unit of matter
Made of smaller particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are in the
nucleus and the electrons are located outside of the nucleus.

Water: polar molecule, H has a slight positive charge, O has a slight negative charge. Atoms'
shared attraction for a shared electron is electronegativity. O has a stronger pull that H.

Water is a great solvent (dissolving agent in a solution). Water breaks down anything over time.
Solution: is a liquid made of a homogeneous mixture of 2+ substances.
Solvent: does the dissolving (water)
Solute: gets dissolved (sugar, salt, etc) Water is the solvent of life (cells, blood, plant sap, etc)
Suspensions: mixtures of water and nondissolved materials (blood)

Water exists as a solid, liquid, and a gas. Water is abundant in all 3 states and life can exist
because of it.

Cohesion: force of attraction between like things (water attracted to water)

Adhesion: attraction between 2 different things (water attracted to glass)
Capillary action: ability of a liquid to flow in narrow space using cohesion
Surface tension: measure of cohesive force on the surface of a liquid
VanderWaals forces: slight attraction that develops between oppositely charged regions of
nearby molecules

Water has the abilty to resist temperature change due to H bonding. Allows life to exist
Water moderates earth’s temperature by

#1: absorbing large amounts of heat

#2: evaporative cooling

Temperature: average amount of kinetic energy in an object (larger masses are warmer than
smaller ones)

Heat: total amount of energy in an object

H-bond: weak bond, attraction of an H atom with its slight positive charge to a negatively charge
atom such as O. Bonds are stable in ice.

pH: goes from 0-14, goes backwards, (0 is high pH, and 14 is low, basic) 7 is neutral
Acid: releases H+ in solution bases: OH- in solution