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Quantitative Research in Education

Theme n.°2

The method with a Quantitative Approach

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Index
pag.
2.1. What is Quantitative Research? 3
2.1.1. Some definitions of Quantitative Research
2.1.2. Importance of Quantitative Research in Education 5
2.1.3. Epistemological Foundation of Quantitative Research 6
2.1.4. Quantitative Approach Characteristics 7
2.1.5. Main Advantages of Quantitative Approach 7
2.1.6. Some Disadvantages of Quantitative Approach 8

2.2. Quantitative Research Designs 9

2.3. Important Terminology Concerning Research Design 14

Additional resources 16

References 17

Self-assessment 19

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2.1. What is Quantitative Research?

2.1.1. Some definitions of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a plan that includes procedures for research that go

from broad assumptions about testing theories deductively, avoiding bias to the
description of detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This
method focuses on examining the relationship between variables, which can be
quantified via the use of precise instruments to test objective theories.
According to this type of approach, the data collected can be analyzed by using
statistical techniques, and the findings can be generalized and replicated.
The researcher who uses quantitative research, collects information from
accessible sample groups using different methods to achieve the objective proposed.
The results of such a collection can be described in the form of numbers, which will be
analyzed to test a hypothesis and generalize conclusions.

Video: Quantitative Research

ANA PH · 27 ago 2021 https://youtu.be/AC7oRg3qOLk?si=YNn2usUnz1RyElxQ

Here are some definitions of quantitative research approach given by different

authors.
Quantitative research is the procedure used to collect and examine numerical data. It
is useful for determining trends and averages, formulating hypotheses, examining
causality, and extrapolating findings to larger populations. (Bhandari, P. 2023)

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Aliaga and Gunderson (2002) cited in (Bhawna & Gobind, 2015) mention that
“Quantitative research is an inquiry into a social problem, explains phenomena by
gathering numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (in
particular statistics)”.

Creswell (2014) defines quantitative research as an investigation about

a social based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers,
and analyzed with statistical measures to determine if the predictive generalizations
of the theory are true or not. The final written report has a set structure consisting of
an introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. Researchers
can have assumptions about testing theories deductively, avoid bias, direct different
or counterfactual clarifications, and be able to generalize and replicate the findings.

Alam, M. (2023) refers to quantitative research as “a powerful research methodology

dedicated to the systematic collection and analysis of measurable data. By applying
statistical and mathematical techniques, this method extracts insights from structured
surveys, controlled experiments, or other defined data-gathering methods”

Leedy & Ormrod 2001; Williams, 2011 cited in Apuke, O. D. (2017). state that
“Quantitative research involves the collection of data so that information can be
quantified and subjected to statistical treatment in order to support or refute
alternative knowledge claims”

Sreekumar, D. (2023) defines quantitative research as “the process of collecting and

analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest. This
type of research facilitates testing the causal relationships between variables, making
predictions, and generalizing results to broader populations”.

2.1.2. Importance of Quantitative Research in Education

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The advancement of knowledge in a wide variety of fields pertaining to

teaching and learning, curriculum and assessment, students' cognitive and affective
needs, and many other factors considered viable to enhance schools or find
systematically based solutions to real-world educational challenges depends on
educational research.

Educational research is not only useful for teachers, consultants, or

instructors, but it is also useful for students to use their knowledge in real situations.
It is worth mentioning that educational research similarly helps to understand how
extracurricular activities affect the learning process of students (Tuckman & Harper,
2012)
It is very crucial to note that the amount of educational research conducted will
essentially determine how much progress is accomplished in education since it will
reveal areas for improvement and the implications of those changes.

Video: Importance of Quantitative Research

Ram ( 21 Sep - 2021) https://youtu.be/4E24JiZM_1k?si=MFBZQP7lATPq6pHG&t=16

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Conforming to Mizanur, R., (2022,) educational research includes the following

variables.
• Learning: How do students best learn various subjects?

• Teaching: What are the best teaching practices to encourage student

achievement?

• Motivation: What are the best practices for teachers to motivate their students

to achieve?

• Development: How do children and adults change over time, including their

cognitive, social, and emotional skills?

2.1.3. Epistemological Foundation of Quantitative Research

For a better understanding of epistemological foundations, it is essential to

clarify what the term epistemology refers to. The term epistemology comes from the
Greek word epistêmê, to define knowledge. For that reason, epistemology is the
philosophy of knowledge or how we come to know.

Accoding to (Linling, 2023), the philosophical foundations of quantitative research

rely on positivism and post-positivism. To comprehend and explain the social reality,
positivism strongly emphasizes using empirical data and scientific methodologies.
Knowledge can be reached by systematic observation and experimentation, and
there is an objective reality that can be measured and observed.

Quantitative research is characterized for being a systematic investigation of a topic

related to a social phenomenon and a specific research methodology gathering
quantifiable data and using statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques to
analyze the information collected to test if a hypothesis of study proposed is true or
not.

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In accordance with Dudovskiy, J. (2024). “Positivism adheres to the view that only
“factual” knowledge gained through observation (the senses), including measurement,
is trustworthy”.

Quantitative research “stems from positivism and assumes that there is an objective,
rationally organized reality which is independent of researchers’ perceptions as well as
those who participate in research” (Needleman & Needleman, 1996; Slevitch, 2011)

2.1.3. Quantitative Approach Characteristics

According to Inche, et. al, (2003) “the quantitative approach has a global,
positivist, hypothetic-deductive, particularistic, hypothetical-deductive conception,
objective, results-oriented, and characteristic of the natural sciences” (p.23).

The principles are related to the positivism paradigm that focuses on searching
general laws and requires the identification of a problem that shows the relationship
between variables, and this relationship must be measurable to be verified (Creswell,
2020). Quantitative research usually involves following a systematic process of several
steps, starting by finding a research problem to be solved through a study that tries to
establish “tendencies of responses and its variations among the population”
(Creswell,2020).
The significant characteristics of quantitative approach are as follows:
• Quantifiable and measurable data (numerical data)
• Statistical analysis of data (use of statistics)
• A large sample size (representative groups of participants)
• Standardized research instruments (surveys or questionnaires)
• Deductive reasoning (a theory or hypothesis tested with the information
collected)
• Emphasis on objectivity (bias of researchers is avoided focusing on the
measurable and factual data collected to guarantee the results are objective and
reliable)
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2.1.4. Main advantages of Quantitative Approach

Quantitative research approach is an investigation about a specific problem

through the application of a scientific approach adopted, that permits to observe,
count and analyze the information required using statistical techniques. Therefore,
this approach can be considered as being scientific in nature.
The use of statistical data for the research explanations and analysis has
substantial advantages in the research process because the information can be more
accurately verified, confirmed and checked. It involves not only an investigational
plan, but also measurements that enable researchers to know how to interpret the
results obtained, so such results will be more reliable, definitive and standardized.

Besides quantitative approach helps researches to optimize the time and effort
invested in analyzing and describing the results gotten. Depending on the results
found, it will be easier to understand which statistical methods can be used to make
such analysis more accurately to avoid errors and subjectivity. That is trying to
determine the cause and the consequence about the problem investigated.

Using quantitative approach simplifies the possibility of measuring how many and
how often “situations” happen as well as, it provides approximations of higher
samples size to determine the predictive generalizations of something that needs to
be proved, which is really significant to make conclusions.

Moreover, quantitative research approach can be employed for doing an

investigation that includes a control group and two or more study groups to collect
evidence that might become essential when analyzing it statistically.

Another important advantage of using this approach to do a research study is

replicability, since it focuses on hypothesis testing based on a well-defined plan and
clear objectives that can be repeated at any other time and place obtaining the
identical outcomes.
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In addition, employing quantitative research approach is essentially advisable as

it is reasonably easy to conduct a research study, collecting data that has logical
validity, which is a simple way to assess if the study measures what it is supposed to
measure, what is basically the researcher’s interest.

Finally, quantitative research is objective and appropriate for the testing of

hypotheses and the results are valid, reliable and generalizable to a larger population.

Figure 1: advantages of Quantitative Research

Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/DMJQRokgiFb2wRBP8

2.1.5. Some Disadvantages of a Quantitative Approach

The focus on numbers found in quantitative research can also be restrictive being a
cause of some disadvantages. Regarding the positivism paradigm on which this
approach relies, this approach does not succeed in providing enough or deep
explanations about certain variables or aspects of the study group within a detailed
context.
A second limitation is that certain aspects are not found under the positivism
paradigm, leaving significant data that can be useful to consider for making
conclusions.
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When conducting quantitative research, some mistakes may happen if a method

for collecting and analyzing data is not accurately developed which can cause
invalidation of the results or if the approval or disapproval of a hypothesis can be
affected due to the researcher`s intention of approving or disapproving that hypothesis.

Despite the weaknesses mentioned above, quantitative research tends to be

taken as a very useful tool for most researchers who look for reliability, and
confidentially in the data collected mainly.

2.2. Quantitative Research Designs

A research design can be defined as a plan of research methods, techniques

and strategies of investigation to get answers realistically and objectively to research
questions or problems under study. The plan includes detailed information about how
a research study is carried out operationalizing or defining variables, so that they can
be measured and/or expressed quantitatively, opting for a sample of interest to study,
collecting data as a source for verifying hypotheses, and analyzing the outcomes that
can be used to add new knowledge, develop or confirm theories as well as get
evidence to demonstrate generalizations.

According to Selltiz, Deutsch, and Cook, “A research design is the

arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure”.

Singh, S. (2023) defines research design as a plan to carry out a research study that
includes an approach and methods to collect and analyze information to answer
research questions or test hypotheses. A well-structured research study should consist
of a well-defined research question, a complete plan for gathering data, and a method
for examining, understanding, and interpreting the results. (p.2)

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According to Kothari (2004), research design is a plan, a roadmap, and a strategy

of investigation designed to answer research questions, it's the core of every study.

A research design is really useful for structuring all the studies proposed
step by step to explain the justification for every decision made related to the
‘how’ of the research journey, so that all this procedure will also ensure valid
and reliable results. It defines exactly what will and will not be included in
the project such as the criteria to evaluate the results and make conclusions.
The reliability and validity of the study depend on how the data is collected,
measured, analyzed, and interpreted.

The fundamentals of research design are:

• Research question and objectives
• Sampling:
• Data collection:
• Data analysis:

There are four key characteristics of research design: neutrality, reliability, validity,
and generalization.

In research, the term neutrality implies that an analysis is free of partiality or that
the researcher's position or opinion does not affect it, becoming reliable and valid.

In research, reliability is a way of evaluating the quality of the measurement

procedure or method used to collect data, giving the same results every time
that it is used, assuming that the original thing being measured does not change.
In research, validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what is supposed
to measure. It also refers to the way how researchers talk about the extent to which
results represent reality.
In research, generalization is when the results obtained from a study can be
applied to a population and not just a limited sample.

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To sum up, a good and efficient developed research design fundamentally

involves identifying the accurate method of gathering data to solve the problem
identified.

The following are the designs used in quantitative research

• Experimental research
• Non-experimental research
• Quasi-experimental research

2.2.1 Experimental Research

It is a method of research that is used to determine “what causes what” and to find
out the cause and effect of a phenomenon. It is frequently known as true
experimentation, by applying the scientific method to determine a cause-effect
relationship among a set of variables in an investigation. This relationship is based
on the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It is worth
mentioning that this type of design is “conducted” by a hypothesis.

In experimental designs, two or more groups are chosen to be compared. They

have usually applied a pre-test–experiment–post-test design. They are called the
experimental group, which is given the experimental treatment, and the control group
which is not exposed to such treatment. Participants are usually selected at random.
The importance here is to see if variations of the results occur between the groups
mentioned before.

This kind of design is the most appropriate to find causal relationships between
variables. If there is no relationship between the variables, there is no causality.
Furthermore, this type of design is characterized by a systematic collection of data,
giving importance to the design itself, and confirming the validity of outcomes.
In addition, by using experimental design it helps researchers to control the
variables to investigate about feasible and specific results.

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2.2.2. Non-experimental Research

According to O'Dwyer & Bernauer, (2013) non-experimental quantitative

research is “research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random
assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions, or both characteristics
pertinent to experimental designs”.

This type of research is used when there is not “a specific research question about
a causal relationship between two different variables”. Moreover, the manipulation of
the independent variable is not possible. Non-experimental research is also used when
persons cannot be randomly assigned to conditions, the research is extensive, there
is no causal relationship between variables or lack of enough information about the
research subjects.

2.2.3. Quasi-experimental Research

In contexts related to education, this design is needed when the researchers

need to use intact groups because the setting into randomized groups is not feasible.
Quasi-experimental does not require assigning the participants randomly, therefore
this design facilitates the application of the experiment under existing conditions in
educational institutions.
Consequently, this is the type of design most used in education; thus, it is
important to specify some possible stages to develop research. The common first
stage might be the selection of groups (experimental and control), followed by
designing a pre-test to determine measures related to the dependent variable before
the intervention.
The next stage is the intervention or treatment which corresponds to the
“experiment” that the researcher wants to implement with the experimental group. For
example: implementing flipped classroom methodology in the experimental group for
a period of eight weeks.

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Emphasizing that this type of experiment requires at least two groups with an
equal number of participants, where one group is the experimental in which the
treatment activities are conducted while the other group constitutes the control group.
Once the groups are arranged, the next stage is the application of a pre-test,
instrument that has to obtain the corresponding validity. After the
implementation of the new methodology or treatment, the next stage is the
application of a post-test, which in most cases is the same used as the pre-test, but
in cases that it involves the use of the same questions, a new one has to be
elaborated to keep validity and reliability. After the process of data collection has been
developed, the data analysis stage can start. The analysis includes working with
descriptive and inferential statistical data.
Descriptive statistics, as its name suggests, focuses on describing and
visualizing data originating from the phenomenon under study, which can be
summarized numerically or graphically in order to organize and establish
characteristics that contribute to explain the hypotheses. While inferential statistics is
dedicated to the generation of models, inferences and predictions associated with the
phenomena in question, taking into account the randomness of the observations that
allow modeling patterns in the data and drawing inferences about the population under
study.

2.3. Important terminology concerning research design.

It is appropriate to explain important concepts relating to designs before developing

a research design to understand better the terminology used in a study.
Variables are concepts that are assigned quantitative values to be measured.
Independent variable is a variable that is unchanging and unaffected by the other
variables that can be measured.
Dependent variable is a variable that depends on other factors that are measured. A
dependent variable changes as a result of an experimental manipulation of the
independent variable or variables. For instance, if good score depends on good
performance, then good score is a dependent variable and performance is an
independent variable.
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Continuous variable: is a variable that has a quantitative value and even can be
expressed in decimals. For example: age of students.
Non-continuous or discrete variable: is a variable that has a quantitative value that
can only be expressed in integer values. For example: a number of students.
Extraneous variable: any factor not considered an independent variable that can
affect the dependent variables or controlled conditions.
Predictor variable: is the part of the experiment that is being manipulated to see if it
has an effect on the dependent variable.
Experimental error: anything that affects the dependent variable as consequence of
an extraneous variable.
Control: the action of minimizing the effect of an extraneous variable when carrying
out a research study.
Confounded relationship: is when the relationship between the independent variable
and the dependent variable is influenced by an extraneous variable or variables.
Research hypothesis: is a prediction about the relationship between an independent
variable and dependent variable and tested by scientific methods.
Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: is the action of
testing a research hypothesis. The difference between the two types of testing is in the
manipulation or no manipulation of the independent variable.
Control group: is the group that is not exposed to any experimental condition within
the study.
Experimental group: is the group that is exposed to a particular experimental
condition within the study.
Treatments: are the different conditions of the research under which the experimental
and control groups are studied.

Additional Resources
➢ Video: Quantitative Research
ANA PH · 27 ago 2021 https://youtu.be/AC7oRg3qOLk?si=YNn2usUnz1RyElxQ
➢ Video: Importance of Quantitative Research
Ram (21 Sep - 2021) https://youtu.be/4E24JiZM_1k?si=MFBZQP7lATPq6pHG&t=16
➢ Figure 1: advantages of Quantitative Research
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Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/DMJQRokgiFb2wRBP8

References
Alam, M. (2023, May 17). Quantitative Research: Definition, Methods, Types, and
Examples. IdeaScale. https://ideascale.com/blog/what-is-quantitative- research/
Alamri SA. An Overview: Epistemological Foundations of the Qualitative and
Quantitative Research Approaches. Int J Rec Innov Med Clin Res.
2021;3(4):35-40
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Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses &
Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved April 24, 2024, from
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quantitative-research/
Apuke, O. D. (2017, October). Quantitative research methods : A synopsis approach.
ResearchGate; www.researchgate.net.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320346875_Quantitative_Research_
Methods_A_Synopsis_Approa
Apuke, O. D. (2017). Quantitative research methods: A synopsis approach. Kuwait
Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 6(10), 40–
47. https://doi.org/10.12816/0040336
Bhandari, P. (2020, June 12). Pritha bhandari. Scribbr.
https://www.scribbr.com/author/pritha/page/7/
Bhawna, & Gobind. (2015). 48 | Page. Research Methodology and Approaches, 5(3),
48–51. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-05344851
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
UKEssays. (November 2018). Definitions available for quantitative research
given by different authors. Retrieved from
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/definitions-available-for-
quantitative-research-given-by-different-authors-psychology-essay.php?vref=1
Dudovskiy, J. (2024). Positivism - Research Methodology. Business Research
Methodology. https://research-methodology.net/research-
philosophy/positivism/
Inche, J., Andía, Y., Huamachuco, H., López, M., Vizcarra, J., & Flores, G. (2003).
Paradigma cuantitativo: un enfoque empírico y analítico. Industrial data, 6(1),
23-37.

KENPRO. (2012, August 30). 3.0 RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODOLOGY. KENPRO.
https://www.kenpro.org/research-design-and-methodology/

Leedy P.D. & Ormrod J.E. (2010) Practical Research: Planning and Design. (9th ed).
Pearson Educational International, Boston
Linling. (2023, September 26). What are the philosophical foundations of quantitative
research? Medium.https://medium.com/@linling1689/what-are-the-
philosophical-foundations-of-quantitative-research-48cc8436f0bf
Mizanur, R., (March 20, 2022) What is educational research? Its Benefits and
Importance. Domain of MRM.
https://www.mizanurrmizan.info/2022/03/What-is-Educational-research-Its-
Benefits-and-Importance.html

Needleman, C., & Needleman, M. L. (1996). Qualitative methods for intervention

research. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 29(4), 329–337.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1097-0274(199604) 29:4
O’Dwyer, L.M. and Bernauer, J.A. (2013) Quantitative Research for the Qualitative
Researcher. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Sreekumar, D. (2023). What is Quantitative Research? Definition, Methods, Types,
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and Examples | Researcher.Life. Researcher.life.

https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-
examples/
Sirisilla, S. (2023). Experimental Research Designs: Types, Examples & Advantages.
Enago Academy. https://www.enago.com/academy/experimental-research-
design/
Singh, S. (2023, March 14). What is research design? Types, elements and
examples | Researcher.Life. Researcher.life Blog.
https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-research-design-types-examples/
Tuckman, B.W. & Harper, B.E. (2012). Conducting educational research. Plymouth,
UK: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (p. 3, 4 and 5)
Williams, C. (2011). Research methods. Journal of Business & Economics Research
(JBER), 5(3).
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Self-Assessment

1. What is quantitative research? Quantitative research is basically a plan that

lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random assignment of participants
to conditions or orders of conditions, or both.

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includes procedures for research that go from broad assumptions about testing
theories deductively, avoiding bias to the description of detailed methods of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.

involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to understand concepts,

opinions or experiences.

2. What is the importance of quantitative research in education?

It can measure student and teacher performance and assess effectiveness of
programs.

It is also useful for students to use their knowledge in real situations.

It can help researchers to find answers to all kinds of problems with students.

3. What is the fundamental paradigm that quantitative approach relies on?

Subjectivism
Interpretivism
Positivism

4. _________________ focuses on searching general laws and requires the

identification of a problem that shows the relationship between
variables, and this relationship must be measurable to be verified.

Positivism paradigm
Interpretivism paradigm
Subjectivism paradigm

5. Why can quantitative approach be considered as being scientific in

nature?

Because it uses numerical data collected from sample groups.

Because it is a plan that involves an investigation about a specific problem

through the application of a scientific approach adopted.

Because data are statistically analyzed.

6. When conducting quantitative research,

Some mistakes may happen if a hypothesis or a method for collecting and

analyzing data is not accurately developed which can cause invalidation of the
results.

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No mistakes may happen if a hypothesis or a method for collecting and

analyzing data is not accurately developed which can cause invalidation of the
results.

Some mistakes may happen if a hypothesis or a method for collecting and

analyzing data is accurately developed which can cause invalidation of the
results.

7. _________________is a way of evaluating the quality of the measurement

procedure or method used to collect data, giving the same results every time
that it is used, assuming that the original thing being measured does not
change.

Validity
Neutrality
Reliability

8. ______________refers to the degree to which a test measures what really

is supposed to measure.

Neutrality
Validity
Reliability

9. Quantitative research is practical and useful because it is likely to…

Collect quick, reliable and accurate data using numbers, get extensive range of
data analysis with statistics and eliminate bias.
Eliminate bias because there is possibility for own interpretations or
preconceptions of results, which are statistical and verifiable.

Save time and resources mainly when surveys are applied to collect data from
respondents.

10. ___________ any factor not considered an independent variable that

can affect the dependent variables or controlled conditions.

Independent variable
Extraneous variable
Dependent variable

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