Present perfect and Present perfect continuous

The present perfect simple describes actions or states that occurred at an unspecified time in the past and are relevant
to the present. SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE

 Actions completed at an unspecified time. Actions that started in the past and continue to the present. Life
experiences. Recent events with relevance to the present.

The present perfect continuous describes actions that started in the past and may continue to the present or recently
finished, focusing on the duration of the action. SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS BEEN + VERB-ING

 Actions that began in the past and continue into the present. Actions that recently stopped, emphazing the
duration.

P.P. SIMPLE P.P. CONTINUOUS

TYPICAL CONTEXTS Present perfect simple is used for life Present perfect continuous is used
experiences and completed actions. for ongoing actions or those that
recently ended.
FOCUS Present perfect simple emphasizes the Present perfect continuous
result or completion. emphasizes the duration.

Comparative and Superlatives

Comparative adjectives Superlative adjectives

RULE 1 If an adjective has 1 syllable we add the ending If an adjective has 1 syllable we add the ending -est
-er to the adjective. to the adjective.
RULE 2 If an adjective ends with a consonant + vowel + If an adjective ends with a consonant + vowel +
consonant you must double the last consonant consonant you must double the last consonant and
and add -er. add -est.
RULE 3 If an adjective ends with a “y” remove the “y” If an adjective ends with a “y” remove the “y” and
and add -ier. add -iest.
RULE 4 If an adjective has 2 syllables or more then we If an adjective has 2 syllables or more then we add
add the word “more” to the adjective. the word “most” to the adjective.
RULE 5 Better (Good); Worse (Bad); Farther (Far). Best (Good); Worst (Bad); Farthest (Far).
The comparative adjectives are used to show the difference between two objects. Meanwhile, the superlative
adjectives are used to show the difference between more than two objects.

Modal verbs of deduction and speculation

We use the modal verbs before the infinitive of other verbs to speculate and guess if something is true from the
information we have. SUBJECT + MODAL VERB + BASE FORM

Must Strong belief or certainty. Is used when the speaker is almost sure something is true.
(100%)
Can’t Indicates strong is belief or impossibility. Used when the speaker thinks something I possible but not
(100%) true.
Could Indicates possibility but not certainty. Used when the speaker thinks something is possible but not sure.
(50%)
May Indicates a more tentative possibility. Used when the speaker is less certain about the situation.
(25%)