Materials For Musicianship - Volume I-Text - Units 1-5

MATERIALS FOR
INTRODUCTION
TO MUSICIANSHIP
An Integrated Approach to Music
Theory, Ear Training, Sight
Singing, & Keyboard Harmony
Volume I
Section I: Text
Anthony J. Kosar
Professor
Composition, History, and Theory Department
Westminster Choir College
Rider University
Introduction to Musicianship Volume I
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Table of Contents--Text
Unit 1: Introduction to Notation and the Keyboard

Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
Pitch Notation -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
Time Organization—Rhythm and Meter ------------------------------------------------ 10
Rhythmic Notation ----------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Meter --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Introduction to Intervals: The Semitone and the Whole Tone ---------------------- 25
Unit 2: Major Scales and Key Signatures

The Major Scale ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
Major Key Signatures ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
Unit 3: Intervals
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49
General Interval Names --------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
Specific Interval Names --------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Interval Inversion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
Consonance and Dissonance --------------------------------------------------------------- 81
Unit 4: Minor Scales and Key Signatures

Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
The Minor Scale ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
Minor Key Signatures ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
The Church Modes --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97
Unit 5: Triads and Seventh Chords

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
Triads in Root Position -------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
Triads in Inversion ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109
Seventh Chords in Root Position -------------------------------------------------------- 115
Seventh Chords in Inversion ------------------------------------------------------------- 122
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Unit 1:
Introduction to Notation and the Keyboard
Western tonal music of the “common-practice” period, roughly from the late seventeenth
century until the late nineteenth century, was written for many different genres, in many different
textures, and by composers with very different styles. Despite the many differences in the
individual compositions, however, there is a fairly consistent musical language that serves as a
basis for much of this music. During the course of our study, we will examine this musical
language through its harmony, melody, rhythm, and form, with a constant emphasis on the
relationships among these elements. Our study will involve a close examination of the music
(analysis), a recreation of the music through performance (singing melodies and rhythms) and
keyboard activities (score reading and keyboard harmony), and a creative application of the music
elements (compositional exercises, original composition, and improvisation). While the focus of
our study will be the music of the common-practice period, the notational elements and the basic
concepts are applicable to music written both before and after that period.
Pitch Notation
All sound is created by the vibration of an elastic body—“a body that, when displaced
from its normal position, develops internal forces that tend to restore the body to its original
position.”1 There are four characteristics of every sound—pitch, intensity, duration, and
1
Willi Apel, ed., Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press, 1969), p. 8. The definition above is taken from the article on acoustics (see pages 8-14).
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timbre—that are related to the vibration of the elastic body. When an elastic body is displaced
from its normal position, it returns to its original position and its momentum takes it past the
normal position to create a new displacement. Following the new displacement, the body returns
to its original position and its momentum carries it in the direction of its initial displacement. A
complete cycle—initial displacement, return, new displacement, return—is defined as a
“vibration.” The distance of the displacement is defined as the “amplitude.”
Pitch can be defined as the relative height (highness) or depth (lowness) of a sound,
determined by the frequency (rate of vibration) of the medium producing the sound. Fewer
vibrations per second create a lower pitch; more vibrations per second create a higher pitch.
Intensity can be defined as the loudness of a sound, determined by the amplitude of the vibration.
Smaller amplitudes create softer sounds; larger amplitudes create louder sounds. Duration can
be defined as to the length of a sound. When the vibrating body stops vibrating the sound ends.
Timbre can be defined as tone color. We can distinguish the sound of a clarinet from the sound
of a trumpet because of their different timbres. The more complex vibrations of the elastic body
create the timbre of a sound. When an elastic body is set in motion, the entire body vibrates, but
sections of the entire body vibrate at the same time. These simultaneous vibrations create a
sound’s timbre. We will address the characteristic of intensity and timbre at a later point, and we
will address the characteristic of duration when we discuss rhythm. First, however, we need to
address the characteristic of pitch in some detail.
Pitches are identified by the first seven letters of the alphabet—A, B, C, D, E, F, and G.
Our point of reference for pitches will be the piano keyboard.2 If you have previously studied a
keyboard instrument, such as piano or organ, the following information should be very familiar to
you. If you are just beginning your study of piano, it is important to realize that pitch names and
the placement of pitches on the piano keyboard are necessary skills that must be mastered
2
While the discussion above focuses on the piano keyboard, it is applicable to any keyboard instrument—
organ, harpsichord, or even the accordion.
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immediately. As you can see from Example 1.1, the piano keyboard consists of white keys and
black keys. The black keys are divided into recurring groups of two and three.3 The white keys
of the piano are named by the first seven letters of the alphabet, and the recurring pattern of black
keys will help us to identify the names of the white keys.
Example 1.1. Organization of Keys on the Piano Keyboard.
← lower pitches higher pitches →
The white key below (immediately to the left of) the group of two black keys—the first
white key in Example 1.1—is the pitch C. The white key above C is the letter immediately
following C in the alphabet—D. One could also think of the white key in between the group of
two black keys as D. The next white key is E. One could also think of the white key above
(immediately to the right of) the group of two black keys as the pitch E. The white key below the
group of three black keys is F, and the white keys immediately following F are G and A. The
white key above the group of three black keys is B, and then the pattern begins over. Notice that
the pitches B and C have no black keys between them and the pitches E and F have no black keys
between them. Example 1.2 contains a segment of a piano keyboard with the white keys named.4
3
If you look at a piano, there is one exception to the groupings of black keys into two and three. The
lowest white key on the piano has a single black key above it. One could think of this single black key as
the highest black key of an incomplete grouping of three.
4
We will address the names of the black keys (and alternate names for the white keys) later in this unit.
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Example 1.2. Names of the White Keys on the Piano Keyboard.
C D E F G A B C
Notice that in Example 1.2 C occurs as the lowest pitch and as the highest pitch. If the
next higher white key had been included in this example, the pitch D would have occurred twice
also. An octave is the distance between the nearest two pitches having the same letter name. The
first key in Example 1.2 is an octave lower than the last key in the example. The frequency of the
higher C is twice the frequency of the lower C. Since it may be necessary to designate the
specific octave of a pitch, we will identify an octave by numbering the Cs on the piano keyboard.
Example 1.3 illustrates a complete piano keyboard with the octaves designated by the numbered
Cs. The C immediately below them identifies the pitches other than C. The D above C1 is D1, the
A above C4 is A4, and the B above C6 (or directly below C7) is B6. (Try to identify these
pitches—and others—on the example below and on an actual piano keyboard.) The term pitch
class is often used to refer to note identified by its letter name, but without octave identification.
The pitch class C includes all Cs regardless of octave. Since a specific pitch is created by a
specific frequency, octave identification is needed to completely identify pitch.

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Example 1.3. Full Piano Keyboard with Octave Designations.
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
We will refer to C4 as middle C because it occurs roughly in the middle of the piano
keyboard. Usually on an actual piano, middle C is the C below the printed brand name of the
instrument. The pitch A that most orchestras use to tune is the A above middle C, or A4. This A
is often referred to as A-440 because the frequency of that pitch is typically 440 vibrations per
second.
Pitches are notated on a five-line (four-space) staff. The five-line staff can be extended in
both directions through the use of ledger lines. The height or depth of a pitch determines its
placement on the staff. Higher pitches are notated in a higher position on the staff and lower
pitches are notated in a lower position on the staff. Example 1.4 illustrates the staff and the
extension of the staff with ledger lines.
Example 1.4. The Five-line, Four-space Staff and Ledger Lines.
The staff alone (as shown in the previous example) is sufficient for indicating whether
one pitch is higher or lower than another pitch, but more information is necessary if we want to
notate specific pitches and their exact relationship with one another. A clef is placed at the
beginning of the staff in order to indicate the specific pitches of the notes. There are three
different clefs that we will encounter, and for the first several units we will focus on only two of
these. Example 1.5 illustrates the three clef signs. Each of these three clefs can be identified by
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either the specific pitch they indicate or where on the staff they indicate that specific pitch. The
first name never changes, but the second name will change depending upon the placement of the
clef on the staff. The first clef indicated in Example 1.5 is the G-clef. The middle “circle” of this
clef indicates the pitch G above middle C, or G4. When this clef indicates that the second line of
the staff is the pitch G above middle C, it is referred to as the treble clef.5 The second clef
indicated in Example 1.5 is the F-clef. The initial circle and the two “dots” of this clef indicate
the pitch F below middle C, or F3. When this clef indicates that the fourth line of the staff is the
pitch F below middle C, it is referred to as the bass clef.6 The third and fourth clefs indicated in
Example 1.5 are both C-clefs. The two semi-circles on the right side of this clef come together
to indicate the pitch middle C, or C4. When the third line is indicated as middle C, it is referred to
as the alto clef. When the fourth line is indicated as middle C, it is referred to as the tenor clef.7
A clef sign must appear at the beginning of every line of music.
5
In some older music, the G-clef was used to indicate that the first line of the staff was the G above middle
C. The clef, shown below, is then referred to as the French violin clef
6
In some older music, the F-clef was used to indicate that the third line of the staff was the F below middle
C. The clef, shown below, is then referred to as the baritone clef.
7
In some older music, the C-clef was used to indicate other lines as middle C. One such use of this clef
with the first line as middle C, shown below, is referred to as the soprano clef.
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Example 1.5. The Three Clefs in Their Most Typical Usage.
When music is notated using two staves, the upper one in treble clef and the lower one in
bass clef—such as most piano music and much choral music, a grand staff is used. Example 1.6
illustrates the octaves indicated in Example 1.3 on the grand staff. Notice the bracket at the
beginning of each system—this bracket indicates that this is a grand staff rather than music for
two different instruments, one in the treble clef and one in the bass clef. Notice also that middle
C is in the middle of the grand staff—this pitch is either the first ledger line below the treble clef
or the first ledger line above the bass clef. The last seven pitches of Example 1.6 (D7 through C8)
are notated using the octave sign. The 8va with the dotted line following indicate that the pitches
below that line are to be played an octave higher than written. The pitches C1 through B1 could
have been notated as C2 through B2 with the octave sign below the latter pitches.
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Example 1.6. The Grand Staff and the Notation of all Piano Pitches.8
Until now we have limited our study of the piano keyboard to the white keys only. In
order to address the black keys, we must introduce the concepts of flat and sharp. A flat (ß)
indicates the lowering of a pitch to the adjacent key to its left—whether the adjacent key is white
or black. A sharp (ƒ) indicates the raising of a pitch to the adjacent key to its right—whether the
adjacent key is white or black. The concept of adjacent key is a very important one. D, G, and A
have only black keys as their adjacent keys. C and F have black keys as the adjacent keys above
them, but have white keys as the adjacent keys below them. B and E have black keys as the
adjacent keys below them, but have white keys as the adjacent keys above them. Example 1.7
indicates the use of a sharp and a flat with all of the seven note names, and we are now able to
identify the names of the black keys of the piano.
8
Notice the octave designations of the first two pitches in Example 1.6. Since it is customary to identify
octaves by the C that begins them, these two pitches can be referred to as the A and B below C1. The
octave designation A0 and B0 is appropriate since no Cs occur below them.
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Example 1.7. Names of the Black and White Keys on the Piano Keyboard.
Cƒ Dƒ Fƒ Gƒ Aƒ
Dß Eß Gß Aß Bß
Bƒ Fß Eƒ Cß Bƒ
C D E F G A B C
Notice that all of the black keys (and now some of the white keys) have two names. The
black key between C and D could be either Cƒ—the adjacent key above C—or Dß—the adjacent
key below D. Pitches that are played on the same piano key but have different names are referred
to as enharmonic pitches. The other enharmonic pitch pairs contained in Example 1.7 are Bƒ,C;
Dƒ,Eß; E,Fß; Eƒ,F; Fƒ,Gß; Gƒ,Aß; Aƒ,Bß; and B,Cß. Example 1.8 illustrates the notation of the pitches
in Example 1.7, the first line assuming a beginning pitch of Bƒ2/C3 and the second line assuming a
beginning pitch of Bƒ3/C4. Notice that all of the pitches except D, G, and A have two possible
notations. In Example 1.8, a natural sign (½) precedes several of the pitches. A natural sign
cancels a sharp or flat that has previously occurred.9 The fifth note of the first line is D½3 (read D-
natural3); the natural is used to indicate that this pitch is different from the Dß3 that occurs as the
fourth note of the first line.
9
There are times when a natural sign is not needed to cancel a flat or sharp. For example, a bar line will
have the effect of canceling a flat or sharp. We will treat this topic in more detail after the introduction of
meter.
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Example 1.8. Notation of the Pitches Shown in Example 1.7.
In order to complete the system of accidentals, we need to introduce the double flat and
the double sharp. A double flat (å) indicates the lowering of a pitch two adjacent keys to its left.
A double sharp (©) indicates the raising of a pitch two adjacent keys to its right. The pitch D is
enharmonic with the pitches Eå and C©. The pitch G is enharmonic with the pitches Aå and F©.
The pitch A is enharmonic with the pitches Bå and G©.
Time Organization—Rhythm & Meter
Our study of tonal music must include an understanding of rhythm and meter and how
musical elements are unfolded through time. Basically, rhythm is the organization of music with
respect to time (indicating the duration of each sound), and meter is the pattern of fixed temporal
units (beats) and their regularly recurring accents. We will begin our study with the notation of
rhythm.
Rhythmic Notation
Example 1.9 illustrates the various parts of note—the note head, the stem, and the flag.
Some notes do not contain all three elements, and oftentimes some of the elements appear is a
slightly different form. In the note contained in Example 1.9, the note head is “filled in.” Some
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notes involve “open note heads” in which the note heads have a white center. Some notes have
more than one flag, or have the flags replaced by beams. (See Example 1.10.) Some notes have
only a note head and a stem (with no flags or beams), and some notes have only open note heads
(with no stem, flags, or beams).
Example 1.9. The Anatomy of a Note
e
← flag
stem →
↑
note head
Table 1.1 contains all of the note values and the equivalent rests (which indicate the same
time span of silence). The most commonly used rhythmic values are the whole note, the half
note, the quarter note, the eighth note, and the sixteenth note; the focus of our rhythmic study will
involve these five rhythms. Each of the rhythmic values in Table 1.1 is one half of the length of
the value directly above it. For example, a whole note is one half the length of a breve; a half
note is one half the length of a whole note; and the quarter note is one half the length of a half
note. The names of the notes reflect this relationship.
Notice that the stems on the notes in Table 1.1 are below the note head (unlike the stem
in Example 1.9). Ascending stems (see Example 1.9) are connected to the right side of the note
head. Descending stems (see Table 1.1) are connected to the left side of the note head.
Regardless of whether the stems are ascending or descending, the flags are always to the right of
the stem. The breve, whole note, and half note all have open note heads. The breve and the
whole note are the only notes without stems. The half note and the quarter note are the only notes
with stems and no flags. Notice the similarity between the whole rest and the half rest; the only
difference is their placement below (whole rest) or above (half rest) the line. You should be able
to notate and understand the proportional relationships among all of the symbols in Table 1.1.
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Table 1.1. Note Values and Their Equivalent Rest Signs.
If two or more flagged notes appear together, beams usually replace the flags. Beaming
allows the grouping together of notes in order to help the performer understand the rhythmic
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organization faster and better. Grouping larger bits of information into several smaller, more
“manageable” groups is something we do all the time. Think of all the long-distance phone
numbers that you can remember. If we were to try to remember them as a string of ten numbers,
committing them to memory would be much more difficult than remembering them in three
segments of three numbers, three numbers, and four numbers. We are “beaming” or segmenting
the ten numbers into groups of three and four. Example 1.10 illustrates beamed and flagged notes
with the stems both ascending and descending for rhythmic values of the eighth note through the
one-hundred-twenty-eighth note.10
Example 1.10. Beamed and Flagged Note Heads.
All of the rhythmic values shown in Table 1.1 have a durational relationship based on the
proportion 1:2. That is, one breve equals two whole notes; one whole note equals two half notes;
one half note equals two quarter notes; etc. There are times when we must indicate a rhythmic
value that is “in the crack between” two of these values. For example, we may want a note that is
longer than a quarter note, but not as long as a half note. There are several methods for doing
notating such rhythms. One can use a tie—a curved line that connects two or more adjacent notes
of the same pitch. (Ties connect only note values—not rests.) A quarter note tied to a sixteenth
note creates a note that is longer than a quarter note, but not as long as a half note. One can also
use a dot—placed to the right of either a note head or a rest—that increases the duration of the
note or rest by one half of its original value. A dotted quarter note is the equivalent to a quarter
note increased by half of its length, an eighth note. A dotted quarter note and a quarter note tied
to an eighth note indicate the same rhythmic value. One could say that adding a dot to any note
10
The procedures for beaming rhythmic values are dependent upon several elements other than rhythm.
We will address these procedures in detail after introducing meter.
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in Table 1.1 is equivalent to tying that rhythmic value to the rhythmic value that occurs directly
below it in the table. As stated above, dots can be added to either notes or rests. One can also
extend the concept of dotting notes to the double dot—a pair of dots placed to the right of either
a note head or a rest—that increases the duration of the note or rest by one half of its original
value plus one fourth of its original value. One might think of the first dot as increasing the note
value by one half and the second dot as increasing the first dot’s value by one half. A double
dotted quarter note is equivalent to a quarter note tied to an eighth note tied to a sixteenth note.
You should work to accurately and quickly identify relationships among all of the rhythmic
values (notes and rests) contained in Table 1.1, as well as those rhythmic values using ties, dots,
and double dots.
Meter
In any metric organization, we must understand the recurring pattern of beats and the
division of those beats into smaller units. The most common recurring patterns consist of two-
beat units (duple meter), three-beat units (triple meter), and four-beat units (quadruple meter).
Recurring patterns larger than four can often be thought of as combinations of smaller patterns—a
pattern consisting of five-beat units is typically grouped into a two-beat unit and a three-beat unit.
Some like to equate the term beat with the term pulse, but it is useful if we distinguish between
these two terms. A pulse is the beginning of the beat, and the beat lasts until the next pulse. As
we listen to music, we sometimes tap our toe or snap our finger. The sound created by the “snap”
has little length to it; we can think of this instant as the initiation of the beat, which does have
length and can be divided and subdivided. This concept is shown graphically in Table 1.2.
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pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 1

Duple Meter └─────┴─────┘
123 123
beat 1 beat 2
pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 3 pulse 1

Triple Meter └─────┴─────┴─────┘
123 123 123
beat 1 beat 2 beat 3
pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 3 pulse 4 pulse 1

Quadruple Meter └─────┴─────┴─────┴─────┘
123 123 123 123
beat 1 beat 2 beat 3 beat 4
Table 1.2. Metric Patterns of Duple, Triple, and Quadruple Meters.
There are two basic types of meter: simple and compound, either of which can be
divided into recurring patterns of two-, three-, and four-beat units. A meter is a simple meter if
the division of the beat (and all other non-borrowed subdivisions) is two. A meter is a compound
meter if the division of the beat is three, while all other non-borrowed subdivisions are two.
Table 1.3 graphically illustrates the distinction between simple and compound meters. Compare
simple quadruple meter and compound quadruple meter, both illustrated on the top line of Table
1.3. Both meters contain four beats. In simple quadruple meter each of the beats is divided into
two divisions, and further divided into four subdivisions (two for each division). In compound
quadruple meter each of the beats is divided into three divisions, and further divided into six
subdivisions (two for each division). Similar comparisons can be made between simple triple
meter and compound triple meter, as well as between simple duple meter and compound duple
meter, the second and third lines of Table 1.3.

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beat subdivision: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------------

beat division: / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
beats: | | | | | | | |
└────┴────┴────┴────┘ └────┴────┴────┴────┘
Simple Meter Compound Meter
Quadruple Meters
beat subdivision: - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------

beat division: / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
beats: | | | | | |
└────┴────┴────┘ └────┴────┴────┘
Triple Meters
beat subdivision: - - - - - - - - ------------

beat division: / / / / / / / / / /
beats: | | | |
└────┴────┘ └────┴────┘
Duple Meters
Table 1.3. Graphic Representation of the Distinction between Simple and Compound Meters.
All meters are indicated at the beginning of a composition, appearing after the clef sign
and key signature11. With a few exceptions, meters are notated using two numbers, one placed
above the other. (While these numbers may initially look like a fraction, no line occurs between
the two numbers. When writing a meter sign, simply write one number above the other.) In
order to understand what the two numbers tell us, we need to discuss simple and compound
meters separately.
In simple meters, the upper number tells us how many beats occur in each measure. The
most common upper numbers are two (duple meter), three (triple meter) and four (quadruple
meter). Other numbers can be found, such as one and five, but we will focus on the most
common three. The lower number tells us what type of note lasts one beat. The most common
11
Key signatures and more information about their placement will be addressed in Unit 2. Like the clef,
the key signature appears at the beginning of each line of music.
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lower numbers are two (the half note), four (the quarter note), and eight (the eighth note). Other
numbers can be found, such as one (the whole note) and sixteen (the sixteenth note), but we will
focus on the most common three. The meter signature of k indicates that there are three beats in
each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. The key signature n indicates there are four
beats in each measure and the half note gets one beat. The key signature i indicates there are two
beats in each measure and the eighth note gets one beat. Example 1.11 illustrates two frequently
used metric abbreviations—symbols other than two numbers used to indicate meter. The meter o
is often referred to as common time, and is indicated with a type of C. The meter g is often
referred to as alla breve, and is indicated with a type of C and a vertical line through it. The first
two symbols in Example 1.11 are equivalent to each other as are the last two symbols.
Example 1.11. Two Frequently Used Metric Abbreviations.
Table 1.4 illustrates the metric relationships for simple meters that have a quarter note as
the unit of beat (h; k; and o), an eighth note as the unit of beat (i; m; and p), and a half note as the
unit of beat (g; j; and n). For each type of beat unit, Table 1.4 contains the groupings of that unit
into two and four (above the beat units), the division of the beat into two divisions (directly below
the beat unit), and the first and second subdivisions of the beat (below the beat division). Not all
of the note values contained in Table 1.4 can be used in all meters. For example, in duple meters
(h; i; and g) one cannot use rhythmic values of greater than two beats, because a two-beat note
will completely fill a measure. In triple meters (k; m; and j) one cannot use rhythmic values of
greater than three beats, because a three-beat note (a two-beat note with a dot) will completely fill
a measure.
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Quarter Note Beat

four beats:
two beats:
beat:
beat division:
1st beat subdivision:
2nd beat subdivision:
Eighth-Note Beat
four beats:
two beats:
beat:
beat division:
Half-Note Beat
four beats:
two beats:
beat:
beat division:
Table 1-4. Simple Meter Rhythmic Relationships.

Materials for Musicianship Volume I
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In compound meters, the upper number usually tells us how many beat divisions occur in
each measure. The most common upper numbers are six (duple meter), nine (triple meter) and
twelve (quadruple meter). Other numbers can be found, such as three and fifteen, but we will
focus on the most common three. The lower number tells us what type of note divides the beat.
The most common lower numbers are four (the quarter note is the division and the dotted half
note is the beat), eight (the eighth note is the division and the dotted quarter note is the beat), and
sixteen (the sixteenth note is the division and the dotted eighth note is the beat). Other numbers
can be found, such as two (the half note is the division and the dotted whole note is the beat) and
thirty-two (the thirty-second note is the division and the dotted sixteenth note is the beat), but we
will focus on the most common three. The meter signature of v indicates that there are three beats
1
in each measure and the dotted quarter note gets one beat. The key signature h indicates there are
four beats in each measure and the dotted half note gets one beat. The key signature ¡ §− indicates
there are two beats in each measure and the dotted eighth note gets one beat.
Table 1.5 illustrates the metric relationships for compound meters that have a dotted
1
quarter note as the unit of beat (u; v; and i), a dotted eighth note as the unit of beat (¡ §−; ¡ §·; and ¡Ÿ§¤),
and a dotted half note as the unit of beat (¢−; ·¢ ; and Ÿ¢¤). For each type of beat unit, Table 1.5
contains the groupings of that unit into two and four (above the beat units), the division of the
beat into three divisions (directly below the beat unit), and the first and second subdivisions of the
beat (below the beat division). Not all of the note values contained in Table 1.5 can be used in all
meters. For example, in duple meters (u; ¡ §−; and ¢−) one cannot use rhythmic values of greater than
two beats, because a two-beat note will completely fill a measure. In triple meters (v; ¡ §·; and −¢ )
one cannot use rhythmic values of greater than three beats, because a three-beat note (a two-beat
note tied to a one-beat note) will completely fill a measure.

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Dotted quarter Note Beat

four beats:
two beats:
beat:
beat division:
Dotted eighth-Note Beat

four beats:
two beats:
beat:
beat division:
Dotted half-Note Beat

four beats:
two beats:
beat:
beat division:
Table 1.5. Compound Meter Rhythmic Relationships.

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Occasionally both simple and compound meter signatures are described in the same
terms—the upper number of a meter signature provides the number of beats in a measure and the
lower number informs us of the type of note that receives one beat. This type of explanation
would define u as a meter with six beats in a measure and the eighth note receiving one beat.
While it is true that in very slow tempos one could indeed perceive this relationship, it is much
more common for u to be perceived as a duple meter. We will consider the latter to be the norm
1
and the former to be the exception. The meters of v and i are almost always performed as triple
and quadruple meters; one seldom finds music with nine or twelve beats per measure.
While we have included here an explanation of the notation of all simple and compound meters,
we will limit our performance exercises, for the present, to meters containing only the quarter
note or dotted quarter note as the unit of beat. Our performance exercises will include only six
1
meters, with the following time signatures: h k o u v i. The first three of these meters are
described as simple duple ( h ), simple triple ( k ), and simple quadruple ( o ). The last three of
these meters are described as compound duple ( u ), compound triple ( v ) and compound
1
quadruple ( i ). In each of the previous descriptions, the second term (duple, triple, or quadruple)
refers to the number of beats from one primary metrical accent until the next. The first term
(simple or compound) refers to the division of the beat. As stated earlier, in simple meter the beat
division (and all non-borrowed subdivisions) is two. In compound meter the beat division is
three, while all non-borrowed subdivisions are two. While there are other simple and compound
meters that we will include in our written study, we will perform only the six time signatures
mentioned above. You should practice performing the rhythms in the Performance Manual until
you feel comfortable singing them at sight. When practicing and performing the rhythm
exercises, you should conduct so that you “feel” where you are in the measure. (See page 12 in
the Performance Manual for an explanation of the conducting patterns.) Duple meter (whether
simple or compound) will be conducted with a “two-pattern,” triple meter (whether simple or
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compound) will be conducted with a “three-pattern,” and quadruple meter (whether simple or
compound) will be conducted with a “four-pattern.”
Melodic and Rhythmic Notation
Example 1.12 contains two melodic excerpts that we will used to introduce some
important notation issues and terminology. Carefully study the two excerpts as you read the
following passages.
Example 1.12. Two Melodic Excerpts.12
In both melody a and melody b in Example 1.12, the clef, key signature,13 and the meter
(always in that order) are indicated at the beginning of the melody. When a melody continues
onto a second line (as melody b does), only the clef and key signature are shown. The meter is
indicated only at the beginning and if it should change during the course of the melody. Bar
lines (vertical lines that extend between the outer lines of the staff) separate the melodies into
measures (the space between the bar lines). The meter determines the length of the measures.
12
The melodic excerpts in Example 1.12 come from the voice parts of two nineteenth-century songs. The
first excerpt is taken from Brahms’ Mädchenlied, mm. 1-4. The second excerpt is taken from Schubert’s
Frühlingstraum, mm. 9-14.
13
Specific key signatures will be discussed in Unit 2.
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Both melodies begin with an anacrusis, sometimes called a pick-up note (or notes), which creates
an incomplete measure at the beginning of the melody. A double bar line (not shown in either
melody of Example 1.12) consisting of two vertical lines placed next to one another occur at the
end of a melody or at the end of a larger section of a melody.
Notice the beaming of the eighth notes and sixteenth notes in the two melodies. In
melody a (written in k), the beaming reflects the beats and their divisions. The third measure
contains six eighth notes; these eighth notes are beamed into groups of two, clearly indicating
three beats each having two divisions. In melody b (written in u), the eighth notes are beamed
into groups of three, clearly indicating two beats each having three divisions. See, for example,
the second beat of measure 1 and the first beat of measure 4. The third and fifth measures of
melody b are also beamed by three eighth-note groupings even when the internal organization of
the beat is not three equal divisions. In these two measures the dotted eighth, sixteenth, and
eighth notes are all beamed together, indicating that these three rhythms constitute a single dotted
eighth note beat. Pay close attention to measure four of melody b. The three eighth notes that
constitute beat one are beamed together and the single eighth note and the four sixteenth note
subdivisions that constitute beat two are beamed together. Notice that the pitch E5 lasts the length
of a quarter note (two eighth notes tied together); notating that pitch as a quarter note, however,
would give the visual impression of k—two eighth notes indicating beat one, a quarter note
indicating beat two, and four sixteenth notes indicating beat three. The beaming in melody b is
based on the metric organization of u. A similar situation occurs in the second measure of
melody b. Notice that all of the eighth notes are flagged. If the second and third notes of that
measure had been beamed together, the measure would appear as a k measure rather than a u
measure.
Both melodies in Example 1.12 have pitches that would be played on the black keys of
the piano, indicated either through the key signature or accidentals placed in front of a specific
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note. In melody a, the single flat at the beginning of the line (a Bß) indicates that every B is to be
a Bß unless it is cancelled by an accidental in the music, such as in measures two and four. The
first and fourth notes of measure three are both Bß because the bar line has the effect of canceling
the B½ from the previous measure. Likewise, the bar line at the end of measure one has the effect
of canceling the Cƒ at the beginning of that measure; the C that occurs in measure two is a C½. In
melody b, the three sharps at the beginning of the line (an Fƒ, a Cƒ, and a Gƒ) indicate that every
occurrence of F, C and G is to be Fƒ, Cƒ, and a Gƒ unless it is cancelled by an accidental in the
music.14
Notice the directions of the stems in the two melodies in Example 1.12; some of the
stems ascend from the right side of the note heads and some of the stems descend from the left
side of the note heads. In general, in a single line melody if the note head is above the middle
line of the staff the stem will descend from the left side of the note head and if the note head is
below the middle line of the staff the stem will ascend from the right side of the note head.15 An
easy way to remember this principle—place the stem in the “empty” part of the staff. If the note
head is on the third line of the staff, its stem could go in either direction. See measure two of
melody b. The first two note heads are above the middle line, so their stems descend; the last two
note heads are below the middle line, so their stems ascend. If two note heads are beamed
together, the note head that is furthest away from the middle line determines the stem direction.
On the first beat of measure four in melody a, the F5 is above the middle line and should have a
descending stem, but the A4 is below the middle line and should have an ascending stem.
Because the F5 is further away from the middle line than the A4 is, the F5 determines that the two
notes beamed together should have descending stems. On the second beat of measure five in
melody b, the two pitches beamed together (D5 and Gƒ4) are equidistant from the third line. The
14
We will discuss the use of key signatures in much more detail in Unit 2.
15
If two parts are notated on a single staff, such as the soprano and alto parts or the tenor and bass parts,
then the stem direction will be used to indicate the specific part. The higher part (soprano or tenor) will be
notated with ascending stems and the lower part (alto or bass) will be notated with descending stems.
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D5 is a space and a line above the middle line (indicating a descending stem) and the Gƒ4 is a
space and a line below the middle line (indicating an ascending stem). Since there is a single D5
and two Gƒ4s, the stems for all three note heads are determined by the Gƒ4 and ascend. Had there
been a single D5 and a single Gƒ4, the stems could have gone in either direction. You should think
about the notation of the music that you are currently performing.
Introduction to Intervals: The Semitone and the Whole Tone
An interval is the distance between two pitches. We have already discussed one interval
when we defined the octave (on page 4) as “the distance between the nearest two pitches having
the same letter name.” Now we will address two smaller intervals that will form the building
blocks for scales (in Unit 2) and larger intervals (in Unit 3). The smallest interval in Western
tonal music16 is the semitone—the interval formed by adjacent keys on the piano keyboard.17
Example 1.13 contains two examples of semitones—one formed by a white key and an adjacent
black key (such as the pitch D and the black key above it as either Dƒ or Eß) and one formed by
two white keys that have no black key between them (such as the pitches B and C). Two black
keys cannot form a semitone because they can never be adjacent to one another.
Example 1.13. Two Types of Semitones on the Piano Keyboard.
D Dƒ/Eß B C
↓↓ ↓ ↓
16
In non-Western music (such as Indian music or eastern European folk music) and non-tonal Western
music (such as the music of the twentieth-century American composer George Crumb), intervals smaller
than the semitone are used. These pitches cannot be produced on a normally tuned piano, but are most
often called for in singing or instruments such as string instruments.
17
Some books refer to this interval as a half step.
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While the interval from D to Dƒ is a semitone and the interval from D to Eß is a semitone,
it is often useful to distinguish between the two. We will define a semitone with both pitches
notated on the same line or space as a chromatic semitone. The pitches D and Dƒ form a
chromatic semitone. We will define a semitone with one pitch notated on a line and the other
pitch notated on an adjacent space as a diatonic semitone. The pitches D and Eß form a diatonic
semitone. The pitches B and C form a diatonic semitone. Had the higher pitch (C) been notated
as a Bƒ, the interval would have been a chromatic semitone. Chromatic semitones will always be
formed by two pitches whose names involve the same letter of the alphabet; diatonic semitones
will always be formed by two pitches whose names are adjacent letters in the alphabet. For the
present, think of the difference between a chromatic semitone and a diatonic semitone as a
notational distinction. Two adjacent keys on the piano keyboard form a semitone; the notation of
those two pitches determines if the interval is diatonic or chromatic.
The next largest interval in Western tonal music is the whole tone—the interval formed
by two semitones. A whole tone could also be described as two keys on the piano keyboard that
have one key between them. Example 1.14 illustrates the three types of whole tones that can
occur. A whole tone can occur between two white keys that have a single black key between
them (such as D and E). A whole tone can occur between two black keys that have a single
white key between them (such as Fƒ and Gƒ). A whole tone can occur between a white key and a
black key that have a single white key between them (such as B and Cƒ).
Example 1.14. Three Types of Whole Tones on the Piano Keyboard.

Gß Aß
D E Fƒ Gƒ B Cƒ
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
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Technically, the three intervals shown in Example 1.14 would constitute whole tones
regardless of their spelling. We will use the term whole tone as an abbreviated form of diatonic
whole tone—an interval notated with one pitch on a line and the other pitch on the adjacent space.
Using this definition, the pitches Fƒ and Gƒ would form a whole tone, as would the pitches Gß and
Aß. The intervals from Fƒ to Aß and Gß to Gƒ will not be described as whole tones although they
do form intervals that are enharmonic with (sound the same as—see page 8) the whole tone.18
Whole tones will always be formed by two pitches whose names are adjacent letters in the
alphabet.
You should be able to identify, construct, and perform at the piano keyboard the intervals
of the diatonic semitone, the chromatic semitone, and the (diatonic) whole tone with speed and a
high degree of accuracy. We will use these intervals to begin our discussion of scales in the next
unit.
18
We will address these intervals in Unit 3. The former would constitute a diminished third and the latter a
doubly augmented prime.
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Unit 2:
Major Scales and Key Signatures
The Major Scale
One of the most basic ways of thinking about tonal material is through a collection of
pitches expressed in the form of a scale. One might define the term scale used here as an
ascending or descending succession of tones based upon some fixed interval relationships and
encompassing a tonal space no greater than one octave. One could have a scale that extends past
a single octave, but the tones in the second octave merely duplicate those of the first octave in a
higher register. Because the focus of our study is Western tonal music of the common-practice
period, we will emphasize the scales that reflect the tonal material of that musical language—
specifically the major and minor scales.19 In this unit we will limit our study to the major scale.
While there are numerous methods for thinking about the construction of the major scale,
we will use two of the small intervals introduced at the end of the previous unit—the whole tone
and the diatonic semitone. (Review pages 25-27.) Each adjacent major scale degree (the
members of a scale) is separated by either a whole tone (abbreviated as WT) or a diatonic
semitone (abbreviated as dst). Remember that a diatonic semitone consists of two adjacent keys
on the piano keyboard—each having a different letter name—and a whole tone consists of two
semitones, or two keys on the piano keyboard separated by one other key—having letter names
that are adjacent letters in the alphabet. A major scale consists of the pattern: WT WT dst WT
WT WT WT dst. One could either remember this eight-interval pattern, or simplify matters by
19
We will study the relationships between these scales and scales that are not central to the common-
practice period—the church modes, the pentatonic scale, the whole-tone scale, and others—in later units.
Text, Page 30
thinking of two identical major tetrachords (a collection of four pitches separated by the three
intervals—WT WT dst) separated by a WT. Example 2.1 contains an E major scale (notated in
the treble clef) and an Aß major scale (notated in the bass clef) with the consecutive intervals and
the tetrachords indicated.
Example 2.1. The Major Scale.
Notice the numbers with carets above each pitch in Example. 2.1. This type of number
notation is used to indicate scale degree. A one with a caret (^1) is an abbreviation for “first scale
degree.” Similarly, a five with a caret (^5) is an abbreviation for “fifth scale degree.” Another
means of thinking about the organization of the major scale is to identify the placement of the
diatonic semitones (since there are only two of them). All adjacent scale degree are separated by
whole tones except for ^3 and ^4 and ^7 and ^8, which are separated by diatonic semitones.
Since the intervallic composition of every major tetrachord is the same, each major
tetrachord could be the first four pitches of a major scale (^1--^2--^3--^4) or the last four pitches of
another major scale (^5--^6--^7--^8). In the E major scale of Example 2.1, the E--Fƒ--G--A could also
serve as ^5--^6--^7--^8 of an A major scale, and the B--Dƒ--Dƒ--E could also serve as ^1--^2--^3--^4 of an
B major scale. In the Aß major scale of Example 2.1, the Aß--Bß--C--Dß could also serve as ^5--^6--
^7--^8 of a Dß major scale, and the Eß--F--G--Aß could also serve as ^1--^2--^3--^4 of an Eß major scale.
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You should practice constructing ascending and descending major tetrachords from any given
note at the piano keyboard and on staff paper in both the treble and bass clefs. After constructing
a tetrachord, construct a second tetrachord whose first note is a whole tone above the last note of
the first tetrachord (creating one major scale) and a third tetrachord whose last note is a whole
tone below the first note of the first tetrachord (creating another major scale).
In the pitch drill exercises that we have been singing since the beginning of Unit 1 (see
pages 8-11 in the Performance Manual), we have used solfège syllables to refer to scale degrees.
In addition to referring to scale degrees by numbers and solfège syllables, each scale degree also
has a function name. Table 2.1 lists the solfège syllable and function name for each scale degree.
You should be equally comfortable referring to a scale degree by all three methods.
^1 do tonic
2^ re supertonic
3^ mi mediant
4^ fa subdominant
5^ sol dominant
6^ la submediant
7^ ti leading tone
Table. 2.1. Scale Degrees Referenced by Number, Solfège Syllable, &Function Name
Your understanding of the major scale should allow you to complete all of the following
tasks accurately and quickly:
Major Scale Construction:
• Construct a complete ascending major scale given any pitch as a tonic.
• Construct a complete descending major scale given any pitch as a tonic.
• Construct a complete major scale given any pitch as a specific scale degree.
Major Scale Identification:
• Identify the tonic of any given major scale.
• Identify the major scales that would contain any given series of pitches.
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Strategies for completing each of the tasks listed above are discussed on the following pages.
You should attempt to master each task before attempting the next one. All of the tasks assume
that you can accurately construct a diatonic semitone and a whole tone above and below a given
pitch and that you can accurately identify diatonic semitones and whole tones.
Task 1: Constructing Ascending Major Scales
To construct an ascending major scale given the tonic pitch, you need to remember the
sequence of intervals in a major scale. You can either commit to memory the sequence of whole
tones and diatonic semitones in a complete major scale (WT WT dst WT WT WT dst) or
consider the interval content of a major tetrachord (WT WT dst), knowing that a major scale
consists of two major tetrachords separated by a whole tone. Alternately, you could remember
that a major scale contains whole tones between all adjacent scale degrees except for the pairs of
^3/^4 and ^7/^8, where there are diatonic semitones. Regardless of how one remembers the sequence
of whole tones and diatonic semitones, the process of constructing these seven intervals is the
same.
Example 2.2 contains two sample problems (with solutions) of constructing ascending
major scales. In problem #1, the task is to construct an ascending major scale (here in the treble
clef) given the tonic of Dß. To accomplish this task, you must construct the correct sequence of
intervals above the given pitch—a whole tone above Dß, then a whole tone above Eß, then a
diatonic semitone above F, then a whole tone above Gß, then a whole tone above Aß, then a whole
tone above Bß, and finally a diatonic semitone above C. (If you do not end on the pitch an octave
higher than the starting pitch, an error has been made.) In problem #2, the task is to construct an
ascending major scale (here in the bass clef) given the tonic of B. To accomplish this task, you
must construct the correct sequence of intervals above the given pitch—a whole tone above B,
then a whole tone above Cƒ, then a diatonic semitone above Dƒ, then a whole tone above E, then a
whole tone above Fƒ, then a whole tone above Gƒ, and finally a diatonic semitone above Aƒ.
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(Again, if you do not end on the pitch an octave higher than the starting pitch, an error has been
made.) As stated above, the method that you use for remembering the sequence of intervals is
less important than your ability to accurately construct the correct sequence.
Example 2.2. Construction of Ascending Major Scales.
Before going on to the next section, you should practice constructing ascending major scales in
both the treble and bass clefs beginning on any given pitch.
Task 2: Constructing Descending Major Scales
To construct a descending major scale given the tonic pitch, you need to remember the
sequence of intervals in an ascending major scale and reverse them. You can either commit to
memory the sequence of whole tone and diatonic semitones in a complete descending major scale
(dst WT WT WT dst WT WT) or consider the interval content of a descending major
tetrachord (dst WT WT), knowing that a major scale consists of two major tetrachords separated
by a whole tone. Alternately, you could remember that a major scale contains whole tones
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between all adjacent scale degrees except for the pairs of ^8/^7 and ^4/^3, where there are diatonic
semitones. Regardless of how one remembers the sequence of whole tones and diatonic
semitones, the process of constructing these seven intervals is the same.20
Example 2.3 contains two sample problems (with solutions) of constructing descending
major scales. In problem #1, the task is to construct a descending major scale (here in the treble
clef) given the tonic of D. To accomplish this task, you must construct the correct sequence of
intervals below the given pitch—a diatonic semitone below D, then a whole tone below Cƒ, then a
whole tone below B, then a whole tone below A, then a diatonic semitone below G, then a whole
tone below Fƒ, and finally a whole tone below E. (If you do not end on the pitch an octave lower
than the starting pitch, an error has been made.) In problem #2, the task is to construct a
descending major scale (here in the bass clef) given the tonic of Bß. To accomplish this task, you
must construct the correct sequence of intervals below the given pitch—a diatonic semitone
below Bß, then a whole tone below A, then a whole tone below G, then a whole tone below F,
then a diatonic semitone below Eß, then a whole tone below D, and finally a whole tone below C.
(Again, if you do not end on the pitch an octave lower than the starting pitch, an error has been
made.) As stated above, the method that you use for remembering the sequence of intervals is
less important than your ability to accurately construct the correct sequence.
20
One could construct a descending major scale by lowering the given pitch an octave and constructing an
ascending major scale. You should at this point, however, construct descending major scales by
constructing a descending series of intervals. This process will increase your comfort constructing
descending intervals.
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Example 2.3. Construction of Descending Major Scales.
Before going on to the next section, you should practice constructing ascending major scales in
both the treble and bass clefs beginning on any given pitch.
Task 3: Constructing Major Scales Given Any Scale Degree
To construct a major scale given a scale degree other than the tonic pitch, you also need
to remember the sequence of intervals in a major scale. However you have committed to memory
the sequence of whole tone and diatonic semitones in a complete major scale, you must know that
pattern so well that you can begin at any point in the sequence and proceed in either an ascending
or descending direction from any given starting point. For this task it may be easiest to that a
major scale contains whole tones between all adjacent scale degrees except for the pairs of ^3/^4
and ^7/^8, where there are diatonic semitones.
Examples 2.4 and 2.5 contain two sample problems (with solutions) of constructing
major scales given a scale degree other than the tonic. Because each problem includes two steps,
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the two problems have been separated into separate examples. In problem #1 (Example 2.4), the
task is to construct a major scale (here in the treble clef) given the fourth scale degree of B. To
accomplish this task, you must construct the correct sequence of intervals above and below the
given pitch. The first step given in this example (Step A) consists of constructing the descending
intervals from the given pitch to the tonic—a diatonic semitone below B, then a whole tone below
Aƒ, and finally a whole tone below Gƒ. The second step given in this example (Step B) consists of
constructing the ascending intervals from the given pitch to the tonic—a whole tone above B,
then a whole tone above Cƒ, then a whole tone above Dƒ, and finally a diatonic semitone above Eƒ.
(If your final pitch in Step B is not an octave above your final pitch in Step A, an error has been
made.) Steps A and B can be completed in any order.
Example 2.4. Construction of a Major Scale Given a Starting Pitch Other Than the Tonic—
Problem #1.
In problem #2 (Example 2.5), the task is to construct a major scale (here in the bass clef)
given the sixth scale degree of C. To accomplish this task, you must construct the correct
sequence of intervals above and below the given pitch. The first step given in this example (Step
A) consists of constructing the ascending intervals from the given pitch to the tonic—a whole
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tone above C and a diatonic semitone above D. The second step given in this example (Step B)
consists of constructing the descending intervals from the given pitch to the tonic—a whole tone
below C, then a whole tone below Bß, then a diatonic semitone below Aß, then a whole tone below
G, and finally a whole tone below F. (If your final pitch in Step B is not an octave below your
final pitch in Step A, an error has been made.) Steps A and B can be completed in any order.
Notice that steps A and B in this example have been reversed from steps A and B in the previous
example.
Example 2.4. Construction of a Major Scale Given a Starting Pitch Other Than the Tonic—
Problem #1.
Constructing only ascending intervals or constructing only descending intervals can
complete the task of constructing major scale given scale degrees other than the tonic. For
example, if in the solution of Problem #1 (see Example 2.4), one could complete Step A
(constructing the descending intervals from the given pitch to the tonic), then simply write the
tonic pitch (Fƒ) an octave higher and continue to construct descending intervals until arriving at
the given pitch. One would have then constructed the complete Fƒ major scale by constructing
only descending intervals. In the solution of Problem #2 (see Example 2.5), one could complete
Step A (constructing the ascending intervals from the given pitch to the tonic), then simply write
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the tonic pitch (Bß) an octave lower and continue to construct ascending intervals until arriving at
the given pitch. One would have then constructed the complete Bß major scale by constructing
only ascending intervals. Before going on to the next section, you should practice constructing
major scales in both the treble and bass clefs beginning on any scale degree and using any of the
methods described above.
Task 4: Identifying the Tonic of Any Given Major Scale
To identify the tonic of a given major scale, you must identify the sequence of intervals
and locate the series of intervals that defines the tonic—a diatonic semitone below and two whole
tones (not three!) above. As in the previous three tasks, this one depends on your committing to
memory the sequence of whole tone and diatonic semitones in a complete major scale. This task
is easiest to complete when a scale is written beginning on the tonic pitch and ending on the tonic
pitch an octave higher. Many times, however, scale may not begin and end with the tonic pitch,
and you should still be able to identify the tonic. Example 2.6 contains an ascending major scale,
but this scale does not begin on the tonic. In order to identify the tonic of this major scale, we
need to consider the sequence of whole tones and diatonic semitones.
Example 2.6. Ascending Major Scale Beginning on a Pitch Other Than the Tonic
As a first step in determining the tonic of the scale in Example 2.6, you should identify
each adjacent ascending interval. The interval between D and E is a whole tone; the distance
between E and Fƒ is a whole tone; the interval between Fƒ and Gƒ is a whole tone; the interval
between Gƒ and A is a diatonic semitone; the interval between A and B is a whole tone; the
interval between B and Cƒ is a whole tone; and the interval between Cƒ and D is a diatonic semi.
The ascending interval series is WT WT WT dst WT WT dst. Only the pitches preceded by a
diatonic semitone—A and D—could be the tonic. Of those two pitches, only the one followed by
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two whole tones (and not three) is capable of serving as a tonic pitch. The tonic of the scale
given in Example 2.6, therefore, must be A. If we reorder the pitches of Example 2.6 so that they
begin and end on A, the sequence of whole tones and diatonic semitones becomes that of a major
scale. See Example 2.7.
Example 2.7. Pitches of Example 2.6 Reordered to Begin on A.
Example 2.6 contains a descending major scale, but this scale does not begin on the tonic.
In order to identify the tonic of this major scale, we need to consider the sequence of whole tones
and diatonic semitones in a manner similar to the procedure we followed for Example 2.6.
Example 2.8. Descending Major Scale Beginning on a Pitch Other Than the Tonic
As a first step in determining the tonic of the scale in Example 2.8, you should identify
each adjacent descending interval. The interval between A and G is a whole tone; the distance
between G and F is a whole tone; the interval between F and Eß is a whole tone; the interval
between Eß and D is a diatonic semitone; the interval between D and C is a whole tone; the
interval between C and Bß is a whole tone; and the interval between Bß and A is a diatonic semi.
The descending interval series is WT WT WT dst WT WT dst. Only the pitches followed by
a descending diatonic semitone—Eß and Bß—could be the tonic. Of those two pitches, only the
one preceded by two whole tones (and not three) is capable of serving as a tonic pitch. The tonic
of the scale given in Example 2.8, therefore, must be Bß. If we reorder the pitches of Example 2.8
so that they begin and end on Bß, the descending sequence of whole tones and diatonic semitones
becomes that of a major scale. See Example 2.9.

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Example 2.9. Pitches of Example 2.8 Reordered to Begin on Bß.
Before going on to the next section, you should practice identifying ascending and descending
major scales in both the treble and bass clefs beginning on any scale degree.
Task 5: Identifying the Major Scales That Would Contain Any Given Series of Pitches
The final task that that we will master in this section is the identification of major scales
that would contain a given series of pitches. The number of scales that would contain a series of
pitches is dependent upon the number of pitches in the series and the sequence of intervals
contained in the stepwise statement of that series. The steps for completing this particular task
age given below:
1. If the series of pitches does not appear in an ascending stepwise (scalar) format,
place the pitches in such a format.
2. Determine the intervals between adjacent members of the stepwise form of the
series.
3. Determine if the interval sequence matches one or more segments of the interval
sequence that is contained in a major scale.
4. Determine the scale degrees involved in the segment or segments.
5. From one of those scale degrees, determine the tonic(s) of the scale(s) (using task
4 above).
Example 2.10 contains a problem and the use of the five steps given above to solve the
problem. The problem consists of determining if the series of pitches D—B—E—Cƒ are
contained in any major scales, and, if so, which ones. As a first step, the pitches should be placed
in an ascending stepwise format, so that they appear as a scale segment. In Example 2.10, the
pitches have been rearranged into the order B—Cƒ—D—E. The second step involves
determining the intervals between the adjacent, stepwise series of pitches. The four pitches
produce the interval sequence WT—dst—WT. A diatonic semitone preceded and followed by
Text, Page 41
whole tones occur two different places in a major scale—as scale degrees ^6 ^7 ^8 ^2 and as scale
degrees ^2 ^3 ^4 ^5. We could determine the previous scale degree relationships because we know
that diatonic semitones occur between the scale degree pairs ^3/^4 and ^7/^8. In step 4a of Example
2.10, we know that the tonic is D because ^8 and ^1 are the same pitch class. Because we know that
B is ^2 of the major scale containing this particular series of pitches, we need to find the pitch that
lies a whole tone below B in order to determine the tonic of that scale. (See step 5 below.) The
solution steps illustrated in Example 2.10 show how to determine that the pitch series B—Cƒ—
D—E is contained in both the D and A major scales.
Example 2.10. Steps for Identifying the Major Scales That Contain a Given Series of
Pitches—Problem #1.
Example 2.11 contains a second problem and the use of the five steps given above to
solve the problem. The problem consists of determining if the series of pitches C—Bß—D are
Text, Page 42
contained in any major scales, and, if so, which ones. As a first step, the pitches should be placed
in an ascending stepwise format, so that they appear as a scale segment. In Example 2.11, the
pitches have been rearranged into the order Bß—C—D. The second step involves determining the
intervals between the adjacent, stepwise series of pitches. The three pitches produce the interval
sequence WT—WT. Since there are no diatonic semitones, we must determine where in a major
scale there are two consecutive whole tones. Two consecutive whole tones occur in three
different places in a major scale—as scale degrees ^1 ^2 ^3, as scale degrees ^4 ^5 ^6, and as scale
degrees ^5 ^6 ^7. In step 4a of Example 2.11, we know that the tonic is Bß because ^1 begins the
pattern. Because we know that D is ^6 of the major scale containing this particular series of
pitches, we need to find the pitch that lies a whole tone above D (=E) and a diatonic semitone
above that in order to determine that F tonic of that scale. (See step 5a below.) Because we know
that D is ^7 of the major scale containing this particular series of pitches, we need to find the pitch
that lies a diatonic semitone above that in order to determine that Eß tonic of that scale. (See step
5b below.) In the previous example, we knew that the first note of the series was ^2 of some major
scale, so we constructed a whole tone below that note to determine the tonic. In Example 2.11 we
knew that the last note of the series could be either ^6 or ^7 of a major scale. In these cases
constructing intervals up to the tonic (^8) involved constructing fewer intervals that constructing
the scale down to the tonic (to ^1 from either ^4 or ^5). One could, of course, complete the scale
from the lowest note of the series down to the tonic or the highest note of the series up to the
tonic. The solution steps illustrated in Example 2.11 show how to determine that the pitch series
Bß—C—D is contained in the Bß, Eß and F major scales.

Text, Page 43
Example 2.11. Steps for Identifying the Major Scales That Contain a Given Series of
Pitches—Problem #2.
Before going on to the next section, you should practice identifying ascending and descending
major scales excerpts in both the treble and bass clefs.

Text, Page 44
Major Key Signatures
There are certain aspects of music that we must know so well that the recognition and use
of them seems “automatic.” If we are not color blind, we do not have to think hard about
recognizing a particular color. When we see a stop sign, the recognition of its red color is nearly
instantaneous. When we read a text, most of the words that we read are based on an immediate
recognition. You probably did not have to stop and think very hard about any of the words in the
previous sentence. Your recognition of each word, how it sounded, and what it meant, was
immediate. Key signatures are among the musical elements that should be nearly that automatic;
the recognition and construction of key signatures should require as little effort as identifying the
color of the stop sign at the corner.
Example 2.12 illustrates all the major key signatures used in the music we will be
studying.21 Upon seeing a piece of music with two flats in the keys signature, at this point in time
your immediate reaction should be “B-flat Major.” In order to determine the key of that
composition, we would have to examine elements other than the key signature—melody and/or
harmony. It may be that the key of a piece of music containing two flats is not B-flat major, but
G minor. It might be that the composition is a Baroque piece in c minor.22 It might also be that
the composition is modal rather than tonal—D Phrygian or F Mixolydian, among others.23 In
other words, our initial reaction of “B-flat major” might be incorrect, but it should be the “starting
point” from which our study of the musical elements begins. If the recognition and construction
of the major key signatures contained in Example 2.12 are not “automatic” for you, you should
study and practice them until they are. All of these key signatures should be committed to
memory so that you can quickly and accurately recognize them and write them.
21
In Unit 4 we will address the issue of minor key signatures.
22
Until the time of Bach, minor key signatures with flats were often notated with one flat less than we
notate them today. Thus, the key of C minor would be notated with two flats instead of three. The flat for
the sixth scale degree is the one omitted.
23
If the concepts of minor keys and the names of the church modes (such as Phrygian and Mixolydian) are
foreign to you, there is no need for concern. All of these concepts will be treated in later units after we
master major key signatures.
Text, Page 45
Example 2.12. Major Key Signatures.
A close examination of the keys signatures will show that regardless of the number of
sharps or flats in a key signature, the ordering of the sharps and flats remains constant. You
should commit to memory the order of the sharps (F—C—G—D—A—E—B) and the order of
the flats (B—E—A—D—G—C—F). If a key signature has three sharps (the key of A major),
the three sharps will occur in the order F—C—G. If a key signature has five flats (the key of Dß
major), the five flats will occur in the order B—E—A—D—G. Not only is the ordering of sharps
and flats maintained, but the sharps and flats are consistently placed on the same lines or spaces
of the staff. Notice that the first sharp (Fƒ) is always placed on the top line of the treble clef,
never on the bottom space. Notice that the second flat (Eß) is always placed on the top space of
the treble clef, never on the bottom line. If you are concerned about committing the ordering of
both sharp and flat key signatures, notice that the order of the flats is the exact opposite of the
order of the sharps. An easy way to remember the order of flats is that the first four flats spell the
word bead (B—E—A—D) followed by the three letters G—C—F. The sharps simply reverse
this pattern—F—C—G, followed by the word bead in reverse—D—A—E—B. You should
practice writing the seven sharps and seven flats in both the treble and bass clefs imitating the
placement shown in Example 2.12 until you feel comfortable doing so. Every musician should be
Text, Page 46
able to identify and write all major key signatures. You should practice the tasks described below
until you can complete them quickly and accurately.
Task 1: Recognizing Major Key Signatures
As stated above, all major key signatures should be committed to memory so that you can
recognize them automatically. Until the time when this recognition is immediate, you may need a
method for determining the tonic pitch of a major key signature. The following discussion
provides such a method, but it requires from the beginning the memorization of two key
signatures—those of C major and F major. If there are no sharps or flats in a key signature, it is
the major key signature of C. If there is a single flat (Bß) in the key signature, it is the major key
signature of F. (One might remember that the word flat begins with the letter F, and if the key
signature has only one flat it is the key of F major.) Once these two key signatures are
memorized, use the methods described below for determining major key signatures.
For all key signatures composed of sharps, the last sharp in the key signature is always
the leading tone of the major scale. Since we know that the leading tone is a diatonic semitone
below the upper tonic of a major scale, going up a diatonic semitone from the last sharp in a
major key signature tells us the tonic. If a key signature has only one sharp (Fƒ), the last (and
only) sharp is Fƒ. A diatonic semitone above Fƒ is G; a key signature with one sharp is the key
signature of G major. If a key signature has four sharps (F—C—G—D), the last sharp is Dƒ. A
diatonic semitone above Dƒ is E; a key signature with four sharps is the key signature of E major.
If a key signature has six sharps (F—C—G—D—A—E), the last sharp is Eƒ. A diatonic
semitone above Eƒ is Fƒ; a key signature with four sharps is the key signature of Fƒ major. Test
this method with the other key signatures composed of sharps in Example 2.12.
For all key signatures composed of flats, the last flat in the key signature is always the
fourth scale degree. Rather than constructing a major scale down to the tonic from this last flat
(perhaps a rather time-consuming activity), one could simply go the flat immediately preceding
Text, Page 47
the last flat. This penultimate flat is the tonic of the major scale. If a key signature has two flats
(B—E), going from the last flat (Eß) to the penultimate flat Bß provides the tonic of the major key.
A key signature with two flats is the key signature of Bß major. If a key signature has four flats
(B—E—A—D), going from the last flat (Dß) to the penultimate flat Aß provides the tonic of the
major key. A key signature with four flats is the key signature of Aß major. If a key signature has
six flats (B—E—A—D—G—C), going from the last flat (Cß) to the penultimate flat Gß provides
the tonic of the major key. A key signature with six flats is the key signature of Gß major. Test
this method with the other key signatures composed of flats in Example 2.12.
As you practice identifying major key signatures, you will undoubtedly discover your
own “short cuts.” For example, if there are no sharps or flats the key is C major. If there are all
sharps or all flats, the key signature is Cƒ major (seven sharps) or Cß major (seven flats). One
might also find useful the fact that sharp and flat major key signatures involving the same letter
name (other than the ones mentioned in the previous sentence) have the sharps and flats in their
key signatures add up to seven. For example, the key signature of E major has four sharps and
the key signature of Eß major has three flats (for a total of seven sharps and flats in the “E keys”).
Likewise, the key signature of B major has five sharps and the key signature of Bß major has two
flats (for a total of seven sharps and flats in the “B keys”). Try to determine other relationships
that might help you commit the major key signatures to memory.
Task 2: Constructing Major Key Signatures
In addition to recognizing all major key signatures, it is also important to be able to write
all major key signatures. Reversing the methods described above should enable you to quickly
construct any major key signature. The first task, however, is to know whether you are
constructing a key signature with sharps or a key signature with flats. The two key signatures that
were memorized in the previous task must also be mentioned here. One must know that the key
of C major contains no sharps or flats and that the key of F major contains a single flat (Bß).
Text, Page 48
Other than those two keys, if the name of the key has the word “flat” in it, it involves a key
signature with flats. If the name of the key does not have the word flat in it (and has either only a
letter name or a letter name with the word sharp), it involves a key signature with sharps.
In order to construct a major key signature for a “sharp key,” first determine the leading
tone (^7) by finding the pitch a diatonic semitone below the tonic. Write sharps in the following
order—Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, Dƒ, Aƒ, Eƒ, Bƒ—until you have written the leading tone of the key. If requested
to write the key signature of A major, one would determine the leading tone of that key by
finding the pitch a diatonic semitone below the tonic—Gƒ. One would then begin writing sharps
until in the order above until the leading tone is reached—Fƒ, Cƒ, and Gƒ. In order to construct a
major key signature for a “flat key,” first determine the tonic. Write flats in the following
order—Bß, Eß, Aß, Dß, Gß, Cß, Fß—until you have written the flat one beyond the tonic of the key.
If requested to write the key signature of Aß major, one would determine the tonic of that key—
Aß. One would then begin writing sharps until in the order above until one flat beyond the tonic
note—Bß, Eß, Aß, and Dß. For both “sharp keys” and “flat keys,” the sharps and flats should be
written on the same lines as spaces as illustrated in Example 2.12. You should practice writing
and identifying all major key signatures.

Text, Page 49
Unit 3:
Intervals
In addition to major scales and key signatures, another important musical element that
should be nearly automatic for you involves the construction and recognition of intervals. We
have defined interval as the distance between two pitches. (See page 25.) In the previous two
units we have encountered four intervals—the octave,24 the diatonic semitone, the chromatic
semitone, and the whole tone. In this unit we expand that knowledge and learn how to identify
and construct all intervals.
Intervals can be either harmonic or melodic. Harmonic intervals are those created by
two pitches that sound at the same time. An E4 and G4 played together at the piano form a
harmonic interval. Melodic intervals are those created by two pitches that sound one after the
other (as in a melody). An E4 played before a G4 on the piano form a melodic interval. The
specific name of an interval is the same whether it is a harmonic interval or a melodic interval.
Example 3.1. Harmonic and Melodic Intervals.
24
While we have referred to this interval simply as the octave, we have encountered only the perfect
octave—an octave in which the lower pitch and the upper pitch have exactly the same letter name. The
pitches C3 and C4 are a perfect octave apart, as are the pitches Cƒ3 and Cƒ4. The interval between C3 and Cƒ4,
however, is slightly larger (a chromatic semitone larger) than the perfect octave between C3 and C4. In this
unit it will be important for us to distinguish between perfect octaves and octaves that are smaller or larger
than perfect octaves.
Text, Page 50
General Interval Names
We will now identify all intervals by two names—a general name and a specific name.
Our first concern will be the general name—an ordinal number (with two exceptions) found by
counting the lines and spaces, inclusively, between two pitches. We will use the ordinal numbers
second (2nd), third (3rd), fourth (4th), fifth (5th), sixth (6th), seventh (7th), ninth (9th), tenth (10th), etc.
Notice that two ordinal numbers have been omitted from the preceding list—first and eighth. In
their place, we will use the terms prime25 (1me) and octave (8ve).
Example 3.2 illustrates the general names of intervals formed with the pitch G in the
treble clef (G4) from a prime (1me) through an eleventh (11th). If one counts the lines and spaces
between G4 and G4, the total is only a single line—the second line of the treble clef. The general
name of the first interval is a prime (1me). If one counts the lines and spaces between G4 and A4,
the total is two—the second line and the second space of the treble clef. The general name of the
second interval is a second (2nd). If one counts the lines and spaces between G4 and B4, the total
is three—the second line, the second space, and the third line of the treble clef. The general name
of the third interval is a third (3rd). If one counts the lines and spaces between G4 and C5, the total
is four—the second line, the second space, the third line, and the third space of the treble clef.
The general name of the fourth interval is a fourth (4th). Notice that in counting the lines and
spaces that the count is inclusive, but no line or space is counted more than once. We begin
counting the line or space on which the first note appears, we count the lines and spaces in
between the notes, and we count the line or space on which the second note appears, unless the
second note appears on the same line or space as the first note.
25
Some use the term unison rather than prime. We will reserve the term unison for two pitches that are
exact in every respect. The term prime will be used for two pitches of the same letter name and in the same
octave. The pitches F4 and F4 form one type of prime (a perfect prime), while the pitches F4 and Fƒ4 form a
different type of prime (an augmented prime). Only the first interval, however, will be referred to here as a
unison.
Text, Page 51
Example 3.2. General Interval Names for Pitches above G4.
One could also think about determining general interval name by counting the letters,
inclusively, representing the distance between the two pitches. The distance between G4 and F5 in
Example 3.2 could be determined by counting the letter names between the two pitches—G, A,
B, C, D, E, F—beginning with the letter name of the first pitch and including the letter name of
the second pitch. There are seven letters, including the beginning pitch G4 and the ending pitch
F5, so the interval is a seventh (7th). The distance between G4 and B5 in Example 3.2 could be
determined by counting the letter names between the two pitches—G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B.
There are ten letters, including the beginning pitch G4 and the ending pitch B5, so the interval is a
tenth (10th).
Chromatic alterations of pitches do not affect general interval names. The general name
of the interval between G4 and A4 is always a second (2nd), regardless of any chromatic
alterations of those pitches. While they are different types of seconds, the intervals between G4
and A4, G4 and Aß4, and Gƒ4 and A4 are all seconds, as shown in Example 3.3. We know that the
sounds and the specific intervals illustrated in Example 3.3 differ from one another. The first
interval in Example 3.3 is a whole tone and the next two intervals in that example are diatonic
semitones. For the present we will concern ourselves with only the general interval names. Any
version of G4 and any version of A4 will have the general interval name of a second.
Example 3.3. Different Types of Seconds Involving G4 and A4.

Text, Page 52
You should be able to identify the general interval name between any two pitches, and
you should practice this skill until you can do it quickly and accurately. Any adjacent pitches—
notated on a line and space (or a space and a line)—will always be identified as seconds. Any
pitches on adjacent lines or adjacent spaces will always be identified as thirds. Fourths and sixths
will always involve a line and a space (or a space and a line), while fifths and sevenths will
always involve both pitches on lines (or both pitches on spaces). Observations such as these may
help you to quickly identify the general names of intervals. Use the intervals in Example 3.3 to
practice the skill of quickly identifying general names of intervals. At this time you should not be
concerned with how accidentals affect the interval names. After you have identified the general
names of the intervals in Example 3.4, turn the page and check your answers in the footnote.
Example 3.4. Practice Intervals in Treble and Bass Clefs.
All of the intervals in Example 3.4 are simple intervals. Simple intervals are intervals
within the span of an octave; all intervals that are an octave or smaller are simple intervals.
Compound intervals are intervals that are larger than an octave;26 all intervals that are a ninth or
larger are compound intervals. You should be able to quickly and accurately identify the general
names for all intervals, whether simple or compound.
26
While the definition given above is the most common definition of compound intervals, some authors
describe the octave as a compound interval. For example, Stephan Kostka and Dorothy Payne provide the
following description: “Intervals smaller than an 8ve are called simple intervals, while the larger intervals
(including the 8ve) are called compound intervals.” See Stephan Kostka and Dorothy Payne, Tonal
Harmony, 3rd ed.(New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995), p. 20.
Text, Page 53
The general names for the intervals of Example 3.4 can be found in the footnote below.27
You should check your answers. If there were any incorrectly identified general interval names,
review the procedures described in the text preceding Example 3.4. Make sure that you can
quickly and accurately identify the general names for the interval in the example.
Compound intervals can be determined by the same method as simple intervals—by
counting the distance between two pitches in terms of the lines and spaces or number of letter
names that separate them. Since the distances are larger (all compound intervals will be a ninth
or larger), you might find this method too time-consuming. A faster method of calculating
compound intervals might be to “reduce” the interval to a simple interval (by lowering the upper
note one or more octaves or by raising the lower note one or more octaves), determining the
simple interval, and then “adding back” the octave (or octaves) taken away in the first step. In
Example 3.5, one could determine the compound interval between E4 and C6 in several ways.
One could count the lines and spaces or letter names between them (E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
A, B, C) and determine that the interval is a thirteenth (13th). It might be faster, however, to
lower the upper note an octave (to C5) or raise the lower note an octave (to E5)—see both versions
of step a in the example—and quickly determine that either E3 to C5 or E5 to C6 is the interval of a
sixth—see both versions of step b in the example. One could then “add back” the octave taken
away—see both versions of step c in the example. Adding an octave to a sixth transforms it into
a thirteenth.
27
The general names for the intervals in Example 3.4:
Text, Page 54
Example 3.5. Determining the General Interval Name of Compound Intervals.
One might initially think that adding an octave to a simple interval would be the same as
adding eight. One must think of adding an octave to a simple interval as increasing the number of
the simple interval by seven. Using the previous pitches as an example, one would determine the
size of the interval from E3 to C5 as a sixth by counting the six letter names between them—E, F,
G, A, B, C. Likewise, one would determine the intervals from C5 to C6 as an octave by counting
the eight letter names between them—C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. Notice that in determining these
two intervals that the pitch C5 has been counted twice—once in the count from E3 to C5 and a
second time in the count from C5 to C6. To avoid “double counting” this pitch in the addition of
the C5 to C6 octave to the E3 to C5 sixth, one should add seven (representing the addition of an
octave) to the six (representing the sixth) to arrive at the compound interval of the thirteenth.
Table 3.1 illustrates the relationship of simple intervals to their equivalent compound intervals at
the octave and the double octave. The third column is added mainly for illustrative purposes;
most of the compound intervals that we will be concerned with are found in the second column.28
Use the intervals in Example 3.6 to practice the skill of quickly identifying general names of
compound intervals. Turn the page and check your answers in the footnote.
Example 3.6. Practice Compound Intervals in Treble and Bass Clefs.
28
Notice that the first column has omitted the interval of a prime. Adding an octave to a prime changes it
into an octave, which is categorized here as a simple interval. It is this particular property that may cause
some writers to call the octave a compound interval—the octave has the same relationship to the prime that
the ninth has to the second.
Text, Page 55
Simple Intervals Compound Intervals Compound Intervals

(adding 1 octave) (adding 2 octaves)
nd th
2 9 16th
rd th
3 10 17th
th th
4 11 18th
5th 12th 19th
th th
6 13 20th
th th
7 14 21st
8ve 15th 22nd
Table 3.1. Relationship Between Simple and Compound Intervals
The general names for the intervals of Example 3.6 can be found in the footnote below.29
You should check your answers. If there were any incorrectly identified general interval names,
review the procedures described in the text preceding Example 3.6. Make sure that you can
quickly and accurately identify the general names for the interval in the example.
Specific Interval Names
In all intervals, the general names that we discussed above (prime, second, third, fourth,
fifth, sixth, seventh, octave, ninth, tenth, etc.) are preceded by specific names that identify the
exact relationship between the two pitches. There are seven specific interval names that we will
use in connection with the general interval names: perfect (P), major (M), minor (m),
augmented (A), diminished (d), doubly augmented (dA), and doubly diminished (dd). Not all
of the specific interval names are applied to all of the general interval names. The specific name
perfect can be applied only to the simple intervals unisons, fourths, fifths, octaves, and the
compound versions of these intervals. (One can view the eleventh as a “compound version” of
29
The general names for the intervals in Example 3.6:
Text, Page 56
the fourth because the eleventh is a fourth plus an octave. One can view the twelfth as a
“compound version” of the fifth because the twelfth is a fifth plus an octave. The fifteenth is a
“double octave.” See Table 3.1.) The specific names major and minor can be applied only to
seconds, thirds, sixths, sevenths, and compound versions of these intervals (such as the ninth,
tenth, thirteenth, and fourteenth). The other specific names (augmented, diminished, doubly
augmented, and doubly diminished) can be applied to all intervals.
As with the major scales in the previous unit, there are several methods of thinking about
intervals and calculating their size. One could think about interval size in terms of semitone
distance between the two pitches. Table 3.2 lists the semitone distances for all simple intervals
from zero through twelve semitones.30 All tonal intervals with different names, but the same
number of semitones, are enharmonic. When using this method for calculating interval size,
however, one must keep in mind the general interval name. For example, both a diminished fifth
(d5) and an augmented fourth (A4) contain six semitones between the two pitches forming these
intervals. From C to Gß would constitute a diminished fifth, while C to Fƒ would constitute an
augmented fourth. The reason for this distinction is that any form of C to any form of G must be
some type of fifth because there are five note names contained between C and G, counting
inclusively (C-D-E-F-G). Also, any form of C to any form of F must be some type of fourth
because there are four note names contained between C and F, counting inclusively (C-D-E-F).
Since the pitches Gß and Fƒ are enharmonic, the distance in semitones from C to either one of
them would be the same—six semitones. (One can calculate the number of semitones by
counting them on the piano keyboard—C to Cƒ (or Dß), Cƒ to D, D to Dƒ (or Eß), Dƒ to E, E to F,
and F to Fƒ (or Gß)).

30
This table omits any “simple intervals” greater than a perfect octave. For example, both an augmented
octave and a doubly augmented seventh would contain thirteen semitones. Similarly, a doubly augmented
octave would contain fourteen semitones. Since all of these intervals are enharmonic with more common
compound intervals (namely, the minor ninth and the major ninth), they have been omitted from Table 3.2.
Since no intervals can be smaller than 0 semitones, the chart does not contain diminished or doubly
diminished primes and doubly diminished seconds. These omitted intervals would constitute augmented or
doubly augmented primes and doubly diminished seconds that are descending rather than ascending.
Text, Page 57
Tonal Intervals Number of Semitones

me nd
P1 , d2 0 semitones
m2nd, dd3rd, A1me 1 semitone
nd rd me
M2 , d3 , dA1 2 semitones
rd th nd
m3 , dd4 , A2 , 3 semitones
M3rd, d4 th, dA2nd, 4 semitones
th rd
P4, dd5 , A3 , 5 semitones
th rd
A4, d5, dd6 ,dA3 , 6 semitones
P5, d6th, dA4th 7 semitones
M6th, A5th, dd7th, 8 semitones
M6th, d7th, dA5th, 9 semitones
th th ve
M7 , A6 , dd8 , 10 semitones
th ve th
M7 , d8 , dA6 , 11 semitones
P8ve, A7th, 12 semitones
Table 3.2. Semitone Size of Tonal Intervals
Because the music that we will be studying contains these intervals in a tonal context, it
might be easier to think about intervals in a tonal context rather than counting semitone distances.
Example 3.7 illustrates that all diatonic intervals formed between the tonic and a major scale
degree above it are either major or perfect. All diatonic intervals formed between the tonic and a
major scale degree below it are either minor or perfect. An “automatic” knowledge of key
signatures and major scales can enable one to quickly recognize or construct major, minor, or
perfect intervals. For example, if one had to identify the seventh from D up to C, one might
quickly realize that the Fƒ and Cƒ in the key of D major would mean that the seventh from D up to
Cƒ is a major seventh. One would immediately know that the seventh from D up to C½ is not a
major seventh. Similarly, one might also realize that the key signature of C major has no sharps
or flats, so the lower D would be in the scale of C major. The seventh from the tonic (C) to a
major scale degree below it (D) must be a minor seventh.

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Example 3.7. Intervals Formed between the Tonic and Scale Degrees Above and Below It—D
Major.
Given the information in the previous example combined with your knowledge of major
scales and key signatures, you should be able to easily construct major and perfect intervals above
any given pitch or minor and perfect intervals below any given pitch. The ability to construct
intervals in that manner combined with the relationships illustrated in Table 3.2 should make it
possible for you to construct any interval. As an initial step, however, we will concentrate on
constructing and identifying intervals in which one of the pitches (either the upper or the lower
one) can be thought of as a tonic. After mastering that skill, we will begin constructing and
identifying all intervals.

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Task 1: Constructing Intervals Major & Perfect Intervals Above a Given Pitch
As Example 3.7 illustrates, all intervals created between a tonic and a major scale degree
above it are either major or perfect. Given that information, if we want to construct a major or
perfect interval above a given pitch, we simply have to make sure that the upper pitch is a scale
degree in the major scale of the given (lower) pitch. If asked to construct a major third (M3)
above Eß, one would simply determine the third scale degree of an Eß major scale. A third above
E (any form of E) is the pitch G. In an Eß major scale, the third scale degree is G½; the interval
from Eß to G is a major third. One could have reached this conclusion by either constructing an
Eß major scale to the third scale degree (two consecutive whole tones—Eß, F, G) or by thinking of
the key signature of Eß major (three flats—Bß, Eß, and Aß). Either thought process would have
resulted in our correctly identifying G as a major third above Eß. If asked to construct a perfect
fifth (P5) above Fƒ, one would simply determine the fifth scale degree of an Fƒ major scale. A
fifth above F (any form of F) is the pitch C. In an Fƒ major scale, the fifth scale degree is Cƒ; the
interval from Fƒ to Cƒ is a perfect fifth. One could have reached this conclusion by either
constructing an Fƒ major scale to the fifth scale degree (two consecutive whole tones following by
a diatonic semitone and another whole tone—Fƒ, Gƒ, Aƒ, B, Cƒ) or by thinking of the key signature
of Fƒ major (six sharps— Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, Dƒ, Aƒ, and Eƒ). Either thought process would have resulted
in our correctly identifying Cƒ as a perfect fifth above Fƒ. (See Example 3.8.)
Example 3.8. Constructing Major and Perfect Intervals Above Given Pitches.
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The preceding methods will allow us to construct major and perfect intervals above
pitches that typically serve as tonics of major keys, but for pitches that are not typical major key
tonics we must adapt the procedure. For example, another problem might consist of constructing
the interval a perfect fourth above Aƒ. If we try to recall the key signature of Aƒ major, we will
discover that that key signature was not one studied. We could, however, construct the first four
pitches of the “theoretical” Aƒ major scale using the interval pattern of two whole tones followed
by a diatonic semitone—Aƒ, Bƒ, C©, Dƒ. One might also use the more familiar key signature of A
major by temporarily ignoring the sharp after the A and constructing a perfect fourth above A.
Since the key of A major has only three sharps—Fƒ, Cƒ, and Gƒ, we know that a perfect fourth
above A is the pitch D. A very important concept in tonal music is if both pitches in an interval
are altered in the same manner, the interval remains the same. If the interval A to D is a
perfect fourth and we raise both pitches by a chromatic semitone, the interval Aƒ to Dƒ is also a
perfect fourth.
Use the interval-constructing problems in Example 3.9 to practice the skill of quickly
constructing major and perfect intervals above the given pitches. Turn the page and check your
answers in the footnote.
Example 3.9. Practice Constructing Simple Major and Perfect Intervals Above Given Pitches.
Text, Page 61
The correct solutions for the interval-constructing problems given in Example 3.9 can be
found in the footnote below.31 You should check your answers. If there were any incorrectly
constructed intervals, review the procedures described in the text preceding Example 3.9. Make
sure that you can quickly and accurately construct major and perfect intervals above a given
pitch.
In the preceding example, all of the intervals to be constructed were simple intervals.
You should also feel comfortable extending this task to compound intervals. The first step in
such a problem should be to “reduce” the compound interval to a simple one. In that way, asking
someone to construct a perfect eleventh above Dß4 becomes the same as asking someone to
construct a perfect fourth above Dß4. To complete the latter task, either one would construct the
first four notes of the Dß major scale (two whole tones followed by a diatonic semitone—Dß, Eß,
F, Gß) or think of the key signature of Dß major (five flats—Bß, Eß, Aß, Dß, Gß); in either case one
should determine that a perfect fourth above Dß4 is Gß4. A perfect eleventh above Dß4 is,
therefore, the Gß an octave higher, or Gß5. Use the interval-constructing problems in Example
3.10 to practice the skill of quickly constructing compound major and perfect intervals above the
given pitches. Turn the page and check your answers in the footnote.
Example 3.10. Practice Constructing Compound Major and Perfect Intervals Above Given
Pitches.
31
Solutions for the interval-construction problems in Example 3.9:
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The correct solutions for the interval-constructing problems given in Example 3.10 can
be found in the footnote below.32 You should check your answers. If there were any incorrectly
constructed intervals, review the procedures described in the text preceding Example 3.10. Make
sure that you can quickly and accurately construct major and perfect intervals (both simple and
compound) above a given pitch.
All of the preceding discussion has been concerned with accurately constructing major
and perfect intervals above given pitches. You should also be able to identify if an interval is
major or perfect. If the upper pitch of an interval is contained in the major scale of the lower
pitch, then the interval is major or perfect. If the upper pitch is not contained in the major scale of
the lower note, then the interval is not major or perfect. In the near future we will be concerned
with identifying the quality of the interval if it is not perfect or major, but for the present you need
only identify whether or not the interval is major or perfect and the general interval name.
Given the intervals in Example 3.11, determine the general interval name and whether or
not the interval is major or perfect.33 Try to make your determinations before reading the
explanation following Example 3.11.
Example 3.11. Identifying Whether or Not Given Intervals are Major or Perfect.
Interval a in the preceding example is a sixth; if the pitch B is contained in the major scale of D
the interval is a major one. Since the key of D major has two sharps (Fƒ and Cƒ), the pitch B is
contained in the major scale of D. The interval from D4 to B4 is a major sixth. Interval b in the
32
33
You may want to look ahead and examine the relationships illustrated in Table 3.3 to see if you can
identify the quality of those intervals that are not major or perfect.
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preceding example is a seventh; if the pitch Gß is contained in the major scale of Aß the interval is
a major one. Since the key of Aß major has four flats (Bß, Eß, Aß, and Dß), the pitch Gß is not
contained in the major scale of Aß. The interval from Aß4 to Gß5 is not a major seventh. Interval c
in the preceding example is a fourth; if the pitch Cƒ is contained in the major scale of G the
interval is a perfect one. Since the key of G major has one sharp (Fƒ), the pitch Cƒ is not contained
in the major scale of G. The interval from G2 to Cƒ3 is not a perfect fourth. Interval d in the
preceding example is a fifth; if the pitch F is contained in the major scale of Bß the interval is a
perfect one. Since the key of Bß major has two flats (Bß and Eß), the pitch F is contained in the
major scale of Bß. The interval from Bß2 to F3 is a perfect seventh.34
Task #2: Constructing Minor & Perfect Intervals Below a Given Pitch
As Example 3.7 illustrates, all intervals created between a tonic and a major scale degree
below it are either minor or perfect. Given that information, if we want to construct a minor or
perfect interval below a given pitch, we simply have to make sure that the lower pitch is a scale
degree in the major scale of the given (upper) pitch. If asked to construct a minor sixth (m6)
below E, one would simply determine the third scale degree (a sixth below the tonic) of an E
major scale. A sixth below E (any form of E) is the pitch G. In an E major scale, the third scale
degree is Gƒ; the interval from E down to Gƒ is a minor sixth. One could have reached this
conclusion by either constructing an E major scale down (or up!) to the third scale degree (a
descending diatonic semitone, three consecutive whole tones, and another diatonic semitone—E,
Dƒ, Cƒ, B, A, Gƒ) or by thinking of the key signature of E major (four sharps—Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, and Dƒ).
Either thought process would have resulted in our correctly identifying Gƒ as a minor sixth below
E. If asked to construct a perfect fourth (P4) below Aß, one would simply determine the fifth
34
Intervals b and c in Example 3.10 are not major or perfect intervals. Try to determine if they are larger or
smaller than major or perfect intervals.
Text, Page 64
scale degree (a fourth below the tonic) of an Aß major scale. A fourth below A (any form of A) is
the pitch E. In an Aß major scale, the fifth scale degree is Eß; the interval from Aß down to Eß is a
perfect fourth. One could have reached this conclusion by either constructing an Aß major scale
down (or up!) to the fifth scale degree (a diatonic semitone followed by two consecutive whole
tones—Aß, G, F, Eß) or by thinking of the key signature of Aß major (four sharps—Bß, Eß, Aß, and
Dß). Either thought process would have resulted in our correctly identifying Eß as a perfect fourth
below Aß. (See Example 3.12.)
Example 3.12. Constructing Minor and Perfect Intervals Below Given Pitches.
The preceding methods will allow us to construct minor and perfect intervals below
pitches that typically serve as tonics of major keys, but for pitches that are not typical major key
tonics we must adapt the procedure. For example, another problem might consist of constructing
the interval a perfect fifth below Dƒ. If we try to recall the key signature of Dƒ major, we will
discover that that key signature was not one studied. We could, however, construct the first five
descending pitches of the “theoretical” Dƒ major scale using the interval pattern of a diatonic
semitone, followed by three whole tones—Dƒ, C©, Bƒ, Aƒ, Gƒ. One might also use the more
familiar key signature of D major by temporarily ignoring the sharp after the D and constructing a
perfect fifth below D. Since the key of D major has only two sharps—Fƒ and Cƒ, we know that a
perfect fifth below D is the pitch G. Remember the important concept we learned previously, if
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both pitches in an interval are altered in the same manner, the interval remains the same. If
the interval D down to G is a perfect fifth and we raise both pitches by a chromatic semitone, the
interval Dƒ down to Gƒ is also a perfect fifth.
Use the interval-constructing problems in Example 3.13 to practice the skill of quickly
constructing minor and perfect intervals below the given pitches. Turn the page and check your
Example 3.13. Practice Constructing Simple Minor and Perfect Intervals Below Given
Pitches.
In the preceding example, all of the intervals to be constructed were simple intervals.
You should also feel comfortable extending this task to compound intervals. The first step in
such a problem should be to “reduce” the compound interval to a simple one, and follow the same
procedures described above. In that way, asking someone to construct a minor thirteenth below
E5 becomes the same as asking someone to construct a minor sixth below E4 (see problem #1 in
Example 3.12). The procedure that you would follow is the same, but a minor thirteenth below
E5 is Gƒ3. Use the interval-constructing problems in Example 3.14 to practice the skill of
extending the preceding concepts to compound intervals. Turn the page and check your answers
in the footnote.
Example 3.14. Practice Constructing Compound Minor and Perfect Intervals Below Given
Pitches.
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The correct solutions for the interval-constructing problems given in Example 3.13 can
be found in the footnote below.35 The correct solutions for the interval-constructing problems
given in Example 3.14 can be found in the second footnote below.36 You should check your
answers. If there were any incorrectly constructed intervals, review the procedures described in
the text preceding Examples 3.13 and 3.14. Make sure that you can quickly and accurately
construct minor and perfect intervals (both simple and compound) below a given pitch.
At this point you should be able to identify all major, minor, and perfect intervals. If two
pitches are exactly the same or the same an octave or more apart, the interval formed is either a
perfect prime or perfect octave (or perfect double octave). If the two pitches have the same letter
name but one of them has a different chromatic inflection, the interval formed is not perfect. If
two pitches are a fourth or fifth apart and one of the pitches occurs in the major scale of the other
pitch, the interval formed is a perfect fourth or a perfect fifth. (Actually, if the upper pitch is
contained in the major scale of the lower pitch, the lower pitch will also be contained in the major
scale of the upper pitch.) If neither of the two pitches is contained in the major scale of the other,
then the interval is not perfect. If two pitches are a second, third, sixth, or seventh apart and the
upper pitch is contained in the major scale of the lower pitch, the interval formed is either a major
second, a major third, a major sixth, or a major seventh. If two pitches are a second, third, sixth,
or seventh apart and the lower pitch is contained in the major scale of the upper pitch, the interval
formed is either a minor second, a minor third, a minor sixth, or a minor seventh. If neither of the
35
36
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two pitches is contained in the major scale of the other pitch, then the interval formed is neither
major nor minor.
Look over the four intervals found in Example 3.15 and attempt to determine if the
following intervals are major, minor, or perfect by applying the preceding observations. Try to
make your determinations before reading the explanation following Example 3.15.
Example 3.15. Identifying Major, Minor, and Perfect Intervals.
Interval a in the preceding example is a fifth; if the pitch Bß is contained in the major scale of Eß
the interval is a perfect one. Since the key of Eß major has three flats (Bß, Eß, and Aß), the pitch Bß
is contained in the major scale of Eß. The interval from Eß4 to Bß4 is a perfect fifth. (Notice also
that Eß is contained in the major scale of Bß, a key that has two flats—Bß and Eß.) Interval b in the
preceding example is a sixth; if the pitch F is contained in the major scale of A the interval is a
major one. Since the key of A major has three sharps (Fƒ, Cƒ, and Gƒ), the pitch F is not contained
in the major scale of A. The interval from A4 to F5 is not a major seventh. If the pitch A is
contained in the major scale of F, however, the interval is a minor one. Since the key of F major
has one flat (Bß), the pitch A is contained in the major scale of F. The interval from A4 to F5 is a
minor seventh. Interval c in the preceding example is a fourth; if the pitch Gƒ is contained in the
major scale of D the interval is a perfect one. Since the key of D major has two sharps (Fƒ and
Cƒ), the pitch Gƒ is not contained in the major scale of D. The interval from D3 to Gƒ3 is not a
perfect fourth. We also know that the key of G major has only one sharp (Fƒ); we know from this
fact that D3 to G3 must be a perfect fourth and that D3 to Gƒ3 is not a perfect fourth. Interval d in
the preceding example is a third; if the pitch F is contained in the major scale of Dß the interval is
a major one. Since the key of Dß major has five flats (Bß, Eß, Aß, Dß, and Gß), the pitch F is
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contained in the major scale of Dß. The interval from Dß3 to F3 is a major third. If we have
determined that interval d is a major third, we know that Dß cannot be in the major scale of F
because an interval cannot be both a major third and a minor third. The major key of F major has
a single flat (Bß), and that fact tells us that Dß is not in the major scale of F and confirms for us
that the interval of F down to Dß cannot be a minor third.
Use the interval-identification problems in Example 3.16 to practice the skill of quickly
identifying major, minor and perfect intervals. If the interval in the following example is not
major, minor, or perfect, for the present you do not worry about identifying its specific quality—
simply identify its general interval name and the fact that it is not major, minor, or perfect. (If
you encounter a seventh that is not major or minor, simply identify it as X7.) Turn the page and
check your answers in the footnote.
Example 3.16. Practice Identifying Major, Minor and Perfect Intervals.

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The correct solutions for the interval-identification problems given in Example 3.16 can
identified intervals, review the procedures described in the text preceding Examples 3.16. Make
sure that you can quickly and accurately identify all major, minor, and perfect intervals (both
simple and compound).
Task #3: Constructing All Intervals Above or Below Given Pitches
The following table illustrates how the specific interval names relate to one another. As
one moves from left to right, the intervals become larger by chromatic semitones; as one move
from right to left, the intervals become smaller by chromatic semitones. An augmented sixth
(A6) is one chromatic semitone larger than a major sixth (M6) and two chromatic semitones
larger than a minor sixth (m6). A diminished fifth (d5) is one chromatic semitone smaller than a
perfect fifth (P5) and two chromatic semitones smaller than an augmented fifth (A5). As we
work with identifying and constructing intervals using both general and specific interval names,
you will become more familiar with these relationships.
37
Solutions for the interval-identification problems in Example 3.16:
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larger by chromatic semitones
mes ths ths ves
1 ,4 ,5 ,&8
doubly diminished diminished perfect augmented doubly augmented
(dd) (d) (P) (A) (dA)
doubly diminished diminished minor major augmented doubly augmented
(dd) (d) (m) (M) (A) (dA)
2nds, 3rds, 6ths, & 7ths

smaller by chromatic semitones
                                  
Table 3.3. Relationships Among Specific Interval Names
In order to construct a minor intervals above a given pitch, a major interval below a given
pitch, or an interval quality other than major, minor, or perfect, we will begin the task by
constructing an interval that we have already mastered and then altering that interval so that we
can transform it into the desired interval. For example, suppose we needed to construct a minor
sixth above the pitch D. We would first determine that the note a sixth above D must be some
form of B. If we consider the key signature of D major—two sharps (Fƒ and Cƒ)—then we know
that the pitch B is a major sixth above D. Now we must consider the relationship of major
intervals to minor intervals. We know from Table 3.3 that a minor sixth is one chromatic
semitone smaller than a major sixth. An interval can be made smaller by lowering the upper
pitch or raising the lower pitch. Given the preceding principle, we know we can transform the
major sixth from D to B into a minor sixth by lowering the upper pitch (D to Bß) or raising the
lower pitch (Dƒ to B). Since we were asked to construct a minor sixth above D, the correct
solution is Bß. We could check our solution by confirming that the lower pitch (D) is in the major
scale of the upper pitch (Bß). Since the major key signature of Bß has two flats—Bß and Eß—the
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pitch D is in the major scale of Bß, and the interval from Bß down to D is a minor sixth (and since
direction does not affect distance, the interval from D up to Bß is a minor sixth).
Suppose we needed to construct a major third below the pitch G. We would first
determine that the note a third below G must be some form of E. If we consider the key signature
of G major—one sharp (Fƒ)—then we know that the pitch E is a minor third below G. Now we
must again consider the relationship of major intervals to minor intervals. We know from Table
3.3 that a major third is one chromatic semitone larger than a minor third. An interval can be
made larger by raising the upper pitch or lowering the lower pitch. Given the preceding
principle, we know we can transform the minor third from G to E into a major third by raising the
upper pitch (E to Gƒ) or lowering the lower pitch (Eß to G). Since we were asked to construct a
major third below G, the correct solution is Eß. We could check our solution by confirming that
the upper pitch (G) is in the major scale of the lower pitch (Eß). Since the major key signature of
Eß has three—Bß, Eß, and Aß—the pitch G is in the major scale of Eß, and the interval from Eß up
to G is a major third (and since direction does not affect distance, the interval from G down to Eß
is a major third).
Suppose we needed to construct a diminished fifth above the pitch Aß. We would first
determine that the note a fifth above Aß must be some form of E. If we consider the key signature
of Aß major—four flats (Bß, Eß, Aß, and Dß)—then we know that the pitch Eß is a perfect fifth
above Aß. (We can confirm that Aß to Eß is a perfect fifth by checking to see if Aß is in the major
scale of Eß.) Now we must consider the relationship of diminished intervals to perfect intervals.
We know from Table 3.3 that a diminished fifth is one chromatic semitone smaller than a perfect
fifth. As stated previously, an interval can be made smaller by lowering the upper pitch or raising
the lower pitch. Given the preceding principle, we know we can transform the perfect fifth from
Aß to Eß into a diminished fifth by lowering the upper pitch (Eß to Eå) or raising the lower pitch
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(Aß to A½). Since we were asked to construct a diminished fifth above Aß, the correct solution is
Eå.
Suppose we needed to construct an augmented sixth below the pitch Fƒ. We would first
determine that the note a sixth below Fƒ must be some form of A. If we consider the key
signature of Fƒ major—six sharps (Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, Dƒ, Aƒ, and Eƒ)—then we know that the pitch Aƒ is a
minor sixth below Fƒ. Now we must consider the relationship of augmented intervals to minor
intervals. We know from Table 3.3 that an augmented sixth two chromatic semitones larger than
a minor sixth. As previously stated, an interval can be made larger by raising the upper pitch or
lowering the lower pitch. Given the preceding principle, we know we can transform the minor
sixth from Aƒ to Fƒ into an augmented by raising the upper pitch two chromatic semitones (Fƒ to
Fƒ©—the “unlikely” F-triple sharp) or lowering the lower pitch two chromatic semitones (Aƒ to
Aß). Since we were asked to construct an augmented sixth below Fƒ, the correct solution is Aß.
Use the interval-construction problems in Example 3.17 to practice the skill of quickly
constructing all intervals. You should be able to explain your methodology for constructing all of
these intervals in a manner similar to the explanations above. Turn the page and check your
Example 3.17. Practice Constructing Any Interval.

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The correct solutions for the interval-construction problems given in Example 3.17 can
constructed intervals, review the procedures described in the text preceding Examples 3.17. You
should continue practicing constructing intervals so that you can quickly and accurately construct
any interval.
Task #4: Identifying All Intervals
The process of identifying all intervals must now be mastered. Given an interval, the
easiest starting point for determining its name, after determining the general name, is to see if you
can think of one of its pitches as the tonic of a major key. If you are able to think of the lower
pitch as the tonic of a major key, you can quickly determine whether or not the upper pitch forms
a major or perfect interval. (You must simply determine if the upper pitch is in the major scale of
the lower pitch.) If you are able to think of the upper pitch as the tonic of a major key, you can
quickly determine whether or not the lower pitch forms a minor or perfect interval. (You must
simply determine if the lower pitch is in the major scale of the upper pitch.) If the interval is not
major, minor, or perfect, you must determine if it is larger or smaller and by how much in order to
determine the specific interval name. Some examples will help to clarify this process.
38
Solutions (given with the filled note heads) for the interval-construction problems in Example 3.17:
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Example 3.18. Identifying Any Interval.
Example 3.18 contains four intervals to identify using the method described above. For
interval a, after determining the general name of this interval is a sixth, we can think of either
pitch as the tonic of a major scale. If we consider the lower pitch (Eß) as the tonic, the key
signature would contain three flats (Bß, Eß, and Aß); a major sixth above Eß is C½. Since the
interval contains a Cƒ, it is larger than a major sixth by one chromatic semitone. The interval
from Eß to Cƒ is an augmented sixth. If we consider the upper pitch (Cƒ) as the tonic, the key
signature would contain seven sharps (all pitches would be sharp); a minor sixth below Cƒ is Eƒ.
Since the interval contains an Eß, it is larger than a minor sixth by two chromatic semitones. This
tells us that the interval one semitone larger Cƒ down to E½ is a major sixth, and the given interval
Cƒ down to Eß is an augmented sixth.
After determining the general name for interval b is a fifth, we should realize that it may
be difficult to think of the lower pitch (Gƒ) as a tonic of a major scale since there is no major key
of Gƒ. We can, however, think of the upper pitch (D) as the tonic of a major scale. The key
signature of D major contains two sharps (Fƒ and Cƒ); from this fact we know that from D down to
G½ is a perfect fifth. Since the interval from D down to Gƒ is one chromatic semitone smaller than
the perfect fifth we identified, we know that it must be a diminished fifth. We could also have
come to the realization that G to D is a perfect fifth by considering G½ as the tonic of a major
scale. The key of G major has only one sharp (Fƒ), so the fifth from G up to D is a perfect fifth.
Since the interval Gƒ up to D is one chromatic semitone smaller than that perfect fifth, we know
that it must be a diminished fifth.

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After determining the general name for interval c is a third, we should realize that it may
be difficult to think of the upper pitch (Fß) as a tonic of a major scale since there is no major key
of Fß. We can, however, think of the lower pitch (Dß) as the tonic of a major scale. The key
signature of Dß major contains five flats (Bß, Eß, Aß, Dß, and Gß); from this fact we know that from
Dß up to F½ is a major third. Since the interval from Dß up to Fß is one chromatic semitone smaller
than the major third we identified, we know that it must be a minor third. We could also have
considered F½ as the tonic of a major scale. The key of F major has only one flat (Bß), so the third
from F down to D½ is a minor third. Since the interval Fß down to Dß is the same size as the
interval of F down to D½ (both of the pitches are one chromatic semitone lower), we know both
must be minor thirds.
After determining the general name for interval d is a fourth, we should realize that it
might be difficult to think of either the lower pitch (Aƒ) or the upper pitch (D©) as a tonic of a
major scale since there is neither a major key of Aƒ nor a major key of D©. We can, however,
think either the pitch A or D as tonics of a major scale. The key signature of A major contains
three sharps (Fƒ, Cƒ, and Gƒ); from this fact we know that from A up to D is a perfect fourth.
Raising both pitches of this interval by chromatic semitones (resulting in the intervals Aƒ to Dƒ)
results in another perfect fourth. The interval from Aƒ up t D© is a chromatic semitone larger than
a perfect fourth, or an augmented fourth. Alternately, we could consider the key signature of D
major, which contains two sharps (Fƒ and Cƒ); from this fact we know that from D down to A is a
perfect fourth. Raising both pitches of this interval by chromatic semitones (resulting in the
intervals Dƒ down to Aƒ) results in another perfect fourth. The interval from D© up t Aƒ is a
chromatic semitone larger than a perfect fourth, or an augmented fourth. While it would be
possible to construct either an Aƒ scale or a D© major scale to arrive at the same results, it will
usually be much faster to use key signatures and major scales that you know well.
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Use the interval-identification problems in Example 3.19 to practice the skill of quickly
identifying all intervals. You should be able to explain your methodology for identifying all of
these intervals in a manner similar to the explanations above. Turn the page and check your
Example 3.19. Practice Identifying Any Interval.

Text, Page 77
The correct solutions for the interval-identification problems given in Example 3.19 can
identified intervals, review the procedures described in the text preceding Examples 3.19. You
should continue practicing identifying intervals so that you can quickly and accurately construct
any interval.
Interval Inversion
If we closely examine the relationships contained in Example 3.7, the example that
illustrates all the intervals formed between the tonic pitch and the major scale degrees above and
below it, we can begin to understand the important property of interval inversion that may help us
to construct larger intervals more quickly. Inversion of simple intervals is the “reversal” of the
relationship between the two pitches achieved either by raising the lower pitch an octave (so that
it appears above rather than below the other pitch) or by lowering the upper pitch an octave (so
that it appears below rather than above the other pitch). Example 3.20 illustrates the process of
inversion for three different intervals.
Example 3.20. The Process of Interval Inversion.
39
Solutions for the interval-identification problems in Example 3.19:
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Interval a in Example 3.20 (G4 to Bß4) is a minor third. To identify this interval we could
consider either note as the tonic of a major scale. In the scale of G major the major third from the
tonic up to the third scale degree is G to B, and since the given interval is a chromatic semitone
smaller it must be a minor third. In the scale of Bß major, the third from the tonic down to the
sixth scale degree is Bß to G, a minor third. As shown in Example 3.20, we could invert this
interval by either raising the lower pitch from G4 to G5 or by lowering the upper pitch from Bß4 to
Bß3. Since we already checked to see if these pitches are in the major scale of each other, we
already know that the pitch G is in the scale of Bß major and that Bß is not in the scale of G.
Because Bß is the lower note of the interval, the specific interval name is major, and the interval is
a major sixth.
Interval b in Example 3.20 (A4 to E5) is a perfect fifth. To identify this interval we could
consider either note as the tonic of a major scale. In the scale of A major the perfect fifth from
the tonic up to the fifth scale degree is A to E, since the only sharps in the key signature are Fƒ, Cƒ,
and Gƒ. In the scale of E major, the fifth from the tonic down to the fourth scale degree is E to A,
since the only sharps in the key signature are Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, and Dƒ.. As shown in Example 3.20, we
could invert this interval by either raising the lower pitch from A4 to A5 or by lowering the upper
pitch from E5 to E4. Since we already checked to see if these pitches are in the major scale of
each other, we already know that the pitch E is in the scale of A major and that A is in the scale of
E. Because A to E is a perfect fifth, E to A must be a perfect fourth.
Interval c in Example 3.20 (D3 to Gƒ3) is an augmented fourth. To identify this interval
we could consider the lower note as the tonic of a major scale. In the scale of D major the perfect
fourth from the tonic up to the fourth scale degree is D to G, and since this interval is a chromatic
semitone larger it must be an augmented fourth. In the scale of G major (thinking here of an
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altered upper note rather than the theoretical key of Gƒ major), the fourth from the tonic down to
the fifth scale degree is G to D. Again, since this interval is a chromatic semitone larger it must be
an augmented fourth. As shown in Example 3.20, we could invert this interval by either raising
the lower pitch from D3 to D4 or by lowering the upper pitch from Gƒ3 to Gƒ2. Since we already
checked to see if these pitches are in the major scale of each other, we already know that neither
pitch is in the scale of the other. In the scale of D major the perfect fifth from the tonic down to
the fourth scale degree is D to G, and since this interval is a chromatic semitone smaller it must
be a diminished fourth. In the scale of G major (thinking here again of an altered lower note
rather than the theoretical key of Gƒ major), the fifth from the tonic up to the fifth scale degree is
G to D. Again, since this interval is a chromatic semitone smaller it must be a diminished fourth.
Since whatever scale relationships exit between two notes remains constant in interval
inversion, we can make the following observations concerning specific interval names: perfect
intervals invert into perfect intervals; major intervals invert into minor intervals and minor
intervals invert into major intervals; augmented intervals invert into diminished intervals and
diminished intervals invert into augmented intervals; and doubly augmented intervals invert into
doubly diminished intervals and doubly diminished intervals invert into doubly augmented
intervals. We can make the following observations concerning general interval names: primes
invert into octaves (and octaves invert into primes); seconds invert into sevenths (and sevenths
invert into seconds); thirds invert into sixths (and sixths invert into thirds); and fourths invert into
fifths (and fifths invert into fourths). Table 3.4 summarizes these relationships.
Specific Names General Names

perfect (P) <> perfect (P) prime (1me) <> octave (8ve)
major (M) <> minor (m) second (2nd) <> seventh (7th)
diminished (d) <> augmented (A) third (3rd) <> sixth (6th)
doubly diminished (dd) <> doubly augmented (dA) fourth (4th) <> fifth (5th)
Table 3.4. Relationships Between Inversions of Simple Intervals.
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A simple interval and its inversion will always “add up” to a perfect octave. We can
illustrate this principle using the intervals and their inversions shown in Example 3.20. Interval a
(G4 to Bß4) combined with its inversion Bß4 to G5 completes the space from G4 to G5. Interval a
combined with its inversion Bß3 to G4 completes the space from Bß3 to Bß4. Interval b (A4 to E5)
combined with its inversion E5 to A5 completes the space from A4 to A5. Interval b combined
with its inversion E4 to A4 completes the space from E4 to E5. Interval c (D3 to Gƒ3) combined
with its inversion Gƒ3 to D4 completes the space from D3 to D4. Interval c combined with its
inversion Gƒ2 to D3 completes the space from Gƒ2 to Gƒ3. The sum of the general interval names
for an interval and its inversion will always be nine. (The inversion of a minor third is a major
sixth—3 + 6 = 9. The inversion of a perfect fifth is a perfect fourth—5 + 4 = 9.)
As stated above, the property of interval inversion can be used to help us construct larger
intervals more quickly. Let us assume that we need to construct the interval of a diminished
seventh below the pitch Eß5. We could find the minor seventh below Eß5 by descending from that
pitch to the seventh below in the Eß major scale—resulting in the pitch F4. We would know that
Eß5 down to F4 is a minor seventh. To create a diminished seventh, we would have to alter the
lower pitch in such a manner that the interval is made smaller by a chromatic semitone. Raising
that pitch to Fƒ4 accomplishes this alteration. We could also construct the same interval by using
our knowledge of interval inversion. The inversion of a diminished seventh is an augmented
second. We could construct an augmented second above Eß5 and then invert the interval by
lowering the resulting upper pitch an octave. The second scale degree in an Eß major scale is F;
that tells us that F5 is a major second above Eß5. To create an augmented second, we would have
to alter the upper pitch in such a manner that the interval is made larger by a chromatic semitone.
Raising the pitch F5 to Fƒ5 accomplishes this alteration. Knowing that Eß5 up to Fƒ5 is an
augmented second informs us that Eß5 down to Fƒ4 is a diminished seventh.

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Consonance and Dissonance
Intervals are often categorized as either consonant or dissonant. These terms are used to
describe the relative stability (consonance) or relative instability (dissonance) of particular
intervals. This relative stability or instability is dependent upon the musical context and is
probably a “learned” cultural phenomenon. In Western tonal music we typically categorize all
perfect intervals and all major and minor thirds and sixths as consonant intervals and all seconds,
sevenths, and augmented and diminished intervals as dissonant intervals. We further subdivide
consonances into perfect consonances—perfect primes, fourths, fifths, and octaves—and
imperfect consonances—major and minor thirds and sixths. The perfect fourth is an exception to
this categorization—depending upon its use, sometimes it is considered a consonance and
sometimes it is considered a dissonance.
Because consonance and dissonance is dependent upon a musical context (rather than an
absolute physical property), without the musical context it may be impossible to tell whether an
interval is consonant or dissonant.40 Examine the two intervals at the beginning of Example 3.21;
interval a (C5 to Aß6) is a consonant minor sixth and interval b (C5 to Gƒ6) is a dissonant
augmented fifth. In isolation (without a musical context) both of these intervals sound the same.
If you were to play these two intervals at the piano, you would probably identify them both as
relatively stable and consonant. If, in addition to the two intervals, you played a third pitch that
defined the upper pitch as either Aß6 or Gƒ6, you would then be able to more easily recognize their
consonance or dissonance aurally. For example, the pitch F4 defines the upper pitch of interval a
as an Aß6 and the interval as a consonant minor sixth. On the other hand, however, the pitch E4
defines the upper pitch of interval b as a Gƒ6 and the interval as a dissonant augmented fifth.
40
Actually when there is no musical context, we probably supply the “simplest” musical context and
assume an interval that can be either consonant or dissonant to be consonant.
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Example 3.21. Context Often Necessary for Determining Consonance or Dissonance.
For now, you should be able to label whether a particular interval is usually categorized as a
consonance or dissonance by relying on the notation (rather than the sound) of the interval.
Unit 4:
Minor Scales and Key Signatures
As we learned in Unit 2, one of the most basic ways of thinking about tonal material is
through a collection of pitches expressed in the form of a scale. In that unit we defined the term
scale as an ascending or descending succession of tones based upon some fixed interval
relationships and encompassing a tonal space no greater than one octave. While scales do extend
past a single octave, the tones in the second octave merely duplicate those of the first octave in a
higher register. In Unit 2 we limited our study of scales to the major scale. In this unit we will
closely examine the minor scale and introduce the church modes.
The Minor Scale
By this time, you should be very familiar with major scales and major key signatures. (If
you are not, you should review Unit 2 before continuing.) Since we have been referring to major
scales and key signatures in the construction and recognition of intervals, you should have
mastered the skills of constructing and recognizing any major scale or key signature. We will
begin our study of minor scale by examining their relationship to the major scale.
Unlike the single version of the major scale, there are three “forms” of the minor scale—
natural (or pure), harmonic, and melodic. Example 4.1 illustrates the first of these, the natural (or
pure) form in the key of G minor, the “primary” form of the minor scale to which we will relate
the other two forms. One could think of the natural minor scale as a step-wise compilation of all
the diatonic pitches of a major key beginning on the sixth scale degree and ending on the sixth
scale degree an octave higher. One could also think about the intervallic distance between each
adjacent scale degree as measured in diatonic semitones (dst) and whole tones (WT). A natural
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minor scale consists of the pattern: WT dst WT WT dst WT WT. If one thinks of the minor
scale in the first manner given (a major scale beginning on the sixth scale degree), then one could
think of the two keys—Bß major and G minor—as relative keys. Relative keys are the major and
minor keys that share the same key signature.
Example 4.1. The Natural (or Pure) Minor Scale.
While one can think of the natural minor scale as a distinct pattern of whole tones and
diatonic semitones (as shown in the previous example), it is probably best to think of it in terms
of its relative major scale. This manner of thinking about the minor scale has two major
advantages. First of all, one has only one pattern of whole tones and diatonic semitones to
remember—that of the major scale. (Actually, one has to remember only the major tetrachord—
WT WT dst.) Secondly, thinking about the minor scale in terms of its relative major scale will
make learning the minor key signatures easier.
While one could think of the other forms of the minor scale as two additional series of
whole tones and diatonic semitones, it is probably easier to think of them as alterations of the
natural form of the minor scale. The seventh scale degree alone or both the sixth and seventh
scale degrees of the natural minor scale are chromatically altered to form the harmonic minor
scale and melodic minor scale. If one raises the seventh degree of the natural minor scale a
chromatic semitone, one forms the harmonic minor scale. If one raises both the sixth and seventh
degrees of the ascending natural minor scale by chromatic semitones and returns them to their
original form in the descending version, one forms the melodic minor scale. Note that there is no
difference between the descending natural minor scale and the descending melodic minor scale.
Example 4.2 illustrates the three forms of the G minor scale. The sixth and seventh scale degrees
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of the natural minor scale are in their “natural” state (½^6 is Eß and ½^7 is F). In the harmonic minor
scale, the seventh scale degree is raised by a chromatic semitone (ƒ^7) to Fƒ. In the melodic minor
scale, both the sixth and the seventh scale degrees are raised by chromatic semitones (ƒ^6 and ƒ^7) to
E½ and Fƒ in the ascending scale and returned to their “natural” states (½^6 is Eß and ½^7 is F) in the
descending scale.
Example 4.2. The Three Forms of the Minor Scale.
In Example 4.2, the “natural” sixth scale degree is indicated by the symbol ½^6 and the
“natural” seventh scale degree is indicated by the symbol ½^7. The “natural sign” connected to the
scale degree numbers indicates “diatonic” (found in the key signature) and does not necessarily
reflect the actual musical symbol used. In G minor, the natural sixth scale degree is Eß and the
natural seventh scale degree is F½. In Example 3.2, the “raised” sixth scale degree is indicated by
the symbol ƒ^6 and the “raised” seventh scale degree is indicated by the symbol ½ƒ7. The “sharp
sign” connected to the scale degree numbers here indicates “raised” and does not necessarily
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reflect the actual musical symbol used. In G minor, the raised sixth scale degree is E½ and the
raised seventh scale degree is Fƒ.
The chromatically altered scale degrees found in the harmonic minor scale and the
ascending melodic minor scale are borrowed from the parallel major scale. Parallel scales are
the major and minor scales that share the same tonic pitch. G major and G minor are parallel
keys because the tonic pitch is the same for both. In Example 4.2 one could think of the “raised
sixth scale degree” as a sixth scale degree “borrowed” from G major, the parallel major. One
could think of the “raised seventh scale degree” as a seventh scale degree “borrowed” from the
parallel major. There are times when it is useful to think of the close connection between relative
keys (those sharing the same key signature), and there are times when it is useful to think of the
close connection between parallel keys (those sharing the same tonic). Examples 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5
illustrate the common scale degrees in the major scale and the three forms of the minor scale from
the parallel keys of D major and D minor. In these examples the arrows point out the scale
degrees that are different between the two scales. These examples also illustrate the solfège
syllables used to sing in these keys. Notice that in the minor scales, there are two possible
systems of solfège syllables—a “do-based” system that emphasizes the connection between
parallel keys and a “la-based” system that emphasizes the connection between relative keys. For
the present, we will use the first system (given in bold in the examples), but there are times that
applying the second system will be useful.
Example 4.3. Relationship between D Major and D Natural Minor Scales.

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Example 4.4. Relationship between D Major and D Harmonic Minor Scales.
Example 4.5. Relationship between D Major and D Melodic Minor Scales.41
Regardless of the system of solfège used in the minor scale, some chromatic alteration of
the major scale solfège syllables is necessary. Since we will be using the “do-based” minor
solfège, we will view the third (^3), sixth (^6), and seventh (^7) scale degrees of the natural minor
scale as “lowered” versions of those scale degrees in the parallel major scale. (See Example 4.3.)
To indicate a chromatic lowering of a diatonic pitch in solfège, the beginning consonant remains
the same and the vowel sound is changed to “ay.”42 The mi (pronounced “me”) of the major scale
becomes me (pronounced “may”) in the minor scale. When the sixth scale degree of the
harmonic minor scale or the sixth and seventh scale degree of the ascending melodic minor scale
are raised, they become the same as the sixth or the sixth and seventh scale degrees of the major
scale. (See Examples 4.4 and 4.5.) The solfège syllables for the raised sixth and seventh scale
degrees in the minor scale are the same as the sixth and seventh scale degrees of the major
41
In Example 4.5, only the ascending melodic minor scale is given. For the relationship between the
descending D melodic minor scale and the D major scale, see Example 4.3.
42
The only exception is the second scale degree of the major scale. Since the vowel sound of the second
scale degree (“re” pronounced “ray”) is already “ay,” when that scale degree is lowered the solfège syllable
is changed to “rah.”
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scale—la and ti. Since the do-based minor solfège syllables are based on parallel keys, the scale
degrees that are different from the minor scale are sung with chromatically altered syllables even
though they may be diatonic in the key.
In the “la-based” minor solfège, any pitch that is diatonic in the key signature is sung
with an unaltered solfège syllable. (See Example 4.3.) To indicate a chromatic raising of a
diatonic pitch in solfège, the beginning consonant remains the same and the vowel sound is
changed to “ee.” When the sixth scale degree of the harmonic minor scale or the sixth and
seventh scale degree of the ascending melodic minor scale are raised, they are treated as
chromatically raised versions of fa and sol. The fa the major scale become fi (pronounced “fee”)
in the melodic minor scale, and the sol of the major scale becomes si (pronounced “see”) in the
harmonic and melodic minor scales. (See Examples 4.4 and 4.5.) Since the la-based minor
solfège syllables are based on relative keys, the minor scale degrees that are different from the
key signature are sung with chromatically altered syllables.
You should be able to construct or recognize (either visually or aurally) any of the three
forms of the minor scale. In all three forms, the first five scale degrees are the same. The
distinction between the three forms concerns only the sixth and seventh scale degrees. One might
distinguish between the three forms aurally in the following manner. The upper tetrachord of the
natural minor scale seems to lack the “drive” to the upper tonic created by the appearance of the
raised seventh scale degree in the other two forms. The upper tetrachord of the harmonic minor
scale contains the large augmented second between the sixth and seventh tetrachord. The upper
tetrachord of the melodic minor scale is the same as that of the major scale—one might think of
this scale as a minor tetrachord followed by a major tetrachord.
Constructing Minor Scales Given the Tonic
To construct any of the minor scales, it is best to think of it in terms of its relative major
scale. Suppose one were asked to construct an Fƒ harmonic minor scale. The first step in this
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problem would be to determine the relative major scale by determining what major scale has Fƒ as
its sixth scale degree and to construct the Fƒ natural minor scale. (You may want to review Task
#3 from Unit 2; see pages 35-38.) Beginning with the Fƒ and ascending a whole tone (to Gƒ) and
then a diatonic semitone (to A) provides the first three pitches of any form of the Fƒ minor scale
and provides the tonic (A) of the relative major scale.43 By this point, we should know that the
key of A major contains three sharps—Fƒ, Cƒ, and Gƒ. Since Fƒ minor and A major are relative
keys, they will have the same key signature and their scales will contain the same diatonic
pitches. The Fƒ natural minor scale, then, is Fƒ, Gƒ, A, B, Cƒ, D, E, Fƒ. The problem given above,
however, was to construct an Fƒ harmonic minor scale. Once we know the natural minor scale,
we can then transform it into the harmonic minor scale by raising the seventh scale degree a
chromatic semitone (here, to Eƒ) creating the scale Fƒ, Gƒ, A, B, Cƒ, D, Eƒ, Fƒ.
Construct the scales given in Example 4.6 using the method described above. Turn the
page and check your answers in Example 4.7, but try to construct the scales before checking your
answers and reading the explanations.
Example 4.6. Practice Constructing Minor Scales.
43
One could also use intervals to determine the relative major scale. The tonic of the relative major scale
lies a minor third above the tonic of the minor scale. In the example above, going up a minor third from Fƒ
(to A) gives us the tonic of the relative major scale.
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Example 4.7 illustrates the correctly constructed scales requested in Example 4.6. Check
your answers against those given in Example 4.7 and then read the method for constructing each
scale following Example 4.7.
Example 4.7. Answers for Practice Constructing Minor Scales from Example 4.6.
To construct a B melodic minor scale (problem 1 in Example 4.6), one should first think
of B as the sixth scale degree of a major scale in order to determine the relative major scale.
Beginning with the B and ascending a whole tone (to Cƒ) and then a diatonic semitone (to D)
provides the first three pitches of any form of the B minor scale and provides the tonic (D) of the
relative major scale.44 We know that the key of D major contains two sharps—Fƒ and Cƒ. Since
B minor and D major are relative keys, they will have the same key signature and their scales will
contain the same diatonic pitches. The B natural minor scale, then, is B, Cƒ, D, E, Fƒ, G, A, B.
The problem given above, however, was to construct a B melodic minor scale. Once we know
the natural minor scale, we can then transform it into the melodic minor scale by raising the sixth
44
One could also use intervals to determine the relative major scale. The tonic of the relative major scale
lies a minor third above the tonic of the minor scale. In the example above, going up a minor third from B
(to D) gives us the tonic of the relative major scale.
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and seventh scales degree by chromatic semitones in the ascending form of the scale and
returning them to their natural state in the descending form of the scale, as in the first scale of
Example 4.7.
To construct a Cƒ harmonic minor scale (problem 2 in Example 4.6), one should first
think of Cƒ as the sixth scale degree of a major scale in order to determine the relative major
scale. Beginning with the Cƒ and ascending a whole tone (to Dƒ) and then a diatonic semitone (to
E) provides the first three pitches of any form of the Cƒ minor scale and provides the tonic (E) of
the relative major scale. We know that the key of E major contains four sharps—Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, and
Dƒ. Since Cƒ minor and E major are relative keys, they will have the same key signature and their
scales will contain the same diatonic pitches. The Cƒ natural minor scale, then, is Cƒ, Dƒ, E, Fƒ, Gƒ,
A, B, Cƒ. The problem given above, however, was to construct a Cƒ harmonic minor scale. Once
we know the natural minor scale, we can then transform it into the harmonic minor scale by
raising the seventh scale degree a chromatic semitone, as in the second scale of Example 4.7.
Unlike the previous scale, since the ascending and descending forms of the harmonic minor scale
are the same we need only show the ascending form.
To construct an F natural minor scale (problem 3 in Example 4.6), one should first think
of F as the sixth scale degree of a major scale in order to determine the relative major scale.
Beginning with the F and ascending a whole tone (to G) and then a diatonic semitone (to Aß)
provides the first three pitches of any form of the F minor scale and provides the tonic (Aß) of the
relative major scale. We know that the key of Aß major contains four flats—Bß, Eß, Aß, and Dß.
Since F minor and Aß major are relative keys, they will have the same key signature and their
scales will contain the same diatonic pitches. The F natural minor scale, then, is F, G, Aß, Bß, C,
Dß, Eß, F. Since the problem given above was to construct an F natural minor scale, we have
arrived at the answer provided in Example 4.7. Unlike the first scale, since the ascending and
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descending forms of the harmonic minor scale are the same we need only show the ascending
form.
To construct a Bß melodic minor scale (problem 2 in Example 4.6), one should first think
of Bß as the sixth scale degree of a major scale in order to determine the relative major scale.
Beginning with the Bß and ascending a whole tone (to C) and then a diatonic semitone (to Dß)
provides the first three pitches of any form of the Bß minor scale and provides the tonic (Dß) of the
relative major scale. We know that the key of Dß major contains five flats—Bß, Eß, Aß, Dß, and Gß.
Since Bß minor and Dß major are relative keys, they will have the same key signature and their
scales will contain the same diatonic pitches. The Bß natural minor scale, then, is Bß, C, Dß, Eß, F,
Gß, Aß, Bß. The problem given above, however, was to construct a Bß melodic minor scale. Once
we know the natural minor scale, we can then transform it into the melodic minor scale by raising
the sixth and seventh scales degree by chromatic semitones in the ascending form of the scale and
returning them to their natural state in the descending form of the scale, as in the first scale of
Example 4.7.
If asked to construct a descending minor scale, it is best to follow a procedure similar to
the one above. First determine the relative major key and use that information to construct a
descending natural minor scale. Then adjust the sixth and or seventh scale degrees as needed to
create the specified form of the minor scale. Essentially the thought process should be the same
for constructing ascending or descending minor scales given either the lower or the upper tonic
pitch.
Constructing Minor Scales Given a Scale Degree Other than the Tonic
Since the sixth and seventh scale degrees may differ in the three forms of the minor scale,
constructing minor scales given scale degrees other than the tonic is a slightly more complicated
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task than constructing major scales given scale degrees other than the tonic. If presented with one
of the first five scale degrees and asked to construct a minor scale, one should follow a series of
steps similar to those given above—find the tonic of the relative major scale, construct a natural
minor scale, and, if necessary, adjust the sixth or seventh scale degrees to transform the natural
minor scale into either the harmonic or melodic minor scale. Since a minor scale begins on the
sixth scale degree of its relative major scale, the third scale degree of the minor scale is the tonic
of the relative major. The interval pattern formed by the first five scale degrees of every minor
scale is WT—DST—WT—WT. When we were given the tonic of a minor key and asked to
construct a minor scale, we determined the relative major key by (and the first three scale degree
of the minor scale) by going up a whole tone and then a diatonic semitone. Knowing this interval
pattern will allow us quickly to find the tonic of the relative major scale by finding the third scale
degree of the minor scale we need to construct. If given the second scale degree, the tonic of the
relative major is a diatonic semitone above. If given the third scale degree, we have the tonic of
the relative major. If given the fourth scale degree, the tonic of the relative major is a whole tone
lower. If given the fifth scale degree, the tonic of the relative major is two whole tones lower.
If asked to construct a melodic minor scale for which the fifth scale degree is A, the first
step is to determine the tonic of the relative major scale by descending two whole tones (in this
case, first to G and then to F). We know that the key of F major contains a single flat—Bß. The
natural minor scale beginning on the sixth scale degree of an F major scale, then, is D, E, F, G, A,
Bß, C, D. The problem given above, however, was to construct the melodic minor scale that has
A as its fifth scale degree. Once we know the natural minor scale, we can then transform it into
the melodic minor scale by raising the sixth and seventh scale degrees by chromatic semitones
(here, to B½ and Cƒ) in the ascending form creating the scale D, E, F, G, A, B½, Cƒ, D C½, Bß, A, G,
F, E, D.
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If presented with either the sixth or seventh scale degrees and asked to construct a minor
scale, one should first find either the tonic or the fifth scale degree of the minor scale and then
follow the steps given above—find the tonic of the relative major scale, construct a natural minor
scale (being aware that this may involve the use of a different chromatic version of the given
pitch), and, if necessary, adjust the sixth or seventh scale degrees to transform the natural minor
scale into either the harmonic or melodic minor scale. If given the sixth scale degree, it is
probably best to find the fifth scale degree first. The sixth scale degree of the natural or harmonic
forms of the minor scale is a diatonic semitone above the fifth scale degree, and the sixth scale
degree of the ascending melodic minor scale is a whole tone above the fifth scale degree. If given
the sixth degree of a minor scale, the fifth scale degree can be found by descending either a
diatonic semitone or a whole tone. If given the seventh scale degree, it is probably best to find
the tonic scale degree first. The seventh scale degree of the harmonic or ascending melodic forms
of the minor scale is a diatonic semitone below the tonic scale degree, and the seventh scale
degree of the natural minor scale is a whole tone below the tonic scale degree. If given the
seventh degree of a minor scale, the tonic scale degree can be found by ascending either a
diatonic semitone or a whole tone. Once one finds the tonic or the fifth scale degree, the problem
becomes like one of the previous scale construction tasks.
If asked to construct a harmonic minor scale for which the seventh scale degree is Dƒ, the
first step is to determine the tonic of the minor scale by ascending a diatonic semitone (here, to
E). The next step in this problem is to determine the relative major scale by determining what
major scale has E as its sixth scale degree and to construct the E natural minor scale. Beginning
with the E and ascending a whole tone (to Fƒ) and then a diatonic semitone (to G) provides the
first three pitches of any form of the E minor scale and provides the tonic (G) of the relative
major scale. We know that the key of G major contains a single sharp—Bƒ. The natural minor
scale beginning on the sixth scale degree of an G major scale, then, is E, Eƒ, G, A, B, C, D, E.
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The problem given above, however, was to construct the harmonic minor scale that has Dƒ as its
seventh scale degree. Once we know the natural minor scale, we can then transform it into the
harmonic minor scale by raising the sixth scale degree a chromatic semitones (here, to D and Dƒ)
creating the scale E, Fƒ, G, A, B, C, Dƒ, E. Notice that when we constructed the E natural minor
scale, the form of the seventh scale degree was D and not the given Dƒ. When we altered the
natural minor scale to create the harmonic minor scale, the seventh scale degree became the one
given in the problem.
You should practice constructing all three forms of the minor scale beginning first on the
tonic and then on any scale degree. You should aim for accuracy first and then speed.
Minor Key Signatures
When constructing the minor scale in the previous section, one of the early steps in each
of the tasks was to determine the tonic of the relative major scale and to consider the key
signature of the relative major scale. Example 4.8 illustrates all of the key signatures and
provides the names of both the major key and the minor key for each signature. The ability to
recognize and construct any of these key signatures should be automatic. From this point on,
upon seeing a piece of music with two flats in the keys signature, one’s immediate reaction
should be “B-flat Major/g minor.” In order to determine the key of that composition, we would
have to examine elements other than the key signature—melody and/or harmony.45 While our
initial reaction of “B-flat major/g minor” might prove to be incorrect, it should be the “starting
point” from which our study of the musical elements begins. You should study and practice the
45
It may be that the key is neither B-flat major nor g minor. For example, it might be that the composition
is a Baroque piece in c minor. Until the time of Bach, minor key signatures with flats were often notated
with one flat less than we notate them today. Thus, the key of C minor would be notated with two flats
instead of three. The flat for the sixth scale degree is the one omitted. It might also be that the composition
is modal rather than tonal—D Phrygian or F Mixolydian, among others.
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signatures contained in Example 4.8 until the recognition and construction of these key signatures
is “automatic” for you. All of these key signatures should be committed to memory.
Example 4.8. Major and Minor Key Signatures.
The placement and ordering of sharps and flats in minor key signatures is the same as that
in the major key signatures. Since the major key signatures should be very familiar to you now,
think of the relative minor as the sixth scale degree of the major scale. For example, the key
signature of four sharps is E major. The sixth scale degree of E major is Cƒ—think do (E), ti (Dƒ),
la (Cƒ)—so the relative minor of E major is Cƒ minor. If one needed to write the key signature of
Bß minor, one could first determine that the relative major is Dß—think la (Bß), ti (C), do (Dß).
The key signature of Bß minor is the same as that of Dß major—five flats.
Notice that the identification of the key signatures in Example 4.8 is given in two ways.
If an upper case letter identifies the tonic, the mode (major or minor) must be specified next to the
upper case letter. (See the key identifications below the staves in the example.) One can also
identify the mode by using an upper case letter to indicate a major tonic and a lower case letter to
indicate a minor tonic. (See the key identifications in the middle of the grand staff in the
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example.) If using this latter system, you must clearly distinguish between upper and lower case
letters.
The Church Modes
The major and minor scales and key signatures that we have been studying provide a
good beginning for discussing the melodic and harmonic Western tonal music written during the
common-practice period. Western music before the common-practice period, especially music
from the Medieval (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) and Renaissance periods (fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries), is often considered in terms of the church modes (or ecclesiastical modes).
These church modes are the tonal basis of Gregorian chant, and much of the music based on
chant. During the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, many composers turned to
the church modes as an alternative to the major and minor scales of the common-practice period.
While there were several systems of numbering the modes found during the Medieval and
Renaissance periods, we will refer to the modes by their Greek names and consider them in their
relationship to the major scale. This method of thinking about the modes, obviously different
from Medieval and Renaissance musicians, allows us to consider them in terms of a more familiar
musical language.
The earliest modes are those found in Example 4.9—the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and
Mixolydian modes. The modes contained in Example 4.9 are “untransposed.” The Dorian mode,
in its earliest use during the Medieval period, consisted of the pitches spanning the octave
beginning on D.46 The Phrygian mode consisted of the pitches spanning the octave beginning on
46
Each of the four modes in Example 4.9 consisted of two forms—an authentic mode and a plagal mode.
The authentic and plagal modes contained the same pitches and “tonic” (in modal theory, this pitch is
called the final), but differed in the range used in the melody. The authentic Dorian mode has a final of D
and range (referred to in modal theory as the ambitus) of D to the octave above. The plagal Dorian mode
has a final of D and a range of A below D to the A above D. These two forms of the Dorian mode are
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E, the Lydian mode consisted of the pitches spanning the octave beginning on F, and the
Mixolydian mode consisted of the pitches spanning the octave beginning on G. In modern
terminology, we can say that in the untransposed versions of these modes, the “white keys” of the
piano span the octaves mentioned above. Another way of thinking about the church modes is the
resulting sequences of whole tones (WT) and diatonic semitones (dst). These sequences are
shown below each mode in Example 4.9. Perhaps the easiest manners of thinking about the
church modes, however, are to relate them to the major and minor scales that we know so well.
There are two methods for doing so; the first method is to relate all of the modes to the major
scale. The Dorian mode can be considered a major scale with the supertonic (re) as its final. The
Phrygian mode can be considered a major scale with the mediant (mi) as its final. The Lydian
mode can be considered a major scale with the subdominant (fa) as its final. The Mixolydian
mode can be considered a major scale with the dominant (sol) as its final.
Example 4.9. The Untransposed Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian Modes.
sometimes distinguished as Dorian and Hypodorian. Since each of the four modes in Example 4.9 had an
authentic form and a plagal form, the earliest system of modes was based on eight modes.
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During the Renaissance period, several theorists expanded the number of modes and
added to the list above that Ionian and Aeolian—what we currently refer to as the major scale and
the minor scale. These modes are illustrated in the example below. The sequences of whole
tones and diatonic semitones are shown for the two additional modes in Example 4.10. Again,
perhaps the easiest manner of thinking about these church modes, however, is to continue to
relate them to the major scale. The Ionian mode can be considered a major scale with the tonic
(do) as its final. The Aeolian mode can be considered a major scale with the submediant (la) as
its final.
Example 4.10. The Untransposed Ionian and Aeolian Modes.
In modern writings about modes, the modal system has been “completed” by adding one
addition mode—the Locrian mode. While Renaissance theorists discussed this mode, it was
rejected because it would have been the only mode with a diminished fifth (rather than a perfect
fifth) between the first and fifth pitches of the mode. This mode is illustrated in the example
below. The sequence of whole tones and diatonic semitones is shown for this last mode in
Example 4.11. Again, perhaps the easiest manner of thinking about this mode is to relate it to the
major scale. The Locrian mode can be considered a major scale with the leading tone (ti) as its
final.
Example 4.11. The Untransposed Locrian Mode.

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Since our study of modes will not be limited to Medieval and Renaissance music (where
the modes were either not transposed or transposed in a very limited manner), you should be able
to construct any of the modes beginning on any pitch. You should also be able to identify any of
the modes. The easiest way of accomplishing theses tasks is to relate the modes to the major
scale. Table 4.1 lists the seven modes introduced above and identifies each mode in terms of its
relationship to the major scale. The task of constructing a mode is the same a constructing a
major scale given a starting pitch other than the tonic. (We completed numerous problems of this
type in Unit 2.) By remembering that there are diatonic semitones between mi and fa (^3 and ^4)
and between ti and do (^7 and ^8) and whole tones between all other adjacent scale degrees, we can
easily construct the modes beginning on any pitch.
Mode Relationship to Major Scale

Ionian Major scale beginning on do. (= major scale)
Dorian Major scale beginning on re.
Phrygian Major scale beginning on mi.
Lydian Major scale beginning on fa.
Mixolydian Major scale beginning on sol.
Aeolian Major scale beginning on la. (= natural minor scale)
Locrian Major scale beginning on ti.
Table 4.1. Relationship of the Modes to the Major Scale
We should be able, for example, to construct a Phrygian mode beginning on the pitch Gƒ.
To complete this task, we would construct the major scale that has Gƒ as its third scale degree and
begin the scale on that scale degree. We could then think down from Gƒ to the tonic (mi-re-do or
Gƒ-Fƒ-E), think of a key signature of E major (four sharps—Fƒ, Cƒ, Gƒ, and Dƒ), and construct the
scale beginning on Gƒ: Gƒ, A, B, Cƒ, Dƒ, E, Fƒ, Gƒ. We could also complete the task by thinking in
solfège—mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do-re-mi, and placing all whole tones except for between mi and fa and
between ti and do.

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A second method of thinking about the church modes in relation to a more modern
musical language is to consider them as altered forms of major or natural minor scales. The
modes can be divided into major-type modes—those modes with a major third above the “tonic”
(Ionian, Mixolydian, and Lydian)—and minor-type modes—those modes with a minor third
above the “tonic” (Dorian, Phrygian, Aeolian, a d Locrian). An Ionian mode is equivalent to a
major scale; a Mixolydian mode is equivalent to a major scale with a lowered seventh scale
degree (ß^7); and a Lydian mode is equivalent to a major scale with a raised fourth scale degree
(ƒ^4). An Dorian mode is equivalent to a natural minor scale with a raised sixth scale degree (ƒ^6); a
Phrygian mode is equivalent to a natural minor scale with a lowered second scale degree (ß^2); an
Aeolian mode is equivalent to a natural minor scale; and a Locrian mode is equivalent to a natural
minor scale with a lowered second scale degree (ß^2) and a lowered fifth scale degree (ß^5). These
relationships are summarized in Table 4.2.
Major-Type Modes Relationship to Major Scale

Ionian Major scale.
Mixolydian Major scale with lowered seventh scale degree (ß^7).
Lydian Major scale with raised fourth scale degree (ƒ^4).
Minor-Type Modes Relationship to Natural Minor Scale
Dorian Natural minor scale with raised sixth scale degree (ƒ^6).
Phrygian Natural minor scale with lowered second scale degree (ß^2).
Aeolian Natural minor scale.
Locrian Natural minor scale with lowered second & fifh scale
degrees (ß^2 & ß^5)..
Table 4.2. Relationship of the Modes to the Major and Natural Minor Scales
If asked to identify a given mode, we would first determine what major scale contains the
pitches from the mode and what scale degree serves as the final of the mode. We should then, for
example, be able to identify the following mode: Bß, C, D, Eß, F, G, Aß, Bß. By extracting the
flats in the preceding mode—Bß, Eß, and Aß—we can identify a key signature of Eß major. The
final of this mode (here, the beginning and ending pitch) is Bß, the fifth scale degree (sol) of Eß
major. The given mode, therefore, is a Bß Mixolydian mode. One might also think that a Bß
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major scale has two flats—Bß and Eß. This collection of pitches also has an Aß, a lowered seventh
scale degree. This would then be a Mixolydian mode because it is a major scale with a lowered
seventh scale degree.
In addition to your work with the minor scale in its three forms, you should practice
constructing and identifying the modes discussed above.

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Unit 5:
Triads and Seventh Chords
The harmony employed in the music we will be studying can be understood as tertian, or
harmonies that can be described as superimposed (“stacked”) major and minor thirds. Triads—
three-note chords—and seventh chords—four-note chords—form most of the harmonies used
during the common practice period. We will begin our study of chords with an introduction to
the recognition and construction of triads first and then seventh chords. Our study of these chords
will serve as an introduction to the harmonic language that we will study in the following units.
Triads in Root Position
As stated above, triads are three-note chords consisting of superimposed (or “stacked”)
major and minor thirds. Since the triads employ only two types of thirds, there are only four
types of triads. Example 5.1 illustrates the four types of triads—the major triad (a major third
on the bottom and a minor third on the top), the minor triad (a minor third on the bottom and a
major third on the top), the diminished triad (minor thirds on both the bottom and top), and the
augmented triad (major thirds on both the bottom and top).
Example 5.1. The Four Types of Triads
In each of the triads in Example 5.1, the lowest note of the superimposed thirds is C. In every
case, then, C can be described at the root of the triad. The root of a triad is the lowest pitch of the
triad when it is considered as two superimposed thirds. The other elements of the triad are named
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by their intervallic relationships to the root. The note above the root is the third of the chord
because, when considered as two superimposed thirds, it is a third above the root. The note above
that is the fifth of the chord because, when considered as two superimposed thirds, it is a fifth
above the root.
The letters beneath each triad type in Example 5.1 indicate the shorthand notation that we
will use to indicate the root and the quality of each triad. For each triad, the letter C indicates the
root and the appearance of the letter indicates the chord quality (major, minor, diminished,
augmented). In the first chord, an upper case letter C (C) indicates that it is a major triad. In the
second chord, a lower case letter C (c) indicates that it is a minor triad. In the third chord, a lower
case letter C with a “degree sign” (cø) indicates that it is a diminished triad. In the fourth chord,
an upper case letter C with a “plus sign” (C±) indicates that it is an augmented triad.
In major and minor triads, the fifth of the chord is a perfect fifth above the root of the
chord. In both of these triads, the chord quality is named for the type of third that is formed
above the root of the chord. In a major triad, the third is a major third above the root. In a minor
triad, the third is a minor third above the root. In diminished and augmented triads, the chord
quality is named for the type of fifth that is formed above the root of the triad. In a diminished
triad, the fifth is a diminished fifth above the root. In an augmented triad, the fifth is an
augmented fifth above the root.
You should be able to identify and construct all four types of triads given any of the triad
members. That is, you should be able to identify any major, minor, diminished, and augmented
triad, or construct any of those triads given the root, the third or the fifth. These tasks involve
either identifying or constructing two thirds or a third and a fifth. The examples below illustrate
the procedures for completing these tasks.

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Example 5.2 contains six triads; try to identify the quality of each before reading the
explanation that follows the example. In order to identify the triad quality, you should consider
the quality of the thirds and fifths in each one.
Example 5.2. Practice Identifying Triad Quality.
Triad a in Example 5.2 (F-Aß-C) is a minor triad. If we consider only the thirds, the third
between the root and the third of the chord (F-Aß) is a minor third, and the third between the third
of the chord and the fifth of the chord (Aß-C) is a major third. A triad with a minor third on the
bottom and a major third on the top is a minor triad. We could also have considered the two
intervals formed above the root. The third between the root and the third of the chord remains a
minor third, and the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord (F-C) is a perfect fifth. A
triad with a minor third and a perfect fifth is a minor triad. Triad b in Example 5.2 (Dƒ-Fƒ-A) is a
diminished triad. If we consider only the thirds, the third between the root and the third of the
chord (Dƒ-Fƒ) is a minor third, and the third between the third of the chord and the fifth of the
chord (Fƒ-A) is a minor third. A triad with a minor third on the bottom and a minor third on the
top is a diminished triad. We could also have considered the two intervals formed above the root.
The third between the root and the third of the chord remains a minor third, and the fifth between
the root and the fifth of the chord (Dƒ-A) is a diminished fifth. A triad with a minor third and a
diminished fifth is a diminished triad. Triad c in Example 5.2 (Bß-D-F) is a major triad. If we
consider only the thirds, the third between the root and the third of the chord (Bß-D) is a major
third, and the third between the third of the chord and the fifth of the chord (D-F) is a minor third.
A triad with a major third on the bottom and a minor third on the top is a major triad. We could
also have considered the two intervals formed above the root. The third between the root and the
third of the chord remains a major third, and the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord
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(Bß-F) is a perfect fifth. A triad with a major third and a perfect fifth is a major triad. Triad d in
Example 5.2 (G-B-Dƒ) is an augmented triad. If we consider only the thirds, the third between the
root and the third of the chord (G-B) is a major third, and the third between the third of the chord
and the fifth of the chord (B-Dƒ) is a major third. A triad with a major third on the bottom and a
major third on the top is an augmented triad. We could also have considered the two intervals
formed above the root. The third between the root and the third of the chord remains a major
third, and the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord (G-Cƒ) is an augmented fifth. A
triad with a major third and an augmented fifth is an augmented triad. Triad e in Example 5.2
(Aß-C-Eß) is a major triad. If we consider only the thirds, the third between the root and the third
of the chord (Aß-C) is a major third, and the third between the third of the chord and the fifth of
the chord (C-Eß) is a minor third. A triad with a major third on the bottom and a minor third on
the top is a major triad. We could also have considered the two intervals formed above the root.
The third between the root and the third of the chord remains a major third, and the fifth between
the root and the fifth of the chord (Aß-Eß) is a perfect fifth. A triad with a major third and a
perfect fifth is a major triad. Triad f in Example 5.2 (Fƒ-A-Cƒ) is a minor triad. If we consider
only the thirds, the third between the root and the third of the chord (Fƒ-A) is a minor third, and
the third between the third of the chord and the fifth of the chord (A-Cƒ) is a major third. A triad
with a minor third on the bottom and a major third on the top is a minor triad. We could also
have considered the two intervals formed above the root. The third between the root and the third
of the chord remains a minor third, and the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord (Fƒ-Cƒ)
is a perfect fifth. A triad with a minor third and a perfect fifth is a minor triad.
In each of the triads in Example 5.2, there are “shortcuts” that will help you more quickly
identify triad qualities. For example, in triad b, once you have identified the fifth (Dƒ-A) as a
diminished fifth, you should realize that the only triad type that contains a diminished fifth is a
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diminished triad. At that point, you need to merely establish that the third (Dƒ-Fƒ) is a minor third.
Likewise, in triad d, once you have identified the fifth (G-Dƒ) as an augmented fifth, you should
realize that the only triad type that contains an augmented fifth is an augmented triad. At that
point, you need to merely establish that the third (G-B) is a major third. If you recognize that the
fifth is a perfect fifth (as in triads a, c, e, and f), you can identify the third (as either major or
minor) to determine the triad quality as either major or minor. You should practice working with
triads in this manner until you can quickly and accurately identify the quality.
Example 5.3 contains six triads for you to construct. In the first four triads, you are given
the quality and the root of the triad; in the last two triads, you are given the quality and either the
third or the fifth. Try to construct each triad before checking your answers against those in
Example 5.4 and reading the explanations following that example. In order to construct triads,
you should consider the quality of the thirds and fifths in each one.
Example 5.3. Practice Constructing Triads.

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Example 5.4. Answers for the Constructing Triads Practice in Example 5.3.
In triads a, b, c, and d above, the procedure is the same, but the specific intervals to
construct differ with the quality of the triad. In triad a, the major triad with a root of B consists of
a major third above B (Dƒ) and a perfect fifth above B (Fƒ). One could also think of the fifth as a
minor third above the third (Dƒ-Fƒ). In triad b, the minor triad with a root of Eß consists of a minor
third above Eß (Gß) and a perfect fifth above Eß (Bß). One could also think of the fifth as a major
third above the third (Gß-Bß). In triad c, the diminished triad with a root of A consists of a minor
third above A (C) and a diminished fifth above A (Eß). One could also think of the fifth as a
minor third above the third (C-Eß). In triad d, the augmented triad with a root of F would consist
of a major third above F (A) and an augmented fifth above F (Cƒ). One could also think of the
fifth as a major third above the third (A-Cƒ). In triads e and f above, since the root is not given,
we must use our skill in interval construction to identify the root. In triad e, a major triad with a
third of F consists of a major third below F (Dß) and a minor third above F (Aß)—a Dß major triad.
In triad f, a minor triad with a fifth of Dƒ consists of a major third below Dƒ (B) and a perfiect fifth
below Dƒ (Gƒ)—a Gƒ major triad. One could also find the root by constructing a minor third
below the third (B-Gƒ). You should practice working with triads in this manner until you can
quickly and accurately construct any quality of triad given the root, the third, or the fifth.
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Triads in Inversion
All of the triads we have dealt with so far have been in root position. We will refer to the
lowest sounding note of a chord as the chord’s bass.47 A triad is in root position if the root of the
chord is in the bass. If the third of the chord is in the bass, the triad is in first inversion. If the
fifth of the chord is in the bass, the triad is in second inversion. The bass tone alone determines
the position of a triad (root position, first inversion, or second inversion), regardless of the
ordering of the other chord members above the bass. Example 5.5 illustrates the four qualities of
triads from Example 5.1 in all of their positions.
Example 5.5. All Qualities of C Triads in All Positions.
The letters beneath each triad type in Example 5.5 employ the shorthand notation used to
indicate the root and the quality of each triad that was introduced in Example 5.1. Additional
symbols—stacked Arabic numerals—have been added to the letter notation to indicate the
position of the triad. These Arabic numerals have their origin in Baroque figured bass symbols.48
The Arabic numerals indicate the chord position by showing the intervals (general names only)
47
The term bass is borrowed from the lowest sounding voice part, but we will refer to the lowest sounding
member of the chord as the bass regardless of whether the note appears in that voice part’s register or the
voice part or instrument asked to perform that pitch.
48
In their original usage, figured bass symbols served as a shorthand notation to the performer indicated
intervals above a given bass. In practice, composers would write a bass line with figures to accompany a
melody line, either composed or pre-existent (such as in Bach’s Chorale Melodies with Figured Bass). See
J. S. Bach’s 371 Harmonized Chorales and 69 Chorale Melodies with Figured Bass, edited by Albert
Riemenschneider. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1941.) In Baroque practice, these figures had much more
to do with voice leading than with chord inversion. We will be examining both uses of these symbols.
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formed between the bass and the chord tones above it. In root position triads, the upper notes of
the chord, the third and the fifth, form a third and a fifth with the bass (the root). Root position
triads can also be referred to as !-chords. In first inversion triads, the upper notes of the chord,
the fifth and the root, form a third and a sixth with the bass (the third). First inversion triads can
also be referred to as £−-chords. In second inversion triads, the upper notes of the chord, the root
and the third, form a fourth and a sixth with the bass (the fifth). Second inversion triads can also
be referred to as @-chords. Combining letter notation with Arabic numeral inversion symbols
allows us to identify every triad by root, quality, and inversion.
You should be able to identify and construct all four types of triads in any inversion given
any of the triad members. That is, you should be able to identify any major, minor, diminished,
and augmented triad by root, quality, and inversion. You should also be able to construct any of
those triads in any inversion given the root, the third or the fifth. These tasks are merely
extensions of the task introduced earlier in this unit and involve either identifying or constructing
two thirds or a third and a fifth. The examples below illustrate the procedures for completing
these tasks.
Example 5.6 contains six triads; try to identify the root, quality, and inversion of each
before reading the explanation that follows the example. In order to complete this task, you
should first determine the inversion of the triad by examining the intervals above the bass. Then
you should consider the triad in root position and identify the triad quality by considering the
quality of the thirds and fifths in each one, as in Example 5.2. Finally you should completely
identify the triad by using the notation in Example 5.5.
Example 5.6. Practice Identifying Triad Root, Quality, and Inversion.

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In triad a of Example 5.6, the intervals formed above the bass are a fourth and a sixth—
these intervals indicate a second inversion (@) triad. We can consider the triad in root position by
rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds (here, A-Cƒ-E). The third between the root
and the third of the chord is a major third (A-Cƒ), and the third between the third and the fifth of
the chord is a minor third (Cƒ-E). (Again, one could also consider the fifth between the root and
the fifth of the chord (A-E)—a perfect fifth.) We can conclude from the information gathered
that triad a is a second inversion A major triad (A@). In triad b of Example 5.6, the intervals
formed above the bass are a third and a sixth—these intervals indicate a second inversion (£−) triad.
We can consider the triad in root position by rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds
(here, E-G-B). The third between the root and the third of the chord is a minor third (E-G), and
the third between the third and the fifth of the chord is a major third (G-B). (Again, one could
also consider the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord (E-B)—a perfect fifth.) We can
conclude from the information gathered that triad b is a first inversion E minor triad (e£−). In triad
c of Example 5.6, the intervals formed above the bass are a third and a fifth—these intervals
indicate a root position (!) triad. Since the triad is already in root position, we can immediately
begin to consider the superimposed thirds (here, F-A-Cƒ). The third between the root and the
third of the chord is a major third (F-A), and the third between the third and the fifth of the chord
is a major third (A-Fƒ). (Again, one could also consider the fifth between the root and the fifth of
the chord (F-Cƒ)—an augmented fifth.) We can conclude from the information gathered that triad
c is a root position F augmented triad (F±!). In triad d of Example 5.6, the intervals formed above
the bass are a third and a sixth—these intervals indicate a first inversion (£−) triad. We can
consider the triad in root position by rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds (here,
Cƒ-E-G). The third between the root and the third of the chord is a minor third (Cƒ-E), and the
third between the third and the fifth of the chord is a minor third (E-G). (Again, one could also
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consider the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord (Cƒ-G)—a diminished fifth.) We can
conclude from the information gathered that triad d is a first inversion Cƒ diminished triad (cƒø£−).
In triad e of Example 5.6, the intervals formed above the bass are a fourth and a sixth—these
intervals indicate a second inversion (@) triad. We can consider the triad in root position by
rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds (here, B-D-Fƒ). The third between the root
and the third of the chord is a minor third (B-D), and the third between the third and the fifth of
the chord is a major third (D-Fƒ). (Again, one could also consider the fifth between the root and
the fifth of the chord (B-Fƒ)—a perfect fifth.) We can conclude from the information gathered
that triad d is a second inversion B minor triad (b@). In triad f of Example 5.6, the intervals
formed above the bass are a third and a sixth—these intervals indicate a second inversion (£−) triad.
(here, Gß-Bß-Dß). The third between the root and the third of the chord is a major third (Gß-Bß),
and the third between the third and the fifth of the chord is a minor third (Bß-Dß). (Again, one
could also consider the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord (Gß-Dß)—a perfect fifth.)
We can conclude from the information gathered that triad f is a first inversion Gß major triad
(Gß£−).
As you practice identifying triads such as those in Example 5.6, you will discover
“shortcuts” (such as those discussed after Example 5.2). For example, quickly identifying the
root of a triad will help you think of the triad in root position if it is inverted. In the inverted
triads from Example 5.6 (triads a, b, d, e, and f), notice that there is a fourth formed between the
fifth of the chord and the root of the chord above it. In first inversion triads (triads b, d, and f),
the fourth appears between the upper two notes of the triad. In second inversion triads (triads a
and e), the fourth appears between the lower two notes of the triad. In every case, the upper pitch
of the fourth is the root of the chord. In triad a, the upper pitch of the fourth (E-A) is the root of
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this A@ chord. In triad b, the upper pitch of the fourth (B-E) is the root of this e£− chord.
Recognizing that these are perfect fourths (inversions of perfect fifths) means that you could
quickly check the third above the identified root (A-Cƒ in the first case and E-G in the second
case) to determine if the chord is major or minor. Recognizing that this is an augmented fourth
(the inversion of a diminished fifth) indicates that this is probably a diminished triad. Knowing
that fact means that you could quickly check the third above the identified root (Cƒ-E in this case)
to verify that the chord is diminished. You should practice working with triads in this manner
until you can quickly and accurately identify the root, quality, and inversion.
Example 5.7 contains six triads for you to construct. In the first three triads, you are
given the root, the quality, and the inversion. In the last three triads, you are given the bass, the
quality, and the inversion; for these you must determine the root. Try to construct each triad
before checking your answers against those in Example 5.8 and reading the explanations
following that example. In order to construct a triad given the root, quality, and inversion, you
should first construct a root position triad (as in Example 5.3) and then invert it. In order to
construct a triad given the bass, quality, and inversion, you should first determine whether you
have been given the third (the bass of a £−-chord) or the fifth (the bass of a @-chord). You should
then construct the chord in root position (as in Example 5.3, problems e and f) and invert it.
Example 5.7. Practice Constructing Inverted Triads.

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Example 5.8. Answers for the Constructing Inverted Triads Practice in Example 5.7.
In triads a, b, and c, above, the procedure is the same, but the specific intervals to
construct differ with the quality of the triad. In triad a, a second inversion Aß major triad, you
should first construct a root position Aß major triad by constructing a major third above Aß (C)
and a perfect fifth above Aß (Eß). The final step in this problem involves inverting the root
position Aß major triad (Aß-C-Eß) so that the fifth (Eß) of the chord is in the bass (Eß-Aß-C). In
triad b, a first inversion Bß augmented triad, you should first construct a root position Bß
augmented triad by constructing a major third above Bß (D) and an augmented fifth above Bß (Fƒ).
The final step in this problem involves inverting the root position Bß augmented triad (Bß-D-Fƒ) so
that the third of the chord (D) is in the bass (D-Fƒ-Bß). In triad c, a first inversion Fƒ diminished
triad, you should first construct a root position Fƒ diminished triad by constructing a minor third
above Fƒ (A) and a diminished fifth above Fƒ (C). The final step in this problem involves
inverting the root position Fƒ diminished triad (Fƒ-A-C) so that the third of the chord (C) is in the
bass (A-C-Fƒ). The procedure is slightly different for triads d, e, and f above. In triad d, a first
inversion diminished triad with a bass of G, you should first determine what element of the chord
you have been given. Since the bass of first inversion triad is the third of the chord, G is the third
of the diminished triad you must construct. A root position diminished triad contains a minor
third below the third (E) and a minor third above the third (Bß). The final step in this problem
involves inverting the resulting root position diminished triad (E-G-Bß) so that the third of the
chord (G) remains in the bass (G-Bß-E). In triad e, a second inversion major triad with a bass of
Aß, you should first determine what element of the chord you have been given. Since the bass of
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second inversion triad is the fifth of the chord, Aß is the fifth of the major triad you must
construct. A root position major triad contains a minor third below the fifth (F) and a perfect fifth
below the fifth (Dß). The final step in this problem involves inverting the resulting root position
major triad (Dß-F-Aß) so that the fifth of the chord (Aß) remains in the bass (Aß-Dß-C). In triad f,
a first inversion minor triad with a bass of B, you should first determine what element of the
chord you have been given. Since the bass of first inversion triad is the third of the chord, B is
the third of the minor triad you must construct. A root position minor triad contains a minor third
below the third (Gƒ) and a major third above the third (Dƒ). The final step in this problem
involves inverting the resulting root position minor triad (Gƒ-B-Dƒ) so that the third of the chord
(B) remains in the bass (B-Dƒ-Gƒ). You should practice working with triads in this manner until
you can quickly and accurately construct any quality of triad in any position given the root or the
bass.
Seventh Chords in Root Position
Seventh chords are four-note chords consisting of superimposed (or “stacked”) major
and minor thirds. If one adds an additional superimposed third to a triad, the interval formed
between this fourth pitch and the root of the triad is a seventh. Since there are four types of triads
(major, minor, diminished, and augmented) and two types of thirds (major and minor) that one
could superimpose above each triad, there are eight different types of seventh chords possible.
These are shown in Example 5.9.
Example 5.9. The Eight Possible Seventh Chord Qualities.

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In each of the seventh chords in Example 5.9, the lowest note of the superimposed thirds
is D. In every case, then, D can be described at the root of the triad. The root of a seventh chord,
like the root of a triad, is the lowest pitch of the chord when it is considered as three
superimposed thirds. The other elements of the seventh chord are named by their intervallic
relationships to the root. The note above the root is the third of the chord because, when
considered as three superimposed thirds, it is a third above the root. The note above that is the
fifth of the chord because, when considered as three superimposed thirds, it is a fifth above the
root. The note above that is the seventh of the chord because, when considered as three
superimposed thirds, it is a seventh above the root.
Rather than thinking of seventh chords as three superimposed thirds, it is sometimes
better to consider them as triads with an additional third (which happens to create a seventh with
the root). We will refer to all seventh chords with “double names.” The first part of the seventh
chord name is the triad form by its two lowest superimposed thirds. The second part of the
seventh chord name is the quality of seventh the highest pitch creates with the lowest pitch when
the chord is considered as three superimposed thirds. The first chord in Example 5.9 is a major-
major seventh chord—a major triad with a major seventh. The second chord in Example 5.9 is
a major-minor seventh chord—a major triad with a minor seventh. The third chord in Example
5.9 is a minor-major seventh chord—a minor triad with a major seventh. The fourth chord in
Example 5.9 is a minor-minor seventh chord—a minor triad with a minor seventh. The fifth
chord in Example 5.9 is a diminished-minor seventh chord—a diminished triad with a minor
seventh. The sixth chord in Example 5.9 is a diminished-diminished seventh chord—a
diminished triad with a diminished seventh. The seventh chord in Example 5.9 is an augmented-
augmented seventh chord—an augmented triad with an augmented seventh. The eighth chord
in Example 5.9 is am augmented-major seventh chord—an augmented triad with a major
seventh.
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Not all of these seventh chords are common. In fact, we will immediately eliminate the
penultimate chord from Example 5.9—the augmented-augmented seventh chord. The augmented
seventh in this chord (here, D-C©) is enharmonic with the octave D-D. Sine this seventh chord
would sound the same as an augmented triad with its root doubled at the octave—a very common
occurrence, we will not consider this chord and reduce the number of possible seventh chords to
seven. Of the remaining seven possible seventh chords listed, the third chord in Example 5.9 (the
minor-major seventh chord) and the eighth chord in Example 5.9 (the augmented-major seventh
chord) are used with much less frequency than the other five. We will limit our study to the
seven seventh chords, but focus our study on the five most commonly used ones.
The letters beneath each triad type in Example 5.9 indicate the shorthand notation that we
will use to indicate the root and the quality of each seventh chord. The appearances of the letter
D indicate the root the chord quality (major, minor, diminished, augmented) of the triad. In the
first two chords, an upper case letter D (D) indicates a major triad. In the next two chords, a
lower case letter D (d) indicates a minor triad. In the next two chords, a lower case letter D with
a “degree sign” (dø or dØ) indicates a diminished triad. In the last two chords, an upper case letter
D with a “plus sign” (D±) indicates an augmented triad. The appearances of the superscripted
seven indicate the quality of the seventh. An upper case M preceding the seventh (‰‡) indicates a
major seventh. A seventh with nothing preceding it (‡) indicates a minor seventh, and a seventh
with a “plus sign” in front of it (±‡) indicates an augmented seventh. In the case of a diminished
triad, the appearance of the “degree sign” indicates not only the quality of the triad, but also the
quality of the seventh. An unmodified degree sign in front of the seven (ø‡) indicates a
diminished seventh, and a slash through the degree sign in front of the seven (Ø‡) indicates a
minor seventh.
We will use the complete “double” seventh chord name (naming both the quality of the
triad and the quality of the seventh), but the five most commonly used seventh chords have
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shortened names that are frequently used. You should feel comfortable using either the complete
name or the shortened name. Table 5.1 contains both the complete names and the shortened
names for the five most common seventh chords.
Complete Seventh Chord Name Abbreviated Seventh Chord Name

Major-major seventh chord Major seventh chord
Major-minor seventh chord Dominant seventh chord
Minor-minor seventh chord Minor seventh chord
Diminished-minor seventh chord Half-diminished seventh chord
Diminished-diminished seventh chord Fully diminished chord
Table 5.1. Alternate Names for Seventh Chords
You should be able to identify and construct all types of seventh chords in root position
given any of the chord members. That is, you should be able to identify any seventh chord by
labeling the root and the quality using the chord designations found in Example 5.9. You should
also be able to construct any of those seventh chords in root position given the root, the third, the
fifth, or the seventh. These tasks are merely extensions of the task of identifying and constructing
triads introduced earlier in this unit and involve either identifying or constructing thirds, fifths,
and sevenths. The examples below illustrate the procedures for completing these tasks.
Example 5.10 contains six seventh chords; try to identify the root and quality of each
before reading the explanation that follows the example. In order to complete this task, you
should first determine the inversion of the triad by examining the intervals above the bass. Since
each seventh chord is in root position, in order to identify the seventh chord quality, you should
consider the quality of the thirds, fifths, and sevenths in each one. You should then identify the
seventh chord by using the notation in Example 5.9.
Example 5.10. Practice Identifying the Quality of Root Position Seventh Chords.
Seventh chord a in Example 5.10 (G-Bß-D-F) is a G minor-minor seventh chord (g‡). If
we consider only the triad first, the third between the root and the third of the chord (G-Bß) is a
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minor third, and the third between the third of the chord and the fifth of the chord (Bß-D) is a
major third. A triad with a minor third on the bottom and a major third on the top is a minor triad.
The interval between the root and the seventh of the chord (G-F) is a minor seventh, so the chord
is a minor triad with a minor seventh. Seventh chord b in Example 5.10 (E-Gƒ-B-D) is an E
major-minor seventh chord (E‡). If we consider only the triad first, the third between the root and
the third of the chord (E-Gƒ) is a major third, and the third between the third of the chord and the
fifth of the chord (Gƒ-B) is a minor third. A triad with a major third on the bottom and a minor
third on the top is a major triad. The interval between the root and the seventh of the chord (E-D)
is a minor seventh, so the chord is a major triad with a minor seventh. Seventh chord c in
Example 5.10 (Bß-D-F-A) is a Bß major-major seventh chord (Bß‰‡). If we consider only the triad
first, the third between the root and the third of the chord (Bß-D) is a major third, and the third
between the third of the chord and the fifth of the chord (F-D) is a major third. A triad with a
major third on the bottom and a minor third on the top is a major triad. The interval between the
root and the seventh of the chord (Bß-A) is a major seventh, so the chord is a major triad with a
major seventh. Seventh chord d in Example 5.10 (F-A-Cƒ-E) is a F augmented-major seventh
chord (F+‰‡). If we consider only the triad first, the third between the root and the third of the
chord (F-A) is a major third, and the third between the third of the chord and the fifth of the chord
(A-Cƒ) is a major third. A triad with a major third on the bottom and a major third on the top is an
augmented triad. The interval between the root and the seventh of the chord (F-E) is a major
seventh, so the chord is an augmented with a major seventh. Seventh chord e in Example 5.10
(Cƒ-E-G-Bß) is a Cƒ diminished-diminished seventh chord (cƒø‡). If we consider only the triad first,
the third between the root and the third of the chord (Cƒ-E) is a minor third, and the third between
the third of the chord and the fifth of the chord (E-G) is a minor third. A triad with a minor third
on the bottom and a minor third on the top is a diminished triad. The interval between the root
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and the seventh of the chord (Cƒ-Bß) is a diminished seventh, so the chord is a major diminished
triad with a diminished seventh. Seventh chord f in Example 5.10 (A-C-Eß-G) is an A
diminished-minor seventh chord (aØ‡). If we consider only the triad first, the third between the
root and the third of the chord (A-C) is a minor third, and the third between the third of the chord
and the fifth of the chord (C-Eß) is a minor third. A triad with a minor third on the bottom and a
minor third on the top is a diminished triad. The interval between the root and the seventh of the
chord (A-E) is a minor seventh, so the chord is a diminished triad with a minor seventh. You
should practice working with triads in this manner until you can quickly and accurately identify
the quality.
Example 5.11 contains six seventh chords for you to construct. In the first three chords,
you are given the quality and the root of the seventh chord; in the last three chords, you are given
the quality and either the third, the fifth, or the seventh. Try to construct each seventh chord
before checking your answers against those in Example 5.12 and reading the explanations
following that example. In order to construct triads, you should consider the quality of the thirds,
fifths, and sevenths in each one.
Example 5.11. Practice Constructing Root Position Seventh Chords.

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Example 5.12. Answers for the Constructing Root Position Seventh Chords Practice in
Example 5.11.
In seventh chords a, b, and c above, the procedure is the same, but the specific intervals
to construct differ with the quality of the chord. In seventh chord a, the diminished-minor
seventh chord with a root of E consists of a diminished triad—a minor third above E (G) and a
diminished fifth above E (Bß)—and a minor seventh above E (D). The resulting chord is also
referred to as a half diminished seventh chord (eØ‡). In seventh chord b, the minor-minor seventh
chord with a root of B consists of a minor triad—a minor third above B (D) and a perfect fifth
above B (Fƒ)—and a minor seventh above B (A). The resulting chord is also referred to as a
minor seventh chord (b‡). In seventh chord c, the major-major seventh chord with a root of G
consists of a major triad—a major third above G (B) and a perfect fifth above G (D)—and a
major seventh above B (Fƒ). The resulting chord is also referred to as a major chord (G‰‡). In
seventh chords d, e, and f above, since the root is not given, we must use our skill in interval
construction to identify the root. In seventh chord d, a diminished-diminished seventh chord with
a third of A consists of a diminished triad—with a root a minor third below A (Fƒ) and a fifth a
minor third above A (C)—and a diminished seventh above the root of Fƒ (Eß). The resulting
chord is also referred to as a fully diminished seventh chord (fƒø‡). In seventh chord e, a major-
minor seventh chord with a fifth of E consists of a major triad—with a root a perfect fifth below
E (A) and a third a major third above A (Cƒ) or a minor third below E (Cƒ)—and a minor seventh
above the root of A (G). The resulting chord is also referred to as a dominant seventh chord (A‡).
In seventh chord f, a minor-major seventh chord with a seventh of B has a root a major seventh
below B (C) and a minor triad built upon that root—with a third a minor third above C (Eß) and a
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fifth a perfect fifth above C (G). The resulting chord is referred to only as a minor-major seventh
chord (c‰‡). You should practice working with seventh chords in this manner until you can
quickly and accurately construct any quality of seventh chord given the root, the third, the fifth,
or the seventh.
Seventh Chords in Inversion
All of the triads discussed above are in root position. As with triads, we will refer to the
lowest sounding note of a chord as the chord’s bass. A seventh chord is in root position if the
root of the chord is in the bass. If the third of the chord is in the bass, the seventh chord is in first
inversion. If the fifth of the chord is in the bass, the seventh chord is in second inversion. If the
seventh of the chord is in the bass, the seventh chord is in third inversion. As with triads, the
bass tone alone determines the position of a seventh chord (root position, first inversion, second
inversion, or third inversion), regardless of the ordering of the other chord members above the
bass. Example 5.13 illustrates the most common seventh chords from Example 5.9 in all of their
positions.
Example 5.13. Most Common Qualities of D Seventh Chords in All Positions.49
49
The two seventh chord types from Example 5.9 that are omitted in Example 5.13 are the minor-major
seventh chord and the augmented-augmented seventh chord. The elimination of the latter was discussed
previously (see page 115). The minor-major seventh chord is probably the next least used of the seventh
chords. It should be noted, however, that not all of the seventh chords in Example 5.13 are used with the
same degree of frequency.
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The letters beneath each seventh chord type in Example 5.13 employ the shorthand
notation used to indicate the root and the quality of the most common seventh chords that were
introduced in Example 5.9. Additional symbols—stacked Arabic numerals—have been added to
the letter notation to indicate the position of the triad. As mentioned in the discussion of inverted
triads, these Arabic numerals have their origin in Baroque figured bass symbols.50 The Arabic
numerals indicate the chord position by showing the some of the intervals (general names only)
formed between the bass and the chord tones above it. The Arabic numerals used in Example
5.13 are abbreviated versions of the complete symbols that would indicate all of the intervals
above the bass tone. Table 5.2 illustrates all inversions of an Eß major-minor seventh chord, the
complete Arabic symbol, and the abbreviated versions that we will employ. In root position
seventh chords, the upper notes of the chord, the third, the fifth, and the seventh, form those
intervals with the bass (the root). Root position seventh chords have their complete inversion
symbol based on all three intervals, but we will indicate them with a 7 alone. In first inversion
seventh chords, the upper notes of the chord, the fifth, the seventh, and the root, form a third, a
fifth, and a sixth with the bass (the third). First inversion seventh chords have their complete
inversion symbol based on all three intervals, but we will refer to them #-chords. In second
inversion seventh chords, the upper notes of the chord, the seventh, the root and the third, form a
third, a fourth and a sixth with the bass (the fifth). Second inversion seventh chords have their
complete inversion symbol based on all three intervals, but we will refer to them $-chords. In
third inversion seventh chords, the upper notes of the chord, the root, the third and the fifth, form
a second, a fourth and a sixth with the bass (the seventh). Third inversion seventh chords have
their complete inversion symbol based on all three intervals, but we will refer to them %-chords.
Combining letter notation with Arabic numeral inversion symbols allows us to identify every
seventh chord by root, quality, and inversion.
50
See page 107 above.
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All Positions of an Eß Major-minor Complete Arabic Abbreviated Arabic

Seventh Chord Numeral Inversion Numeral Inversion
Symbols Symbols
(Based on all intervals (Shortened versions based on
formed between the root and Baroque figured bass
the chord tones above.) practice.)
Gx‡£% Gx&
Gx¦£% Gxe
Gx¦£$ Gxr
Gx¦™$ Gxt
Table 5.2. Complete and Abbreviated Seventh Chord Inversion Symbols.51
You should be able to identify and construct all types of seventh chords in any inversion
given any of the triad members. That is, you should be able to identify any seventh chord by root,
quality, and inversion. You should also be able to construct any of those seventh chords in any
inversion given the root, the third, the fifth, or the seventh. These tasks are merely extensions of
the task introduced earlier in this unit. The examples below illustrate the procedures for
completing these tasks.
Example 5.14 contains six seventh chords; try to identify the root, quality, and inversion
of each before reading the explanation that follows the example. In order to complete this task,
you should first determine the inversion of the seventh chord by examining the intervals above
the bass. Then you should consider the seventh chord in root position and identify its quality by
considering the quality of the third, fifth, and seventh in each one, as in Example 5.5. Finally you
should completely identify the triad by using the notation in Example 5.13.
51
Some books shorten even further the abbreviated version of the Arabic numeral inversion symbol for the
third inversion seventh chord and use only the “2.” In that system of notation the third inversion Eß major-
minor seventh chord in Table 5.2 is indicated Eß™ .
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Example 5.14. Practice Identifying Seventh Chord Root, Quality, and Inversion.
In chord a of Example 5.14, the intervals formed above the bass are a third, a fifth, and a
sixth—these intervals indicate a first inversion (#) seventh chord. We can consider the chord in
root position by rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds (here, F-Aß-C-Eß). The
triad is minor because the third between the root and the third of the chord is a minor third (F-Aß),
and the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord is a perfect fifth (F-C). The seventh from
the root to the seventh is a minor seventh (F-Eß). We can conclude from the information
gathered that chord a is a first inversion F minor-minor seventh chord (f#). In chord b of Example
5.14, the intervals formed above the bass are a third, a fourth, and a sixth—these intervals
indicate a second inversion ($) seventh chord. We can consider the chord in root position by
rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds (here, Cƒ-E-G-Bß). The triad is diminished
because the third between the root and the third of the chord is a minor third (Cƒ-E), and the fifth
between the root and the fifth of the chord is a diminished fifth (Cƒ-G). The seventh from the root
to the seventh is a diminished seventh (Cƒ-Bß). We can conclude from the information gathered
that chord b is a second inversion Cƒ diminished-diminished seventh chord (cƒø$). In chord c of
Example 5.14, the intervals formed above the bass are a second, a fourth, and a sixth—these
intervals indicate a third inversion (%) seventh chord. We can consider the chord in root position
by rearranging the pitches to create superimposed thirds (here, Bß-D-F-Aß). The triad is major
because the third between the root and the third of the chord is a major third (Bß-F), and the fifth
between the root and the fifth of the chord is a perfect fifth (Bß-F). The seventh from the root to
the seventh is a minor seventh (Bß-Aß). We can conclude from the information gathered that
chord c is a third inversion Bß major-minor seventh chord (Bß%). In chord d of Example 5.14, the
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intervals formed above the bass are a third, a fifth, and a seventh—these intervals indicate a root
position (‡) seventh chord. We know that the chord is already in root and can immediately
examine the superimposed thirds (here, G-Bß-Dß-F). The triad is diminished because the third
between the root and the third of the chord is a minor third (G-Bß), and the fifth between the root
and the fifth of the chord is a dimished fifth (G-Cß). The seventh from the root to the seventh is a
minor seventh (G-F). We can conclude from the information gathered that chord d is a root
position G diminished-minor seventh chord (gØ‡). In chord e of Example 5.14, the intervals
formed above the bass are a third, a fourth, and a sixth—these intervals indicate a second
inversion ($) seventh chord. We can consider the triad in root position by rearranging the pitches
to create superimposed thirds (here, A-Cƒ-E-G). The triad is major because the third between the
root and the third of the chord is a major third (A-Cƒ), and the fifth between the root and the fifth
of the chord is a perfect fifth (A-E). The seventh from the root to the seventh is a minor seventh
(A-G). We can conclude from the information gathered that chord e is a second inversion A
major-minor seventh chord (A$). In chord f of Example 5.14, the intervals formed above the
bass are a third, a fifth, and a sixth—these intervals indicate a first inversion (#) seventh chord.
(here, B-D-Fƒ-A). The triad is minor because the third between the root and the third of the chord
is a minor third (B-D), and the fifth between the root and the fifth of the chord is a perfect fifth
(B-Fƒ). The seventh from the root to the seventh is a minor seventh (B-A). We can conclude
from the information gathered that chord f is a first inversion B minor-minor seventh chord (b#).
As you practice identifying seventh chords such as those in Example 5.14, you will
discover “shortcuts.” As in the case of inverted triads, quickly identifying the root of a seventh
chord will help you think of the chord in root position if it is inverted. In the inverted seventh
chords from Example 5.14 (chords a, b, c, e, and f), notice that there is a second formed between
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the seventh of the chord and the root of the chord above it. In every case, the upper pitch of the
second is the root of the chord. In chord a, the upper pitch of the second (Eß-F) is the root of this
f# chord. In chord b, the upper pitch of the second (Bß-Cƒ) is the root of this cƒø$ chord. In chord
c, the upper pitch of the second (Aß-Bß) is the root of this Aß% chord. In chord e, the upper pitch of
the second (G-A) is the root of this A$ chord. In chord f, the upper pitch of the second (A-B) is
the root of this B# chord. You should practice working with seventh chords in this manner until
you can quickly and accurately identify the root, quality, and inversion.
Example 5.15 contains six seventh chords for you to construct. In the first three chords,
you are given the root, the quality, and the inversion. In the last three chords, you are given the
bass, the quality, and the inversion; for these you must determine the root. Try to construct each
triad before checking your answers against those in Example 5.16 and reading the explanations
following that example. In order to construct a seventh chord given the root, quality, and
inversion, you should first construct a root position chord (as in Example 5.11, problems a, b, and
c) and then invert it. In order to construct a seventh chord given the bass, quality, and inversion,
you should first determine whether you have been given the third (the bass of a #-chord), the fifth
(the bass of a $-chord), or the seventh (the bass of a %-chord). You should then construct the chord
in root position (as in Example 5.11, problems d, e, and f) and invert it.
Example 5.15. Practice Constructing Inverted seventh Chords.

Text, Page 128
Example 5.16. Answers for the Constructing Inverted Seventh Chords Practice in Example
5.15.
In chords a, b, and c, above, the procedure is the same, but the specific intervals to
construct differ with the quality of the triad. In chord a, a third inversion A major-minor seventh
chord, you should first construct a root position A major triad by constructing a major third above
A (Cƒ) and a perfect fifth above A (E). Next, you should construct a minor seventh above A (G).
The final step in this problem involves inverting the root position A major-minor seventh chord
(A-Cƒ-E-G) so that the seventh (G) of the chord is in the bass (G-A-Cƒ-E). In chord b, a first
inversion c minor-minor seventh chord, you should first construct a root position c minor triad by
constructing a minor third above C (Eß) and a perfect fifth above C (G). Next, you should
construct a minor seventh above C (Bß). The final step in this problem involves inverting the
root position c minor-minor seventh chord (C-Eß-G-Bß) so that the third (Eß) of the chord is in the
bass (Eß-G-Bß-C). In chord c, a second inversion D major-major seventh chord, you should first
construct a root position D major triad by constructing a major third above D (Fƒ) and a perfect
fifth above D (A). Next, you should construct a major seventh above D (Cƒ). The final step in
this problem involves inverting the root position D major-minor seventh chord (D-Fƒ-A-Cƒ) so
that the fifth (A) of the chord is in the bass (A-Cƒ-D-Fƒ). In chord d, a first inversion diminished-
minor seventh chord with a bass of G, you should first determine what element of the chord you
have been given. Since the bass of first inversion seventh chord is the third of the chord, G is the
third of the diminished triad you must construct. A root position diminished triad contains a
minor third below the third (E) and a minor third above the third (Bß). Next, you should construct
a minor seventh above E (D). The final step in this problem involves inverting the resulting root
Text, Page 129
position diminished-minor seventh chord (E-G-Bß-D) so that the third of the chord (G) remains in
the bass (G-Bß-E-D). In chord e, a third inversion major-major seventh chord with a bass of F,
you should first determine what element of the chord you have been given. Since the bass of
third inversion seventh chord is the seventh of the chord, F is a major seventh above the root of
the chord. You should determine the root of the chord by constructing a major seventh below F
(Gß). Next you should build a major triad by constructing a major third above Gß (Bß) and a
perfect fifth above Gß (Dß). The final step in this problem involves inverting the resulting root
position major-major seventh chord (Gß-Bß-Dß-F) so that the seventh of the chord (F) remains in
the bass (F-Gß-Bß-Dß). In chord f, a second inversion diminished-diminished seventh chord with
a bass of Aß, you should first determine what element of the chord you have been given. Since
the bass of second inversion seventh chord is the fifth of the chord, Aß is the fifth of the
diminished triad you must construct. A root position diminished triad contains a minor third
below the fifth (F) and a diminished fifth above the fifth (D). Next, you should construct a
diminished seventh above D (Cß). The final step in this problem involves inverting the resulting
root position diminished-minor seventh chord (D-F-Aß-Cß) so that the fifth of the chord (Aß)
remains in the bass (Aß-Cß-F-D). You should practice working with seventh chords in this
manner until you can quickly and accurately construct any quality of seventh chord in any
position given the root or the bass.

Materials For Musicianship - Volume I-Text - Units 1-5

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MATERIALS FOR

Unit 1: Introduction to Notation and the Keyboard

Unit 2: Major Scales and Key Signatures

Unit 4: Minor Scales and Key Signatures

Unit 5: Triads and Seventh Chords

complete cycle—initial displacement, return, new displacement, return—is defined as a

“vibration.” The distance of the displacement is defined as the “amplitude.”

address the characteristic of pitch in some detail.

keys will help us to identify the names of the white keys.

Example 1.1. Organization of Keys on the Piano Keyboard.

← lower pitches higher pitches →

Example 1.2. Names of the White Keys on the Piano Keyboard.

specific frequency, octave identification is needed to completely identify pitch.

Example 1.3. Full Piano Keyboard with Octave Designations.

extension of the staff with ledger lines.

Example 1.4. The Five-line, Four-space Staff and Ledger Lines.

A clef sign must appear at the beginning of every line of music.

Example 1.5. The Three Clefs in Their Most Typical Usage.

identify the names of the black keys of the piano.

fourth note of the first line.

Example 1.8. Notation of the Pitches Shown in Example 1.7.

The pitch A is enharmonic with the pitches Bå and G©.

Time Organization—Rhythm & Meter

(with no stem, flags, or beams).

Example 1.9. The Anatomy of a Note

note. The names of the notes reflect this relationship.

Table 1.1. Note Values and Their Equivalent Rest Signs.

Example 1.10. Beamed and Flagged Note Heads.

and double dots.

pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 1

pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 3 pulse 1

pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 3 pulse 4 pulse 1

Table 1.2. Metric Patterns of Duple, Triple, and Quadruple Meters.

meter, the second and third lines of Table 1.3.

beat subdivision: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------------

beat subdivision: - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------

beat subdivision: - - - - - - - - ------------

Example 1.11. Two Frequently Used Metric Abbreviations.

Quarter Note Beat

1st beat subdivision:

2nd beat subdivision:

1st beat subdivision:

2nd beat subdivision:

1st beat subdivision:

2nd beat subdivision:

Table 1-4. Simple Meter Rhythmic Relationships.

note tied to a one-beat note) will completely fill a measure.

Dotted quarter Note Beat

1st beat subdivision:

2nd beat subdivision:

Dotted eighth-Note Beat

1st beat subdivision:

2nd beat subdivision:

Dotted half-Note Beat

1st beat subdivision:

2nd beat subdivision:

Table 1.5. Compound Meter Rhythmic Relationships.

compound) will be conducted with a “four-pattern.”

Melodic and Rhythmic Notation

Example 1.12. Two Melodic Excerpts.12

end of a melody or at the end of a larger section of a melody.

occurrence of F, C and G is to be Fƒ, Cƒ, and a Gƒ unless it is cancelled by an accidental in the

Introduction to Intervals: The Semitone and the Whole Tone