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Vocational identity and psychological

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emerging adults

Article in Journal of Adolescence · November 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado

Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in

French adolescents and emerging adults
Lyda Lannegrand-Willems*, Cyrille Perchec, Clotilde Marchal
Laboratory of Psychology EA 4139, Univ. Bordeaux, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of the present research was to study vocational identity in French adolescent and
Available online xxx emerging adult students by using a French adaptation of the Vocational Identity Status
Assessment (VISA), and to analyze the links between vocational identity formation and
Keywords: negative and positive psychological adjustment. Participants were 1077 French students
Vocational identity who completed self-report scales about vocational identity, depression and satisfaction
VISA
with life. The French version of the VISA showed good psychometric properties and six
Psychological adjustment
identity statuses were derived by means of cluster analysis: achievement, foreclosure,
Identity processes
Identity statuses
moratorium, searching moratorium, diffused diffusion and carefree diffusion. The main
findings show that diffused diffusion and moratorium represent the dark sides of identity
because of their negative psychological adjustment, and that the two processes of
reconsideration of commitment were differently associated with psychological adjust-
ment. These findings demonstrate that clinical interventions should be adapted to the
individual's identity profile.
© 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier
Ltd. All rights reserved.

Vocational identity development represents a primary developmental task in adolescence (Blustein, Devenis, & Kidney,
1989; Blustein & Noumair, 1996; Erikson, 1968; Savickas, 1985). Although it has been strongly associated with the period
of adolescence (Erikson, 1968), sociocultural changes occurring in recent decades and in numerous countries, particularly the
lengthening of the period of schooling, have led to the extension of this developmental task into emerging adulthood (Arnett,
2004). Studying at university represents an opportunity for young people to continue to question their identity (e.g., Luyckx,
Schwartz, Goossens, Soenens, & Beyers, 2008; Montgomery & Co ^ te
, 2003). Moreover, in industrialized countries, vocational
identity is recognized as one of the most important developmental tasks (Porfeli, Lee, Vondracek, & Weigold, 2011; Skorikov
& Vondracek, 2011) and as a key component in the identity formation process (Holland, 1985; Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998;
Super, 1980). The purpose of the present research was to study vocational identity in French adolescent and emerging adult
students, and to analyze the links between vocational identity formation and psychological adjustment.

Career theories and identity formation

Although career theories and the construct of identity came from two separate theoretical and research domains, various
authors have examined the links between career development and vocational identity in the light of Erikson's hypotheses

* Corresponding author. Laboratory of Psychology EA 4139, University of Bordeaux, 3ter place de la Victoire, F-33076 Bordeaux cedex, France. Tel.: þ33 (0)
557 571 868.
E-mail address: lyda.lannegrand@u-bordeaux.fr (L. Lannegrand-Willems).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
0140-1971/© 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
French adolescents and emerging adults, Journal of Adolescence (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
2 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10

about identity formation in late adolescence (Blustein & Noumair, 1996; Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998). For example,
Vondracek (1992) has proposed a “developmental conceptualization of the construct of vocational identity” (p.130) with
reference to Erikson's construct of identity. Empirical studies provide support for the relations between career development
and identity formation, for the link between vocational identity and ego identity (Blustein et al., 1989; Savickas, 1985), and for
a leading role of vocational identity development in other identity development domains (Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998, 2011).
According to the Eriksonian approach, the operationalization of vocational identity has usually been guided by Marcia's
(1966) identity statuses paradigm (see Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011 for a review). Marcia specified two processes of iden-
tity formation: exploration (i.e., consideration of various potential identity alternatives) and commitment (i.e., adoption of
firm convictions or choices). In vocational identity development, career exploration and career commitment are considered as
the two major processes (Porfeli et al., 2011). Referring to the combination of exploration and commitment, Marcia (Marcia,
1966; Marcia, Waterman, Matteson, Archer, & Orlofsky, 1993) defined four identity statuses: identity achievement (high
exploration and commitment), moratorium (high exploration, commitment still vague), foreclosure (low exploration, high
commitment), and identity diffusion (with or without exploration, absence of commitment).
Marcia's identity paradigm inspired and still inspires many identity researchers. In the last decade, two broader process-
oriented models of identity have extended Marcia's conceptualizations and engendered new empirical identity statuses
(Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, Beyers, & Missoten, 2011; Meeus, 2011).
The dual-cycle model (Luyckx, Goossens, & Soenens, 2006; Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, & Beyers, 2006; Luyckx, Schwartz,
Berzonsky et al., 2008) includes five identity processes: exploration in breadth and commitment making as in Marcia's
identity paradigm, exploration in depth (i.e., the extent to which individuals actively evaluate and maintain their current
choices), identification with commitment (i.e., the way that individuals feel certain about their choices and identify with
them) and ruminative exploration (i.e., a locked cycle of repetitive exploration that prevents commitment formation) in order
to capture the maladaptive process of identity formation. With its five identity processes, the model therefore extends
Marcia's status paradigm to include achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and two different forms of diffusion, e diffused
diffusion and carefree diffusion -, both characterized by low scores on reflective exploration dimensions (in breadth and in
depth) and low scores on commitment dimensions, but different on ruminative exploration (very high score in diffused
diffusion vs. very low score in carefree diffusion).
Another model proposed by Crocetti et al. (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008; Crocetti, Rubini, & Meeus, 2008)
suggests that identity formation results from the interplay between three identity processes: commitment, in-depth
exploration (corresponding respectively to identification with commitment and exploration in depth processes in the
dual-cycle model) and reconsideration of commitment (i.e., the possibility of revising current commitments by comparing
them with alternatives and exploring a wide range of new alternatives). This three-factor model includes five empirical
identity statuses: achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion and searching moratorium. The latter status is defined by
high scores on all three processes. It could characterize individuals who are no longer satisfied with their current commit-
ments and are therefore reconsidering them.

Vocational identity: a six-process model of identity formation

On the basis of the two previous conceptual identity models, Porfeli et al. (2011) proposed a model of vocational identity
processes including career exploration, commitment and reconsideration of commitment dimensions. Each dimension
comprises two identity processes. As in the dual-cycle model, career exploration includes in-breadth exploration (i.e.,
exploration of different career possibilities) and in-depth exploration (i.e., exploration of a specific career choice). Career
commitment includes commitment making (i.e., certainty of current career choice) and identification with commitment (i.e.,
degree of identification with career choice). The reconsideration of commitment dimension is based on the three-factor
model, but the construct of career reconsideration is expanded and includes two processes: self-doubt and commitment
flexibility. The self-doubt process is characterized by “doubt, uneasiness, and worry about one's current career choice and a sense
that others share the same feelings and ideas” (Porfeli et al., 2011, p. 857). The commitment flexibility process is an “active and
ongoing consideration of alternatives and recognition and acceptance that one's career choice, interests, and values might change
in the future as a consequence of learning and experience” (p. 857).
From this new model, Porfeli et al. (2011) developed a scale named the “Vocational Identity Status Assessment” (VISA) to
measure the six theoretically defined identity processes. Six empirical identity statuses were derived from the identity
processes: achievement (high on exploration and commitment dimensions, and low on reconsideration of commitment
dimensions), moratorium (high on exploration in breadth and commitment flexibility, and low on commitment dimensions),
foreclosure (low on exploration and reconsideration dimensions, and high on commitment dimensions), diffusion (low on
exploration and commitment dimensions, and high on self-doubt dimension), undifferentiated status (moderate on all di-
mensions), and searching moratorium (high on all dimensions).

Identity statuses and psychosocial adjustment

More than 40 years ago, Erikson underlined the fact that achieved identity allows the integration of the individual into
society, and a personal feeling of well-being and self-confidence. Empirical studies support this assumption and emphasize
the reciprocal links between identity formation and mental health (e.g., Luyckx et al., 2011), even specifically in the vocational

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
French adolescents and emerging adults, Journal of Adolescence (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10 3

domain (see Skorikov & Vondracek, 2011 for a review). On the basis of Marcia's paradigm, it was shown that achieved ad-
olescents presented the best psychosocial adjustment profile and diffused adolescents the lowest one, moratorium and
foreclosed adolescents being at intermediate levels (e.g., Co ^ te
 & Schwartz, 2002).
Thus, identity can be seen as a “developmental asset” that contributes to a positive development (Luyckx, Schwartz,
Goossens, et al., 2008, p. 616). In western countries, however, identity formation has become a particularly difficult devel-
opmental task for some adolescents and young adults. Broader possibilities for personal choices exist but without a clear
indication of how to make such choices (Baumeister & Muraven, 1996; Co ^ te
, 1996; Co
^ te
 & Levine, 2002). Simultaneously and
paradoxically, the pressure to make choices is very high during adolescence and emerging adulthood, especially in the
vocational domain (Lannegrand-Willems, 2008, 2012; Lannegrand-Willems & Bosma, 2006). The French social context, and in
particular the French labor market, can influence vocational identity development. Subsequent commitment to adult roles
arises from the lengthening of presence in the educational system which is characterized by a high rate of young people
entering university (77.2% obtained the required baccalaureate diploma to enter university in 2015), by a “race” to obtain the
best diplomas, and by difficulties in getting a job (Direction de l'Evaluation, de la Prospective et de la Performance [DEPP],
2015; Lannegrand-Willems, Sabatier, & Brisset, 2011). In 2012, the rate of unemployment reached 25.5% for 15 to 24-year-
olds, compared to 9.9% in the general labor force (Direction de l'Animation de la Recherche, des Etudes et des Statistiques
[DARES], 2013).
The new models of identity, which highlight different types of diffusion and moratorium, contribute to specifying the links
between identity formation and psychological adjustment. In the dual-cycle model, a carefree diffusion status group scored
higher on psychosocial and academic adjustment measures than a diffused diffusion status group (Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens,
Beyers, & Vansteenkiste, 2005). Indeed, the adjustment level of the carefree diffused individuals was not significantly
different from that of the achieved and foreclosed groups. Nevertheless, this finding was not confirmed in other countries. In
Italy and the USA, carefree diffused individuals exhibited maladjustment (Crocetti, Luyckx, Scrignaro, & Sica, 2011; Schwartz
et al., 2011). It is therefore essential to take the sociocultural context into account in identity formation studies.
According to the three-factor model, the two forms of moratorium are different in terms of psychological adjustment, but
the results also depend on the country in which they are found. In European studies, moratorium seems to be “the dark side of
moratorium” whereas the searching moratorium status is seen as “the healthy side of moratorium” (Crocetti, Klimstra, Keijsers,
Hale, & Meeus, 2009, p. 847). Nevertheless, within the vocational identity model and in US samples, a study revealed that the
searching moratorium status, which exhibited the highest scores of self-doubt and flexibility, showed the lowest level of well-
being, as was also the case with the diffusion status (Porfeli et al., 2011). It still remains unclear whether both self-doubt and
flexibility lead to negative psychological adjustment, or whether only one of the two identity processes is involved in it.

Objectives of the study and hypotheses

The first aim of the current study was to examine the psychometric properties of the French version of the VISA, and to
investigate whether the six empirical identity statuses identified in the USA could be found in a French sample of adolescents
and emerging adults. We expected that a six-solution cluster would emerge, differentiating two types of diffusion (diffused
diffusion and carefree diffusion, in line with the dual-cycle model) and two types of moratorium (moratorium and searching
moratorium, in line with the three-factor model).
The second aim was to assess the links between vocational identity and psychological adjustment in both positive and
negative sides (satisfaction with life and depression). From the identity statuses derived in our French sample, we hypoth-
esized that achievement and foreclosure would have higher scores on psychological adjustment than diffused diffusion and
searching moratorium, which would have low scores. We expected that the two types of diffusion would be associated with
different levels of psychological adjustment, and hypothesized the same difference between the two types of moratorium
(diffused diffusion and searching moratorium being related to greater maladjustment). The role of vocational identity
development on psychological adjustment was also investigated by analyzing the six identity process effects on satisfaction
with life and depression, in order to specify which processes contribute most to the dark side of vocational identity formation.

Method

Participants and procedure

Our sample comprised 1077 French students (73% of women): 524 adolescents and 553 emerging adults. Mean age of the
adolescent sample was 17.01 years (SD ¼ 1.38). Adolescents were students in secondary schools (grades 9 to 12). Mean age of
the emerging adult sample was 22.28 years (SD ¼ 1.97). Emerging adults were university students at bachelor or masters
level. Participants were tested during a class period or completed the questionnaires at home.

Instruments

Vocational identity
The Vocational Identity Status Assessment (VISA) consists of 30 items on five-item scales for each of the six dimensions
(Porfeli et al., 2011): in-breadth career exploration (e.g., “Right now, I am thinking about how I could fit into many different

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
French adolescents and emerging adults, Journal of Adolescence (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
4 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10

careers”), in-depth career exploration (e.g., “Right now, I am identifying my strongest talents as I think about careers”), career
commitment making (e.g., “I know what kind of work is best for me”), identification with career commitment (e.g., “My career
will help me satisfy deeply personal goals”), career self-doubt (e.g., “Thinking about choosing a career makes me feel uneasy”), and
career commitment flexibility (e.g., “My work interests are likely to change in the future”). The five-point Likert scale (ranging
from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree) from the original version was used. The French adaptation was made ac-
cording to the recommendations of the International Test Commission (Hambleton, 2001).

Psychological adjustment measures

Depression. A short French version (Poulin, Hand, & Boudreau, 2005) of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression
Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977) was used in our study. It comprises 12 items (e.g., “I felt depressed”) scored on a four-point scale
(ranging from 1 ¼ rarely or none of the time to 4 ¼ most or all of the time). Its internal consistency was satisfactory in our
sample (a ¼ .86).
Satisfaction with life. The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS e Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) is composed of
five items (e.g., “In most ways, my life is close to my ideal”). The seven-point scale ranges from 1 (¼ strongly disagree) to 7 (¼
strongly agree). In our study, we used the French version of the SWLS (Blais, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Brie re, 1989). Its internal
consistency was satisfactory (a ¼ .79).

Plan of analyses

First, in order to evaluate the factorial validity of the VISA in our French sample, we tested the hypothesized six-factor
structure of the VISA on the total sample as well as configural and metric invariance across subsamples (age and gender)
by means of confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), using the open source packages ‘lavaan’ (Rosseel, 2012) and ‘semTools’
(semTools Contributors, 2015) in R. Other statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 21 (IBM Corp. Released, 2012). To
derive identity statuses from the dimensions of the VISA, a cluster analysis with a two-step procedure was performed. In the
first step, z-scores for the six VISA dimensions were subjected to hierarchical cluster analyses using Ward's method and based
on squared Euclidean distances. A six-cluster solution was retained according to three criteria (Luyckx, Schwartz, Berzonsky
et al., 2008): theoretical predictions, parsimony of the cluster solution, and its explanatory power. The second step consisted
in an iterative k-means clustering procedure using the final cluster centres from Ward's solution. Furthermore, differences
across gender and age groups in the six identity statuses were investigated by Chi-square tests (with an examination of the
standardized residuals with an absolute value greater than 2 to determine which cells significantly differ from the hypothesis
of independence).
Second, in order to test the links between vocational identity statuses and psychological adjustment (depression and
satisfaction with life) and whether gender and age moderates them, two multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs e
Identity statuses  gender, and Identity statuses  developmental period) with Tukey post-hoc tests were performed. Then,
in order to investigate the role of the vocational identity processes on depression and satisfaction with life, two multiple
regression analyses were carried out. For all analyses, the alpha level was adjusted to p < .01 because of the large sample size.

Results

VISA confirmatory factor analyses

We tested the hypothesized six-factor structure of the VISA on the total sample through a confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) with the MLM estimator (maximum likelihood parameter estimates with SatorraeBentler corrections). Four CFAs were
then conducted separately for each subsample (age and gender) in order to test for configural invariance. Metric invariance
was tested through Multiple Group CFA, on the assumption that a model is invariant if at least one of the two following
criteria is satisfied: Dc2 not significant at p < .01 or DCFI < .01 (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). Fit indices of the models tested are
reported in Table 1. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the six-factor structure with an acceptable fit and showed that the
model is invariant across gender and age. Cronbach's alpha and the descriptive statistics for the six subscale scores are re-
ported in Table 2. The French version of the VISA showed psychometric properties very close to the original English version
(Porfeli et al., 2011).

Vocational identity statuses: a six-cluster solution

Using a cluster analysis with a two-step procedure, the final solution includes six identity clusters that are quite similar to
the solution obtained by Porfeli et al. (2011). Fig. 1 shows the mean levels of the six identity process dimensions for each
cluster separately. This solution explained 63% of the variance in exploration in breadth, 50% for exploration in depth, 64% for
commitment making, 55% for identification with commitment, 57% for self-doubt, and 55% for commitment flexibility. A
discriminant function analysis supported this final cluster solution (Wilks' lambda ¼ .045; c2(30) ¼ 3305.48; p < .0001; 95.4%
of cross-validated grouped cases correctly classified). An achievement cluster scored high on both exploration and commit-
ment dimensions and moderately low on both reconsideration of commitment dimensions. A searching moratorium cluster
scored high on exploration in breadth, intermediate on both commitment dimensions and exploration in depth, and high on

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
French adolescents and emerging adults, Journal of Adolescence (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10 5

Table 1
Fit indices for the six factor model of the VISA with configural and metric invariance across subsamples.

Model N df SBS-c2 SRMR RMSEA (90% CI) TLI CFI Dc2-test (df ¼ 24) DCFI
Total sample 1036 390 1379.06 .054 .049 (.047e.052) .91 .92
Gender
Girls 770 390 1191.91 .057 .052 (.049e.055) .90 .91
Boys 266 390 637.17 .064 .049 (.043e.055) .91 .92
Across gender 804 1865.10 .062 .050 (.048e.053) .91 .91 51.89** .00
Age
Adolescents 501 390 845.78 .057 .048 (.044e.052) .91 .92
Emerging adults 535 390 994.13 .063 .054 (.050e.058) .90 .91
Across age 804 1903.70 .064 .051 (.049e.054) .90 .91 66.31** .00

Note. df ¼ degrees of freedom; SBS-c2 ¼ SatorraeBentler Scaled Chi-square; SRMR ¼ Standardized Root Mean Square Residual; RMSEA ¼ Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation; CI ¼ Confidence Interval; TLI ¼ Tucker Lewis Index; CFI ¼ Comparative Fit Index, Dc2 ¼ Delta Chi-square; DCFI ¼ Delta Comparative
Fit Index.
**p < .01.

both reconsideration dimensions. A moratorium cluster scored high on exploration in breadth and on reconsideration of
commitment dimensions but low on exploration in depth and very low on both commitment dimensions. A foreclosure
cluster scored low on exploration in breadth, very low on both reconsideration of commitment dimensions, and high on both
commitment dimensions. A diffused diffusion cluster scored low on exploration in breadth, very low on exploration in depth
and on both commitment dimensions, but high on reconsideration of commitment dimensions. Finally, a carefree diffusion
cluster scored low on both exploration dimensions, intermediate on both commitment dimensions, and moderately low on
reconsideration of commitment dimensions.
The distribution of vocational identity statuses was significantly different between adolescents and emerging adults
[c2(N ¼ 1068, df ¼ 5) ¼ 37.63, p < .0001]. Detailed examination of the standardized residuals (absolute values greater than 2)
indicated that compared to adolescents, emerging adults were overrepresented in carefree diffusion. No significant difference
emerged for the other statuses (standardized residuals < j2j). The distribution of the vocational identity statuses also differed
significantly between males and females [c2(N ¼ 1070, df ¼ 5) ¼ 17.21, p < .01]. Detailed examination of the standardized
residuals indicated that males were overrepresented in diffused diffusion compared to females.

Vocational identity statuses and psychological adjustment

MANOVAs revealed significant effects of identity statuses on depression and satisfaction with life. No interaction with
gender and developmental period was found. Therefore only the results for the principal effect of identity statuses (F values,
h2, and pairwise comparisons) are reported in Table 3. According to Tukey post-hoc tests, on depression, participants in
diffused diffusion identity scored higher than those in carefree diffusion and achievement, whereas participants in
achievement scored lower than those in moratorium and diffused diffusion. Conversely, on satisfaction with life, participants
in diffused diffusion had a lower mean score than those in all the other identity statuses except those in moratorium. Par-
ticipants in achievement and foreclosure had a higher mean score than those in diffused diffusion and moratorium.
Furthermore, a principal effect of gender was found on depression [F(1,813) ¼ 26.34; p < .0001; h2 ¼ .03] and satisfaction
with life [F(1,813) ¼ 9.12; p < .01; h2 ¼ .01]. Females had higher mean scores on depression and lower mean scores on
satisfaction with life than males. No principal effect of developmental period on depression and satisfaction with life was
found.
Finally, in order to investigate the role of the six vocational identity processes on psychological adjustment (depression
and satisfaction with life), two multiple regression analyses were carried out. Results are presented in Table 4. On depression,
self-doubt had a positive effect. The other identity processes had no effect. On satisfaction with life, identification with
commitment had a positive effect, whereas self-doubt had a negative one.

Table 2
Descriptive statistics and correlations between identity process dimensions.

M SD a 2 3 4 5 6
1. EB 2.82 1.01 .87 .17* .36* .15* .37* .46*
2. ED 3.81 .80 .77 .38* .39* .25* .23*
3. CM 3.57 .97 .81 .59* .58* .63*
4. IC 3.97 .73 .74 .45* .43*
5. SD 2.24 .98 .82 .58*
6. CF 2.75 .97 .85

a ¼ Cronbach's alpha.
*p < .001.

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
French adolescents and emerging adults, Journal of Adolescence (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
6 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10

1.50

1.00

.50

.00 EB

-.50
ED
CM
-1.00
IC
-1.50 SD
CF
-2.00

-2.50
Achievement Searching Moratorium Foreclosure Diffused Carefree
(18.1%) moratorium (14%) (20.6%) diffusion diffusion
(17.9%) (5.7%) (23.7%)

Fig. 1. Final cluster solution for vocational identity. z-scores for exploration in breadth (EB), exploration in depth (ED), commitment making (CM), identification
with commitment (IC), self-doubt (SD), and commitment flexibility (CF). N ¼ 1071.

Discussion

The first purpose of this study was to examine the relevance of the vocational identity processes model by Porfeli et al.
(2011) among French adolescent and emerging adult students. Our findings support the integration and the extension of
the two major neo-Eriksonian models of identity in the vocational domain: integration of the two exploration processes (in
breadth and in depth), integration of the two commitment processes (commitment making and identification with
commitment), and extension of the processes of reconsideration of commitment (self-doubt and commitment flexibility). The
French version of the VISA showed good psychometric properties and cluster analysis confirmed the identity statuses already
found in the previous identity models. Diffusion comprises diffused diffusion and carefree diffusion (status identified from
the dual-cycle model), while moratorium is different from searching moratorium (distinction from the three-factor model).
Emerging adults were overrepresented in carefree diffusion compared to adolescents. Regardless of whether the uni-
versity context seems to offer students the possibility to freely experiment different roles and values far removed from adult
responsibilities, some students may passively adopt a “wait and see” attitude (Adams, Berzonsky, & Keating, 2006, p. 89),
which is probably reinforced by the French university context, particularly by the lengthening of presence in the educational
system and the subsequent commitment to adult roles. However, a previous study showed that the carefree diffusion status
observed in French college students was characterized by a moderate level of ruminative exploration, indicating that it was
“not so carefree” (Zimmermann, Lannegrand-Willems, Safont-Mottay, & Cannard, 2015, p.138). A similar profile was observed
in our study, underlying that a real “I don't care” attitude (Archer & Waterman, 1990, p. 103) is an untenable position in the
French social context.
The second objective of the study was to analyze the relationships between vocational identity statuses and psychological
adjustment (depression and satisfaction with life). The findings showed that diffused diffusion represents the dark side of
identity because of the association with negative psychological adjustment, whereas achievement represents the positive
side. Indeed, moratorium was also associated with psychological maladjustment. These findings are consistent with the
literature, since diffused diffusion had the lowest scores on psychosocial adjustment measures in the dual-cycle model
(Luyckx et al., 2005) and moratorium had lower scores than searching moratorium in the three-factor model (Crocetti et al.,
2009). Conversely, in the study by Porfeli et al. (2011), searching moratorium exhibited the lowest score on well-being.
However, in that study, the searching moratorium group also had the highest scores on self-doubt and flexibility. This was

Table 3
Depression and satisfaction with life by identity statuses.

Variable Identity statuses F-value h2

Achievement Searching Moratorium Foreclosure Diffused Carefree
moratorium diffusion diffusion
Depression 1.87a (.57) 2.08abc (.59) 2.18bc (.68) 1.99abc (.64) 2.22c (.65) 1.94ab (.56) 5.50*** .03
Satisfaction with life 5.02c (1.07) 4.52bc (1.15) 4.34ab (1.20) 4.91c (1.15) 3.89a (1.37) 4.76bc (1.04) 11.51*** .07

Standard deviations are in parentheses. Pairwise comparisons were conducted using Tukey post-hoc tests. Within each row, means sharing a common
subscript are not statistically different at p < .01.
***p < .001.

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
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 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10 7

Table 4
Multiple regression analyses predicting psychological adjustment from vocational identity processes.

Variable Psychological adjustment

Depression Satisfaction with life

b 95% CI b 95% CI
Constant 1.56*** [1.17, 1.96] 3.67*** [2.93, 4.42]
Exploration in breadth .05 [.10, .00] .06 [.03, .15]
Exploration in depth .02 [.04, .08] .02 [.09, .13]
Commitment making .06 [.00, .12] .05 [.17, .07]
Identification with commitment .04 [.11, .03] .36*** [.22, .49]
Self-doubt .30*** [.24, .35] .38*** [.48, .28]
Commitment flexibility .08 [.13, .02] .13 [.02, .25]

R2 .13 .14
F 21.95*** 23.23***

***p < .001.

not the case in our study in which the moratorium group scored higher on self-doubt and flexibility compared to the
searching moratorium group. The differences between the US study and ours with regard to moratorium and searching
moratorium profiles may explain the divergent findings related to adjustment. In our study, moratorium seems to correspond
to what Crocetti et al. (2009) call ‘the dark side of moratorium” (p. 847). What the diffused diffusion and moratorium profiles
have in common is that they both have a combination of high scores on self-doubt and commitment flexibility, and low scores
on exploration in depth and both commitment dimensions. It may suggest that a combination of self-doubt and commitment
flexibility is a risk factor. However, the searching moratorium profile, which is also characterized by high scores on self-doubt
and commitment flexibility but is combined with intermediate scores on exploration in depth and both commitment di-
mensions, is not an indicator of maladjustment. These results therefore suggest that when it is associated with low
commitment and exploration in depth, a high reconsideration of commitment constitutes a risk of psychological
maladjustment.
We also examined which identity processes were associated with psychological adjustment and maladjustment. The two
processes of reconsideration of commitment were differently associated with psychological adjustment. The self-doubt
identity process was linked to maladjustment, whereas flexibility was not related to adjustment. In their theoretical
model, Porfeli et al. (2011) posited that career reconsideration may include a negative aspect, namely self-doubt, and a
positive aspect, namely flexibility, in line with the assumption that a flexible approach with regard to vocational identity
formation might be adaptive. Our results support the relevance of the distinction between these two processes of recon-
sideration of commitment. Moreover, longitudinal studies have shown that temporary reconsideration of commitment might
not necessary represent a problem in identity development but rather a time for thinking about and questioning the rele-
vance of current career choices (Klimstra, Hale, Raaijmakers, Branje, & Meeus, 2010; Negru-Subtirica, Pop, & Crocetti, 2015).
This temporary process might indicate flexibility. Conversely, self-doubt may inhibit commitment processes. In the vocational
identity clusters that emerged in our results, high levels of self-doubt were always combined with low levels of commitment
making and identification with commitment. Self-doubt seems to be an identity process similar to ruminative exploration, as
defined in the dual-cycle model, which inhibits commitment processes. As in our study concerning self-doubt, ruminative
exploration was found by others to be positively associated with depressive symptoms during adolescence and emerging
adulthood (Luyckx, Klimstra, Duriez, Van Petegem, & Beyers, 2013).

Clinical implications

Our findings demonstrate that clinical actions should be adapted to the individual's identity profile. They underline the
links between psychological maladjustment and specific vocational identity statuses, i.e., diffused diffusion and moratorium.
These statuses are both characterized by the lowest scores on commitment dimensions and by high scores on reconsideration
of commitment dimensions. Furthermore, the findings emphasize the distinction between self-doubt and flexibility pro-
cesses. Self-doubt appears to be a ruminative exploration and seems to be maladaptive, unlike flexibility, which could be an
adaptive process in which the individual is open to possible changes, notably with regard to normative transitions (Negru-
Subtirica et al., 2015). Nevertheless, our results show that flexibility is strongly associated with self-doubt (r ¼ .58), and all
vocational identity clusters with high scores on flexibility scored high on self-doubt (i.e., diffused diffusion, moratorium, and
searching moratorium). Thus, clinical investigations should attempt to identify what kind(s) of reconsideration of commit-
ment processes is/are active, in which temporal school context (i.e., identifying whether the context includes normative
school transitions or not), and in particular, to evaluate the amount of self-doubt. Then, when an individual is in moratorium
(i.e., when he/she demonstrates exploration in breadth), clinical practices should focus on support for formulation, clarifi-
cation and assertion of personal and vocational choices in order to help his/her commitment making. Furthermore, these
practices should reduce self-doubt, which is an identity process that probably inhibits the emergence of personal vocational

Please cite this article in press as: Lannegrand-Willems, L., et al., Vocational identity and psychological adjustment: A study in
French adolescents and emerging adults, Journal of Adolescence (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.005
8 L. Lannegrand-Willems et al. / Journal of Adolescence xxx (2015) 1e10

commitments. In turn, a decrease in self-doubt might also lead to an increase in psychological adjustment. When an indi-
vidual is in diffused diffusion (i.e., with low levels of adaptive exploration), clinical practices should include support for the
exploration of vocational alternatives, with a view to decreasing self-doubt about one's abilities to analyze and to evaluate for
oneself the sense and the relevance of each alternative.
Our findings also show that carefree diffusion might not always be associated with negative psychological adjustment, as
in previous studies (e.g., Luyckx et al., 2005). Owing to the complexity and the unpredictability of the social context, this status
might represent a new (temporary) type of psychosocial adaptation. However, within this identity profile, identity formation
and progression are not possible without exploration and commitment processes. Indeed, since carefree diffused individuals
seem to adopt passively a “wait and see” attitude (Adams et al., 2006, p. 89), they probably do not perceive any conflict
between themselves and their environment. According to the relational dynamic systems model of commitment develop-
ment (Bosma & Kunnen, 2001), there cannot be any identity progression without personal perception of conflict. In this case,
counseling might be effective when the individual perceives a conflict. Psychologists could thus help individuals to explore
their relations with their environment.

Limitations, strengths and future research

Our study has several limitations. Firstly, our emerging adult sample consisted only of college students. Identity devel-
opment might be different in non-college bound youth in France and not necessarily any easier. Owing to the difficulty of
finding employment, particularly for young people without a diploma, the period of emerging adulthood also affects young
people in France since 50% of people who have finished their studies without a diploma live with their parents for at least six
years after leaving school and 25% for more than ten years (Driant, Casteran, & O'Prey, 2007/2008; Lannegrand-Willems et al.,
2011). Future research should investigate vocational identity development among emerging adults who have left school early
with or without a diploma. Secondly, the assessment of psychological adjustment did not include externalizing problems or
health risk behaviors. Such measures would provide a more nuanced picture of the carefree diffusion profile, as previous
studies have shown. For example, within a large US sample of emerging adults, compared to the other identity statuses,
carefree diffusion individuals scored highest on externalizing dimensions (rule-breaking, social and physical aggression) and
reported the highest rates of illicit drug use (Schwartz et al., 2011). It would be relevant to assess externalizing problems and
health risk behaviors in order to analyze better the potential dark and light sides of vocational identity formation in the
French context. Future research could also include work-related measures such as career adaptability (Savickas & Porfeli,
2012), which is related to vocational identity (Negru-Subtirica et al., 2015). Another limitation is the cross-sectional design
which did not allow the evolution of vocational identity processes and statuses nor their links with psychological adjustment
to be evaluated. Particularly, it would be relevant to analyze how people in diffused diffusion and moratorium develop over
time in their vocational identity, and whether and how people in carefree diffusion start caring about their personal voca-
tional identity formation.
The strength of the study is that it underlines the positive and negative sides of the processes involved in vocational
identity formation. In particular, the distinction between the two reconsideration-of-commitment processes (self-doubt as
the negative side) provided a clearer understanding of vocational identity statuses and their links with psychological
adjustment in adolescence and emerging adulthood. Such a distinction should be taken into account in future research and in
other life domains of identity formation.
This work could be extended in the future by a study examining the diversity of vocational identity formation in which the
different developmental trajectories (e.g., Negru-Subtirica et al., 2015) that are more or less adaptive according to the so-
ciocultural context are investigated. According to Lerner (1991), identity formation models and empirical longitudinal studies
should focus on the integrative links between developing individuals and their changing contexts. By examining how the
formation of vocational identity changes, such a research design might help in adapting psychological assistance and
counseling to adolescents and emerging adults on the individual level.

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