Continuity


x3  4 x2  x  6
Teaching Limits so that f  x 
x2


Students will Understand Limits 


What happens at x = 2?

What is f(2)?        

Presented by What happens near x = 2?


Lin McMullin f(x) is near 3 

National Math and Science Initiative 

What happens as x approaches 2?

f(x) approaches 3

x x‐1 1/(x‐1)^2

Asymptotes Asymptotes 0.9

0.91
‐0.1

‐0.09
100.00

123.46

0.92 ‐0.08 156.25

0.93 ‐0.07 204.08

1

g  x  0.94 ‐0.06 277.78

 x  1
2
1  0.95 ‐0.05 400.00

g  x  0.96 ‐0.04 625.00

 x  1 
2
0.97 ‐0.03 1,111.11

 0.98 ‐0.02 2,500.00

 0.99 ‐0.01 10,000.00

 1 0 Undefined
 1.01 0.01 10,000.00

What happens at x = 1? 1.02 0.02 2,500.00

1.03 0.03 1,111.11
          
What happens near x = 1?  1.04 0.04 625.00

1.05 0.05 400.00

As x approaches 1, g increases without bound, or g approaches infinity. 1.06 0.06 277.78

1.07 0.07 204.08

As x increases without bound, g approaches 0.           
1.08 0.08 156.25

1.09 0.09 123.46
As x approaches infinity g approaches 0. 1.10 0.1 100.00

Asymptotes The Area Problem

x x‐1 1/(x‐1)^2 

1
g  x  1 0 Undefinned

 x  1
2 2 1 1

5 4 0.25
h  x   1  x2 
10 9 0.01234567901234570

 50 49 0.00041649312786339 j  x  0 
100 99 0.00010203040506071 

500 499 0.00000401604812832 x 1 

x3
1,000 999 0.00000100200300401

10,000 9999 0.00000001000200030
 
100,000 99999 0.00000000010000200

 1,000,000 999999 0.00000000000100000 

10,000,000 9999999 0.00000000000001000
     
100,000,000 99999999 0.00000000000000010 What is the area of the outlined region? 

           As the number of rectangles increases with out bound, the area of the

rectangles approaches the area of the region.

1
The Tangent Line Problem As x approaches 1, (5 – 2x) approaches ?

x 5  2x
0.90 3.20
0.91 3.18
0.92 3.16
0.93 3.14
0.94 3.12
0.95 3.10

f(x) within 0.16 units of 3

x within 0.08 units of 1

f(x) within 0.08 units of 3

What is the slope of the black line?

x within 0.04 units of 1

0.96 3.08
0.97 3.06
0.98 3.04
0.99 3.02
1.00 3.00
1.01 2.98
1.02 2.96
1.03 2.94
1.04 2.92
1.05 2.90
1.06 2.88

As the red point approaches the black point, the red secant line approaches 1.07 2.86
1.08 2.84
the black tangent line, and 1.09 2.82

The slope of the secant line approaches the slope of the tangent line.

lim  5  2x   3 lim  5  2x   3
x 1 x 1


x 1  
2 5  2x   3  

2x  2   or
3    5  2x  3   
2  2x  
5  2x  3   

5  2x   3   

f  x  L        

Graph   
x 1  or 1   x  1
2 2 2

lim  5  2x   3 The Definition of Limit at a Point

x 1

 
    When the values successively attributed
4 2 to a variable approach indefinitely to a
fixed value, in a manner so as to end by
differing from it as little as one wishes,
this last is called the limit of all the
others.
Augustin‐Louis Cauchy (1789 – 1857)

2
The Definition of Limit at a Point The Definition of Limit at a Point

lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0 lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0
x a x a

there is a number      0 such that there is a number      0 such that

if 0  x  a      , then f  x   L   if 0  x  a      , then f  x   L  

lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0

x a

there is a number      0 and x  a such that

if a       x  a      , then L    f  x   L  

Karl Weierstrass (1815 – 1897) Karl Weierstrass (1815 – 1897)

Footnote: Footnote:
The Definition of Limit at a Point The Definition of Limit at a Point

lim f  x   L     0    0 such that lim f  x   L     0    0 such that

x a x a

f  x   L   , whenever 0  x  a   f  x   L   , whenever 0  x  a  

lim  5  2x   3 lim  5  2x   3
x 1 x 1

x 5  2x
0.90 3.20
0.91
0.92
3.18
3.16
f  x  L  
5  2x   3  
0.93 3.14
0.94 3.12
0.95 3.10
f(x) within 0.16 units of 3

5  2x  3  
x within 0.08 units of 1

f(x) within 0.08 units of 3

x within 0.04 units of 1

0.96 3.08
0.97 3.06

2  2x  
0.98 3.04
0.99 3.02
1.00 3.00
1.01 2.98 2x  2  
1.02 2.96
1.03 2.94

1.04 2.92 x 1 
1.05
1.06
2.90
2.88
2
1.07 2.86
1.08 2.84
1.09 2.82

3
lim x 2  9 lim x 2  9
x 3 x 3

x2  9   x2  9  
x3 x3   x3 x3  

Near x  3, specifically in (2, 4), 5  x  3  7

lim x 2  9 lim x 2  9
x 3 x 3

x2  9   x2  9  
x3 x3   x3 x3  

Near x  3, specifically in (2, 4), 5  x  3  7 Near x  3, specifically in (2, 4), 5  x  3  7

7 x3   7 x3  
 
x3  x3 
7 7


     the smaller of 1 and Graph
7

lim sin(x )  sin(a ) One-sided Limits

x a

(0,1)

lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0

a + delta (cos x, sin x)

x a 

there is a number      0 such that

(cos a, sin a)

if 0  x  a      , then f  x   L  
sin x

lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0

a - delta

x a 

sin a
x in radians
there is a number      0 such that


if 0  a  x      , then f  x   L  
(1, 0)
Graph

4
 Limits Equal to Infinity Limit as x Approaches Infinity

lim f  x    if, and only if, for any number M  0
x a
there is a number     such that
if 0  x  a      , then f  x   M
lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0
x 
there is a number M  0 such that
 M  f  x   if x  M , then f  x   L  

Graphically this is a vertical asymptote Graphically, this is a horizontal asymptote

lim f  x    if, and only if, for any number M  0 lim f  x   L if, and only if, for any number   0
x a x 

there is a number    such that there is a number M  0 such that

if 0  x  a      , then f  x   M if x  M , then f  x   L  

Limit Theorems The Area Problem


Almost all limit are actually found by substituting the 
values into the expression, simplifying, and coming up 
with a number, the limit. h  x   1  x2 

The theorems on limits of sums, products, powers, etc. j  x  0 
justify the substituting. x 1 

x3
Those that don’t simplify can often be found with more 

advanced theorems such as L'Hôpital's Rule
    


The Area Problem The Area Problem

length  h  x   j  x   1  x 2
 
n n n n
lim  1  1  2n i    lim n  2  lim n  n i  lim n  n i
2 2 2 2 4 2 4 2
b  a 3 1 2 n 2
i  n n n
width    i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
n n n n n n
 lim 4n 1  lim n82  i  lim n83  i 2
x-coordinates =  1,1  n2 , 1  2n  2  , 1  2n  3 , ..., 1  n2  n  
n
i 1
n
i 1
n 
i 1

n n 1 n n 1 2 n 1

   lim 4n n  lim n82  lim n83

n
Area   1  1  2n i  

2 2  2 6
n
 n n n 
 
i 1  
 4  4  83
 
 
n
32
Area = lim  1  1  n2 i  
2 


2 
32

n 3
n 3  
i 1
     
 

    


5
The Tangent Line Problem The Tangent Line Problem

As P  T As P  T
x  0 P  a  x , f  a  x   x  0 P  a  x , f  a  x  
slope PT  m slope PT  m
f  a  x   f  a  f  a  x   f  a 
m  f a
 a  x   a f  a  x   f  a   a  x   a f  a  x   f  a 

T  a, f  a   T  a, f  a  
x x
y  f a  m x  a y  f  a   f   a  x  a 

Lin McMullin

lnmcmullin@aol.com

www.LinMcMullin.net
Click: AP Calculus