1

Free SDOF Vibration – Modelling and

equation of motion
 2
Schedule
From any general SDOF system to the
• Lecture W05-2nd. SDOF free vibration universal SDOF free vibration equation
modelling 𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑥𝑥�̈ + 𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑥𝑥�̇ + 𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑥𝑥� = 0
• Lecture W07-1st. Solution and
analysis of SDOF free vibration SOURCE 1

• Lecture W07-2nd. Forced SDOF

vibration

• Lectures W08. Applications and

review of SDOF vibration

• Lectures W09. Extension to MDOF

vibration

• Lecture W10-1st. Introduction to

continuous systems and review

• Lecture W10-2nd. Combined Part A-B 𝑥𝑥, �̇ 𝑥𝑥�̈

� 𝑥𝑥,
practice session for exam preparation 𝑐𝑐

𝑚𝑚

𝑘𝑘

SOURCE 1: By Kelisi - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=61587054

 3
Schedule
• We will solve 𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑥𝑥�̈ + 𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑥𝑥�̇ + 𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑥𝑥� = 0 to
• Lecture W05-2nd. SDOF free vibration
find 𝑥𝑥� 𝑡𝑡
modelling
• We will analyse 𝑥𝑥� 𝑡𝑡 identifying effects
• Lecture W07-1st.
Solution and analysis of key terms (e.g. frequency and
of SDOF free vibration damping)
• Lecture W07-2nd. Forced SDOF • We will learn how to identify properties
vibration of vibrating systems from measured
vibration signals
• Lectures W08. Applications and review SOURCE 1
of SDOF vibration

• Lectures W09. Extension to MDOF

vibration

• Lecture W10-1st. Introduction to

continuous systems and review
Fixed = 0.1
1

• Lecture W10-2nd.
Combined Part A-B n

n
= 1.26 rad/s (f

= 3.14 rad/s (f
n

n
= 0.2 Hz)

= 0.5 Hz)

practice session for exam preparation

0.5
= 6.28 rad/s (f = 1.0 Hz)
n n

= 12.57 rad/s (f = 2.0 Hz)

n n

displacement (m)
-0.5

-1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

time (s)

SOURCE 1: Laxmikant Kannappan (2008), Damage Detection in Structures using Natural Frequency Measurements, UNSW PhD Thesis
 4
Schedule
• Lecture W05-2nd. SDOF free vibration • We will add a force to the equation,
modelling resulting in 𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑥𝑥�̈ + 𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑥𝑥�̇ + 𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑥𝑥� = 𝐹𝐹�
• Lecture W07-1st. Solution and analysis • We will see the vibration response
of SDOF free vibration to a harmonic forces (incl. rotating
• Lecture W07-2nd. Forced SDOF
unbalance)
vibration • We will apply our knowledge to
mitigate vibration problems
• Lectures W08. Applications and review
of SDOF vibration
SOURCE 1

• Lectures W09. Extension to MDOF

vibration

• Lecture W10-1st. Introduction to 10

= 0.00

continuous systems and review

9
= 0.01

= 0.05

8 = 0.10

= 0.50

• Lecture W10-2nd. Combined Part A-B

7 = 1.00

= 2.00

practice session for exam preparation 5

Magnification factor
4

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

/
n

SOURCE 1: By Александр Ситенький (Alexander Seetenky) - CPI BalNpp(The Centre of the Public Information Balakovo NPP), CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11616298
 5
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)
 6
Vibration vs large motion
• Two types of motion in machines:
• Large motion (e.g. mechanisms), usually designed to perform that motion
• Small motion (i.e. vibration), usually unwanted but always present
• PART A: Large motion requires the full (non-linear) dynamic study of the system
• PART B: Vibration equations are “simplified” using the small-displacement assumption
• This “simplification” process is called linearisation
 7
What is vibration?
Vibration is a…
• …small motion
• …around a stable
• …equilibrium position.

Equilibrium: we first need to find the equilibrium position around which

vibration can happen

Stable: only stable equilibrium positions allow vibration

Small: vibration is assumed to be small enough so that the equation of

motion of the system can be linearised (i.e., simplified)
 8
Vibration – Why do we care in practice?
Vibration is …
• … often harmful to machines and structures, for two main reasons:
• Cyclic motion causes fatigue and fatigue leads to failure
Example: Tacoma Narrows bridge collapse
• Displacement itself can result in poor performance
Example: tolerance in manufacturing
• … even if not harmful, used as an indicator of other failure-modes:
• Vibration-based condition monitoring
Example: bearing diagnostics

SOURCE: P.
Pennacchi, P.
Borghesani, S.
Chatterton, A
cyclostationary multi-
domain analysis of
fluid instability in
Kaplan turbines,
Mechanical Systems
and Signal Processing,
Volumes 60–61, 2015,
Pages 375-390
 9
Vibration classification
Free vs forced
• Free vibration happens without a force acting during the motion
• Forced vibration happens as a consequence of a force applied to the system
• Free vibration is in practice limited in time (fades)
• Forced vibration is persistent as long as the force is active
• Free vibration main characteristics depend only on the system properties
• Forced vibration are a combination of force and system characteristics

Single vs Multi degree-of-freedom systems

• Single dof has only one possible motion
• Multi-dof can move in multiple “shapes”
 10
Degrees of freedom
Degrees of freedom (DOFs)
• Is the number of coordinates (scalar values such as 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝜃𝜃) which can move
independently in a system
• Examples: how many DOFs do the following system have?

𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘

𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦2
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦3 𝑦𝑦3

𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
 11
Degrees of freedom
Degrees of freedom (DOFs)
• Is the number of coordinates (scalar values such as 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝜃𝜃) which can move
independently in a system
• Examples: how many DOFs do the following system have?

𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘

𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦2
1 DOF, since 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝜃1 and 𝑦𝑦2 are 3 DOFs, since 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝑦𝑦2
bound to and 𝑦𝑦3 are all
move 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦3 independent (springs 𝑦𝑦3
together by 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
in between)
the cable

𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

2 DOFs, since 𝑦𝑦2 and

2 DOFs, since 𝜃𝜃1 and
𝑦𝑦3 are constrained to
𝑦𝑦2 are free to move
move together (cable),
independently (thanks
but 𝜃𝜃1 is free to move
to the spring in
relatively to 𝑦𝑦1 and 𝑦𝑦2
between)
(spring in between)
 The overall vibration analysis process 12

Dynamic Kinetics and kinematics as in part A

Not done in one point/instant, but for all motion
modelling
Adaptation of part A (Today)

Non-linear Complex function motion vs forces/moments

equation Solution of this equation requires computer-based approaches,
not possible analytically
of motion

Vibration Small motion around a stable equilibrium

Allows simplifying the equation of motion
assumption

Linearised
equation Standard function motion vs forces/moments
𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
of motion Solution of this equation is known!

Vibration
Next weeks

analysis • I can find 𝒙𝒙 𝒕𝒕

• How much my system vibrates?
• How can I reduce vibration?
Vibration in
time
 13
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)
 14
Let’s look at two simple systems

Rotational (or torsional)

Translational vibrating system
vibrating system
𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥,̇ 𝑥𝑥̈
𝑐𝑐
𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡
𝑚𝑚

𝑘𝑘 𝑂𝑂 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂

𝜃𝜃, 𝜃𝜃,̇ 𝜃𝜃̈

Now, let’s look into the key

elements within these
systems
 15
Vibration – Fundamental elements

Three fundamental elements

𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥,̇ 𝑥𝑥̈

𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚 Mass 𝑚𝑚 in kg

𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑘 Stiffness 𝑘𝑘 in N/m
𝑘𝑘

𝑐𝑐 Damping 𝑐𝑐 in N/(m/s)

Terminology
𝑐𝑐 is called
“damping coefficient”
 16
Each element comes with a law

𝑚𝑚 Mass 𝑚𝑚 in kg ∑𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (Newton’s law)

Δℓ 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘Δℓ (Hooke’s law)

• Force opposes elongation
𝑘𝑘 Stiffness 𝑘𝑘 in N/m
• Δℓ in elongation (convention)
• 𝐹𝐹 towards centre (convention)
Δℓ 𝐹𝐹

Δℓ̇ 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ (viscous damping)

• Force opposes elongation velocity
𝑐𝑐 Damping 𝑐𝑐 in N⋅s/m • Δℓ̇ in elongation (convention)
• 𝐹𝐹 towards centre (convention)
Δℓ̇ 𝐹𝐹
 17
Vibration – Fundamental elements (rotational)

Three fundamental elements

𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂
𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 Moment of inertia about 𝑂𝑂
𝑂𝑂 (fixed point) 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 in kg⋅m2

𝑂𝑂 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂

𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 Torsional stiffness 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡

𝜃𝜃, 𝜃𝜃,̇ 𝜃𝜃̈ in Nm/rad

𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 Torsional damping 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡

in Nm/(rad/s)
 18
Each element comes with a law
Moment of
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 inertia 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 in ∑𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂 = 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝛼𝛼 or ∑𝑀𝑀𝐺𝐺 = 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝛼𝛼
kg⋅m2 about (Newton’s law)
𝑂𝑂
fixed point 𝑂𝑂
(or COM 𝐺𝐺)

Δ𝜃𝜃 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 Δ𝜃𝜃 (Hooke’s law)

Δ𝜃𝜃 Torsional • Moment opposes angular deflection
𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡
stiffness 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 in • Δ𝜃𝜃 in elongation (convention)
𝑀𝑀 N⋅m/rad • 𝑀𝑀 towards centre (convention)
𝑀𝑀
Δ𝜃𝜃̇
𝑀𝑀 = 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 Δ𝜃𝜃̇ (viscous damping)
Torsional
𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 • Moment opposes angular velocity
Δ𝜃𝜃̇ 𝑀𝑀 damping 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 in
N⋅m⋅s/rad • Δ𝜃𝜃 in elongation (convention)
• 𝑀𝑀 towards centre (convention)
𝑀𝑀
 19
Breaking-news!
Any SDOF vibrating system can be simplified
into one of the following two
𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗

𝑥𝑥�
𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗

𝑚𝑚∗
𝑂𝑂 𝐼𝐼 ∗
𝑘𝑘 ∗
𝜃𝜃�

Which equations do govern the vibration of these

two systems?
 20
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)
 21
From a system to an equation

𝑥𝑥 Free-body-diagram
𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘Δℓ

𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇
𝑘𝑘

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁

Newton’s law ∑𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥

Substituting forces −𝑘𝑘Δℓ − 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ = 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥̈

Kinematics gives me Δℓ = 𝑥𝑥, so: −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥̇ = 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥̈

Rearranging 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0

Equation of motion for

free SDOF vibration
 22
Breaking-news!
Any SDOF vibrating system can be simplified
into one of the following two
𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗

𝑥𝑥�
𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗

𝑚𝑚∗
𝑂𝑂 𝐼𝐼 ∗
𝑘𝑘 ∗
𝜃𝜃�

𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑥𝑥�̈ + 𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑥𝑥�̇ + 𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑥𝑥� = 0 𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

How can we simplify any SDOF in one of these

two simple equivalent systems?
 23
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)

8-steps to model vibrating systems
1. Free-body diagrams
2. Newton’s law equations
3. Sort-out reaction forces
4. Apply kinematic relationships
5. Search for equilibrium positions
6. Check their stability
7. Linearise around a stable
equilibrium position
8. Identify key terms 𝐼𝐼 ∗ , 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ and 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗
Vibration is a small motion around a stable equilibrium position.
V.I.S. 24
(Very Important
Slide)
Purpose of first 4 steps
Get the non linear equation of motion
using standard dynamics principles
(like in Part A of the course)
Purpose of these 2 steps is to find the
stable equilibrium position(s)
Purpose of these 2 final steps is to get the
linearised equation of motion
 25
Example – Pumpjack when off

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2 𝑏𝑏 = 3 m

𝜃𝜃

𝐺𝐺

Note, the exercise does not match the photo

Photo is just to show concept of pumpjack 𝑦𝑦
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m

𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m How will it vibrate?

𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg

Photo source: By Calstanhope - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=89906806

 26
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)
 27
Step 1. FBD 𝑅𝑅2

𝑅𝑅1 𝑘𝑘Δℓ1

𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔

Rules
• Draw FBDs for 𝜃𝜃 > 0
(but small)
• Put forces when you
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2 𝑇𝑇 remove constraints
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg • Make sure spring and
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m damper forces go
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m 𝑅𝑅4
towards the centre of
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m the spring/damper
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m • Do not forget gravity in
𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔
the centre of mass
𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2
 28
Step 2. Newton’s law 𝑅𝑅2
𝑏𝑏
𝜃𝜃
𝑅𝑅1 𝑘𝑘Δℓ1

𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑘𝑘Δℓ1 ⋅ 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2 𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚2 𝑦𝑦̈ = 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2

𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m Reminders
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m 𝑅𝑅4 • Try to avoid reaction
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m forces if you can, by
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m selecting the
𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔 “smartest” Newton’s
law
𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2 • Make sure signs are
consistent with your
coordinates
 29
Step 3. Reaction forces

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟 − 𝑘𝑘Δℓ1 ⋅ 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝑚𝑚2 𝑦𝑦̈ = 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2

To remove 𝑇𝑇 I get it from the 2nd equation

and substitute its expression in the 1st

𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑦𝑦̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m ̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 + 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑘𝑘Δℓ1 ⋅ 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑦𝑦𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m
 30
Step 4. Kinematics
̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 + 𝑐𝑐Δℓ̇ 2 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑘𝑘Δℓ1 ⋅ 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑦𝑦𝑟𝑟
We want all as a function of 𝜃𝜃 and its derivatives

𝑏𝑏 Δℓ1 = 𝑏𝑏 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃

𝛼𝛼 = 𝜃𝜃̈

Reminders
• Make sure signs are
−𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
consistent with your
−𝑦𝑦̈ = 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̈ coordinates
−Δℓ̇ 2 = 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̇

I finally have an equation of motion!!!

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜃𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̇ − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃
 31
The equation of motion (and its problems)
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜃𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̇ − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

It is a function of my chosen dof (𝜃𝜃 in this case)

and its derivatives, all the rest are numbers

14,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃̈ − 4,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃̇ + 90,000 cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 19,620

It is an ODE in 𝜃𝜃, I can use a numerical solver

(e.g., Matlab’s ODE45) to get a solution
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2
(vibration)…
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m … but I cannot get an analytical solution!!!
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m What if I want one so badly?

4 more steps are needed then!

 32
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)
 33
Step 5. Equilibrium
Purpose of this step: Find the equilibrium positions

Equilibrium, or more precisely “Static equilibrium” is a position where sum of

moments and forces is equal to 0 and the system does not move

This is found taking our equation of motion

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥,̈ 𝑥𝑥,̇ 𝑥𝑥 = 0

And forcing all time-derivatives equal to 0 (system cannot move!):

𝑓𝑓 0,0, 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0

This equation is algebraic (not an ODE) can be solved to find all possible 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• Often it is possible to get analytic solutions 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• Sometimes we get an equation we cannot solve analytically, but we can
usually find the solution graphically quite easily
 34
Step 5. Equilibrium
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜃𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̇ − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

At equilibrium everything is still, so I set all

derivatives to zero and 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡 becomes a
constant 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (position at equilibrium)
𝜃𝜃̈ = 0, 𝜃𝜃̇ = 0 and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

0 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m 1 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
2 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m 1 −1 2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = sin = 0.2256 rad
2 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2
1 2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜋𝜋 − sin−1 = 1.3452 rad
2 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2
 35
Step 6. Stability
Purpose of this step: Find which equilibrium position is stable

Stability tells me how the equilibrium position behaves under perturbation:

• If I give a small perturbation to a system from a stable equilibrium position, the
system will naturally return to the stable equilibrium and vibrate around it
• If I give a small perturbation to a system from an unstable equilibrium position,
the system will abandon the equilibrium and never return
Stable equilibrium position Unstable equilibrium position

CAN VIBRATE AROUND HERE CANNOT VIBRATE AROUND HERE

 36
Step 6. Stability
Δℓ Elastic
To check the stability of an equilibrium position, I have to*:
potential
• Write the potential energy of the system* 𝑘𝑘 energy
1
𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘Δℓ2
𝑁𝑁 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Δℓ 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
1 1 Δ𝜃𝜃
𝑉𝑉 = � 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 Δℓ2𝑛𝑛 + � 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡,𝑛𝑛 Δ𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛2 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖
2 2 Δ𝜃𝜃 1
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 Δ𝜃𝜃 2
2
• Calculate the second derivative vs the DOF 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡

𝜕𝜕 2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑉𝑉
= ⋯ or = ⋯ or …
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃 2
𝑚𝑚
• Check if the second derivative in the equilibrium Gravitational
position is >0 potential
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝐺 energy
>0?
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥=𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝐺𝐺
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝐺𝐺

• If that is true, then the equilibrium position 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is

stable
* Procedure is valid for static equilibria only. We will only see those in this course. Only gravitational and elastic
potential energy are included in the stability study in this course. Constant forces often result in additional
potential energy terms too.
 37
Step 6. Stability 1 −1 2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = sin = 0.2256 rad
2 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2
1 2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜋𝜋 − sin−1 = 1.3452 rad
2 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2
I found two equilibrium positions, but only stable
ones allow vibration. To check stability I need to
𝑑𝑑2 𝑉𝑉
show that 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
>0
1 1
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑘𝑘Δℓ12 = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 sin2 𝜃𝜃
2 2
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 2 2 2
= 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 J 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 J
= 81.00 = −81.00
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
rad2 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
rad2
 38
Today’s content
• Vibration and its importance
• Vibration modelling – Key elements and constitutive laws
• Mass-spring-damper (MSD): the simplest vibrating system
• An 8-step procedure to simplify any vibrating system into a MSD
• Get the non-linear eq. of motion (4 Steps, from part A)
• Identify stable equilibria (2 Steps, based on Potential Energy)
• Get the MSD equation (2 Steps based on linearisation)
 39
Step 7. Linearisation
Purpose of this step: Simplify the non-linear term into linear terms

Linearisation approximates the equation of motion into a simpler version,

exploiting the assumption of small motion
To do this:

• I consider motion as equilibrium + vibration: 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑥𝑥�

• identify all terms which are non-linear in the vibration DOF or its derivatives,
and apply Taylor Series
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥,̇ 𝑥𝑥̈ = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , 0,0 + 𝑥𝑥=𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥
�+ 𝑥𝑥=𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥
̇
�+ �̈
𝑥𝑥=𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̇ 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̈
̇
𝑥𝑥=0 ̇
𝑥𝑥=0 ̇
𝑥𝑥=0
𝑥𝑥=0̈ 𝑥𝑥=0̈ 𝑥𝑥=0̈
 40
Step 7. Linearisation
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜃𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̇ − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

Will vibrate around 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.2256 rad

so we can linearise the non-linear part about 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + cos 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − sin2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg So, we get the linearised eq. of motion in 𝜃𝜃� = 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒:
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜃𝜃�̈ = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃�̇
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m −𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − sin2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m
Note that 𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝜃𝜃�̈ and 𝜃𝜃̇ = 𝜃𝜃�̇ (you can see why if you take
the derivative of 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝜃𝜃�
 41
Step 8. Rearranging and simplifying
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜃𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̈ + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 − 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃̇
−𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − sin2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�

Collect all time-varying stuff on the LHS

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟 2 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − sin2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃� =
𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏2 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Substituting all the numbers

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m2
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg 14,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 4,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 80,995 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃� = 19,620 − 19,620
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m The constants on the RHS must always add up to 0
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m
14,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 4,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 80,995 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃� = 0
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m
N⋅m⋅s N⋅m
𝐼𝐼 ∗ = 14,000 kg ⋅ m2 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ = 4,000 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡2 = 80,995
rad rad
𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝜃𝜃� = 0
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
 42
Linearised equation of motion

14,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 4,000 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 80,995 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

N⋅m⋅s N⋅m
∗
𝐼𝐼 = 14,000 kg ⋅ m 2
𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ = 4,000 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡2 = 80,995
rad rad

𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

2 • This equation has a known analytical solution, easy to

𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = 10,000 kg ⋅ m get and analyse (we will see it next week)
𝑚𝑚2 = 1,000 kg • The solution will give 𝜃𝜃� 𝑡𝑡 which describes the vibration
𝑏𝑏 = 3 m of the system around the stable position of equilibrium
𝑟𝑟 = 2 m 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m • This quantity is therefore small (vibration) and relative
𝑐𝑐 = 1 kN ⋅ s/m to the equilibrium position.
• The solution is only valid as an approximation if motion
is small!!!
 43
Solution spoiler
0.2

non-linear numerical solution

0.15 linearised solution

0.1

Stable equilibrium:
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.2256 rad 𝜃𝜃� = 0
0.05
𝜃𝜃� (rad)

-0.05

-0.1

𝜃𝜃�
-0.15

-0.2

-0.25

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
t (s)
 V.I.S. 44
8-steps to model vibrating systems
(Very Important
Slide)

1. Free-body diagrams
2. Newton’s law equations
3. Sort-out reaction forces
4. Apply kinematic relationships
First four steps are general
dynamics and they give me the
Non linear equation of motion

5. Search for equilibrium positions

6. Check their stability
7. Linearise around a stable
equilibrium position
8. Identify key terms 𝐼𝐼 ∗ , 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ and 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗
These two steps allow me to identify
Stable equilibrium position(s)
These final steps give me the
Linearised eq. of motion

Vibration is a small motion around a stable equilibrium position.

 45
Today’s content – Summary
THE PROCEDURE
1. Free body diagram (for each body)
2. Newton’s law (for each body)
Common to Part A and Part B
3. Eliminate reaction forces
4. Kinematics
5. Equilibrium
6. Stability
Specific of Part B (vibration)
7. Linearisation
8. Identify the terms 𝑚𝑚∗ , 𝑐𝑐 ∗ and 𝑘𝑘 ∗
(or 𝐼𝐼 ∗ , 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ and 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗ )

… NEXT TIME: Solution of the equation of motion 𝑚𝑚∗ 𝑥𝑥�̈ + 𝑐𝑐 ∗ 𝑥𝑥�̇ + 𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑥𝑥� = 0
 46

ADDITIONAL CONTENT
Further examples and derivations
 47
Another (way more complicated) example
Crank-slider mechanism
• Crank
• Pin-pin length 𝐿𝐿 = 200 mm
• Moment of inertia 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 = 100 kg⋅m2
with respect to fixed end 𝑂𝑂, which
is also centre of mass
• Connecting rod
• Negligible mass/inertia
• Length 𝐿𝐿 = 200 mm
• Slider
• Considered point-mass
• Mass 𝑚𝑚2 = 10 kg
• Can only slide vertically
• Spring connected to point-mass
• Stiffness 𝑘𝑘 = 10 kN/m
• Unstretched for 𝜃𝜃1 = 0
 48
First 4 steps

1. Free-body diagrams 𝑘𝑘

2. Newton’s law equations

𝐵𝐵
3. Sort-out reaction forces
𝐿𝐿
4. Apply kinematic relationships 𝑚𝑚2
𝜃𝜃2

𝐴𝐴
These four steps are general 𝜃𝜃1
dynamics and they give me the 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 , 𝑚𝑚1
Non linear equation of motion 𝐿𝐿

𝑂𝑂
 49
Step 1: FBD
Purpose of this step: Identifying all forces and moments

𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘Δℓ
𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅4
𝐵𝐵

𝐿𝐿 Particle 2
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔
𝜃𝜃2 Body 1

𝐴𝐴
Remember:
𝜃𝜃1 • Free each body from all constraints
𝑅𝑅3
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 , 𝑚𝑚1 • Every time you remove a constraint,
𝐿𝐿 you have to put some reaction
𝑅𝑅2 forces/moments
• Gravity must be included
𝑂𝑂 𝑅𝑅1 • One FBD per body/particle
• Reaction forces between bodies
𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔 must be equal and opposite
 50
Step 2: Newton’s law equations
Purpose of this step: getting equations linking forces and motion

Convention: positive acceleration

and moments CCW
𝐿𝐿
𝜃𝜃1
Body 1
𝑅𝑅3 𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃1 Rotation about 𝑂𝑂: 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝛼𝛼1 = 𝑅𝑅3 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2
𝑅𝑅2 Horizontal direction: 𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑅𝑅1 − 𝑅𝑅3 sin 𝜃𝜃1
𝑅𝑅1 Vertical direction: 𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑅𝑅3 cos 𝜃𝜃1

𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔

𝜃𝜃2

𝑘𝑘Δℓ
𝑅𝑅3
Body 2
𝑅𝑅4
Horizontal direction: 𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝑅3 sin 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑅𝑅4
Vertical direction: 𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘Δℓ + 𝑅𝑅3 cos 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔

𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔
 51
Step 3: Reaction forces/moments
Purpose of this step: getting a single equation without any reaction force

I have 5 equations, and I am interested in getting one without any reaction force 𝑅𝑅1 , … , 𝑅𝑅4

Eq 1) 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝛼𝛼1 = 𝑅𝑅3 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2

Eq 2) 𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑅𝑅1 − 𝑅𝑅3 sin 𝜃𝜃1

Not useful, just
more trouble
Eq 3) 𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑅𝑅3 cos 𝜃𝜃1
(more unknown
reaction forces
Eq 4) 𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝑅3 sin 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑅𝑅4
I can get:
𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑘𝑘Δℓ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔
Eq 5) 𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘Δℓ + 𝑅𝑅3 cos 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔 𝑅𝑅3 = − +
cos 𝜃𝜃2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 cos 𝜃𝜃2
and substitute it in Eq 1

𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 𝑘𝑘Δℓ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝛼𝛼1 = − + 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2
cos 𝜃𝜃2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 cos 𝜃𝜃2

I now have a single equation without any reaction force!

 52
Step 4: Kinematics
Purpose of this step: Express all motion-quantities as a function of SDOF Δℓ = 2𝐿𝐿 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃1

In this case I want all in 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝜃𝜃1̇ and 𝜃𝜃1̈

I have 5 motion quantities in the equation:
• 𝛼𝛼1 angular acceleration of crank
• 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 vertical acceleration of slider 𝜃𝜃2
• 𝜃𝜃2 rotation of slider
• Δℓ angular acceleration of beam 2
𝜃𝜃2
𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = −2𝜃𝜃̇12 𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜃𝜃1 − 2𝜃𝜃̈1 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝜃𝜃1 𝛼𝛼2
𝜔𝜔2

2𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜃𝜃1

2𝐿𝐿
Δℓ = 2𝐿𝐿 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1

𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 𝑘𝑘Δℓ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝛼𝛼1 = − + 𝐿𝐿 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃1
cos 𝜃𝜃2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 cos 𝜃𝜃2
𝛼𝛼1
𝜔𝜔1
𝛼𝛼1 = 𝜃𝜃̈ 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝜃𝜃1

Non Linear Eq. of Motion!!!

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃1 sin 2𝜃𝜃1
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃1 tan 𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃1 𝜃𝜃̇12 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃1 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃1 cos 𝜃𝜃1
 53
Solution of equation of motion with Matlab
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 +

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

+2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

Numerical solver
System dropped from 𝜃𝜃 ≈ 13.3° 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡 = 0 ≈ 18.4°

0.4

≈ 18.4°
0.2

0
0
(rad)

-0.2

-0.4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

t (seconds)
 54
Solution of equation of motion with Matlab
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 +

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

+2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

Numerical solver
System dropped from 𝜃𝜃 ≈ 15.5° 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡 = 0 ≈ 15.5°

0.28

0.26
≈ 15.5°

0.24

0.22

≈ 12.7°
(rad)

0.2

0.18

0.16

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

t (seconds)
 55
Solution of equation of motion with Matlab
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 +

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

+2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

Numerical solver
System dropped from 𝜃𝜃 ≈ 13.3° 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡 = 0 ≈ 13.3°

0.235

0.23
≈ 13.3°

0.225

≈ 12.7°
(rad)

0.22

0.215

0.21

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

t (seconds)
 56
Step 5: Equilibrium
Purpose of this step: Find the equilibrium positions

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

• To find where does the system vibrate around, I need the equilibrium positions
• I get them by setting all time-derivatives to zero, in this case 𝜃𝜃̈ = 0 and 𝜃𝜃̇ = 0

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 ⋅ 0 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 ⋅ 02 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

I have to find the values of 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 from this algebraic equation

 57
Step 5: Equilibrium
1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Collecting all common terms

𝐿𝐿 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 0
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔

= 0 for 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0, 𝜋𝜋 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ± cos−1 − 1 = ±0.2219 rad= ±12.72°
2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0,180°, ±12.72°

 58
Step 5: Equilibrium
I have 4 equilibrium positions
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜋𝜋 rad 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.2219 rad 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −0.2219 rad
(180°) (12.72°) (−12.72°)

Which of the remaining

I do not consider this because the three is stable???
piston “locks” for 𝜽𝜽 > 𝝅𝝅/𝟐𝟐 with
L rod = L crank
 59
Step 6: Stability
Δℓ Elastic
To check the stability of an equilibrium position, I have to*:
potential
• Write the potential energy of the system* 𝑘𝑘 energy
1
𝑁𝑁 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘Δℓ2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Δℓ 2
1 1
𝑉𝑉 = � 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 Δℓ2𝑛𝑛 + � 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡,𝑛𝑛 Δ𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛2 + � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖 Δ𝜃𝜃
2 2
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑖𝑖=1 Δ𝜃𝜃 1
𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 Δ𝜃𝜃 2
2
• Calculate the second derivative vs the DOF 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡

𝜕𝜕 2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑉𝑉
= ⋯ or = ⋯ or …
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃 2
𝑚𝑚
• Check if the second derivative in the equilibrium Gravitational
position is >0 potential
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝐺 energy
>0?
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥=𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝐺𝐺
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝐺𝐺

• If that is true, then the equilibrium position 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is

stable
* Procedure is valid for static equilibria only. We will only see those in this course. Only gravitational and elastic
potential energy are included in the stability study in this course. Constant forces often result in additional
potential energy terms too.
 60
Step 6: Stability
Purpose of this step: Find which equilibrium position is stable

𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.2219 rad 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −0.2219 rad 𝑘𝑘

𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0
(12.72°) (−12.72°)
Which one is stable? 𝐵𝐵

Stable if second derivative of potential energy is >0 in equilibrium position 𝐿𝐿

𝑚𝑚2
𝑑𝑑2 𝑉𝑉
In this case, stable if: >0 𝜃𝜃2
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐴𝐴
1 1
In our case: 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐵𝐵 + 𝑘𝑘Δℓ2 = 2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 cos 𝜃𝜃 + ⋅ 4𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 2
𝜃𝜃1
2 2

𝐿𝐿
2
giving: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 sin 𝜃𝜃 + 4𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝑂𝑂
and: 𝑑𝑑2 𝑉𝑉 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 = −2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 4𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 +4𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin2 𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 , 𝑚𝑚1
 61
Step 6: Stability
Purpose of this step: Find which equilibrium position is stable

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉⁄𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 = −2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 4𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 4𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin2 𝜃𝜃

Now I have to evaluate 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉⁄𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2 at the equilibrium positions

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 J
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0 rad = −2𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = −39.2 <0 UNSTABLE
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=0
rad2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 J STABLE
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.2219 rad = ⋯ = 77.5 >0 we will use this
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃 rad2
𝜃𝜃=0.2219 for vibration
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑉𝑉 J STABLE
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −0.2219 rad = ⋯ = 77.5 >0
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=−0.2219
rad2 I could also have used this
 62
Step 6: Stability
Purpose of this step: Find which equilibrium position is stable
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0.2219 rad 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = −0.2219 rad
𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 0
(12.72°) (−12.72°)
STABLE
UNSTABLE we will use this STABLE
 63

Step 7: Linearisation
Purpose of this step: Simplify the non-linear term into linear terms

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

I now want to
• write all terms expressing 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝜃𝜃� = 0.2219 + 𝜃𝜃�
where 𝜃𝜃� is the vibration (note that 𝜃𝜃̇ = 𝜃𝜃�̇ and 𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝜃𝜃)
�̈
• linearise each term exploiting the fact that 𝜃𝜃� is small

Let’s start with sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ and apply

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ̇ + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃, 𝜃𝜃,̇ 𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , 0,0 + �+
𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ �
𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈
𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃 ̇
𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃̇ ̇
𝜕𝜕 𝜃𝜃̈ ̇
𝜃𝜃=0 𝜃𝜃=0 𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0 ̈
𝜃𝜃=0 ̈
𝜃𝜃=0
 64

Step 7: Linearisation
Purpose of this step: Simplify the non-linear term into linear terms

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

Let’s start with sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈

sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
≈ sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 tan 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 0 + sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃� + sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ̇
𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃̈ ̇
𝜃𝜃=0 𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0 ̈
𝜃𝜃=0

𝜕𝜕
= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 tan 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 0 + 𝜃𝜃̈ ⋅ sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃� + sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ̇ ̇
𝜃𝜃=0 𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0 ̈
𝜃𝜃=0

𝜕𝜕
= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 tan 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅ sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃� + sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 tan 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 tan 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ = 0.09690 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈

 65

Step 7: Linearisation
Purpose of this step: Simplify the non-linear term into linear terms

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 0.09690 ⋅ 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

Let’s now focus on sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 ≈ sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 02 + sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃� + sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ̇
𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃̇ ̇
𝜃𝜃=0 𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0 ̈
𝜃𝜃=0

𝜕𝜕
= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 02 + 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 ⋅ sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃� + 2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ̇ ̇
𝜃𝜃=0 𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0 ̈
𝜃𝜃=0

𝜕𝜕
= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 02 + 02 ⋅ sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃� + 2 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

=0
 66

Step 7: Linearisation
Purpose of this step: Simplify the non-linear term into linear terms

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 0.09690 ⋅ 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 ⋅ 0 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

1−cos 𝜃𝜃
Let’s now focus on sin 2𝜃𝜃
cos 𝜃𝜃

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕 sin 2𝜃𝜃

sin 2𝜃𝜃 ≈ sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + − sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 cos 𝜃𝜃 ̇
𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 2𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 2 + − 2 cos 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 ̇
𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

= sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 2 + − 2 cos 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

= 0.0108 + 0.1147𝜃𝜃�
 67

Step 7: Linearisation
Purpose of this step: Simplify the non-linear term into linear terms

sin 2𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 0.09690 ⋅ 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 ⋅ 0 + 0.0108 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 + 0.1147 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃� − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃

sin 2𝜃𝜃
Let’s now focus on
cos 𝜃𝜃

sin 2𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕 sin 2𝜃𝜃

≈ + 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 cos 𝜃𝜃 ̇
𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0

sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 2𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

= + 2 + 𝜃𝜃=𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃�
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 ̇
𝜃𝜃=0
̈
𝜃𝜃=0

sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 2𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

= + 2 + 𝜃𝜃�
cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 cos 2 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

= 0.4402 + 1.951𝜃𝜃�
 68

Step 8: Rearranging and identifying

Purpose of this step: get the terms of 𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 0.09690 ⋅ 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 ⋅ 0 + 0.0108 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 + 0.1147 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃� − 0.4402 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 1.951 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝜃𝜃� = 0

Let’s collect common terms:

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 0.09690 ⋅ 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 0.2543 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 − 1.951 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝜃𝜃� + 0.0108 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 − 0.4402 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 0

Now I plug in all other known quantities: 𝐿𝐿 = 0.2 m, 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 = 100 kg ⋅ m2 , 𝑚𝑚2 = 10 kg, 𝑘𝑘 = 10,000 N/m

• 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 0.09690 ⋅ 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 = 100.1 kg/m2

• 0.1147 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 − 1.951 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 77.52 N⋅m/rad
• 0.0108 ⋅ 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 − 0.4402 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 0 (must always be so for constants if we do things well)

100.1 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 0 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̇ + 77.52 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

𝐼𝐼 ∗ = 100.1 kg/m2 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡∗ = 0 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡∗ = 77.52 N ⋅ m/rad

 69
Solution Teaser
Next time we’ll solve the linearised eq. of motion, but here’s a
“teaser” of the solution

• Full (non-linear) eq. of motion

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
Equilibrium

• Linearised eq. of motion

100.1 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 77.52 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

• Solution dropping the cylinder from 𝜃𝜃0 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 0.01 rad

0.235

Non-Linear

Linearised
0.23

0.225
(rad)

0.22

0.215

0.21

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

t (seconds)

Almost identical!
Linearisation good if
displacement is small
 70
Solution Teaser
Next time we’ll solve the linearised eq. of motion, but here’s a
“teaser” of the solution

• Full (non-linear) eq. of motion

1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 2𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̈ + 2𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑘𝑘𝐿𝐿2 sin 2𝜃𝜃 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =0
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
Equilibrium

• Linearised eq. of motion

100.1 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃�̈ + 77.52 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃� = 0

• Solution dropping the cylinder from 𝜃𝜃0 = 𝜃𝜃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 0.05 rad

0.28

Non Linear

0.26
Linearised

0.24

0.22
(rad)

0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

t (seconds)

Not so similar anymore if

displacement is larger