lubricants
Article
Study on Grease Lubrication and Electric Erosion
Characteristics in AC Electric Fields
Ziying Li 1 , Feng Guo 1, * , Zhaogang Jing 1,2 , Bing Li 3 , Li Zhang 4 and Xiaobo Wang 3
Citation: Li, Z.; Guo, F.; Jing, Z.; Li,
B.; Zhang, L.; Wang, X. Study on
Grease Lubrication and Electric
Erosion Characteristics in AC Electric
Fields. Lubricants 2024, 12, 79.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
lubricants12030079
Received: 31 January 2024
Revised: 24 February 2024
Accepted: 1 March 2024
Published: 4 March 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12030079
1 School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology,
Qingdao 266520, China; meliziying@163.com (Z.L.); gm_jzg1125@163.com (Z.J.)
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon,
Hong Kong SAR, China
3 Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730030, China;
libing@licp.cas.cn (B.L.); wangxb@licp.cas.cn (X.W.)
4 Qingdao Zhongke Runmei Lubrication Material Technology Co., Ltd., Qingdao 266100, China;
zhangli@lubemater.com
* Correspondence: mefguo@qut.edu.cn
Abstract: Protecting motor bearings from electric erosion is crucial as electric vehicles evolve. To
better understand how lubrication interacts with electric discharge within motor bearings during
varying speeds of vehicle operation, an optical ball-on-disk tribometer was modified to investigate
the influence of alternating current (AC) electric fields on film thickness, friction force under various
lubrication regions, and discharge characteristics. The study revealed that in AC electric fields, as the
lubrication state shifts from mixed lubrication to fluid lubrication region, the electrical characteristic of
the lubricating oil film changes from resistive to capacitive, accompanied by an increase in discharge
frequency. Under the elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) region, an electrical potential difference
between the surfaces separated by the lubrication film leads to a reduction in film thickness, which
can be attributed to the generation of Joule heating. If the potential difference across the oil film
increases to the threshold voltage, destructive discharge occurs with the emission of a significant
amount of purple light. Joule heating generated by the AC electric fields also results in a reduction
in the friction coefficient under the fluid lubrication region. However, due to the reduction in
film thickness, the lubrication state eventually moves to mixed lubrication, leading to a substantial
increase in the friction coefficient. In addition, the study also investigated the use of grease with a
nanographite conductive additive. It was found that inappropriate additive amounts can lead to
discharge phenomena occurring outside the contact region.
Keywords: electric vehicles; bearing erosion; lubrication state; oil film thickness; Joule heating
1. Introduction
The drive motor stands as the nucleus of electric vehicles, and its service life and
reliability have a pivotal influence on the performance of the car. The extensive application
of pulse width modulation (PWM) technology and insulate-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
components in drive motors has accentuated the prominence of electrical erosion damage
in bearing failures, constituting a formidable issue that demands careful consideration [1,2].
When the motor is driven by a PWM inverter, the switching dynamics of power
devices induce fluctuations in the common-mode voltage. This common-mode voltage
establishes a potential difference between the inner and outer races of the motor bearings [3].
Beyond the threshold, the potential difference across the oil film results in the breakdown
of the film, giving rise to a substantial transient current known as an electric discharge
machining (EDM) current. This occurrence leads to consequential damage to the rolling
elements and raceway surfaces [4]. In scenarios where the potential difference remains
below the threshold voltage, the contact area can be analogously regarded as a capacitor.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 2 of 14

The alternating common-mode voltage continually charges and discharges the oil film
capacitor, generating a current referred to as dV/dt current [5]. This current, acting over an
extended period, leads to damage to the bearing tracks and greases. Additionally, magnetic
asymmetries in the rotor can create a low-frequency rotor voltage, discharging across
bearings [6]. The occurrence of bearing damage induced by electrical currents is denoted
as “electric erosion” [7,8]. The adverse effects of electric erosion predominantly manifest
as fluting [9,10], frosting, and the formation of electric pitting craters [11]. Concurrently,
the generation of bearing current heightens the susceptibility to bearing failure due to
white etching crack (WEC) [12]. Typically, issues related to electric erosion contribute to the
degradation of noise–vibration–harshness (NVH) characteristics in electric vehicles [10] and,
in severe instances, may result in motor malfunctions. Hence, there exists an imperative
need to undertake comprehensive research into electric erosion.
Substantial efforts have been made to address the issue of bearing electrical erosion.
Noguchi et al. [13] demonstrated that electric erosion can occur in 608 bearings even at a
current density as low as 0.04 A/mm2 . Esmaeili et al. [14] investigated the electric discharge
behavior for steel-to-steel contact under various test conditions, revealing that discharge
between steel rollers is influenced by oil film thickness and contact area. Plazenet et al. [2]
confirmed through bench testing that voltage, bearing temperature, and grease type can
affect the level of electrical corrosion and, consequently, the life of electric motor bearings.
Muetze [15] investigated the influence of factors such as motor design, operational parame-
ters, and the interconnection between the motor and inverter on bearing current, proposing
potential mitigating strategies. Graf [16], focusing on thrust bearings, determined that the
breakdown voltage is contingent upon variables such as oil film thickness, load, and current
frequency. Gonda et al. [17] conducted experimental investigations on a bench scale to eluci-
date the impact of grease conductivity on bearing currents. Turnbull et al. [18] presented an
inclusive multiphysics model based on motor bearings, proficient in forecasting the onset
of fluting in bearings. Bleger et al. [19] employed a combined experimental and numerical
approach to study discharge behavior in motor bearings. Sunahara et al. [11] employed a
camera to capture electrical discharge occurring between the ball and the glass disk. They
also observed that the threshold value of voltage with oil film breakdown increases with
an increase in oil film thickness. Suzumura [20] demonstrated that conductive greases can
reduce the current density in the contact area, thereby preventing the formation of “fluting”
on the bearing raceways. Zhang et al. [21] used carbon black as an additive to formulate
conductive grease and confirmed enhancements in the grease’s electrical conductivity and
antifriction and antiwear properties. Guo et al. [22] conducted electric discharge experi-
ments at the steel ball-steel disk interface, confirming the relationship between discharge
behavior and oil film thickness. Schneider et al. [8] presented a comprehensive overview
from the standpoint of motor drive systems, summarizing the latest research findings
regarding bearing currents.
Simultaneously, researchers have also delved into the failure modes of greases under
electrical environments, and some failure mechanisms of greases were revealed, for ex-
ample, degradation, microbubble formation, and so on [23]. Prashad [24] found that local
currents can cause greases to decompose and can even cause carbonization. Romanenko
et al. [25] also revealed that discharge currents can generate high-viscosity substances in
the greases that are detrimental to lubrication and can lead to additive agglomeration. Luo
et al. [26], using a ball-to-disk test rig, discovered for the first time that lubricants can form
microbubbles under an applied electrical field. Xie et al. [27–29] found that microbub-
bles are a result of local overheating. Under the influence of surface tension gradients,
these microbubbles migrate outward from the contact point, and lubricants containing
microbubbles are more susceptible to electrical breakdown.
During the operation of electric vehicles, the adjustment of driving speed in response
to varying road conditions is essential. This dynamic scenario exposes motor bearings to
different lubrication states. However, few have been directly observed to undergo variations
in film thickness and discharge characteristics across different lubrication regions under
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 3 of 14

under
AC AC electric
electric field environments.
field environments. Therefore,
Therefore, the authors
the authors updated
updated an optical
an optical ball-on-
ball-on-disk
disk tribometer by constructing an electrical voltage across the oil film to study the
tribometer by constructing an electrical voltage across the oil film to study the lubrication lubri-
cation states of grease under the influence of AC electric fields. Additionally, conductive
states of grease under the influence of AC electric fields. Additionally, conductive greases,
greases,
with with nanographite
nanographite as the conductive
as the conductive additive,additive, were measured
were measured to ainitiate
to initiate a pre-
preliminary
liminary exploration of the crucial factors involved in formulating conductive grease
exploration of the crucial factors involved in formulating conductive grease with conductive with
conductive
particles as particles
additives.as additives.

2. Experiment
2.1. Experimental Apparatus
The experiment was conducted
conducted on an optical
optical ball-on-disk
ball-on-disk tribometer(Qingdao
tribometer(Qingdao Green- Green-
Lub Times Advanced Lubrication Technology Co, Ltd, Qingdao,
Lub Times Advanced Lubrication Technology Co, Ltd, Qingdao, China), the detailed struc-China), the detailed
structure
ture of which
of which is depicted
is depicted in Figurein 1.
Figure 1. Two independent
Two independent servomotors servomotors
are used toare usedthe
control to
control of
speeds thethe
speeds of the
steel ball and steel
the ball
glassand
diskthe glass diskallowing
separately, separately,
for allowing
the variousforslide–roll
the variousra-
slide–roll
tios. ratios. A semireflecting
A semireflecting chromium (Cr) chromium
layer of 20 (Cr)
nmlayer of 20was
thickness nm deposited
thickness wasontodeposited
the work-
onto the working surface of the glass disk. In order to reduce the resistance
ing surface of the glass disk. In order to reduce the resistance between contacting surfaces, between
the
contacting surfaces, the Cr layer was covered with an indium tin oxide (ITO)
Cr layer was covered with an indium tin oxide (ITO) film of 300 nm thickness [11,30], thereby film of 300
nm thickness
reducing [11,30], thereby
the resistance reducing the13
to approximately resistance to approximately
Ω. The steel Ω. The steel
ball, which is13insulated fromball,
its
which is insulated from its driving shaft by insulating paper, was fastened
driving shaft by insulating paper, was fastened in position with a plastic bolt. The glass in position with
a plastic
disk and bolt. The ball
the steel glasswere
diskinterconnected
and the steel ball were interconnected
through throughpower
an alternating current an alternating
supply,
current power
creating supply, creating
a comprehensive circuit.a The
comprehensive circuit. power
alternating current The alternating currenta power
supply emitted sinus-
supply
oidal emitted
wave withaasinusoidal
frequencywave of 50 with
Hz. a frequency of 50 Hz.

Figure 1.
Figure Optical ball-on-disk
1. Optical ball-on-disk tribometer.
tribometer.

Dichromatic laser lights (red and green) were injected into the contact to obtain
Dichromatic laser lights (red and green) were injected into the contact to obtain in-
interferograms. These interferograms were captured by a camera of charge coupled device
terferograms. These interferograms were captured by a camera of charge coupled device
(CCD). The film thickness was measured by dichromatic interference intensity modulation
(CCD). The film thickness was measured by dichromatic interference intensity modula-
(DIIM) technology [31]. Friction forces were measured at different slide–roll ratios, as
tion (DIIM) technology [31]. Friction forces were measured at different slide–roll ratios, as
illustrated in Figure 2. The surface morphology of the steel ball was examined using the
illustrated in Figure 2. The surface morphology of the steel ball was examined using the
German Leica DM 1750 M microscope (Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) to
German Leica DM 1750 M microscope (Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) to
analyze damage under various lubrication conditions.
analyze damage under various lubrication conditions.
2.2. Experimental Conditions
The ball used in the optical test is of G5 grade and made of AISI52100 steel with
a diameter of 25.4 mm, and the disk is of K9 glass with a diameter of 150 mm. The
experimental conditions are presented in Table 1, where ξ represents the slide–roll ratio,
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 4 of 14

Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

ξ = 2(ud − ub )/(ud + ub ), and ud and ub are the linear velocities of the glass disk and
steel ball at the contact, respectively.

Figure2.2. Principle
Figure Principleof
offriction
frictionmeasurement.
measurement.

2.2. Experimental
Table Conditions
1. Experimental conditions.
The ball used in the optical test is of G5 grade and made of AISI52100 steel with a di-
Parameter Value
ameter of 25.4 mm, and the disk is of K9 glass with a diameter of 150 mm. The experimental
conditions are presentedTin
Temperature (◦ C) 20 ± 1
Table 1, where ξ represents the slide–roll ratio, ξ = 2(ud
ub )∕(ud +ub ), and Load w (N)
ud and ub are the linear velocities of the glass15, 20 and steel ball at the
disk
Slide–roll ratio ξ 30%
contact, respectively. −1
Entrainment speed ue (mm·s ) 10, 32, 96, 128, 512, 1800
Grease supply Fully
Table 1. Experimental conditions.

The experiment Parameter

employed two greases. The first, designated asValueG-A, is a lithium-based
grease with aTemperature T (°C)
base oil mixture of polyalphaolefin oil (PAO10) and 20diester
±1 oil (diisodecyl
Load wlithium
adipate), and it contains (N) 12-hydroxystearate as the thickener. 15,The
20 second, identified
Slide–roll
as G-B, represented ratio ξ grease derived from G-A through30%
a conductive the addition of a 0.2%
mass fraction of nanographite.
Entrainment The composition
speed ue (mm·s −1 ) of the two grease
10, 32, samples
96, 128, is detailed in
512, 1800
Table 2. Furthermore,
Grease asupply
V-shaped grease collector was used to ensureFully sufficient grease
supply. In the experiment, this collector was employed to collect grease from the side ridges
and guide it to the central
The experiment lubrication
employed track. The first, designated as G-A, is a lithium-based
two greases.
grease with a base oil mixture of polyalphaolefin oil (PAO10) and diester oil (diisodecyl
Table 2. Compositions
adipate), of grease
and it contains samples.
lithium 12-hydroxystearate as the thickener. The second, identified
as G-B, represented
Sample
a conductive grease derived
G-A
from G-A through the addition
G-B
of a 0.2%
mass fraction of nanographite. The composition of the two grease samples is detailed in
Base oil PAO + diester oil PAO + diester oil
Table 2. Furthermore, a V-shaped grease collector was used to ensure sufficient grease sup-
Thickener Lithium 12-hydroxy stearate Lithium 12-hydroxy stearate
ply. In theAdditive
experiment, this collector was employed
NO to collect grease from the
Nanographite (0.2side ridges
%wt.)
and guide it to the
NLGI grade central lubrication track. 3 3
Dynamic viscosity of base oil
56 56
Table 2. (mPa ·s@20 °C)of grease samples.
Compositions

Sample G-A G-B

3. Results and Discussion
Base oil PAO + diester oil PAO + diester oil
3.1. Variations in Oil Film Thickness in Different Lubrication Regions
Thickener Lithium 12-hydroxy stearate Lithium 12-hydroxy stearate
Additive With a load of 15 N, a series of NO
tests were conducted at entrainment
Nanographite speeds of 10 mm/s,
(0.2 %wt.)
NLGI grade 128 mm/s, 512 mm/s, and 1800 mm/s 3 to simulate the lubrication states3 of motor bearings
in electric vehicles under conditions of idle, medium-speed, and high-speed driving sce-
Dynamic viscosity of base oil (mPa·s@20 ℃) 56 56
narios. For each entrainment speed, the experiment ran at 0 V for 30 min, followed by the
application of a 5 V sinusoidal alternating voltage for an additional 30 min. Subsequently,
3. Results and Discussion
another 30 min operation at 0 V was performed. The lubrication state and interferograms
3.1.illustrated
are Variations in
in Oil Film 3Thickness
Figures and 4. Atinan
Different Lubrication
entrainment speedRegions
of 10 mm/s, the contact region
exhibited
Withaamixed
load oflubrication state,
15 N, a series while
of tests at 128
were mm/s and
conducted 512 mm/s,speeds
at entrainment it entered
of 10typical
mm/s,
EHL. However,
128 mm/s, at 1800
512 mm/s, andmm/s, the EHL
1800 mm/s state faded
to simulate away, andstates
the lubrication the lubrication began to
of motor bearings in
electric vehicles under conditions of idle, medium-speed, and high-speed driving scenarios.
For each entrainment speed, the experiment ran at 0 V for 30 min, followed by the applica-
tion of a 5 V sinusoidal alternating voltage for an additional 30 min. Subsequently, another
Lubricants Lubricants
2024, 12, x2024,
FOR 12,
PEER REVIEW
x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 145 of 14

30 min operation at 0 V was

30 min operation at 0 performed. The lubrication
V was performed. state and
The lubrication stateinterferograms
and interferogramsare illus-
are illus-
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 5 of 14
trated intrated
Figures 3 and 4. At an entrainment speed of 10 mm/s, the contact region
in Figures 3 and 4. At an entrainment speed of 10 mm/s, the contact region exhibitedexhibited
a mixedalubrication state, while
mixed lubrication state,atwhile
128 mm/s
at 128and
mm/s512and
mm/s, it entered
512 mm/s, typicaltypical
it entered EHL. However,
EHL. However,
at 1800 mm/s,
at 1800the EHLthe
mm/s, state
EHL faded
stateaway,
faded and theand
away, lubrication began began
the lubrication to develop toward
to develop hy- hy-
toward
drodynamicdevelop toward
lubrication
drodynamic hydrodynamic
becausebecause
lubrication lubrication
the characteristics because
of the of
the characteristics the characteristics
horseshoe
the oil film
horseshoe offilm
thebecame
oilbecame horseshoe
less lessoil
film became less obvious.
obvious.obvious.

Figure3.3. Stribeckcurve.
curve.
Figure 3.Figure
Stribeck Stribeck
curve.

(a) 10 mm/s
(a) 10 mm/s

(b) 128 mm/s

(b) 128 mm/s

Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

(c) 512 mm/s

(c) 512 mm/s

(d) 1800 mm/s

Figure
Figure4.4.Interferograms
InterferogramsofofG-A
G-Agrease
greaseatat
different entrainment
different speeds
entrainment (15(15
speeds N,N,
0 V, 5 V):
0 V, (a)(a)
5 V): 10 10
mm/s;
mm/s;
(b) 128 mm/s; (c) 512 mm/s; (d) 1800 mm/s.
(b) 128 mm/s; (c) 512 mm/s; (d) 1800 mm/s.

Figure 4a reveals that in the mixed lubrication region, the thickener in the grease en-
tered into the contact, actively contributing to lubrication. This phenomenon was evident as
irregular green and red areas appeared in the interferograms. Upon the application of a 5 V
AC electric field, there was no discernible change in the interferogram and, therefore, no
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 6 of 14
(d) 1800 mm/s
Figure 4. Interferograms of G-A grease at different entrainment speeds (15 N, 0 V, 5 V): (a) 10 mm/s;
(b) 128 mm/s; (c) 512 mm/s; (d) 1800 mm/s.
Figure 4a reveals that in the mixed lubrication region, the thickener in the grease
entered into4a
Figure thereveals
contact, actively
that in thecontributing
mixed lubrication to lubrication.
region, theThisthickener
phenomenon in thewas evident
grease en-
as irregular green and red areas appeared in the interferograms. Upon the application of a
tered into the contact, actively contributing to lubrication. This phenomenon was evident as
5 V AC electric field, there was no discernible change in the interferogram and, therefore,
irregular green and red areas appeared in the interferograms. Upon the application of a 5 V
no change in the lubrication state. Following a 30 min operation, there was no evident
AC electric field, there was no discernible change in the interferogram and, therefore, no
damage observed on the surfaces of the contact.
change in the lubrication state. Following a 30 min operation, there was no evident dam-
When the lubrication state moved to EHL, as depicted in Figure 4b,c, the application
age observed on the surfaces of the contact.
of a 5 V AC voltage gradually reduced the oil film thickness. Simultaneously, sporadic
When the lubrication state moved to EHL, as depicted in Figure 4b,c, the application of
discharge phenomena occurred, resulting in surface damage to the contact surface. At
a 5 V AC voltage gradually reduced the oil film thickness. Simultaneously, sporadic dis-
an entrainment speed of 128 mm/s, after operating for 30 min in the AC electric field,
charge phenomena occurred, resulting in surface damage to the contact surface. At an en-
subtle electric-erosion-induced damage was vaguely discerned on the glass disk surface
trainment speed of 128 mm/s, after operating for 30 min in the AC electric field, subtle elec-
(indicated by the black arrow in Figure 4b). At an entrainment speed of 512 mm/s, distinct
tric-erosion-induced
discharge flashes in damage the contact wasregion
vaguely discerned
could on the glass
be observed, disk surface
intensifying (indicated
the damage by
to the
the black arrow in Figure 4b). At an entrainment speed of 512
glass disk. Furthermore, it was noteworthy that upon removing the electric field, the oil mm/s, distinct discharge
flashes in the contact
film thickness graduallyregion could beand
increased, observed,
at 128 intensifying
mm/s, it could the damage
even go to theto
back glass disk.
its initial
Furthermore,
value. it was noteworthy that upon removing the electric field, the oil film thick-
ness gradually
When theincreased,
entrainment andspeed
at 128wasmm/s,1800it mm/s,
could even go back in
as depicted to Figure
its initial
4d,value.
the oil film
When the entrainment speed was 1800 mm/s, as depicted
thickness further increased. The discharge flash, captured by the CCD camera, in Figure 4d, the oil film thick-
exhibited
ness further increased. The discharge flash, captured by the CCD
a heightened density, and the discharge occurred more frequently with an elevation in camera, exhibited a height-
ened density, andInthe
film thickness. thedischarge
meantime, occurred
it wasmorerevealedfrequently
that thewith an elevation
flash’s locationinpredominantly
film thickness.
In the meantime,
concentrated on itthewas revealed
region withthatthethe flash’s location
minimum predominantly
film thickness, whichconcentrated
is attributedon to the
the
region with the minimum film thickness, which is attributed to the
fact that the electric field is at its strength peak at the minimum film thickness and is more fact that the electric field
is at its strength
susceptible peak at the minimum film thickness and is more susceptible to discharges.
to discharges.
To further observe
To further observe the the damage
damageby by discharges
dischargeson onthe
thesurfaces
surfacesof ofthe
thesteel
steelball,
ball,micro-
micro-
scopic
scopic examinations
examinationswere were conducted.
conducted.The Thefindings,
findings,withwiththe theoiloil film
film thickness
thickness at at three
three
speeds,
speeds,are are delineated
delineatedin inFigures
Figures55 and and 6.6. ItIt was
was found
found thatthat at at lower
lower entrainment
entrainmentspeeds,speeds,
corresponding
correspondingto to smaller
smaller oiloil film
film thickness,
thickness, the the incidence
incidence of of discharges
discharges within
within thethe contact
contact
was
was minimal,
minimal, resulting
resulting in in minor
minor damage
damage to to the
the steel
steel ball
ball surface.
surface. As Asthetheentrainment
entrainmentspeed speed
increased to 512 mm/s, the damage to the steel ball surface became
increased to 512 mm/s, the damage to the steel ball surface became more pronounced. more pronounced. When
the
Whenentrainment speed further
the entrainment speedincreased (1800 mm/s),
further increased (1800themm/s),
oil film thethickness
oil filmbecame higher.
thickness be-
The
came high-frequency discharges gave
higher. The high-frequency rise to more
discharges gave severe
rise toelectrically
more severe induced pittinginduced
electrically on the
steel
pittingballonsurface.
the steel Furthermore,
ball surface.the steel ball surface
Furthermore, at the
the steel ballminimum
surface at oil thefilm thickness
minimum oil
film thickness
revealed revealed
more severe moredamage
electric severe electric
compared damage
with compared
other regions. withThis
other regions. with
concurred This
concurred
the observed with the observed
phenomenon in phenomenon
the interferograms, in the where
interferograms,
discharges where
weredischarges
predominantly were
predominantly concentrated on the
concentrated on the area of minimum film thickness. area of minimum film thickness.

(a) 128 mm/s (b) 512 mm/s (c) 1800 mm/s

Figure 5. Surface morphology of the steel ball (15 N, 5 V, G-A grease): (a) 128 mm/s; (b) 512 mm/s;
(c) 1800 mm/s.

In order to further quantify the influence of the AC electric fields, a measured film
thickness of 128 mm/s was plotted against the test time, as shown in Figure 7. The
figure reveals that, due to the implementation of a grease collector ensuring sufficient
grease supply, the oil film thickness remained stable at approximately 117 nm before the
application of the 5 V AC electric field (0~1800 s). Following the introduction of the electric
field between the ball–disk pair, the oil film thickness gradually decreased over time. After
 Figure 5. Surface morphology of the steel ball (15 N, 5 V, G-A grease): (a) 128 mm/s; (b) 512 mm/s;
(c) 1800 mm/s.

1600
Film thickness
1400
Lubricants 2024, 12,
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79
x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 7of
of 14
14
1200
w: 15 N
Voltage: 0 V
1000
theLubricant: G-A
3600 s,5. Surface morphology ofreduced
oil film thickness
the steelto 39(15
nm.N,Upon thegrease):
removal (a)of
128the AC electric field,

hcen (nm)
Figure ball 5 V, G-A mm/s; (b) 512 mm/s;
the oil
800 film
(c) 1800 mm/s.thickness gradually reverted.

600
1600
Film thickness
400
1400

200
1200
w: 15 N
0 Voltage: 0 V
1000 128 512 1800
Lubricant: G-A
hcen (nm)

Entrainment velocitiy (mm/s)

800
Figure 6. Oil film thickness of G-A grease at different speeds (15 N, 128 mm/s, 512 mm/s, 1800 mm/s).
600

In
400 order to further quantify the influence of the AC electric fields, a measured film
thickness of 128 mm/s was plotted against the test time, as shown in Figure 7. The figure
200 that, due to the implementation of a grease collector ensuring sufficient grease sup-
reveals
ply, the0 oil film thickness remained stable at approximately 117 nm before the application
of the 5 V AC electric128field (0~1800 1800 the introduction of the electric field between
512s). Following
Entrainment velocitiy (mm/s)
the ball–disk pair, the oil film thickness gradually decreased over time. After 3600 s, the oil
film thickness
Figure 6.6.OilOil reduced
film
film thicknesstoof39
thickness nm.
of
G-A G-AUpon
grease theatremoval
grease speedsof(15
different
at different the
N,AC
speeds electric
(15mm/s,
128 N, 128 field,
512mm/s,
mm/s,the oilmm/s).
512
1800 film
mm/s,
thickness
1800 mm/s). gradually reverted.
In order to further quantify the influence of the AC electric fields, a measured film
200
thickness of 128 mm/s was plotted against the test time, as shown in Figure 7. The figure
reveals that, due to the implementation of a grease collector ensuring sufficient grease sup-
ply, the oil film thickness remained stable at approximately 117 Film
nmthickness
before the application
of the 5 V AC electric field (0~1800 s). Following the introduction of the electric field between
the 150
ball–disk pair, the oil film thickness gradually decreased over time. After 3600 s, the oil
film thickness reduced to 39 nm. Upon the removal of the AC electric field, the oil film
thickness gradually reverted.
hcen (nm)

200
100
0V 5V 0V
Film thickness

150
50 w: 15 N
Power: AC
hcen (nm)

Lubricant: G-A
100
0
0V 5V 0V
0 1800 3600 5400
Time (s)
Figure7.
Figure w:in15
507.Changes
Changes Nfilm
inoiloil filmthickness
thicknesswith
withtime
time(15
(15N,N,128
128mm/s,
mm/s, G-A
G-A grease).
grease).
Power: AC
The above results indicated that under the mixed lubrication region, the presence
Lubricant:
of an AC electric field hasGno -Adiscernible impact on lubrication. During this phase, the
contact region consistently underwent contacts between rough peaks, leading to minimal
0 in the ball–disk contact area. No discharge phenomena were observed, and the
resistance
0 1800 3600 5400
contact maintained a state of electrical conductivity [32].
In the EHL state, when the potential Time (s) across the oil film was given, discharge
difference
could be observed in the contact, and a reduction in oil film thickness appeared. With
Figure 7. Changes
the removal in oil
of the film thickness
potential with time
difference, (15 film
the oil N, 128 mm/s, G-A
thickness grease). reverted. As we
gradually
know, the EHL contact can be treated as a parallel combination of oil film resistance
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 8 of 14

and a parallel capacitor [32]. In this state, the resistance is relatively high, leading to
significant Joule heating as current flows. Simultaneously, the formation of microbubbles
occurs. These microbubbles migrate outward by uneven temperature and surface tension
distribution in the contact [25,26,30]. Microbubbles generated in the electric field displace
the lubricant near the contact area, and the directional movement of microbubbles also
hinders the flow of lubricant back into the contact area, leading to a reduction in oil film
thickness. Fundamentally, the generation, movement, and rupture of microbubbles disrupt
the stability of lubrication [28]. Joule heating also results in reduced lubricant viscosity and
deteriorates film-forming capability.
When the oil film thickness was at a higher level, the oil film resistance attained an
exceptionally high value, and the contact was more similar to a pure capacitor. During
this phase, the oil film achieved considerable thickness, accompanied by a relatively small
capacitance value. Consequently, it became highly susceptible to discharge breakdown
when subjected to AC electric fields, leading to the observation of more densely distributed
discharge flashes in the interferograms.
In conclusion, with the transition of the lubrication state from mixed lubrication to fluid
lubrication, there was an increase in oil film thickness. The ball-on-disk contact underwent
a shift from a resistive to a capacitive state. As the film thickness increased, the capacitance
value decreased, rendering it more susceptible to discharge breakdown. Consequently,
higher oil film thickness resulted in a more pronounced occurrence of discharge flashes.

3.2. Discharge Characteristics under EHL

To further investigate the discharge characteristics in the EHL region, interferograms
were captured under continuously varying voltage conditions. The experiment was
conducted under a 15 N load with sufficient grease supply at two entrainment speeds:
128 mm/s and 512 mm/s. The procedure was initiated with a voltage of 0 V and increased
incrementally by 1 V every 30 s until destructive electrical discharge took place in the
contact. The findings are elucidated in Figure 8. The figure reveals that within the lower
voltage range (0~4 V), the oil film thickness exhibited a relatively small variation. However,
with voltage increase, the oil film thickness gradually decreased. For example, at an en-
trainment speed of 128 mm/s, the oil film thickness decreased from 105 nm at 4 V to 17 nm
at 15 V with an 83.8% reduction. With further voltage increase, the potential difference
across the oil film reached a threshold, resulting in sustained discharge throughout the
contact. This type of discharge, distinct from the sporadic discharge discussed in Section 3.1,
manifested as a persistent and extensive one accompanied by a purple light, referred to
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
as destructive discharge. This phenomenon culminated in the complete destruction of the
conductive layer on the glass disk, prompting the termination of the experiment.

Figure
Figure 8. 8. Relationship
Relationship between
between film thickness
film thickness and voltage
and voltage at different
at different entrainment
entrainment speeds. speeds.
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 9 of 14

Figure 9a,b depict the images of discharge under two entrainment speeds, along with
the morphological damage on the surfaces of the glass disk and the steel ball surfaces. It
was evident that at 128 mm/s, the destructive discharge produced a substantial amount of
purple light, almost enveloping the entire Hertzian contact region. Microscopic examination
showed that the coating on the surface of the glass disk was entirely destroyed, leaving
distinct electrical erosion marks on the surface of the steel ball. At 512 mm/s, the discharge
frequency increased after reaching the threshold, leading to more severe damage to the
Figure 8. Relationship between film thickness and voltage at different entrainment speeds.
steel ball.

(a) 128 mm/s

(b) 512 mm/s

Figure
Figure9.9.Destructive
Destructivedischarge andand
discharge surface morphology
surface of glass
morphology diskdisk
of glass and and
steelsteel
ball at different
ball en-
at different
trainment speeds: (a) 128 mm/s; (b) 512 mm/s.
entrainment speeds: (a) 128 mm/s; (b) 512 mm/s.

3.3.COFs
3.3. COFsininVarious
VariousLubrication
LubricationRegions
Regions
Thefilm
The filmthickness
thicknessratio,
ratio,denoted
denotedasasλ,λ,isisoften
oftenused
usedfor forestimation
estimationofofthethelubrication
lubrication
state.ItItisisdefined
state. definedasasthetheratio
ratioofofaverage
averagefilmfilmthickness
thicknessover
overcomposite
compositeroot rootmean
meansquare
square
(RMS) roughness. When 1 < λ < 3, the system resides in mixed lubrication, while λ > 3 3indi-
(RMS) roughness. When 1 < λ < 3, the system resides in mixed lubrication, while λ > indi-
cates fluid lubrication, encompassing both EHL and hydrodynamic lubrication. Figure 1010
cates fluid lubrication, encompassing both EHL and hydrodynamic lubrication. Figure
illustratesthe
illustrates thefriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientvariation
variationfor forG-A
G-Agrease
greaseunder
underan anAC
ACelectric
electricfield,
field,with
witha a
load of 20 N, entrainment speed of 128 mm/s, and a slide–roll ratio of
load of 20 N, entrainment speed of 128 mm/s, and a slide–roll ratio of 30% over a 40 min test 30% over a 40 min
duration. It can be observed that the application of the AC electric field induced a reduction a
test duration. It can be observed that the application of the AC electric field induced
inreduction in oil filmand
oil film thickness thickness and an augmentation
an augmentation in the
in the surface surface roughness
roughness of theConse-
of the contact. contact.
Consequently, the λ value decreased, which meant the lubrication
quently, the λ value decreased, which meant the lubrication state shifted from point A state shifted from point
to
A to point B in Figure 3, resulting in a reduction in the friction coefficient.
point B in Figure 3, resulting in a reduction in the friction coefficient. Upon removing the Upon removing
the electric field at 1800 s, the oil film thickness experienced an increase, leading to an
elevation in the friction coefficient.
Figure 11 illustrates the friction coefficient and interferograms under continuous
variable speed conditions within an AC electric field. The experimental setup involved
a load of 20 N, a slide–roll ratio of 30%, and cyclically varying entrainment speeds at
512 mm/s, 96 mm/s, and 32 mm/s, each speed running for a duration of 10 min. It
was discernible that the application of the AC electric field resulted in decreased oil film
thickness and damage to the surfaces of the contact, leading to a fluctuation in the friction
coefficient. At 512 mm/s, the friction coefficient mirrored a comparable trend to that
observed at 128 mm/s. Nevertheless, a reduction in entrainment speed to 96 mm/s
caused a marginal increase in the friction coefficient. Subsequent deceleration to 32 mm/s
induced a substantial rise in the friction coefficient, attributed to the contact between
rough peaks within the contact. Consequently, these experiments underscored the AC
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 10 of 14

Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

electric field’s efficacy in reducing the friction coefficient in the fluid lubrication region.
However, surface damage induced by discharges and the decrease in oil film thickness due
to thermal effects ultimately precipitated a transition in the lubrication state toward mixed
electric field at
lubrication, 1800 s, the
resulting oil film between
in contact thicknessrough
experienced
peaks an
andincrease, leadingescalation
a noteworthy to an elevation
in the
in the friction coefficient.
friction coefficient.

Figure10.
Figure Variationof
10.Variation offriction
frictioncoefficient
coefficientwith
withtime
time(20
(20N,
N,128
128mm/s,
mm/s,ξ ξ= =0.3).
0.3).

3.4. Figure
Discharge
11 Characteristics of Graphite-Based
illustrates the friction coefficientConductive Grease
and interferograms under continuous vari-
The authors
able speed conducted
conditions within an
an investigation intoThe
AC electric field. the experimental
discharge characteristics of conductive
setup involved a load of
grease
20 N, a (G-B) withratio
slide–roll nanographite
of 30%, and as cyclically
an additive underentrainment
varying the influence of an AC
speeds at 512electric
mm/s,field.
96
The experimental
mm/s, and 32 mm/s,parameters
each speed included
running fora load of 20 N,
a duration of a10voltage of 5 discernible
min. It was V, a slide–rollthatratio
the
of 30%, andofentrainment
application speeds
the AC electric fieldofresulted
512 mm/s, 96 mm/s,oiland
in decreased film32thickness
mm/s, each and running
damage for to
10 min. As a benchmark, the same test was repeated with G-A grease,
the surfaces of the contact, leading to a fluctuation in the friction coefficient. At 512 which is the base
mm/s,
grease
the of G-B
friction grease.mirrored
coefficient The findings are depicted
a comparable into
trend Figure 12.
that observed at 128 mm/s. Neverthe-
From the interferograms of the two greases in the
less, a reduction in entrainment speed to 96 mm/s caused a marginal AC electricincrease
field, it is
inevident that
the friction
the introduction of a 0.2% mass fraction of nanographite in the grease
coefficient. Subsequent deceleration to 32 mm/s induced a substantial rise in the frictionnot only diminished
the oil film attributed
coefficient, resistance within
to the the contact
contact but alsorough
between reduced the resistance
peaks within the of contact.
the grease out of
Conse-
the contact
quently, region.
these This decrease
experiments in resistance
underscored the AC enabled
electricthe potential
field’s efficacydifference out ofthe
in reducing the
contact region to reach the threshold voltage required for discharge
friction coefficient in the fluid lubrication region. However, surface damage induced byphenomena, resulting
in surface damage. However, when G-A grease was used, the discharge occurred entirely
discharges and the decrease in oil film thickness due to thermal effects ultimately precip-
within the contact area. Furthermore, as graphite particles were drawn into the contact,
itated a transition in the lubrication state toward mixed lubrication, resulting in contact
the coating on the glass disk underwent mechanical wear. In summary, the formulation
between rough peaks and a noteworthy escalation in the friction coefficient.
of conductive grease with nanographite as a conductive additive necessitates rigorous
control of the additive’s content, with attention to ensuring that particle size remains within
appropriate limits.
FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 11 of 14

(a) COF

(b) Film thickness

Figure 11. Friction coefficient
Figure 11.curve and
Friction interferograms
coefficient curve and at different entrainment
interferograms speeds: (a)speeds:
at different entrainment COF; (a) COF;
(b) Film thickness. (b) Film thickness.

3.4. Discharge Characteristics of Graphite-Based Conductive Grease

The authors conducted an investigation into the discharge characteristics of conductive
grease (G-B) with nanographite as an additive under the influence of an AC electric field.
The experimental parameters included a load of 20 N, a voltage of 5 V, a slide–roll ratio of
30%, and entrainment speeds of 512 mm/s, 96 mm/s, and 32 mm/s, each running for 10 min.
As a benchmark, the same test was repeated with G-A grease, which is the base grease of
Lubricants
Lubricants2024,
2024,12,
12,x 79
FOR PEER REVIEW 12 12
of of1414

(a) G-B

(b) G-A
Figure
Figure12.
12.Interferograms
InterferogramsofofG-A
G-Agrease
greaseand
andG-B
G-Bgrease
greaseininAC
ACelectric
electricfield:
field:(a)
(a)G-B;
G-B;(b)
(b)G-A.
G-A.

4. Conclusions
From the interferograms of the two greases in the AC electric field, it is evident that the
introduction of a 0.2%
This paper mass fraction
employed of nanographite
an updated in the grease
optical ball-on-disk not only diminished
tribometer to replicatethe the
oil film resistance
lubrication withinexperienced
conditions the contact bybutmotor
also reduced
bearingsthe ofresistance of the grease
electric vehicles at variousout speeds.
of the
The investigation
contact delved into
region. This decrease parameters
in resistance such the
enabled as oil film thickness,
potential differencefriction
out of the coefficient,
contact
and discharge
region characteristics,
to reach the specifically
threshold voltage requiredfocusing on scenarios
for discharge phenomena,of mixed lubrication
resulting and
in surface
fluid lubrication
damage. However,regions
when G-Awithin an AC
grease waselectric
used, thefield. Furthermore,
discharge occurred the study within
entirely introduced
the
nanographite
contact into the grease
area. Furthermore, as a conductive
as graphite particlesadditive,
were drawn aimingintotothe
explore
contact,thethecharacteristics
coating on
of glass
the graphite-based
disk underwentconductive grease
mechanical in an
wear. Inelectric
summary, field.
theThe results indicate:
formulation of conductive grease
with
(1) nanographite as a conductive
In an alternating additive
current (AC) necessitates
electric field, asrigorous control ofstate
the lubrication the additive’s
changes con-
from
tent, with attention
mixed to ensuring
lubrication to fluidthat particle size
lubrication, remains
the oil film inwithin appropriate
the ball-on-disk limits.
contact area will
change from resistive to capacitive, and the higher the film thickness, the smaller the
4. Conclusions
capacitance value, and the higher the frequency of discharge.
(2) This
Within
papertheemployed
EHL region, Joule heating
an updated opticalinduces a reduction
ball-on-disk tribometerin oil film thickness
to replicate the lu-in
bricationtheconditions
Hertzian contact area. A
experienced bylarger
motorpotential
bearingsdifference
of electriccorresponds to a diminished
vehicles at various speeds.
oil film thickness.
The investigation Upon
delved into the potential
parameters suchdifference
as oil filmreaching
thickness, thefriction
threshold voltage,
coefficient,
destructive discharge occurs, accompanied by the emergence of
and discharge characteristics, specifically focusing on scenarios of mixed lubrication anda significant quantity
of purple light.
fluid lubrication regions within an AC electric field. Furthermore, the study introduced
(3) An AC into
nanographite electric
the field
greasecanasreduce the friction
a conductive coefficient
additive, aimingintoaexplore
fluid lubrication region.
the characteris-
However, surface damage induced by discharges and the decrease
tics of graphite-based conductive grease in an electric field. The results indicate: in oil film thickness
due to thermal effects ultimately precipitates a transition in the lubrication state
(1) Intoward mixed lubrication,
an alternating current (AC) resulting in contact
electric field, as thebetween rough
lubrication peaks
state and afrom
changes noteworthy
mixed
escalation in the friction coefficient.
lubrication to fluid lubrication, the oil film in the ball-on-disk contact area will change
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 13 of 14

(4) When formulating conductive grease with nanographite as a conductive additive, a

higher mass fraction of the additive can instigate discharges beyond the contact area.
Furthermore, it is imperative to control the particle size, as an overly large size may
lead to abrasive particle wear.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.G. and Z.L.; methodology, Z.L.; validation, Z.J., B.L.,
X.W. and L.Z.; investigation, Z.L., X.W. and F.G.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.L.; writing—
review and editing, Z.L. and F.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52175173) and
Shandong Zhilian Community Bearing Technology Co., Ltd. (KF-0084).
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References
1. He, F.; Xie, G.; Luo, J. Electrical bearing failures in electric vehicles. Friction 2020, 8, 4–28. [CrossRef]
2. Plazenet, T.; Boileau, T.; Caironi, C.C.; Nahid-Mobarakeh, B. Influencing parameters on discharge bearing currents in inverter-fed
induction motors. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2021, 36, 940–949. [CrossRef]
3. Isomura, Y.; Yamamoto, K.; Morimoto, S.; Maetani, T.; Watanabe, A.; Nakano, K. Study of the further reduction of shaft voltage of
brushless DC motor with insulated rotor driven by PWM inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2014, 50, 3738–3743. [CrossRef]
4. Plazenet, T.; Boileau, T.; Caironi, C.; Nahid-Mobarakeh, B. A comprehensive study on shaft voltages and bearing currents in
rotating machines. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2018, 54, 3749–3759. [CrossRef]
5. Muetze, A.; Binder, A. Don’t lose your bearings. IEEE Ind. Appl. Mag. 2006, 12, 22–31. [CrossRef]
6. Raymond, O. An Investigation of Shaft Current in a Large Sleeve Bearing Induction Machine. Ph.D. Thesis, McMaster University,
Hamilton, ON, Canada, 1999.
7. Niu, K.; Song, C.; Lou, Z.; Pang, X.; Lu, H.; Du, S.; Zhao, Y. Electric damage of bearing under AC shaft voltage at different rotation
speeds. Tribol. Int. 2023, 177, 108008.
8. Schneider, V.; Behrendt, C.; Höltje, P.; Cornel, D.; Becker-Dombrowsky, F.M.; Puchtler, S.; Kirchner, E. Electrical bearing damage, a
problem in the nano-and macro-range. Lubricants 2022, 10, 194. [CrossRef]
9. Boyanton, H.E.; Hodges, G. Bearing fluting [motors]. IEEE Ind. Appl. Mag. 2002, 8, 53–57. [CrossRef]
10. Wouter, O.; Patrick, D.B. Failure analysis of the deep groove ball bearings of an electric motor. Eng. Fail. Anal. 2005, 12, 772–783.
11. Sunahara, K.; Yamashita, S.; Yamamoto, M.; Ikeda, M.; Nishikawa, H.; Matsuda, K.; Kaneta, M. Development of grease film
breakdown observing device. Tribol. Online 2008, 3, 40–43. [CrossRef]
12. López-Uruñuela, F.J.; Fernandez-Diaz, B.; Pagano, F.; López-Ortega, A.; Pinedo, B.; Bayón, R.; Aguirrebeitia, J. Broad review of
“White Etching Crack” failure in wind turbine gearbox bearings: Main factors and experimental investigations. Int. J. Fatigue
2021, 145, 106091. [CrossRef]
13. Noguchi, S.; Korenaga, A.; Kanada, T. Occurrence condition of electric current density in electrical pitting (in case of ball bearing
608 for application of direct current). J. Adv. Mech. Des. Syst. Manuf. 2010, 4, 469–479. [CrossRef]
14. Esmaeili, K.; Wang, L.; Harvey, T.J.; White, N.M.; Holweger, W. Electrical discharges in oil-lubricated rolling contacts and their
detection using electrostatic sensing technique. Sensors 2022, 22, 392. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Muetze, A. Bearing Currents in Inverter-Fed AC-Motors. Ph.D. Thesis, TU Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany, 2003.
16. Graf, S.; Werner, M.; Koch, O.; Götz, S.; Sauer, B. Breakdown voltages in thrust bearings behavior and measurement. Tribol. Trans.
2023, 8, 11. [CrossRef]
17. Gonda, A.; Capan, R.; Bechev, D.; Sauer, B. The influence of lubricant conductivity on bearing currents in the case of rolling
bearing greases. Lubricants 2019, 7, 108. [CrossRef]
18. Turnbull, R.; Rahmani, R.; Paul, S.; Rahnejat, H. Electrotribodynamics of ball bearings in electrical machines. Tribol. Int. 2023, 188,
108817. [CrossRef]
19. Bleger, A.; Leighton, M.; Morris, N. Automotive e-motor bearing electrical discharge phenomena: An experimental and numerical
investigation. Tribol. Int. 2024, 191, 109140. [CrossRef]
20. Suzumura, J. Prevention of electrical pitting on rolling bearings by electrically conductive grease. Q. Rep. RTRI 2016, 57, 42–47.
[CrossRef]
21. Zhang, P.L.; Wang, G.G.; Zhao, Y.J.; Wu, H.; Xia, Y.Q. Study of conductive and friction properties of grease containing carbon
black additive. Adv. Mat. Res. 2015, 1120, 586–589. [CrossRef]
22. Guo, L.; Mol, H.; Nijdam, T.; Vries, L.D.; Bongaerts, J. Study on the electric discharge behaviour of a single contact in EV motor
bearings. Tribol. Int. 2023, 187, 108743. [CrossRef]
Lubricants 2024, 12, 79 14 of 14

23. Chen, Y.; Jha, S.; Raut, A.; Zhang, W.Y.; Liang, H. Performance characteristics of lubricants in electric and hybrid vehicles: A
review of current and future needs. Front. Mech. Eng. 2020, 6, 571464. [CrossRef]
24. Prashad, H. Effect of operating parameters on the threshold voltages and impedance response of non-insulated rolling element
bearings under the action of electrical currents. Wear 1987, 117, 223–240. [CrossRef]
25. Romanenko, A.; Muetze, A.; Ahola, J. Effects of electrostatic discharges on bearing grease dielectric strength and composition.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2016, 52, 4835–4842. [CrossRef]
26. Luo, J.B.; He, Y.; Zhong, M.; Jin, Z.M. Gas bubble phenomenon in nanoscale liquid film under external electric field. Appl. Phys.
Lett. 2006, 89, 013104. [CrossRef]
27. Xie, G.X.; Luo, J.B.; Liu, S.H.; Zhang, C.H.; Guo, D. Effect of external electric field on liquid film confined within nanogap. J. Appl.
Phys. 2008, 103, 094306. [CrossRef]
28. Xie, G.X.; Luo, J.B.; Liu, S.H.; Zhang, C.H.; Lu, X.C. Micro-bubble phenomenon in nanoscale water-based lubricating film induced
by external electric field. Tribol. Lett. 2008, 29, 169–176. [CrossRef]
29. Xie, G.X.; Luo, J.B.; Liu, S.H.; Guo, D.; Li, G.; Zhang, C.H. Effect of liquid properties on the growth and motion characteristics of
micro-bubbles induced by electric fields in confined liquid films. J. Phys. D 2009, 42, 115502. [CrossRef]
30. Sunahara, K.; Ishida, Y.; Yamamoto, S.; Nishikawa, H.; Matsuda, K.; Kaneta, M. Preliminary measurements of electrical
micropitting in grease-lubricated point contacts. Tribol. Trans. 2011, 54, 730–735. [CrossRef]
31. Liu, H.C.; Guo, F.; Guo, L.; Wong, P.L. A dichromatic interference intensity modulation approach to measurement of lubricating
film thickness. Tribol. Lett. 2015, 58, 15. [CrossRef]
32. Martin, G.; Becker, F.M.; Kirchner, E. A novel method for diagnosing rolling bearing surface damage by electric impedance
analysis. Tribol. Int. 2022, 170, 107503. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.