DEG R E E P RO JE C T

Tribological characterization of a ball bearing

subjected to an electric field
Electric drivetrain tribology

Muhammad Umar Farooq

Mechanical Engineering, master's level (120 credits)

2023

Luleå University of Technology

Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics
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Tribological characterization of a ball bearing
subjected to an electric field
Electric drivetrain tribology

Authored by:

Muhammad Umar Farooq

Joint European Master in Tribology of Surfaces and Interfaces

Supervised by:

Prof. Roland Larsson (LTU)

Associate Prof. Marcus Björling (LTU)

Dr. Jonny Hansen (Scania CV AB)

It's not a faith in technology. It's faith in people.
Steve Jobs, Co-founder of Apple
Dedicated to my parents (Shaukat Ali and Ishrat Mubeen), to whom I owe my life.
 Acknowledgement
The research work is carried out in partial fulfilment of Erasmus Mundus Joint Masters in
Tribology of Surfaces and Interfaces – TRIBOS+ at Luleå University of Technology, Sweden and
in collaboration with Scania CV AB.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Allah and the incredible individuals (family, friends
and mentors) who have supported me throughout in completing this thesis work. Without them
and their encouragement, understanding and unwavering support, this achievement would not have
been translated into reality.

The TRIBOS+ is Europe’s most prestigious and flagship program on tribology of engineering
surfaces specially designed to support Europe’s micro-device manufacturing and automotive
sector. I would like to thank Professor Ardian Morina at University of Leeds UK, Professor Mitjan
Kalin at University of Ljubljana Slovenia, Professor Nazanin Emami at Luleå University of
Technology, Sweden, and Professor Bruno Trindade at University of Coimbra, Portugal for
providing me an excellent opportunity among 13 students from 9 countries. Throughout the
program, their academic, moral and financial support has been a wholesome and valuable
experience for me.

Foremost, I would take to acknowledge the support, guidance and time of my supervisor cum
mentors Professor Roland Larsson (Chair Professor at Luleå University of Technology, Dr.
Marcus Björling (Associate Professor at Luleå University of Technology) and Dr. Jonny Hansen
(Tech Lead and Senior Tribologist at Electric Propulsion Group, Scania CV AB). In addition, I
would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Johan Borg (Researcher and Adjunct Senior Lecturer at
Luleå University of Technology) for his technical support in the project.

To my family and friends, I express my love and admiration which can’t completely be shown
through words. The unwavering support and belief in me, your presence in my life and influence
have been my source of motivation and a guiding light. To sum up, this achievement would not
have been possible without your collective influence.
 Abstract
Electric machines are widely used in for instance the automotive industry in electric vehicles and
in wind turbines. The electrical machines have mechanical bearings as an integral part used to
transmit power and load. In addition, the main function includes reducing friction between
interacting surfaces. However, it is one of the most failing machine elements in these machines.
To improve operational sustainability and reduce maintenance costs, understanding bearing failure
mechanisms under electrical influence is important. One of the main reasons of bearing failure is
linked to high frequency power switches typically used to enhance electric machines’ efficiency.
The increase in switching rate induces more frequent common mode voltage fluctuations making
the system vulnerable to bearing currents. A small voltage difference of a few ten volts can induce
significant electric stress on the bearing depending on the lubricant film thickness and related
tribological parameters. The electric charge build-up leads to electric current conduction (arc
discharge which happens when the voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage) ultimately damaging
the bearing.

There are different mitigation strategies which are used to restrict bearing currents through
grounding or using completely insulative bearings such as ceramic ones. However, at the moment,
there are no satisfactory solutions and there is a need for efficient and economical solutions to the
problem. On the other hand, various filters are used to reduce the amplitude and its frequency of
bearing currents, but they only partly solve the problem. Similarly, the insulative surface coatings
provides high electrical resistance but start acting as capacitors. At a sufficiently high voltage
difference, the current passes through the system. Therefore, mitigation strategies are still being
explored to improve system performance and service-life.

To understand the bearing discharge activity and electrical breakdowns, an electrified ball bearing
rig is developed with the ability of testing different electrical properties of lubricants and running
conditions. To be able to characterize the electrical properties of a bearing, two electrical circuits
are designed. Experimental tests are carried out with PAO-15 and an electrical conductivity-
enhanced PAO-15/P-SiSO lubricant with addition of ionic liquids. The influence of different
tribological parameters such as rotational speed and viscosity are compared with respect to
discharge activity. In addition, two fully formulated experimental oils are compared and evaluated
in terms of their electrical performance.

The bearing is found to be in different states showing electric-field dependent insulation

breakdown ranging from resistive to resistive-capacitive to capacitive states. The electric
characterization shows a difference between the boundary, mixed and full film lubrication regimes.
Conclusively, the electrical behavior of a mechanical bearing is characterized experimentally to
understand discharge problem and roadmap solution opportunities.
Keywords: Ball bearing, electric drivetrain, tribology, electric field, characterization, bearing
currents, discharge.
 Abbreviations
EV – Electric vehicle
ICEV – Internal combustion engine-based vehicle
EDD – Electric discharge damage
VFD – Variable frequency drive
PWM – Pulse width modulation
PAO – Poly-alpha-olefin
ZDDP – Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates
EHL – Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication
 Table of Contents
Tribological characterization of a ball bearing subjected to an electric field ................................. 1
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... 4
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. 6
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 7
List of figures .................................................................................................................................. 9
List of tables .................................................................................................................................. 11
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 12
1.1. Background .................................................................................................................... 13
1.2. Problem statement .......................................................................................................... 14
1.3. Research contributions ................................................................................................... 15
1.4. Methods .......................................................................................................................... 15
1.5. Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 16
1.6. Outline ............................................................................................................................ 16
Chapter 2: Electric current across bearings .................................................................................. 17
2.1. Shaft voltage................................................................................................................... 18
a) Magnetic flux asymmetry ........................................................................................... 18
b) Electrostatic effects..................................................................................................... 18
c) Inverter-induced voltage ............................................................................................. 19
2.2. Bearing currents ............................................................................................................. 19
a) Non-circulating currents ............................................................................................. 20
b) Circulating currents .................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 3: Lubrication under electric conditions.......................................................................... 23
3.1. Lubricating oil ................................................................................................................ 24
3.2. Greases ........................................................................................................................... 25
3.3. Design of lubricants ....................................................................................................... 27
a) Base Oils ..................................................................................................................... 27
b) Lubricant Additives .................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 4: Mechanism of electric discharge damage ................................................................... 30
Chapter 5: Electric bearing damages ............................................................................................ 40
5.1. Surface-induced damage ................................................................................................ 41
 a) Frosting ....................................................................................................................... 42
b) Pitting.......................................................................................................................... 42
c) Fluting......................................................................................................................... 42
d) Spark tracks ................................................................................................................ 42
e) Welding ...................................................................................................................... 42
5.2. Lubricant-induced damage ............................................................................................. 43
a) Lubricant degradation ................................................................................................. 43
b) Microbubble effect ..................................................................................................... 43
c) Electro-wetting ........................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 6: Electrification of deep groove ball bearing rig ........................................................... 44
6.1. Mechanical system ......................................................................................................... 45
6.2. Electrical system ............................................................................................................ 47
d) Circuit design.............................................................................................................. 47
e) Electric isolation ......................................................................................................... 48
f) Electric grounding .......................................................................................................... 50
6.3. Data-acquisition system ................................................................................................. 51
Chapter 7: Experimental plan ....................................................................................................... 54
7.1. Lubricants ....................................................................................................................... 55
7.2. Design of Experiments ................................................................................................... 57
Chapter 8: Results and discussion................................................................................................. 59
8.1. Discharge activity ........................................................................................................... 60
8.2. Influence of tribological parameters .............................................................................. 62
8.3. Effect of heating with run time ...................................................................................... 67
8.4. Addition of an electrically conductive additive ............................................................. 70
8.5. Comparison of full-formulated lubricants ...................................................................... 72
8.6. Film thickness ................................................................................................................ 77
Chapter 9: Conclusions and future work ...................................................................................... 80
Chapter 10: References ................................................................................................................. 82
 List of figures
Figure 1. The sources of electrical current (a-c) magnetic flux showing imbalance, manufacturing
defect or wrong assembly, (d) electrostatic effect generated through tribological conditions
between two surfaces and air/lubricant as medium, (e-h) inverter induced voltage showing
rectifier DC link inverter path with different phases resulting 0 V as normal working conditions,
and common mode voltage as offset between phases [6]. ............................................................ 18
Figure 2. The influential variables and types of bearing currents along with sources.................. 20
Figure 3. The potential areas of lubrication in EVs: (top) Tesla, (bottom) Volkswagen, (open
access CC BY 4.0 [37]). ............................................................................................................... 24
Figure 4. Developments in grease technology and its timeline ([47] Open Access CC 4.0)........ 26
Figure 5. Stribeck curve and the corresponding electrical behavior presenting BL, ML, and EHL
regions in mechanical and electrical contexts [75,76]. ................................................................ 31
Figure 6. Capacitor functioning with a DC power supply presenting charge storage mechanism
[77]. ............................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 7. Typical charging and discharging behavior in a bearing contact as a result of the
common mode voltage [19] (a) the common mode voltage cycle is shown based on dv/dt and
shaft voltage context, (b) the bearing voltage rise resulting in ohmic discharge, and (c) bearing
current as a result of discharge...................................................................................................... 33
Figure 8. Discharge generation mechanism when a bearing operates in full fluid film lubrication
[75]. ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 9. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication and electrical equivalent model for capacitance
showing entry, Hertzian and exit regions under the application of grease lubrication [80,81]. ... 35
Figure 10. Charging behavior of bearing voltage up to max level based on charging resistor for
calculation of time constant [80,84].............................................................................................. 37
Figure 11.The classification of electric bearing failure modes [6]: frosting and fluting [87],
pitting [88], lubricant degradation [89], microbubbles [90], electrowetting [91], and welding and
spark tracks [92]............................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 12. (a) bearing test rig: an assembly showing three support bearings and one test bearing
highlighted in yellow, the carbon brush and other power connections, piston for application of
load (b) application of voltage across the bearing showing two capacitance models with inner
and outer raceways with ball......................................................................................................... 45
Figure 13. Electric brush details. .................................................................................................. 46
Figure 14. (a) bearing test rig, (b) oscilloscope, (c) signal generator, and (d) close-up of brush-
shaft connection. ........................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 15. Electric circuit. ............................................................................................................ 48
Figure 16. Isolation of test bearings and housings........................................................................ 49
Figure 17. Isolation of shaft by cushion provided in jaw coupling. ............................................. 50
Figure 18. Frequency drive to control motor speed and clip-on noise filter to reduce external
influence on voltage signal. .......................................................................................................... 50
Figure 19. Data acquisition in boundary lubrication regime showing two types of charging
behaviors based on asperity contact and contact details along with real time voltage signal. ..... 51
Figure 20. Data acquisition in full film lubrication regime showing breakdown events based on
voltage difference with real-time voltage signal. .......................................................................... 52
Figure 21. Data acquisition of insulation breakdown in mixed lubrication regime through a
voltage signal showing behavior of both boundary and full film regimes. .................................. 52
Figure 22. The schematic of P-SiSO and its application [111]..................................................... 56
Figure 23. Speed-based experimental campaign. ......................................................................... 58
Figure 24. The insulation breakdown count (discharge activity) at 1500 RPM using PAO-15
lubricant with applied DC voltage (a) 10 V, and (b) 20 V electric field. ..................................... 61
Figure 25. The voltage signal in mixed lubrication state under PAO-15 lubricated contacts (left)
5 V, (right) 20 V............................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 26. The voltage signal in full-film lubrication state under PAO-15 lubricated contacts
(left) 5 V, (right) 20 V................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 27. Comparison of discharge activity based on different rotational speeds with different
oils. ................................................................................................................................................ 63
Figure 28. Discharge activity mechanism [75]. ............................................................................ 64
Figure 29. Comparison of PAO-15 (left) and P-SiSO (right) discharge activity at 20 V DC: (top)
total discharges, (middle) above 1 V, (bottom) above 2 V. .......................................................... 65
Figure 30. Comparison of Experimental Oil 1 (left) and Experimental Oil 2 (right) discharge
activity at 20 V DC: (top) total discharges, (middle) above 1 V, (bottom) above 2 V. ................ 66
Figure 31. Bearing test temperature profiles near outlet in short duration tests. .......................... 67
Figure 32. Discharge activity in long duration tests with PAO-15. .............................................. 69
Figure 33. Discharge activity in long duration tests with PAO-40. .............................................. 70
Figure 34. Discharge activity in long duration tests with P-SiSO. ............................................... 71
Figure 35. Temperature profiles in the long duration tests of PAO-15 and P-SiSO. ................... 72
Figure 36. Discharge activity in long duration tests with Experimental Oil 1. ............................ 74
Figure 37. Discharge activity in long duration tests with Experimental Oil 2. ............................ 76
Figure 38. Temperature profiles in the long duration tests of Exp Oil 1 and Exp Oil 2. .............. 77
Figure 39. Film thickness in the long duration tests of PAO-15, P-SiSO, and PAO-40. ............. 78
Figure 40. Film thickness in the long duration tests of Exp Oil 1 and Exp Oil 2. ........................ 79
 List of tables
Table 1. Classification of base oil [37]. ........................................................................................ 27
Table 2. Lubricant additives and their function [37,65]. .............................................................. 28
Table 3. Bearing rig attributes. ..................................................................................................... 46
Table 4. Lubricant types and their properties used for the experimentation. ............................... 55
Table 5. Experimental campaign used to characterize bearing discharge activity under different
tribological conditions. ................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 1: Introduction
 Chapter 1: Introduction
The low carbon transportation goals have pushed the automotive sector in developing sustainable
options for mobility [1,2]. Therefore, many low carbon vehicles are introduced on the market to
reduce carbon emissions and energy consumption [3,4]. In these vehicles, especially electric ones,
mechanical drivetrains/transmissions are used which comprise bearings as one of the key
components and are prone to premature failures compromising the reliability of whole system. The
bearings are used in moving parts for low friction, for load transmission, for support and locating
the rotating equipment. These premature failures are also common in wind turbine industry
because of similar drivetrain analogy. Therefore, various strategies and developments are carried
out to reduce their life cost and optimize maintenance plans [5].

The scientific community has been developing different technologies for bearings used in rotating
machines, wind turbines and vehicles. However, the introduction of electric field in the bearing in
electric vehicles and wind turbines have caused early failures which has been studied recently [6].
Despite different failure modes, the major focus remains towards electric discharge damage (EDD)
of bearing material induced during temporary insulation breakdowns and the associated current
flow. Different studies are carried out on bearing currents and optimization of electric drivetrain
systems in rotating machines. However, there is still a need to understand the lubrication behavior
under electric field. Similarly, the discharge mechanism inside the bearing needs comprehensive
evaluation to develop sustainable and reliable technologies. In this thesis, the tribological
characterization of a ball bearing, subjected to an electric field, is carried out under different
operating environments including changes in voltage, speed and type of lubricant. The possible
mechanisms associated with electric insulation (lubrication) breakdown are evaluated and
correlated with electro-physical attributes of the lubrication film in the bearing. The later sections
of this chapter outline the research questions and objectives of the thesis along with the
methodology used to reach conclusions and limitations.
1.1. Background

Mechanical bearings are considered the backbone of the manufacturing industry because it is the
most important machine element present in rotating machinery. Improper functioning could result
in excessive frictional heat, noise, wear and cause losses in power, carbon emission goals, and
overall system efficiency. The bearings are used in motors, pumps, and transmission components
in electric vehicles. Similarly, the applications are also extended in electrical generators and
different assemblies in wind turbine electric drivetrains [7,8].

The early bearing failures in electrical motors used in electric vehicles, and generators in wind
turbine systems have increased significantly because of the advanced power electronics. These
electronic systems use high frequency pulse modulation to convert frequency, voltage and power
as per requirements. The switching time has been significantly reduced since the inception of
technology because fast switching is associated with low losses. On the other hand, high switching
frequency and rise time induces shaft voltages and bearing currents in the system [9]. Switching
frequency can be viewed as the number of possible discharge events, and the rise time as the trigger
for each event. The shorter the rise time, the more the trigger is pulled and the more likely the
occurrence of an arc discharge. In addition, the induction machines operated with adjustable speed
drives, for instance variable frequency drive (VFD) induce bearing currents and shaft voltages
resulting in early bearing failures [10]. The pulse width modulation (PWM) scheme and the
switching times produce high voltages up to 10 kV/μs [11]. The origin of bearing currents, which
is categorized as one of the most prominent premature failures, is widely studied [12]. Once
damage is initiated, the bearings cause excessive vibrations and critically affect main shaft and
other critical components [13]. Damaged bearings result in catastrophic failure and breakdown of
system as reported around 40% in electric motors [6] and constitute 20 % to 30 % life cycle
operations and maintenance costs of wind turbines [14]. Therefore, it is important to monitor
components and devise failure mitigation strategies to reduce operation and maintenance costs. In
this case, ceramic bearings are a preferred choice to avoid bearing currents but are limited with
respect to size and cost in various industrial applications. Moreover, they may end up creating
other problems by forcing the current to follow in a different path, such as through the gearbox.

The literature is mainly focused towards identifying the sources of bearing currents and shaft
voltages and evaluating the effect of system variables on the bearing current activity. For instance,
these system variables include, switching frequency, carrier frequency, modulation schemes and
current path optimization [15]. Similarly, the focus has been towards a system level approach
evaluating the system parameters against current activity in rotating machinery of different
specifications. However, there is still a need to comprehensively evaluate the influence of shaft
voltages and bearing current activity with respect to different tribological conditions (affecting
insulation properties of the bearing elements). Recently, an early progress has been made in
evaluating different lubricating films, its breakdown properties, and bearing surface
properties/coatings. This thesis systematically evaluates the breakdown of lubricating films and its
conduction characteristics with respect to bearing discharge activity. The bearing discharge
activity is quantified through experiments and the behavior is correlated with a mechanistic
lubricating film thickness model. In addition, a lab-scale test machine is developed through
electrification of a ball bearing rig to characterize the electrical performance of bearing under
various tribological conditions.
1.2. Problem statement

With the rise in electrification of industrial machinery and automotive industry, novel challenges
are introduced in tribological contacts of machine element, such as rolling element bearings which
require tailored solutions. Therefore, this thesis primarily aims to (i) electrify a ball bearing rig to
carry out tribological characterization, (ii) to quantify discharge activity at various operating
conditions, (iii) to correlate insulation breakdown mechanisms as a function of lubricating film
and (iv) to compare performance of different lubricant types. In this regard, the following research
questions are identified which will help understanding lubrication under electric conditions.

• Under different DC voltage levels changing electric field, how does discharge activity
vary?
 • What are the mechanisms which control bearing insulation breakdown (i.e., the arc
discharge through the electrically insulating lubricant film)?
• How do operational parameters such as speed, viscosity, etc.influence discharge activity?
• What is the difference between breakdown events because of different electrical
conductivities of lubricating oils?
1.3. Research contributions

The thesis aimed to carry out tribological characterization of a ball bearing under an electric field
and the following contributions are established.

1. The electrification of a mechanical ball bearing test rig is carried out to establish
comprehensive understanding of discharge activity in the bearing. Two electrical circuits
are used to evaluate the electrical behavior.
2. The experiments are carried out based on different tribological conditions such as speed
and lubricant type to exhibit the bearing performance under an electric field. The
operational states such as boundary, mixed, and full lubrication are determined based on
the discharge activity in the bearing. Here, full film lubrication corresponds to insulating
state and boundary and mixed are termed as conducting states as characterized during
running bearings.
3. The current flow (result of insulation breakdown through electric arc discharge) is studied
and correlated with electro-physical mechanism of lubrication film under various operating
conditions. The results are compared with the mechanistic understandings of parameters
affecting lubricant film thickness.
4. The performance comparison of PAO-15, PAO-15/PSiSo, PAO-40, Exp Oil 1 and Exp Oil
2 are carried out at different tribological conditions. At low electric field conditions and
high speed, the bearing is in a capacitive state with full film lubrication and is electrically
insulative. Whereas with the decrease in speed, the bearing exhibits asperity contacts
(mixed lubrication) resulting in ohmic current flow.
1.4. Methods

The electrification of a lab-scale ball bearing test rig is carried out through insulation of mechanical
components, installation of an electrical system and deployment of a data acquisition system. The
SKF 6212 deep groove ball bearing as test bearing was chosen for experimentation to obtain
information of performance of lubricants under the influence of the developed electric circuit.

The in-situ operational state was determined against discharge activity using different parametric
conditions. The discharge activity is a function of lubricant properties, bearing resistance (function
of lubricant film thickness), and other tribological variables. The bearing insulating stage
correspond to full film conditions with maximum applied voltage without film breakdown. To
study the electric field and voltage dependent breakdown characteristics, a relay was installed with
910 kΩ and 110 kΩ resistances in two individual circuits to alter the electrical
breakdown/conduction mechanism of lubricating film. The resistances were used to limit the
current flow through the bearing during discharge activity and it controlled the insulation
breakdown mechanism to study capacitive behavior. With the small resistance, the number of
breakdowns increase because each breakdown event is not significantly discharged from a certain
level. Therefore, high resistance provides additional charging support enhancing the energy of
each discharge. Conclusively, low resistance corresponds to low damage but high number of
discharges, high resistance shows the opposite behavior. Two test protocols were used (i) long 60-
minute tests at a specified speed and (ii) decreasing speed trend for short interval test with 30
second measurement. Furthermore, a customized electric fluid was prepared with higher electrical
conductivity as compared to the base lubricant to evaluate the effect of electric conductivity.
1.5. Limitations

An electrical uniform voltage difference (DC voltage source) is introduced across the bearing
which does not reflect the actual power switching device behavior such as square or sinusoidal
wave signal. The lubricant temperature was not externally controlled and was under influence of
its own shear losses and temperature rise. The temperature was measured near the outflow from
bearing housing. The influence of lubricant flow, misalignment, eccentricity, vibrations and
external load was not included in the analysis. Similarly, the complete system level aspects are not
taken into account and the work is limited to discharge activity inside the bearing.
1.6. Outline

The thesis outline is as follows:

• Chapter 2 introduces the sources of electric current across bearings and their influence on
the system.
• Chapter 3 reviews different lubrication options used in industry and highlights major
characteristics of lubrication required in electric vehicles.
• Chapter 4 presents the mechanistic overview of discharge activity and tribological
parametric influence in the bearing lubrication.
• Chapter 5 highlights bearing electric damages.
• Chapter 6 discusses the methodology of electrification of a full bearing test rig from
mechanical system details to electrical system details and data acquisition system.
• Chapter 7 shows the experimental plan, lubricant details and customized lubricant
development. In addition, the chapter presents the protocols used for the experiments.
• Chapter 8 deliberates the results and answers the questions mentioned in problem
statement.
• Chapter 9 concludes the major highlights and learnings of the thesis and paves the potential
future directions of research in the niche.
Chapter 2: Electric current across bearings
 Chapter 2: Electric current across bearings
2.1. Shaft voltage

The electro-magnetic and -static effects inside an electric motor induce electric discharge
machining-based failures. The problem is originated from the shaft voltages which is classified
into three sources.
a) Magnetic flux asymmetry

The deviations in shaft positioning or magnetic pile distribution induce magnetic asymmetry.
These deviations could be introduced during design, manufacturing, installation or repair and
maintenance activities. Moreover, the reason could be related to uneven permeability, casting
defects, asymmetrical windings, and rotor positioning [16,17]. In addition, the unbalanced voltage
signals from the inverter can also potentially cause shaft voltages [18]. Conclusively, the shaft
voltages are formed during the rotation process as compared to symmetrical operation conditions.
The common mode current (Icm) creates what is often referred to the circulating current (inductive
driven). The process disturbs the regular magnetic induction lines which cause low frequency
sinusoidal current/voltage waves [19].

Figure 1. The sources of electrical current (a-c) magnetic flux showing imbalance, manufacturing defect or wrong assembly, (d)
electrostatic effect generated through tribological conditions between two surfaces and air/lubricant as medium, (e-h) inverter
induced voltage showing rectifier DC link inverter path with different phases resulting 0 V as normal working conditions, and
common mode voltage as offset between phases [6].

b) Electrostatic effects

There are various materials such as polymers, composites, and metals used to reduce the overall
weight of the motor. Different structural parts are manufactured through carbon fiber reinforced
plastics [20,21]. Similarly, sealing rings are made of rubber materials whereas highly thermally
conductive insulating polymers are used in cooling systems [22]. The electrostatic effects are
present in the interface where dissimilar materials have friction/contact under tribological
application. The surfaces of the materials accumulate the charges and persist for some interval
creating triboelectrification phenomenon [23]. The triboelectrification creates substantial
electrostatic charges between the surfaces which are released in the form of discharge currents
upon bypassing the breakdown strength of lubricant or air. The discharge formation process is
known as an electric discharge machining current [24]. However, these effects are not large as
compared to bearing currents [5,6].
c) Inverter-induced voltage

Variable speed control in electric motors is achieved through pulse width modulation inverters.
These inverters contain fast switching devices such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT),
and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOS-FET) [25]. The fast-switching rates
induce common mode voltage (CMV) of high frequency between the stator core (ground) and
motor neutral. The three-phase inverter adjusts the speed drive in three phase induction motors
resulting in common mode voltage as a vector sum of the individual phases. The symmetrical
voltage signal from individual phases results in zero CMV. The main function of the inverter is to
simulate a pulse waveform to sinusoidal waveform. The series of pulse asymmetrical waveforms
result in stepwise common mode voltage [6,26]. Resultantly, the common mode effects are also
generated because of the unbalanced output even if there is no neutral point in winding connected
motor. The capacitive and magnetic couplings induced at CMV waveform result in shaft voltages.
In terms of motor lifting efficiency, the higher the switching frequency will result in the more
compliance to sinusoidal shaped waveform [27]. However, the high switching rate (dV/dt)
introduces high frequency and amplitude shaft voltage and harmonic distortion. These voltages
affect different interfaces if they are not sufficiently insulated.
2.2. Bearing currents

The components in an electric motor behaves as a complex capacitor system. The features of the
components such as insulation coatings, lubricants and the presence of air gaps change the
capacitance of the overall system. Similarly, the rotor to ground, stator to rotor, bearings, rotor to
frame, and the winding also affect the behavior of capacitance [28]. In addition, the capacitor turns
into a resistor upon breakdown. The current sources are divided into two categories of circulating
and non-circulating currents. A detailed breakdown of the current and influential variables is given
in Fig. 2.
 Figure 2. The influential variables and types of bearing currents along with sources.

a) Non-circulating currents

The non-circulating currents include electric discharge machining related currents and dV/dt
related inverter-led currents. These currents pass through bearings from rotor to stator
unidirectionally [29]. The motor speed mainly controls the type of dV/dt currents such as low
speed currents that are termed as conductive currents. At low rotational speeds, the minimum film
thickness of the lubricant between rotating elements may be below the components surface
roughness which will lead to conductive current from the stator winding because of internal
metallic contacts in the bearing. At normal to high rotational speeds, the lubricant forms an
insulating film of substantial thickness which works as a capacitor electrically. In the case of IGBT
switching, the bearing acting like a capacitor is charged or discharged as long as the switched
voltage does not breakdown. The high switching frequency causes the current to pass from stator
to rotor through the bearings and then finally to the frame. The capacitive currents are
insignificantly small and in the range of 5 to 10 mA whereas the conductive currents (in ML
(ohmic) or in EHL (arc discharge)) range around 200 mA or more depending upon input [30].
Consequently, the dV/dt currents are sometimes considered harmless because of the magnitude
and proportion among all bearing current categories. However, the electric discharge machining
currents possess more capacitive energy when released in terms of arcing and destructive currents
after exceeding the threshold of lubricant/air film. Busse et al. [31] estimated bearing voltage from
common mode voltage and bearing voltage ratio (BVR) because bearing possesses capacitive
voltage at normal to high rotational speeds and more precisely in ML (ohmic) or in EHL (arc
discharge).

𝐶𝑊𝑇
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐵𝑉𝑅 × 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚 = × 𝑉𝐶𝑂𝑀 (1)
𝐶𝑊𝑅 + 𝐶𝑅𝐹 + 𝐶𝐵𝐹 + 𝐶𝐵𝐸

Here Vb is bearing voltage. The index w represents winding, r corresponds to rotor, f shows frame,
b and e are for the bearing.
WR = winding to rotor
RF = rotor to frame
BF =front bearing
BE = end bearing
The bearing current ratio is in between 3% to 10% in general. Therefore, an inverter that delivers
300V AC will result in ~30 V of peak bearing voltage if the BVR is 10 %. Based on a general
dielectric strength (dependent on pressure, temperature, electric conductivity) of 15 V/μm, a
lubricant film thickness of 0.1 to 1.4 μm can potentially withstand 1.5 to 21 V [32]. The lubricant
film thickness is significantly influenced by viscosity, load, speed and the fluids pressure-viscosity
response. Moreover, the surface roughness of the bearing interface, working temperature,
distribution of lubricant film in the interface and mechanical operational fluctuations increase the
probability of discharge occurrence. There are two typical cases which corresponds to bearing
currents during application.
In full film lubrication, and if the bearing voltage is less than the breakdown voltage of the
lubricant, then capacitive currents in the order of 5-10 mA may flow and these are typically
considered non-harmful [33]. However, if the bearing voltage exceed the breakdown voltage of
the lubricant, and at a certain lubricant film thickness, the current will be released in the form of a
high energy arc discharge. Such arc discharges are typically very localized events, thus resulting
in high enough energy density and therefore surface damage to bearing raceways and rolling
elements [34].
b) Circulating currents

The circulating current type is more complicated as compared to the non-circulating current type.
Circulating currents involves capacitive and inductive coupling and magnetic induction. The
classical inductive bearing current is commonly found in alternative current operated motors
owing to magnetic flux-asymmetry. The frequency (variation in shaft speed) also affects the
amplitude of these currents. The bearing current will start circulating in a conductive loop (bearing-
rotor and stator-drive) when the induced shaft voltage will break through the lubricant film. These
classical current types are mitigated through advanced manufacturing and insulating techniques.
However, the circulating currents (common mode current and rotating asymmetric flux resulting
in circulating currents) of inverters create major problems. The high frequency common mode
current resulting from parasitic capacitance of stator and frame flows through the stator core [35].
The current flowing into the stator results in net flux around the shaft. These currents could be
described as following:
a. The dV/dt at higher frequency creates winding-frame capacitance causing high frequency
common mode currents. The current generates a magnetic flux around the shaft which
induces a voltage difference between shaft and bearings. The voltage ruptures the
lubricating film of the bearing upon reaching the threshold and destroy the insulating
behavior of the film causing a bearing current (max ~0.5-20 A) [7]. These currents create
fluting damages in the long run.
b. The ground current passing from the rotor to ground with lower impendence than the stator
housing can potentially reach higher amplitude based on motor size and destroy the bearing
[36]. These currents potentially add to circulating bearing currents and result in larger
damage amplitudes. However, if the lubricating film does not have insulating properties in
the circulating case, then the other dV/dt induced currents dominate.

Conclusively, these high frequency circulating currents and electric discharge machining currents
mainly contribute to the bearing currents as compared to other type of currents. Therefore, there
could be multiple sources of bearing currents which create damage in different capacity.
Chapter 3: Lubrication under electric conditions
 Chapter 3: Lubrication under electric conditions
3.1. Lubricating oil

The lubricating oil requirements for EVs differ from the internal combustion engine vehicles
(ICEVs) as different components are used and the load and speeds are different. There are certain
critical attributes associated with the lubricants to be used in EVs because of the different working
conditions. These critical attributes include corrosion resistance properties against copper
wiring/elements, cooling requirements of inverter, and compatibility with polymeric materials
because of sensors. These properties make the design of lubricants challenging as they are different
than what is required in ICEVs [37]. The development of EV drivetrain with temperature-based
operating conditions makes the standard testing methodology difficult because of the complex
correlation of properties. In addition, low viscosity-based oils [38] are required to support electrical
properties (conductivity/resistivity) along with other attributes which needs a comprehensive
evaluation. Conclusively, the desired properties of a lubricating oil for EVs include sustained
performance at high speed of more than 20,000 RPMs [39], (15000 RPM for hybrid passenger car
[40]) excellent performance at high temperatures, low viscosity, and electric compatibility. The
potential areas in EVs where different lubricants are applied, are shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. The potential areas of lubrication in EVs: (top) Tesla, (bottom) Volkswagen, (open access CC BY 4.0 [37]).

The ICEV-based lubricants which are formulated with mineral-base oils can potentially be used in
different machine elements in EVs with different additives to cope with the differences. However,
the synthetic lubricants have more acceptability in the market because of enhanced service life,
oxidative and thermal stability, and better lubricity as compared to mineral-based lubricants. Since
both lubricant types are widely used in ICEVs and are significant developed and optimized against
various condition, the pressure from environmental agencies is growing to substitute mineral oils
with environmentally friendly variants which are sourced from renewable resources. For instance,
vegetable oils and animal fats as bio-based lubricants have been studied extensively [41]. Because
of the physiochemical properties that vegetable oils offer, they are attractive options for
substitution of mineral oils. These replacements are possible in gear and compressor oils, hydraulic
fluids, and engine lubricants because of low coefficient of friction, but are still not used
commercially on a large scale.

Contrarily, the options of non-edible oils are also explored for future needs of the automotive
sector. The non-edible oils include seed crops such as Jojoba, castor, rubber seed, karanja and
jatropha. Similarly, animal fats and micro-algae are also taken into account for bio-based lubricant
production [41]. However, no vegetable and animal fat-based bio-lubricants have been used
commercially in the automotive industry. The benefits with the bio-based lubricants include good
lubricity, biodegradability and renewability but they are limited by operational conditions such as
poor temperature and oxidative stability. The limitations are improved through chemical
modification, emulsification, additive of nano-additives such as pour point depressant and
antioxidants. There are different advancements such as ionic liquids, vapor phase lubricants, low
viscosity oils and anti-friction or anti-wear nanotechnology-based additives technologies [42–44].
Conclusively, the push from environmental protection laws and changing requirements in vehicles
(electrical) has opened new directions of research. Ionic liquids (as additive) and water-based
lubrication options are open ended areas which may potentially facilitate EVs. Similarly, the eco-
friendly and halogen free bio-derivatives as ionic liquids which are further synthesized from
biopolymers, for instance proteins, are one of the recent directions in the field [45].
3.2. Greases

Conventional greases comprise synthetic or mineral based base oil and different particles,
polymers, and molecules as additives for thickening of the grease. These greases are commonly
used in gears, joints, and bearings. The lubrication associated with grease is significantly easier as
compared to oils and in industry 80-90 % machine elements are grease-lubricated for general
applications [46]. One major disadvantage of the greases is the limited-service life. The
challenging attribute is linked to the life of machine elements with grease performance and their
associated life prediction. Therefore, the use of grease as lubricant brings complex mechanisms
onboard as compared to other lubricating oils. Tackiness, an important property of grease, is
identified for improvement in terms of applications in electric vehicles [47,48]. The properties of
grease provide the ability of forming long threads and allowing sticking during the redistribution
of grease on surfaces. However, different properties are still being investigated to provide a holistic
solution for requirements of electric vehicles. The development of grease over time is represented
in Fig. 4.
 Figure 4. Developments in grease technology and its timeline ([47] Open Access CC 4.0).

In the evolution chart (Fig. 4), it is evident that animal fats or olive oil and calcium carbonate have
been used to lubricate machine elements in the early ages (before 1850). Moreover, the greases
evolved from calcium soaps which served as basis for modern grease development. Later, sodium
and aluminum were developed to counter problems related to operational temperature. Similarly,
the barium-, lithium- and calcium-based greases were evolved [46]. The lithium-based greases are
available these days as well for many machine elements. Later on, different greases were
developed such as polymer-type, polyurea, lithium complex, and aluminum complex. The
evaluation matrix for grease performance consists of different factors such as base oil viscosity,
mechanical stability, consistency, bleed rate, oxidation performance, resistance to operational
temperature and many more. The optimization of the above-mentioned factors is still challenging
because of evolving conditions in application areas. However, the overall goal is still to reduce
noise, wear and friction. Therefore, the current research direction is still to explore fundamental
properties and mechanisms involving performance prediction and improvement.
With the introduction of electrified conditions in contacts, the development of greases has become
further challenging because of severe application conditions such as varying temperature and shear
rates, electric discharges, and changes in chemical composition over time. High speed conditions
in electric vehicle accelerates all above-mentioned conditions. Similarly, the predictive evaluation
of performance and lifetime of machine components and grease, and development of optimization
strategies are research directions for grease-lubricated tribological components [49]. Recently,
nanotechnology is applied to grease-development by introducing nanoparticles and carbon
nanotubes as reinforcements to enhance the service-life and lubricity [50,51]. Similarly, low
friction, long service life and performance at higher temperatures is achieved through titanium
complex thickeners [52] and synthetic-based oils [53]. The greases with polymers in high-speed
bearings, for instance methyl-pentene, polypropylene and rubbers have also improved
performance properties [54]. Another direction of developments took biodegradability into
consideration because of the pressure from environmental concerns [55,56]. However, thermal
stability has been the major challenge for these greases having better performance as compared to
synthetic or mineral oil-based greases [57,58]. Conclusively, different additives such as calcium
sulfonate complex, poly-isobutylenes, graphite/polarized-graphite, non-toxic bismuth, and MoS2
are used for the development of efficient greases. To conclude, low viscosity greases should be
developed to reduce frictional losses. However, significantly low viscosity introduces leakage
problems and negatively affects durability [59]. Also, the bearing currents require grease to have
oxidation properties which is significantly influenced by discharges. These discharges also cause
dropping point at high temperatures deteriorating lubricant and hindering thermal controls. The
above-mentioned additives could be a potential way forward, but they also affect grease life-span
influencing electric strength, dissipation factor, and volume resistivity.
3.3. Design of lubricants

The design of lubricants involves careful selection of base oil and additives. The properties of the
base oil are important to improve energy savings and performance. Previously, pure base oils were
widely used, and viscosity, density and heat capacity were considered key characteristic properties
controlling cooling performance. Later on, additives were introduced which alter different
properties such as electrical conductivity. The cooling performance is mainly dependent on base
oil properties[60]. Lubricants in electric vehicles may require electrically insulative properties (the
controlled electrical conductivity may be part of solution but is unknown at the moment) for
prevention of arcing because these lubricants are in contact with different components of e-motor
and vehicle. Considering the operating requirements of electric vehicles such as components’
wear, oxidation, and temperatures, the lubricants are required to possess stable attributes. On the
other hand, different components are manufactured from copper requiring excellent compatibility
with lubricant. Similarly, the lubricants may function as immediate heat evacuation source for
power electronics and other electrical components [37].
a) Base Oils

The base oils are chemical derivatives of synthetic materials or manufactured from available crude
oils. The base oils are categorized (by American Petroleum Institute [55,61]) into five groups
because of their viscosity, saturation, sulfur and manufacturing details. The details of the groups
are mentioned in Table 1.
Table 1. Classification of base oil [37].

Group Manufacturing Saturation Sulfur Viscosity index

process
I Solvent refining Less than 90% Greater than 80 to 120
0.03%
II Hydro-processing Greater than 90% Less than 0.03% 80 to 120
III Catalytic Greater than 90% Less than 0.03% Greater than 120
dewaxing
IV Synthesis 100%
V All others not included in groups
In Table 1, the groups I, II, and III are manufactured from petroleum crude oil. The main difference
is based on the manufacturing process between group I to III. Group IV is completely synthetic
such as poly-alpha-olefin oils. The other categories which do not fall in group I to IV are added to
group V. Synthetic base oils, that are not PAO, are categorized in group V. Other examples include
phosphate ester, diester and silicone.

The increasing group number shows the improvement in thermal stability of the base oil. The
additive-based lubricants are categorized mainly in group V. Group II and group III are widely
used in different applications [62]. The saturated composition is important in determining the
stability for longer periods. In addition, the molecular saturation and bond strength combinedly
resist viscosity loss. Synthetic base oils are more durable and have high saturated molecules in
comparison to petroleum-based base oils. Similarly, the viscosity index of the lubricant indicate
stability with respect to temperature. As presented in Table 1, the viscosity index of crude oil-
based oils is less than group IV and V [41]. The oils with high thermal conductivity, density and
specific heat capacity enhance cooling capabilities. The cooling performance of a lubricant is also
dependent on molecular structure such as long chains provide better cooling effect [60].
b) Lubricant Additives

To upgrade abilities of base oils, different additive packages are used. The additives facilitate in
(i) improving functional properties of base oils (ii) suppressing the undesired properties, and (iii)
introducing new capabilities which enhance overall performance [63]. The rigorous pressure to
improve fuel efficiency and clean residual outflow have pushed manufacturers to produce machine
components with advanced materials and complex designs. Therefore, they require customized
solutions for each application. The transmission electric vehicles require functioning at high speed
and torque conditions. The high-speed conditions require low viscosity and long draining interval
properties in the lubricants [64]. Table 2 highlights widely used additives and their function. The
additives are categorized based on their primary functions.
Table 2. Lubricant additives and their function [37,65].

Additive category Examples Function Reference

Viscosity index Alkylated styrenes, Enhance high [65,66]
improver olefins, large temperature stability
polymer,
polymethacrylate
Friction modifier Organic fatty acid, Reduction in [66,67]
MoDTC, and other coefficient of friction
organometallic
compounds
Pour point depressant Polymethacrylate, Improve functional [66,68,69]
polyacrylate performance at low
temperatures
Dispersant Thiophosphonate, Maintain low [70,71]
oxazoline, ester, viscosity index
succinimide
 through low
molecular weight
Detergent Magnesium and Maintain low [69,70]
calcium-based electrical
phenolate and conductivity
sulfonate
Anti-wear Phosphorus Minimize high torque [72]
derivatives, ZDDP wear
Anti-oxidant ZDDP, peroxide Reduce oxidation and [72,73]
decomposer, aromatic decomposition
amine
Corrosion inhibitor ZDDP, Alkyl-amine Improve copper [66,72,74]
compatibility and
reduce corrosion
Chapter 4: Mechanism of electric discharge damage
 Chapter 4: Mechanism of electric discharge damage
In tribological contacts, the Stribeck curve is often used to characterize the contact conditions. In
Fig. 5, the red line shows coefficient of friction. At low speeds, both surfaces are in physical
contact with almost no lubrication inside. The physical contact is categorized as boundary
lubrication. In addition, the surfaces are close enough that solid surface asperities dominate the
contact conditions and show mono-/multi-molecular interactions. In this case, the abrasive,
adhesive, and chemical wear are dominant in the contact and are not considered favorable in
mechanical point of view. The coefficient of friction decreases with the introduction of a load
carrying lubrication layer in between the surfaces. There is no physical contact between both
surfaces and the lubricant film is carrying all the load. These conditions are categorized as full film
elasto-hydro-lubrication which is considered a favorable tribological contact. In the mixed
lubrication, the contact conditions are in between boundary and full film lubrication regimes,
where the load is shared between the lubricant film and the contacting asperities. The transition
phase between boundary and full-film is shown in Fig. 5.

In the electrical conditions, the situation is based on the contact resistance. The high-frequency
switching and design anomalies result in potential difference across shaft ends or between shaft
and bearing housing [75]. The shaft voltages generate bearing currents which pass through the
shaft to the grounded bearing housing. Therefore, the tribological contact conditions inside the
bearing are important in understanding the problem.

Figure 5. Stribeck curve and the corresponding electrical behavior presenting BL, ML, and EHL regions in mechanical and
electrical contexts [75,76].
In the boundary lubrication regime, the contact resistance is around zero and it is equated to an
electrically short-circuited state. Whereas in the full film conditions, the bearing behaves as a two-
plate capacitor because of the contact resistance which is significantly higher. The rolling element
bearing is conductive which merge with the electrical resistance resulting in a voltage drop
accompanied by high currents. Therefore, the electric damage conditions are highly dependent on
the lubricating film. In the presence of bearing currents, the bearing acts as a conventional
capacitor system having two metal plates as terminals formed of ball and raceway. The lubricant
film acts as a dielectric. The functioning of the capacitor is shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 6. Capacitor functioning with a DC power supply presenting charge storage mechanism [77].

The capacitor stores energy as opposite charges on the parallel metal plates separated with a gap
when AC or DC voltage systems are applied [78]. The stored charge depends upon different factors
such as material, area, distance, insulation etc. One plate act as positive and the other acts as a
negatively charged pool. The current advances to flow from positive to negative plate at steady
conditions but the insulating material restricts the flow. Therefore, the electric field based on the
potential difference appears across the capacitor system which is the ball and the raceway in the
case of a bearing. The charging and discharging behavior of a capacitor (bearing) is shown in Fig.
7. As the common mode voltage changes, the charge builds up and results in current flow. The
intensity of the current depends on energy stored in the capacitor. The energy stored in the
capacitor is measured through capacitance. The capacitance in a capacitor system depends upon
multiple factors as shown in Eq. 2.

𝐴
𝐶 =∈ (2)
𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑝

Where C is capacitance, ∈ is dielectric properties, A is area of plates, and 𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑝 is distance between
both plates (the lubricant film thickness in a bearing contact).
 Figure 7. Typical charging and discharging behavior in a bearing contact as a result of the common mode voltage [19] (a) the
common mode voltage cycle is shown based on dv/dt and shaft voltage context, (b) the bearing voltage rise resulting in ohmic
discharge, and (c) bearing current as a result of discharge.

In the case of a bearing, the breakdown of voltage is dependent on the source of potential
difference, and film properties such as thickness and physical attributes. Similarly, the capacitance
is significantly influenced by loading, speed, film thickness, lubricant properties etc. At low
speeds, the bearing is in boundary lubrication where metal-to-metal contact conditions are
dominant. In this case, the bearing is in resistive settings and conduct electric current directly as
short circuit. With the increase in speed, the contact conditions transition from boundary to mixed
lubrication transforming electrical circuit from resistive to resistive-capacitive. In these conditions,
the discharge intensity is minimum, and the voltage builds up as shown in Fig. 6. The capacitance
in a Hertz contact in a bearing is characterized as Eq. 3.

𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
𝐶𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,ℎ𝑐 =∈0 ∈𝑟 (3)
ℎ𝑐

The absolute permittivity of the dielectric could be termed as ∈=∈0 ∈𝑟 where ∈0 is vacuum
permittivity 8.854 × 10−12 As/Vm and ∈𝑟 is termed as dielectric constant or relative permittivity
(above 2 for hydrocarbon based oils [79]). 𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 is the Hertzian area of the contact and ℎ𝑐 is the
film thickness.

At high speed, the film thickness is higher, and the contact conditions are transitioned from mixed
lubrication to hydrodynamic lubrication regime. In this state the discharge energy is higher as the
bearing is completely in the capacitive state, resulting in high voltage accumulation. If the voltage
accumulation is higher than the breakdown voltage of dielectric (lubricant), electric current flows
based on the resistance as shown in Eq. 4 and Eq. 5.

𝑣𝑏
𝑖𝑏 = (4)
𝑅𝑏

𝑑𝑣𝑏
𝑖𝑏 = 𝐶𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (5)
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑏 > 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 → 𝑖𝐸𝐷𝑀

Figure 8. Discharge generation mechanism when a bearing operates in full fluid film lubrication [75].

In Fig. 8, two cases are displayed where the voltage across the bearing is less than the breakdown
voltage termed as safe. In the other case, the bearing voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage and
results in a sparking event.
The film thickness and lubricant properties mainly govern the bearing current. Therefore,
estimation of film thickness is important in determining lubricant behavior under operational
conditions. The resistive-capacitive circuit of the bearing indicate the charging and discharging
behavior. For instance, the film thickness theory based on the contact’s capacitance could be
explained through Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication EHL behavior (see Fig. 9) [80].

Figure 9. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication and electrical equivalent model for capacitance showing entry, Hertzian and exit
regions under the application of grease lubrication [80,81].

The lubricant gap stores electric field which is an important characteristic in predicting the bearing
current. The relation of film thickness and the capacitance could be described through a correction
factor [5,82] as shown in Eq. 6.

𝐶𝐾 = 𝑓(𝐶𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 )

= 𝑘𝑐 𝐶𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (6)

where CK is Hertzian capacitance and CHertz is corrected for EHL contact features.

The 𝑘𝑐 factor depends on the ratio of total contact capacitance and Hertzian capacitance. The
Hertzian capacitance is a function of the uniform film thickness, ball elastic deformation under dry
conditions, and a fictional separation as shown in Fig. 9. CHertz accounts for the capacitance of the
dry Hertzian shape while CK is a modification to account for the EHL contact features. In EHL,
CHertz is corrected for the ball shape at the contact inlet and outlet. The total capacitance of the
contact can be computed by Eq. 6. Bartz [83] where 𝑘𝑐 = 3.5. The total contact capacitance could
be calculated through Eq. 3.
 𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑘𝑐 (7)
ℎ𝑐
The total capacitance is shown in Eq. 7. The area is based on loading and adaption traces. The
lubrication properties are evaluated through its decisive capacitance depicted by 𝐶𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 . Therefore,
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is always larger than 𝐶𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 because it also includes capacitance of inner (1) and outer (2)
raceways as two separate capacitors. Eq. 8 gives total capacitance between inner and outer raceway
and one ball in the bearing.

𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶= (8)
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

The rolling elements are connected in parallel. The total capacitance is a sum of the individual
capacitances. Assuming similar lubricant properties at inner and outer raceways, the total
capacitance is computed through Eq. 9.

𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑖 𝐴
( ) . ( 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑜 )
ℎ𝑐,𝑖 ℎ𝑐,𝑜 (9) x
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑧 ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑘𝑐
𝐴 𝐴
( 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑖 ) + ( 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑜 )
ℎ𝑐,𝑖 ℎ𝑐,𝑜

Here, z is the total number of rolling elements. Another factor based on the inner and outer
raceways film thickness ratio is introduced in Eq. 10.

ℎ𝑜
𝑘ℎ = (10)
ℎ𝑖

The inner raceway thickness is computed as Eq. 11.

𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑜
(𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑖 ). ( ) 1
ℎ𝑐,𝑜
ℎ𝑐,𝑖 = 𝑧 ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑘𝑐 .
𝐴 𝐶 (11)
(𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑖 ) + ( 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧,𝑜 ) 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
ℎ𝑐,𝑜
The outer raceway thickness is computed as Eq. 12. The proportionality constant for computing
film thickness could be computed using 𝑘ℎ .

ℎ𝑐,𝑜 = 𝑘ℎ . ℎ𝑐,𝑖 (12)

𝑅𝑥,𝑖 −0.50884 𝑅𝑦,𝑖 0.05025
𝑘ℎ = ( ) ×( )
𝑅𝑥,𝑜 𝑅𝑦,𝑜

The charging behavior of a bearing is shown in Fig. 10.

U0 is the applied voltage across the bearing with RL charging resistor in resistive-capacitive circuit.
The ohmic resistance of the lubricant is termed as RP. Therefore, the potential difference (Umax)
across the bearing never reaches the applied voltage (U0) because of ohmic resistance.

Figure 10. Charging behavior of bearing voltage up to max level based on charging resistor for calculation of time constant
[80,84].

The charging rate of the capacitor is governed by the charging resistance RL. The total capacitance
and time constant could be estimated using Eq. 13.

1 1
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜏. ( + ) (13)
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑃

The 𝜏 time constant could be estimated using Eq. 14.

∆𝑡
𝜏=
𝑈1 𝑈 (14)
𝑙𝑛 (1 − ) − 𝑙𝑛 (1 − 2 )
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥

The lubricant resistance could be estimated using Eq. 15.

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑃 = 𝑅𝐿 . ( )
𝑈0 − 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 (15)

The elliptic contact area at the inner raceway could be estimated using Hertzian equations [85].
The effective modulus of elasticity can be computed using Eq. 16.

1 1 − 𝑣12 1 − 𝑣22
= + (16)
𝐸́ 2𝐸1 2𝐸2

The effective radius can be computed by Eq. 17.

 1 1 1
= + (17)
𝑅́ 𝑅́𝑥 𝑅́𝑦

1 1 1
= +
𝑅́𝑥 𝑟1,𝑥 𝑟2,𝑥
1 1 1
= +
𝑅́𝑦 𝑟1,𝑦 𝑟2,𝑦

The normal load applied to a single rolling element could be computed as Eq. 18.

𝐹𝑎
𝐹= (18)
𝑧 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐹𝑎 is the normal load and the contact angle is termed as 𝛼. z is the number of rolling elements.
The semi axes lengths could be computed using Eq. 19 to Eq. 23 [86].

1⁄
3𝐹𝑅́ 3
𝑎 = 𝑎́ × ( ) (19)
𝐸́
1⁄
3𝐹𝑅́ 3
𝑏 = 𝑏́ × ( ) (20)
𝐸́
1⁄
2(1 − ℵ2 ) 3
𝑎́ = ℵ [1 + − 0.25ln (ℵ)] (21)
𝜋ℵ2

𝑎́
𝑏́ = (22)
ℵ
1⁄
16 2
1 ln ( )
𝛾 1⁄
(23)
=1+( ) − (ln(4)) 2 + 0.16 ln(𝛾)
ℵ 2𝛾

𝑅́𝑦 ́
Where 𝛾 is minimum quotient values of effective radii ⁄ ́ or 𝑅𝑥⁄ ́ .
𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑦

The Hertzian area could be computed using Eq. 24.

𝐴𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 (24)

The minimum film thickness for point contact could be calculated using Eq. 25a.

𝑅 2
−0.67( 𝑠⁄𝑅 ) ⁄3
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3.68 × 𝑈 0.68 × 𝑊 −0.073 × 𝐺 0.49 × (1 − 𝑒 𝑒 ) (25a)

To accurately compute 𝑘𝑐 correction factor (used in Eq. 6), Eq. 25b can be used.

𝑘𝑐 = 6.9116 × 𝑈 0.2675 × 𝑊 −0.2768 × 𝐺 0.2599 × 𝑘𝑒0.1033 (25b)

The parameters used in Eq. 25 are as follows

𝜂𝑣
𝑈=
𝐸́ 𝑅𝑥
𝐺 = 𝛼𝑃 𝐸́
𝐹
𝑊=
𝐸́ 𝑅2
𝑅𝑦 0.636
𝑘𝑒 = 1.0339 × ( )
𝑅𝑥
The dynamic viscosity is represented by 𝜂, entrainment velocity by 𝑣, youngs modulus by 𝐸́ ,
pressure viscosity coefficient by 𝛼𝑃 , and corrected radius by R.
The dynamic viscosity could be computed using Eq. 26 and Eq. 27.

𝜂 = 𝜇𝑝 (26)
𝜂
= 𝑒 −𝛽(𝑇−𝑇0 )
𝜂0 (27)

−1 𝜂𝑇
𝛽= ln ( 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜂 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛

To sum up, the initiation of electric discharge is strongly dependent on the film thickness and the
physical properties of the lubricant. The capacitors energy with respect to voltage depends upon
the charging behavior and film thickness. Once the stored energy surpasses the lubricant
breakdown voltage, electric current flows in the form of a discharge. A long-term discharge
activity results in several types of damages such as frosting, fluting, pitting and cracks. The electric
field strength highly depends upon the bearing ratio and film thickness as shown in Eq. 28 [5].

𝑉 𝑉𝐵
𝐸𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( )= (28)
µ𝑚 ℎ𝑐,𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 + ℎ𝑐,𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟
Chapter 5: Electric bearing damages
 Chapter 5: Electric bearing damages
5.1. Surface-induced damage

The complex electrical environment causes failures in components having tribological

applications. Therefore, the bearings are prone to damages under influence of shaft voltages. In
mechanical terms, the bearing failure happens because of cracks, corrosion, abrasive wear,
true/false brinelling, skidding, fretting, fatigue spalling, and smearing etc. [49]. Under the electric
influence, new failure modes are introduced related to surface damages. The detailed electric
bearing damages are shown in Fig. 11.

Figure 11.The classification of electric bearing failure modes [6]: frosting and fluting [87], pitting [88], lubricant degradation
[89], microbubbles [90], electrowetting [91], and welding and spark tracks [92].
 a) Frosting

Dense and weak discharges result in frosting. The surface seems like satin-like and could be
distinguished by the naked eye [92]. The craters formed show melted surface effects as it appears
in electric discharge machining [93]. The surface is also analogous to sand-blasted surface as
appears in Fig. 11. In addition, the chemical corrosion increases with the increase frosting surface
area to volume ratio.
b) Pitting

The pitting is also analogous to frosting where craters appear on the surface. The intense discharge
activity results in craters of larger size. The large current amplitude lasts longer in a single
discharge pulse which creates more damage as shown in Fig. 11. The pitting craters are sparse as
compared to frosting which results in random corrosion patterns [94]. In literature, it is identified
that pitting is mainly caused by bearing current rather than shaft voltage (over 90 mA current could
be a starting point of pitting) [95]. The high bearing current increases power at the interface during
a constant film thickness which results in deep crater formation and controls electrical pitting
mechanism [96].
c) Fluting

The periodic current activity results in evenly distributed flute burn scars which is a widely
occurring damage mechanism on bearing raceways. The marks form fluting pattern [97]. Low
resistance contacts result in gradual fluting damages and electrochemical corrosion, whereashigh
resistance contacts cause pitting damage [98]. Liu [97] commented that a fluted surface is
analogous to three-body abrasive wear which appears in heavy loaded areas as effect of electro-
mechanical effect. It is also considered a critical stage as could be seen in Fig. 11.
d) Spark tracks

The spark tracks are shown in Fig. 11 as irregular scratches in rotation’s direction. The spark track
is a result of electric influence even though its appearance is related to a mechanical scratch. The
scratch corners are sometimes round because of mechanical scraping and the bottom is often
melted. The electric discharges blast out debris resulting in spark tracks of consistent depth at the
surface [92].
e) Welding

Welding is caused by large current passage and its resulted thermal effects in the bearing. It is
widely observed in seals, pads and housing splits [92], an example is shown in Fig. 11. The electric
discharge machining does not generate significantly large currents. Therefore, this mechanism
happens momentarily and is analogous to spot welding. The electric damage highly depends on
lubricant properties, interface materials, bearing type, tribological working parameters and electric
field. In literature, the weak currents resulted pitting marks on inner ring with highly conductive
lubricant as compared to insulative lubricant [99].
5.2. Lubricant-induced damage
a) Lubricant degradation

The lubricant in bearing performs multiple actions such as cleaning the surface, inhibiting the
corrosion, evacuating the heat and reducing wear and friction. Therefore, the lubricant film
commonly separates two counter surfaces to avoid physical contacts. Conventionally, this
lubricating film has a number of benefits whereas it also is source of electric discharges as
explained in previous sections. There are lubricants which are inert chemically, but the
introduction of electric field enhances potential energy required for chemical reaction thus
accelerates the degradation [100]. The electrical excitation generates free radicals which form
peroxide as a result of reaction with oxygen. Therefore, the carboxyl products are formed [89].
The oxidation produces include loss of lubricity, and viscous and acidic content. In addition, the
discharge activity increases thermal damage and cause evaporation of oil content along with
decrease in viscosity [101].
b) Microbubble effect

The microbubble effect occurs in contact area under charged condition [102] because of
overheating in the local asperities [103] as shown in Fig. 11. The high temperature in local
asperities is potentially caused by electric discharges. The bubbles are unstable while moving to
outer regions thus destabilize lubrication mechanism. The destabilized lubrication can potentially
cause vibrations and noise. The bubble formation is influenced by AC electric field frequency and
interfacial lubricant attributes [104]. High liquid viscosity and or surface tension results in large
bubble formation because of viscous drag, and pressure gradient in interface area.
c) Electro-wetting

The electro-wetting effect is associated with the regulation of droplet contact angle with voltage
[105]. The interfacial tension is modified because of electromechanical mechanism as nonpolar
lubricant spreads on surfaces under the influence of electric field [106]. In this condition, the
microfluidic behavior is influenced by electromechanical mechanism. Whereas in the case of two
phased immiscible lubricant, it becomes unstable because of surface tension, coalescence and
electrostatic pressure [107]. On the other hand, the electric influence on bearing extends interfacial
electrostatic effects between counter surfaces. These electrostatic effects increase pressure
conditions which reduce lubricant flow in confined space as observed by Kolodziejczyk et al.
[108].
Chapter 6: Electrification of deep groove ball bearing rig
 Chapter 6: Electrification of deep groove ball bearing rig
6.1. Mechanical system

A full-bearing test rig is developed at the Division of Machine Elements, Luleå University of
Technology, Sweden. The rig has four cells (housing and bearing) to simulate the application
settings of electric vehicle. Two cells in the center are used for radial load application through a
metal plate. The metal plate is operated with a piston and a pneumatic pressure regulator. The
pneumatic pressure is supplied to a pressure regulator and a piston which results in reaction forces
on both external cells. Each cell is insulated and can be operated separately to evaluate lubricant
properties under similar working conditions. One cell is modified for experimental
characterization under electric field as highlighted in brown in Fig. 12(a).

Figure 12. (a) bearing test rig: an assembly showing three support bearings and one test bearing highlighted in yellow, the
carbon brush and other power connections, piston for application of load (b) application of voltage across the bearing showing
two capacitance models with inner and outer raceways with ball.

For the experiments, a single row SKF 6212 deep groove ball bearing (properties are mentioned
in Table 2) is used to efficiently evaluate the physics of the process and electrical damage
progression. In addition, the ball bearing is highly responsive to parametric changes and noise as
compared to spherical roller bearings [109]. Moreover, the choice of test bearing type is supported
by literature [110] to study interface without destroying the bearing. As per the manufacturer, the
selected test bearing provides low friction, high speed capability, accommodates high axial and
radial loads, and requires little maintenance. The spherical roller bearing SKF 22212 are used in
the other cells because of their high load carrying capacity and their ability to adjust misalignment.
The blue boxes show electrical insulation of the bearing housings to create a definite current path.
The bearing housing is connected to a signal generator to provide voltage difference (as shown in
Fig. 12(b)). A claw coupling with electrical insulation is used to transmit power from the external
electric motor to the shaft.
 Table 3. Bearing rig attributes.

Test bearing
Bearing type Deep groove ball bearing
Bearing size 110 mm, 22 mm, 60 mm (SKF 6212)
Cage material Sheet metal
Bearing material DIN 100Cr6 (AISI 52100) bearing steel
Coating material N/A
Limiting speed 8000 rpm
Static load rating 3.6 kN
Dynamic load rating 55.3 kN
Rig specifications
Max radial load 3770 N
Max rotational speed 3000 rpm
DC applied voltage 0-20 V
Applied current 0.0054-0.18 mA

The shaft is connected to ground through a carbon brush. The mounting method of the carbon
brush is shown in Fig. 13. The graphite-based brush slides over the shaft during operation.

Figure 13. Electric brush details.

The physical setup is shown in Fig. 14(a) where the external electric motor, frequency drive,
housings and shaft are evident. An oscilloscope is used to record voltage signal to analyze
discharge formation (Fig. 14(b, c)) under set conditions. The carbon brush assembly is shown in
Fig. 14(d).
 Figure 14. (a) bearing test rig, (b) oscilloscope, (c) signal generator, and (d) close-up of brush-shaft connection.

6.2. Electrical system

The electrical system design is important to explore bearing currents and film thickness. The
system is designed based on rig characteristics as shown in Table 3.
d) Circuit design
As per discussion in chapter 4, a bearing subjected to a voltage difference acts as a capacitor. The
rolling elements and raceways in the bearing act as capacitor terminals and the lubricant in between
acts as a dielectric. A large charging resistance of 910 kΩ is installed in a simple resistive-
capacitive circuit to improve the charging rate. With no charging resister, the discharge would not
build up with energy and immediately discharge. At low charging rate, the charging curve slows
down providing possibility of more data capture for estimation of capacitance of bearing. The
electric circuit is shown in Fig. 15.
 Figure 15. Electric circuit.

The electric current path could be achieved in different ways. In our setup the current is sent from
the isolated bearing housing of the bearing under test to shaft which is grounded through a carbon
brush. This configuration is necessary to avoid current flow through an auxiliary support bearing
which, because it's mounted in an uninsulated bearing housing, would otherwise create an
unwanted path to ground if the test current was applied to the shaft.
Two charging resistors are connected with relay to control discharge activity. The DC voltage
modules of 5 and 20 V are used from National Instruments to monitor the capacitive behavior of
the bearing. In normal operational conditions, 20 V and 110 kΩ are applied. The electrical signal
is transmitted across the bearing and the discharge activity is characterized based on the
tribological parameters.
e) Electric isolation

The isolation of the complete rig is important for controlling the electric current and following the
designated path. For simple and low electrical loads, the isolation measures are taken into account.
The isolation is carried out system-wise.
Isolation of test bearings
Four bearings are mounted on the shaft and test rig where the two central bearings are used to
apply load as shown in Fig. 12a. All the bearings are isolated by restricting the electric current
path. 3D printed ABS sleeves are used to isolate the M8 bolts from the housings. All the bearings
are isolated from the housings and the housings are isolated with glass sheet from the rig bed. The
holes are concentric to the bearing housings ensuring no contact of the bolts with housings, and
the bolts pass through the free hole to further nullify possibility of current flow. The isolation of
housing and bolts is shown in Fig. 16.
 Figure 16. Isolation of test bearings and housings.

The loading system is mounted on the central bearings for application of radial loads. The piston
and the housings are electrically isolated to restrict any current flow from the shaft to other parts
of the rig. 3D printed glass strips are used to separate the contact of housing and the rig.
Isolation of shaft
Another pathway of electric current and noise is through the shaft to the motor. Therefore, isolation
of the shaft is carried out to restrict undesired electric fluctuations (see Fig. 17). Similarly, the
electric connections are protected with Teflon tape to avoid touching any housing/rig part.
 Figure 17. Isolation of shaft by cushion provided in jaw coupling.

f) Electric grounding
The electrical grounding of the test rig is an important part while designing the system. A
significant electromagnetic interference was induced through the frequency drive of the motor.
The interference created undesired errors and voltage spikes during the measurement cycles.
Therefore, different electrical connections were externally approached (through clip-on noise
filter) to reduce noise as shown in Fig. 18.

Figure 18. Frequency drive to control motor speed and clip-on noise filter to reduce external influence on voltage signal.

In addition to multiple clip-on noise filters, the problem was significantly reduced through
grounding the test table near the electric motor and test bearing. The other voltage spikes were
reduced using moving average statistical time-series signal cleaning method involving 25 points.
All the electrical transmissions are carried out using shielded cables and connections are secured
using Teflon tapes.
6.3. Data-acquisition system

The DC voltage is applied constantly across the bearing. The voltage breakdowns are measured
over a 0.14 sec signal at a sampling rate of 20 MSa/s (samples per unit time), 2.8 Mpts (million
points) and 50 Hz frequency. The complete mechanism and data storage is carried out manually
(it is triggered manually, the software does the measurement and counting and also storing the
data). Depending on tribological conditions, the bearing show different charging behaviors. The
measurement method is described as follows. Firstly, the electrical circuit with 5 V voltage
difference and 910 kΩ is applied, and the voltage signal is recorded. After completing the first
measurement cycle, the other electrical circuit with 20 V voltage difference and 110 kΩ is applied.
Four measurements are carried out and the signals are recorded in these settings. The system again
switches to 5 V and 910 kΩ circuit for another measurement before stopping. To characterize the
voltage breakdowns, the signal behavior is presented in Fig. 19 as an example, here in boundary
lubrication conditions 120 RPM speed, and PAO-15 oil.

Figure 19. Data acquisition in boundary lubrication regime showing two types of charging behaviors based on asperity contact
and contact details along with real time voltage signal.

The boundary lubrication mainly behaves as short-circuited settings therefore possessing the
qualities of a resistor. The voltage nearly remains zero as it rarely charges up.
On the other hand, in the full film lubrication conditions, the bearing behaves as an ideal capacitor.
Figure 20. Data acquisition in full film lubrication regime showing breakdown events based on voltage difference with real-time
voltage signal.

As shown in Fig. 20, the voltage is applied across the bearing, and it charges up to maximum and
rarely drops as discharge. A similar mechanism is explained by Joshi et al. [5]. Therefore, the
number of discharges reduce similar to boundary lubrication, because the bearing voltage does not
bypass breakdown voltage of lubricating film. However, the behavior of the voltage signals is
completely opposite to each other. This is the case for full film lubrication when the film thickness
is large enough to avoid discharges.
In the mixed lubrication regime, the bearing shows a mix of resistive and capacitive behavior.

Figure 21. Data acquisition of insulation breakdown in mixed lubrication regime through a voltage signal showing behavior of
both boundary and full film regimes.

Fig. 21 shows the behavior of the voltage signal in the mixed lubrication regime. The behavior is
a mix of boundary and full film. Depending upon the asperity details, the voltage charges up and
results in a discharge activity. Similarly, it can possess full film in some portion and boundary in
other. Therefore, this condition significantly results in high intensity discharge activity which is
not considered favorable. The number of voltage breakdowns are counted as discharges and the
tribological performance is characterized based on the signal details.
Chapter 7: Experimental plan
 Chapter 7: Experimental plan
7.1. Lubricants

Different lubricants are used to characterize the tribological performance under an electric field.
The lubricants used for experimentation are used with standardized protocols in neat environment.
Lubricant 1 is procured from Agrol Lubricants, Sweden, an additive-free non-commercial poly-
alpha-olefin (PAO). The lubricant carried no additives to better characterize the interplay of
electric discharge activity. The details of lubricant used are provided in Table 4.
Table 4. Lubricant types and their properties used for the experimentation.

Lubricant 1
Lubricant Non-commercial poly-alpha-olefin (PAO-15)
Lubricant class Base oil, no additives
Manufacturer Agrol Lubricants, Sweden
Kinematic Viscosity @40◦C 115 cSt
Kinematic Viscosity @100◦C 15.2 cSt
Pressure viscosity coefficient 15 GPA-1
Density 878 kg/m3
Lubricant 2
Lubricant P-SiSO+Lubricant 1
Tri-hexyltetradecylphosphonium
2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethane-1-sulfonate
Lubricant class Ionic liquids in base oil
Concentration 0.40%
Lubricant 3
Lubricant Non-commercial poly-alpha-olefin (PAO-40?)
Lubricant class Base oil, no additives
Manufacturer Fuchs Nordics, Sweden
Kinematic Viscosity @40◦C 400 cSt
Kinematic Viscosity @100◦C 40 cSt
Pressure viscosity coefficient 15 GPA-1
Density 878 kg/m3
Lubricant 4
Lubricant Experimental Oil 1
Kinematic Viscosity @40◦C 37 cSt
Kinematic Viscosity @100◦C 7.3 cSt
Pressure viscosity coefficient 16.6 GPA-1
Density 840 kg/m3
Lubricant 5
Lubricant Experimental Oil 2
Kinematic Viscosity @40◦C 37 cSt
 Kinematic Viscosity @100◦C 7.3 cSt
Pressure viscosity coefficient 16.9 GPA-1
Density 840 kg/m3

The oil is added to the 1-liter reservoir and pumped through the housing with a constant speed to
avoid leakage. Lubricant 2 is custom designed with ionic liquid additives providing increased
electric conductivity to the lubricant. The experimental lubricant, termed as P-SiSO in later part,
is prepared using PAO-15 and 0.4% weight of P-SiSO (trihexyltetradecylphosphonium 2-
(trimethylsilyl)ethane-1-sulfonate) as per guidelines of Nyberg et al. [111]. The lubricant is
prepared at 25 °C followed by 30 minutes of magnetic stirring. The lubricant was further subjected
to analogue sonication for 24 hours and centrifuging at >15,000 G acceleration. Nyberg et al. [111]
showed that the high viscosity of the P-SiSO additive does not have significant contribution
towards change in bulk viscosity of the solution. Therefore, the prepared solution has
approximately the same viscosity as PAO-15. The P-SiSO (Fig. 22) is primarily targeted towards
space applications because of its attractive engineering properties. The prepared solution carries
slightly higher electrical conductivity as compared to the base fluid as potentially supported by
Nyberg et al. [111].

Figure 22. The schematic of P-SiSO and its application [111].

Lubricant 3 is similar to lubricant 1 but with a significantly higher viscosity. The high viscosity
lubricant with similar additive-free attributes is used to directly compare discharge activity and
influence of tribological performance. Lubricant 4 and lubricant 5 have similar viscosity, lesser
than all other lubricants and are specifically prepared for electrical vehicle applications. Both
lubricants are designed with desired additive packages for high tribological performance. These
lubricants are used in electric vehicles and have superior load carrying capacity, mechanical
stability and operational performance. The lubricants are used in similar conditions to characterize
the electrical performance. The key characteristics are shown in Table 4.
7.2. Design of Experiments

An experimental campaign of 4500 minutes (75 hours) is designed to characterize the tribological
performance under electric field. Each lubricant type was tested with a new bearing and bearings
were run-in before mature experiments. The long duration tests are carried out at specific speeds
with three repetitions each. The temperature during experiments is not externally controlled. The
oil volume in the reservoir is kept constant with consistent pump speed. The experimental
campaign is shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Experimental campaign used to characterize bearing discharge activity under different tribological conditions.

Oil Speed (RPM) Repetitions Test time (min) Total test time (min)
PAO-15 120 3 60 180
300 3 60 180
600 3 60 180
900 3 60 180
1200 3 60 180
1500 3 60 180
1800 3 60 180
2100 3 60 180
PAO-15/P SiSO 120 2 60 120
300 2 60 120
600 2 60 120
900 2 60 120
1200 2 60 120
1500 2 60 120
PAO-40 30 3 60 180
60 3 60 180
120 3 60 180
300 3 60 180
600 3 60 180
900 3 60 180
1500 3 60 180
Exp Oil 1 120 3 20 60
300 3 20 60
600 3 20 60
900 3 20 60
1200 3 20 60
1500 3 20 60
1800 3 20 60
2100 3 20 60
2400 3 20 60
Exp Oil 2 120 3 20 60
300 3 20 60
600 3 20 60
900 3 20 60
1200 3 20 60
 1500 3 20 60
1800 3 20 60
2100 3 20 60
2400 3 20 60

After each 5 minutes of the test, the discharge activity is recorded by recording the voltage signal.
The temperature near the outlet of the housing is recorded using a thermocouple to characterize
the change in temperature and thus viscosity of the lubricant. In addition to the experimental
campaign shown in Table 5, a speed-based method with a short experiment time is carried out.
The tests are repeated five times to rule out external influence of variables. Each speed is tested
for 30 seconds, and the data is recorded. The speed is then reduced while repeating the same
activity. The experiment detail is shown in Fig. 23.

Figure 23. Speed-based experimental campaign.

The experimental conditions are used to approximate the film thickness based on changing
temperature. The temperature is used to extrapolate the kinematic viscosity and then further
changing it to dynamic viscosity. The film thickness is calculated to compare the behavior of
tribological parameters as shown in Chapter 4.
Chapter 8: Results and discussion
 Chapter 8: Results and discussion
The physical mechanisms of discharge activity (insulation breakdown) and the number of events
are comprehensively analyzed and compared to different tribological conditions. There are several
physical phenomena which result in insulation breakdown such as,

• Electric field dependent discharge activity (similar to conventional electric discharge

machining [112–115])
• Third-body/particle-amplified insulation breakdown (similar to powder mixed electric
discharge machining [93,116–118])
• Asperity contact-originated insulation breakdown [5,19].

The initiation of discharge and its correlation with lubricant film thickness is discussed in Chapter
4. The focus is kept on changing operational speed, applied voltage and lubricant types.
8.1. Discharge activity

At low speed, the asperity contacts are dominant resulting in breakdowns of bearing insulation.
The metal-to-metal contact of asperities results in wear, low energy electric discharges and
increased bearing temperature [5]. The applied voltage is kept constant while comparing the
electrical performance of lubricants with respect to insulation breakdowns. The focus is mainly
given to different speeds and its correlation with the discharge activity. At higher speeds, the
bearing develops a uniform lubricating film which reduces the wear and acts as electrical
insultation. The arc discharge could initiate through particle contamination, or stored voltage
bypassing the lubricant breakdown voltage. External contaminations are not introduced to the
lubricant and the experimentation setup is controlled to avoid any other uncertainties. The tests on
different applied voltages are carried out using a PAO-15 lubricant. The count of breakdowns is
grouped in categories based on their magnitude of voltage and is compared in Fig. 24.

At a applied voltage difference of 10 V, the discharges of 0.5 V intensity are over 550 per second.
Similarly, the number of discharges with 1 V, 2 V, and 5 V intensities are over ~490, ~400, and
~300, respectively.

At a voltage difference of 20 V, the overall number of discharges increased. The film is unable to
sufficiently store charges exceeding the breakdown voltage of the lubricant film which results in
partial or complete breakdown of the insulation. In similar experimental conditions, the discharges
of 0.5 V intensity increased up to 1030 showing ~90% rise. The discharges of 1 V, 2 V, 5 V, 10 V
and 15 V are approximately ~490, ~350, ~300, ~250, and ~200, respectively. The increase in the
breakdown events is because of the higher voltage difference across the bearing [5].
 Figure 24. The insulation breakdown count (discharge activity) at 1500 RPM using PAO-15 lubricant with applied DC voltage
(a) 10 V, and (b) 20 V electric field.

The bearing performance under PAO-15 lubrication subjected to 5 V and 20 V applied voltage at
different tribological conditions is shown in Fig. 25 and Fig. 26. Throughout the experiment, no
additional lubrication is introduced which can alter the contact conditions. At 300 RPM rotational
speed, a DC voltage of 5 V and 20 V are applied which are evident in Fig. 27. The 20 voltage
potential results in an increased number of breakdown events as compared to the 5 V case. The
bearing contact charges up to a certain level and discharges resulting in a voltage decrease. On the
left side of Fig. 25, the low voltage difference (5 V) shows momentary charging behavior of the
bearing which does not discharge immediately. This behavior is analogous to the behavior of full-
film lubricated conditions. However, on other parts of the signal, the contact is in mixed lubrication
regime.
 Figure 25. The voltage signal in mixed lubrication state under PAO-15 lubricated contacts (left) 5 V, (right) 20 V.

At high rotational speed of 2100 RPM, the contact is in the full-film regime as shown in Fig. 26.
At low voltage difference, the lubricant film is thick enough to prevent discharges, as shown in the
left side of Fig. 26. The voltage potential exceeds the breakdown field strength of the bearing
resulting in a transition from resistive to capacitive state. Further increase in voltage potential
causes partial breakdowns as shown on right side of Fig. 26. A voltage threshold is required to
initiate discharge activity which keeps on changing with respect to tribological conditions. At low
film thickness, a small voltage difference will also surpass the breakdown voltage of the lubricant
film. On the other hand, if the film thickness is substantially high then the discharge activity will
stop as shown through the comparison of Fig. 25 and Fig. 26.

Figure 26. The voltage signal in full-film lubrication state under PAO-15 lubricated contacts (left) 5 V, (right) 20 V.

8.2. Influence of tribological parameters

The breakdown events are analyzed by changing rotational speed and keeping the applied volage
constant. The discharge behavior is shown in Fig. 27 against different speeds. With the increase in
rotational speed, the number of discharges increase up to certain level and then start decreasing.
At low-speed conditions, the contact is in boundary lubrication regime resulting in short-circuit
conditions. The no discharges are evident at low speeds as shown in Fig. 27.

Figure 27. Comparison of discharge activity based on different rotational speeds with different oils.

In the case of PAO-15, the contact remains in boundary lubricated regime till 120 RPM showing
no discharge activity. Further increase in speed to 300 RPM resulted in discharge activity of around
6000 discharges of different intensity. The total count decreased drastically as the contact shifts to
full film lubrication conditions. The maximum discharge activity is in the full film region when
the film thickness is still not thick enough to insulate the contact completely. The minor discharge
events in mixed lubrication start occurring and continue in the full film lubrication as well. But the
energy in each discharge is lower in mixed lubrication since the voltage does not build as high.
Similar behavior is seen in the case of P-SiSO. However, the experimental oils have lower
viscosity which shifts the transition from mixed to full film lubrication to higher speeds and also
the shift from boundary to mixed lubrication to higher speeds. Experimental oil 1 performs
superior as compared to experimental oil 2 in terms of discharge activity-based on number of
discharges. The strength of the discharges also changes with respect to tribological conditions.
The electric breakdown strength changes based on the distance between both surfaces i.e., the
lubricant film thickness. The behavior of film thickness against discharges per unit time is
schematically represented in Fig. 28.

Figure 28. Discharge activity mechanism [75].

With the increase in tribological parametric conditions such as viscosity or rotational speed, the
film thickness is increasing. The discharge activity increases at first and then starts decreasing.
The energy of a discharge depends on multiple factors including material properties and lubricant
properties. The mechanism is identical to electric discharge machining damage where the tool
electrode is brought at a significantly low gap resulting in discharge activity [119–122].

A direct comparison of PAO-15 with P-SiSO is carried out in Fig. 29. The discharge activity is
grouped based on overall number of discharges, above 1 V discharges and above 2 V discharges.
The inception of discharges results in bearing current flow activity which deteriorates the bearing
health. The duration of damage depends on several factors including discharge intensity, bearing
temperature and related measures. The resistive and conductive states can be influenced through
tribological additives but the resistive-capacitive state damages the bearing the most.
Conventionally, the full film lubrication is considered safe in terms of mechanical performance.
But in terms of electrical performance, the full film lubrication provides opportunity to accumulate
charges resulting in accelerated damage rate by frequent electrical arc discharge.

When comparing the total number of arc discharges, the PAO-15 showed lower discharge activity.
The P-SiSO increased discharge activity because of availability of ionic entities in between both
surfaces. These ionic entities provide opportunities to conduct current easily thus increasing the
conduction. The insulative properties of the lubricant film increase contact resistance thus
increasing the intensity of discharges [123]. With higher conductivity, the intensity of each
discharge decreases. Therefore, the amount of low voltage discharge increases.
Figure 29. Comparison of PAO-15 (left) and P-SiSO (right) discharge activity at 20 V DC: (top) total discharges, (middle) above
1 V, (bottom) above 2 V.

A change in operational state of a bearing alters the electrical conditions. For instance, the
transition from the highly resistive state (BL) to the resistive-capacitive state is not termed as safe
for arc discharging. Therefore, the tribological parameters are to be designed in a way that the
bearing operates in a safe zone. A comparison of the experimental oils with respect to grouped
intense discharges is shown in Fig. 30.
 Figure 30. Comparison of Experimental Oil 1 (left) and Experimental Oil 2 (right) discharge activity at 20 V DC: (top) total
discharges, (middle) above 1 V, (bottom) above 2 V.

The comparison in Fig. 30 shows that the experimental oil 2 is more prone to discharge activity.
Having almost equal physical properties such as viscosity and pressure viscosity coefficient, the
difference in electrical performance is evident. In the case of Exp Oil 1, the contact remains in
resistive state (boundary lubrication) at lower speeds than 300 RPM. At 600 RPM, the discharge
activity surges in the case of both oils. Exp Oil 1 shifts from resistive-capacitive state (ML) to
capacitive state (EHL) at 1200 to 1500 RPM. However, Exp Oil 2 stretched the resistive-capacitive
state to a wider range. The shift to the capacitive state occurs around 1500 to 1800 RPM. A
comparison of temperature profiles in these tests is shown in Fig. 31.

Figure 31. Bearing test temperature profiles near outlet in short duration tests.

The cooling of bearings is an important characteristic of lubricants along with other primary
purposes. The temperature profiles are recorded during the speed tests. The highest rise of
temperature is evident in PAO-15 and Exp Oil 2. Whereas the lowest temperatures are recorded
with Exp Oil 1 and P-SiSO. The oil temperature alters viscosity of lubricant which significantly
influence film thickness. Therefore, a consistent oil temperature is important along with low
variability for efficient functionality. The increase in temperature changes contact conditions
which result in increased discharge activity.
8.3. Effect of heating with run time

The bearing’s electrical nature changes with lubricant physical properties such as viscosity and
additives. For instance, the performance of PAO-15 in the long-term tests is shown in Fig. 32. At
low speeds of 120 and 300 RPMs, the contact is potentially in resistive-capacitive state (ML?)
which result in significant discharge activity. However, with the increase in speed to 600 RPM,
the contact shifts to capacitive state (full film lubrication) showing an insulating lubricant film.
From the start until 25 minutes, there is no insulation breakdown. Then insulation breakdown starts
after 25 minutes because of consistent viscosity drop due to increased lubricant temperature. The
number of events increase in a normal distribution fashion. A similar behavior of discharge activity
is evident at 900 and 1200 RPMs.

At high speeds of 1500 and 1800 RPMs, the temperature builds up which initiate the discharge
activity at early stage of the test. The temperature increases so fast that the discharges start in a
shorter amount time compared to for instance the 1200 RPM case. At full film lubrication
conditions, the voltage is associated with insulative state which transitions towards conducting
state with decrease in viscosity. The synergistic effects of temperature and speed control the
discharge activity and duration of insulation breakdown. The surface roughness will also change
rapidly with running-in during the initial cycles of operation and that it will affect the electrical
signal by changing the lubrication conditions [75,76].

Figure 31(cont.). Discharge activity in long duration tests with PAO-15.

 Figure 32. Discharge activity in long duration tests with PAO-15.

The discharge activity in PAO-40 is shown in Fig. 33. The high viscosity of the lubricant result in
full film lubrication and restrict insulation breakdown. The limiting resistance restricts the current
flow and charges up the capacitor. At low speeds, the lubricating film insulates the raceway and
rolling elements. The temperature rise is low, and the discharge activity decreases significantly
with the rise in rotational speed. At 30 and 60 RPMs, the lubricant develops a thick enough film
restricting the discharge activity significantly. Similarly, at higher speeds such as 120 to 900 RPM,
the bearing behaves completely insulative with only a small discrepancy seen after 35 min of
operation at 900 RPM. The potential reason for this discrepancy is the significant increase in
temperature influencing contact conditions.

Figure 33(cont.). Discharge activity in long duration tests with PAO-40.

 Figure 34. Discharge activity in long duration tests with PAO-40.

8.4. Addition of an electrically conductive additive

The performance of P-SiSO under electric field is shown in Fig. 34. The addition of P-SiSO in the
PAO-15 increased the electrical conductivity which makes the ions available in the lubricant film
[111]. The ionic liquid addition has slightly extended the range of the no-discharge activity zone
at high speeds such as 600 to 1500 RPMs because of potential insulative film formation on the
surface. Conventionally, the potential tribo-film enhances the discharge activity in mixed
lubrication because of availability of free ions in the lubrication zone. However, in the case of P-
SiSO, the low/no availability of free ions result in enhanced insulative behavior.
 Figure 35. Discharge activity in long duration tests with P-SiSO.

The temperature profiles of PAO-15 and P-SiSO are shown in Fig. 35. The bearing temperature is
mainly a result of shear heating, churning and discharge activity in the bearing housing. Additional
lubricant is not introduced to the housing to alter the conditions except the 1-liter reservoir oil
being circulated. In addition, the volume of the oil is kept constant for a better comparison of heat
generation. The heat generation in PAO-15 is in range with P-SiSO because the addition of 0.4%
ionic liquid have not significantly altered the temperature profile. However, a slight difference is
observed, possibly because of the change in discharge activity and its resultant contribution on
temperature.

Upon transition from conducting to insulating state, the shear increases because of higher film
thickness and rotational speed. The shear forces contribute to a significant temperature rise which
after some time converts contact details from the full film lubrication regime to the mixed
lubricated regime.

Figure 36. Temperature profiles in the long duration tests of PAO-15 and P-SiSO.

8.5. Comparison of full-formulated lubricants

The electrical performance of experimental oil 1 is shown in Fig. 36. The experimental oils are
specially designed for electric motor applications. The oils possess lower viscosity as compared to
PAO-15 and PAO-40, therefore, required significantly higher speed to separate the contacting
surfaces. At 120 RPM, the contact is in the boundary lubrication regime and therefore no discharge
activity is evident. The discharge activity becomes significant at 300 RPM and 600 RPM. The
contact shifts to mixed lubrication regime which results in high discharge density.

Figure 36(cont.). Discharge activity in long duration tests with Experimental Oil 1.
 Figure 37. Discharge activity in long duration tests with Experimental Oil 1.

The higher speed at 900 RPM probably shows full film lubrication at the start of test which slightly
shifts to mixed lubrication as the temperature increases and thus film thickness decreases. At
higher speeds from 1200 to 2400 RPMs, at start of test the contact is in full film lubrication regime
(capacitive state) and starts shifting to mixed regime (resistive-capacitive state). The direct
comparison of high rotational speed (2400 RPM) shows much less discharge activity as compared
to low speeds (300 and 600 RPMs) highlighting the ability of thick film formation. At high speed,
the thick film withstands the voltage difference and doesn’t result in insulation breakdown.

The electrical performance of experimental oil 2 is shown in Fig. 37. At the low speed of 120
RPM, there is slight evidence of discharge activity which is not present in the case of experimental
oil 1. In the case of 300 and 600 RPMs, the contact is in mixed lubrication state showing discharge
activity from very start of the test. To sum up, high discharge activity is evident over the complete
test duration as compared to experimental oil 1. At the highest speed of 2400 RPM, the
experimental oil 2 has resulted in ~750 discharges at 10 minutes as compared to experimental oil
1 with ~150 discharges. Considering the similar physical properties of both oils such as viscosity
and pressure-viscosity coefficient, the potential reason for the differences is the electrical
properties of the oil. Oil 1 provides superior performance and results in a lower degree of
discharges which potentially improves bearing health as compared to the other option.
Figure 37(cont.). Discharge activity in long duration tests with Experimental Oil 2.
 Figure 38. Discharge activity in long duration tests with Experimental Oil 2.

The temperature profiles of the experimental oils are shown in Fig. 38. The oils possess less
viscosity as compared to PAO-15 and PAO-40 which contribute to higher cooling efficiency
because of a higher flow rate. The temperature profiles show analogous behavior of both oils.
Experimental oil 2 shows slightly higher temperature as compared to experimental oil 1. However,
overall, the trends are similar in both oils at comparable rotational speeds.

The temperature generation in the bearing housing is an important characteristic in altering the
tribological performance. As evident in the discharge activity graphs, the temperature changes
physical properties of the lubricant which translates the full-film regime to mixed regime or
boundary regime. The mixed/boundary regime are not considered safe in terms of electrical and
mechanical performance. The full film regime under the threshold voltage is also not considered
safe. Therefore, the cooling performance of the lubricant along with electrical characteristics are
important during selection. To sum up, oil 2 has resulted in more discharge activity and slightly
lower performance in terms of temperature control as compared to the other variant. Therefore,
oil 2 is slightly worse with respect to electrical arc discharges because of different breakdown
voltage and higher temperature (shifting contact close to ML).
 Figure 39. Temperature profiles in the long duration tests of Exp Oil 1 and Exp Oil 2.

8.6. Film thickness

The film thickness during tests of PAO-15, P-SiSO and PAO-40 are shown in Fig. 39. The film
thickness is estimated to approximate the behavior of lubricants at different speeds. The main
influential parameters are viscosity and speed which increase or decrease film thickness in the
experiment. The film thickness of PAO-15 at high speed such as 900 RPM is significantly higher
resulting in almost no discharge activity as compared to 300 RPM which has shown multiple
discharges.

The reduction in the discharge activity is mainly due to capacitive behavior of the bearing. The
trends of lubricants of PAO-15 and P-SiSO are similar, however, the ionic liquids make ions
available in the film to conduct electrons easily. On the other hand, the PAO-40 has resulted in
considerably thicker films. At extremely low speeds, the film thickness is small which activates
the discharge activity. But with a slight increase in rotational speed, the film thickness increases
significantly restricting the discharge activity.
 Figure 40. Film thickness in the long duration tests of PAO-15, P-SiSO, and PAO-40.

The film thickness trends of the experimental oils are shown in Fig. 40. Because of the similar
physical properties of both oils, the film thickness behavior is analogous to each other. However,
the slight variation of temperature because of different discharge activity density results in
fluctuations. The insulation breakdown is driven through the lubricant properties, asperities and
electric field strength. The physical properties of the lubricants drive the current flow at constant
load settings. The increase in speed dominates the contact conditions resulting in reduced asperity
contact. Similarly, with the increase in housing temperature, the film thickness reduces at constant
speed increasing the discharge activity. The range of the film thickness of both lubricants in the
tribological settings is in similar range making the discharge activity dependent on electrical
properties. To sum up, the tribological conditions and physical properties are key attributes in
controlling the discharge activity.
Figure 41. Film thickness in the long duration tests of Exp Oil 1 and Exp Oil 2.
Chapter 9: Conclusions and future work
 Chapter 9: Conclusions and future work
A tribological characterization of a ball bearing is carried out under the influence of an electric
field. The conducting and insulating states are quantified in terms of discharge activity. To
characterize the electrical performance, two electrical circuits (DC 5 V and 20 V) are designed to
compare the discharge activity under different lubrication regimes. The detailed design of the
equipment, method and analysis is comprehensively discussed in the thesis.

The results show that a bearing exhibits both states of operation under the influence of an electric
field. Based on the electric field, the bearing current conduction varies. At high voltage difference,
the discharge activity increase because of the inadequate charge storage by the bearing. Under low
rotational speed conditions and low voltage difference, the discharge activity is nearly zero
because of adequate insulative behavior. To sum up, a bearing with sufficiently high film thickness
breaks electric circuit and restrict current flow at a low voltage level.

The contact conditions are characterized by the voltage signal and number of breakdowns at
different tribological parameters such as different speeds, lubricant viscosity and addition of
additives. The change in physical properties of a lubricant result in change in electric arc discharge
density during constant in-situ operating conditions. The influence of physical properties on
conductive and insulating states are studied under constant conditions, as well as high and low
rotational speeds. To sum up, from the electro-physical mechanisms of bearing currents, the
electric field/voltage dependent insulation breakdown is comprehensively evaluated. The
developed approach helps in understanding electrical performance of lubricants under varying
electric and mechanical conditions.

In the future, an artificial intelligence-based system could be developed to characterize contact

conditions based on discharge activity during in-situ settings. In addition, bearing life modelling
and to develop an electrical bearing model could potentially be a way forward for the tribological
researcher working in electric drivetrain tribology. The temperature control on the rig could be
improved along with better measurement methodology in terms of sampling rate. The future
possible upgrade will include making a digital twin of the physical system to study nature of
discharge activity. Furthermore, the bearings raceways could be coated to further increase contact
resistance. In addition, a single metallic and other ceramic balls could be used to control the results
precisely.
Chapter 10: References
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