Wi

Distributed Index

Idea Attributes associated with sets

:
of servers
.
values
Drawbacks
inefficiency for
,

Increased and
.

query complexity common

·
lack of support for range. queries.

Physical clocks.

Atomic clocks
Types :
·
·

·
Astronomical clocks .

·
Universal Coordinated Time (UTC( .

· Based on cesium 133 atom transitions .

Average of 50 ceslum clocks globally .
·

·
Adjus red with leap seconds
.
satellite .
Accuracy 105 ms via
·
:

Clock .
Synchronization .

precision (T)
· sound . on the difference between clocks on
any
two machines.
·

formula : Et ,
+p q /(C-Ca(t) 1
, :
It

·
Accurac (a)
·
Bound on the
difference ,
between clock time and ,
actuar time .

Et, up :
/Cp(t)-tE2 .

·
Clock Drift Rate <P(
Maximum deviation from the ideal clock frequency
.
fr :
-1) CHP !

Clock Syndimization Algorithms .

Cristain's
Algorithm :

Relative offset co) and

delay (8) colculations ·
-T1) + (T3 T4)
= (Te-T1) CTS T2)
0
-
-

S
-

=
-

2
2
Logical clocks.

Happened Before Relation

-
:

If event a happens before.

· event b , then a- b.
.

Partial
ordering of events
·

Lamport's logical clocks :

Timestamp
· each event with a
logical clock
.
·
properties :

: a+ b => C(a) < ((b)

p ·

event and received at event b

P2 :
Message(Cas sentC(b) m

<
at
·
a

implies

Implementation :

· Increment local counter for each event .

Timestamp messages .

With the sender's countervalue·

·
Update receiver's counter to max of its own and the
message's
timestamp.

Vector clocks.
·
Concept
Each motans rector clock
process
·
a .

·
VG(j) Indicates the count of events at
process ; known
to

process I

·
operations ,

· Increment local rector clock before. events .

send with vector clock

.
message
· ·

Update local rector

. clock
receiving message
·
on
.

·
Causal Dependency
·
Event a
causally precedes event b it UCcas < VCLb)

Mutual Exclusion
.

·
permission-based .

Processes
·

request permission to enter critical section

.

Centralized and distributed

algorithms.
·

Token-based
·
.

· Token
passed among processes , holder can enter critical
Section
Algorithms ,

& Agramala
·
Ricart :
Acknowledge requests Based on
priority
Token
·
Ring : Token circulates in a
logical riy

Election Algorithms .

Bully Algorithm .

with coordinator
process highest ID becomes
·

.
·
Initiates election
if coordinator is
unresponsive .

Ring Algorithm
from
·

processes a
logicalUny
election circulates to
find highest priority
·
message process .