SSMAte.

26.4
Figure 26.3
shows the
Holzworth
atmnosphere and is
constant
volunc combustio)
conpresscd b an axial low
1HERNMAL ENGINETDI
Es Lrbine, h. rURRINES AND IT
PROPUISION
taken from
the
compressor is driven
bya seprate
stram turbine
as shown in figurc.
passd t
at bar is chambow comprhe es or, heainr
the combustion . process 19 is
Lhe

compres ed
The constant
flow compresSOr nearlycombustion in the nl and.
Al ispressure isentropic
in
compressiothen process
currentthe cofhamnibrerby asmeasnhgieal
axial
out fron injccted into the .otfing
turbine 26.5
tigure. The tuel1s The valves V, and l,
separate fuel pump.
fuel valve (not
are closcd
shown in automatically
figure) also gets
as
thet u r l
Work done by the
the
compressor heat-exchanger,
cooling at constant
(W,) =
the in

pressure in compressor,
3-4 1s the the process 2-3 is the
isentrop1e
closod
com b usho n Work developed by the
heat
of-efuid
xchanger.
the air. The air expansion in
is filled with quantity of fuel
requircd. The -fucl
sparkplug as shown in nnixture
Networlk available ( turbine(W,) = C,(T,-T) kJkg

combiuosntionical ytakes
a uto m at
injecting sufficicnt formed in (W.)= W,- C,(T,-T,) kjIkg
ignited by means of figurc. The.
the combusChan Heat supplied per kg of fuid W,=

(CT,-T,)-C,(T,-T,J]lkJkg
chamber is then gas valves are closed.
as the air, fuel and
The Q.= (h,- during the cycle
at constant
volume
inside the
combustion chanber up to 12
increases the pressure combustion chamber is opened
bar
and a
The high pressure combust of
Che mi The
thermodynamic
h,)=C,(T,-T) kJ/kg
efficiency the cycle
of
(26.1)

returnnon-(12varelbarvtue)nvand
top of the is
fitted on the turbine through the nozzle. The n valv W, given by
temperature gases are
fed to
the combustion
chamboy:
automatically as the pressure in pass1ng through gas turhin to falls duenon-the bi
C,T;-T,)-
C,(T, C,
-1,)T, -T,) T,-T)-(T, -T)
combustion chamber. The gases
temperature of thegases in the combustion
combustion
chamber.*and
nozzle is high
chamber and nozzle are cooled by as
develop ththegase usefu
ow outside th Applying the gas law to the
Y-1
points 1 and 2
Y-1
(T, -T,)
(26.2)

fcooling jackets ofpasosingamountwater ofthrveou

The
air supplied is small. The hot water coming out of T, = (R,) Y where R= P2
the water jackets provided. as showvn in figure.
and nozzle is supplied

is
gases used for the
to the steam boiler
temperature are passed through the
exhaust.
gasturbine at high generation of the steam. The steam boiler where the
generated in the
The
coheatgasesmbusticomionthencghaomm
of
T, =
(R,)
Y-1
P1

...(26.3)

the steam turbine driving

The major
the air-compressor.
disadvantage of this turbine is the intermittent combustion nun
boiler exians
is used to Similarly, applying the gas law to the
Y-1
points 3 and 4
Y-1
Another disadvantage of the system is
Smooth running of the turbine.
recover the heat from the exhaust gases
which
that, impairs he
a
Pa
(R,) Y
cominsepar
g outatefromstezthe
p
plant is absolutely necessary to
turbine as the temperature of the gases is high. T, =
gas .626.4)

26.3 ANALYSIS OF CONSTANT PRESSURE CLOSED CYCLE GAS TUPRIAE

(R,)
Cahstituting the values of equations 26.3 and 26.4 into the Ean. 26.2, and by simpliying,
The constant pressure gas turbine works on Brayton or Joule cycle which is we get
explained in chapter 21. The different thermodynamic processes of
cycle are shown in Figs. 26.4. (a) and 26.4. (0) on p-v and T-s diagramsconstant pressure alcraesda;d
respectively. .(26.5)

3 The following assumptions are made for the above analysis of the constant pressure closed
cycle :
S=c (1) The compression and expansion are considered isentropic.
T
(2) The pressure losses in the system are neglected.
P. (3) The specific heat of the working fluid remains constant throughout the cycle.
2 (4) The heat losses are neglected.
s=c (5) The K.E, of the fluid entering the compressor and leaving the turbine is same.
1 As the network available from work developed by the turbine is an important parameter it
is defined as work ratio.
(s) ENTROPY W, -W. T,-T)-(T, -T) -1
(a) (6)
01
R, = W, (T,-T,) T;-T,
Fig. 26.4. p-vand T-s diagram for Brayton cycle.
 SSMAte

IHERMLNGNt
26.6 Y 1
1 RRINES AND JET
7;R,) =1 T
GAS
TU) PROPLULSION
=1
T, Y-1
711 T; 1
1
Y -1 T,
(R,) Y T,-T,(R,) T (R,
26

(R,) the work

equation 26.6 that ratio Substituting (7 -
It is
obious, fom
temperature, increase
compressor inlet
increasesand with the
in turbine inlet temperature
1 = min
above the
equatioT
Compressor inlet
of the
cvcle. The
pressure ratioopen-Cvcle gas turbine.
The turbine
inlot temperature
1s
with thne dedeTcer
temperature normall:
is limited dRp,I-TR,m -TAR,P =0
temperature in temperature which the metal alloy can the T,m (R, n-l-T,m
withsfutanncdtiobyn cometalurnasltIionnus
highest

T,'R(R,n-l=0
considerationsLe.. the efficiencv of the
from Eig. 26.5, that the cycle is only af
actual plants, it depends
It is obvious
upon both pressure ratio and temperature
for the fixed
ratio.
,y 'ml' =T{R,p
temperature
the cycleotR(T., bu
26.6, that
Also it is clear
are fixed for the
from Eqn.
cvcle), the maximum
pressure ratio possiblo
limits
of of
for production
fwork is
(R,-1

..(26.7)
P (26.8)
Comparingtthe equations 26.7 and 26.8,it is
Therefore the maximum
value of obvious that
maximum R,- JR,)m
used for finding the ...26.9)
R. to be
in the equation 26.5 Takingtthe temperatures T and Ta as 288 K and 1000 K. which are
possible efficiency
equation 26.7. T 2" =3" inthegassturbine cycle and considering the working fluid is air, commonlyencountered
is given by the value ofR,, the (T, 1-1_(1000 l4/0.4
At the above given
turbine work willve equal tocompressor (Emax 288
=80
will be zero. This 21
work and net output the highest
limit of pressure ratio gives cleared
4 and R (for maximum specific output)=(R,)ms = 80= 8.8.
thermal efficiency. This point issame T,
T. The variations offthermal efficiency and specific output are shown in Fig. 26.6.
1=4"
cycle with
by representing theincreasing pressure he existence of an optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific work output is an
uportantfeature because it shows that a high pressure ratio is not. necessarily desirable.
and T, and with + (s) Entropy
26.5 where the Thecycle of operation with machine efficiency. It is not. possible to achieve the
ratio as shown in Fig.
heat rejection is
minimum for thezero
Fig. 26.5. isentropic expansion and isentropic compression in actual cycle due to the inevitable losses
work output.
isened with internal friction and turbulence. Therefore, the temperature at the end of
Specific mnression and at the end of expansion are higher than in ideal case for the same pressure
Optimum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Work Output.
should be developed for a given plant size, the pressure ratio which givesAs maximun
power(a) shown in Fig. 26.7.
masimun wati The actual compression and expansion processes on T-s diagrams are
be chosen.
available work per kg of working fluid should Atmosphere

by
The work available per kg of working fluid is given Pressure

w:

1
=C,T Y-1
(R,)
constant) W, is maximum when
For the given temperature limits (T, and T, are 80 (3)Entropy
dW, =0 Fig. 26.7. Actual
compression and
efficiency
dk, Fig. 26.6. Variation of thermal expansion on T-s diagram.
pressure ratio.
and specific output with
 SSMAte
26.10
Cuel
(m, tm,)
|I RNMALENs GASrURAINESAAND IET PROPUISION

6.
Working 1uid in
the
orm
odynamie closed
aropertiesothercanthan
be asedcycle is not 7611
therthe us of gasess
reresuarily air
advantageoysly,
p/s
thyeroftyre.Anycloselothereycefiuid0penswiththebetter
held.higher adiabatic air
the thormalcindex and high having, more
r
with
increas.
ate cfficiency desirable
a tospeifie heat. may he ueedpropert
to ies Heavier working luid
new

gag with increase

lo
ma4s
and cycle gast...rhino.Helium
The sie of gas
the
1 8 js outotut for a
rodsce the sze of the
tyen maximum plan,
closcd the density of the
air as pressuro Helum isturbine eronsideredwithsuperior
less thanrequired than any tempera Muids for
air ut the the Helium gas is other compared
Combuslion gases
ihe ovcrall
with
lo otmosphere (3) ENTROPY se ran be \argeby
Air frorn
The Xenon, Krvwn and Argon can be reduce) increas
otmosphere iras4.53,, 2.83and 1.38 respectively. used
Fis. 26.8. Open cycle gs turbine plant
of air and[ucl supplied per sccond
7. The m:maintenancecost is low and advantageously
as they
havee relative density to
b) Disadvantages of Closed reliability
the massCs is hioh due to
where m, and m,
are respectively. lnd C
Cycle: longer useful life
gasesand nir amount of
Hpocific heats of 1. LarHe cooling water is required in
= W, - W (m, + m) C T; T)- gtationary installation or marine use
W(available work) given by where water is cooler therefore its use is limited to the
The net heat supplied
, =m, x
is
C.V.
given by
mCT,-T) .aod for
aircraftturbinos

The weight of the system per kW

2. cconomical
for moving vehicles.
available in ahundance This
developed is high compared with open cycle therefore
cannot be
the actual open cycle is itisnot
The thermalefficiency of 3. A very
large
air-heater
(m, 4 m C,(7;-?)-m,Cp(7, -T) compared
becausethe heat transfer cocfficientcin
with the combustion
chamber used in open cycle
W, the
, xC.V.
4. It is necessary that the system must be air heat-exchanger
is low.
tight when the working ffluid other than air
c
closed Cycle isusedin the system under initial pressure. This increases
isvery light compared to unit as the the installation cost.
The open cycle unitvery
are bulky. heat exChangersy wosnonse of the power plant to the changing load on the plant is very poor.
in cloncd cycle units
26.6 METHODS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF SIMPLE OPEN CYCLE
DISADVANTAGES OF CLOSED CYCLE OVER
26.5 ADVANTAGES AND OPEN CYCLE CONSTANT PRESSURE GAS TURBINE PLANT
Cycle:
(a) Advantages of closed phe hermal efficiency and specific output of the plant can be increased with the help of
outstanding advantage of the closed cycle is the uHO of higher following methods:
1. The
Lhe cycleof which
control results in a of plant for given output.nd
pressure level in the circuit. A wide range of load cu beability
reduced size prossure throughm
to alter
accommodatod 3
Fuel
the control of pressure level combustion
chunging the maximumcycle temporature by
Burned gases
to otmosphare
2. Tho closed cycle avoids corrosion and erosion oftheoturbine blades duo to tho contamimu Regeneration
Regenerator P.
uscd in the cycle.
gases as the indirect heating is
the closed cyclo whioh
3. Tho Gltration of the incoming nir is eliminaled in
4
Wr

problem in open cyclo. C

above atmosphere, the densityat,
4, Bymaintaining the lowest pressure of the cycle luid improves the hent rmnd
increased. The high density of the working
working fluid canbo turbine and heat exchanger ean h
size of' the compressor,
inthe hontoxchanger, therelore the Air from
otmosphere
roduced.
indirect lheating is used in closed cycle. (s) Entropy
6. Solid fuel can be usod more ccononmically as (6) T-sDiagram for gas turbine plant with
regenerator.
cheup luel like coal, wood or lignito can be usN (u) Gus turbine plant with regenerator.
educos the cost of'powor developed a8 any ig 26.9.
 (a) Actuol
Temp. 26.Fi1g0.(6).
counterflow The anIt
Counterflow rise
outAir Exhoust
goses actualincrease is
obvious In
in actual But
As temperatuturbine
re turbine shexn from the
temperature
heat in
from
The ompr
temperature
essor
Wh It the of
heat practice,the11, thermal work thefrom ambrent
is inThe the al
exchanger the Fg. sas
e to 26.9 ssor
thuseorei callcompr
y e
of
but fro
T,m
exchanger. Theoreticol
Temp.
rise
of above
and
efiiciency there
air
T , turbine
Regenerat
temperatureio.
T, entering
of
decreases
air to (6)
rise
is expression T regenerator =T, Is =, thus
wi l
shown the in is C,(7;substantial
ofthe by =
posSIbIe; plant
R,)o-y =T;-11 an the passing to duang
2 Exhoust
goses The
wth The
6
be with
26.10.
Fig.
Air in
out
temperatureT' combust
ideal-T;)-C,
C,
generative io n in and
TUSe Chaust
heat
the regenerat
6 inincreases
< that = (T; lthemower or the of
Fig. T:.
the 1 T;) - reductioncircuit,
regenerator the mass thegases
(T; chamber througlh athe
26.10 The thermal T l-(TITA
(1/n(75-T).
T,) (T3 n, cycle counterflow temperatur. exhaustof carrs
temperature
actual of
in -T) thcro
in
shown
Fig. is
the
diagram
<T-s(6) Regeneration. (a) the R. is
;tho is supPplied gases lot
fuelin
l given
increased. of
and eficiencyair no in can heat
change
from ntity o of be
the compressed
the as
26.9 used
tlheir
T-s T, of 1 exchanger. heat
in
ENTROPY(s) to thec 1
suppliedfuel
the gases
combustion
eh
(a) he
emperalure o
distribution
throug
diagram
shown 1s
T,
increases
Cycle
vi copressor
heat
THERMNLNGIN
and
=T, comng
air
its the

Ts
r
CoTN i
W vu a

done taplkesace in two prthe es luor(bse) es.The use and.wCpahere

from single a the
T, A
work Since
(a)
Gas Airin C cor esponcompr
isTEthe dingStaegesssor. regenerator
two A
A If
andCps
The egiven by
The
rURRINGESAS
given of m, , efticiency
thermal
perfect
its
stage
torequired
the
turbine inter-cooler
work Intercooling.
Stage uttuirbilisannedd e such =
m,
efand f ectiveness PROPULSION
AND ,
by stage
then
one T-s regenerator exchangerheat
and tarehe m.
specific
incorporating The ore
original
compressor. vertical plant
inter-cooler done
compressor
diagram aiis having Cpa=Cpg n,:
JET

rinwork y the E=
of
by
with
W= in W, masses
the
(T,-T)
-T)- (T,
Considering
two
distance
two = requiredMajor inhnite -T; T, Maximum
temperature C,(T;
Cpa stages s 1s 1S
heats
regenerator
-T;(T, )
stages inter-cooler.supplyFuel shown
with the with
nerfe the Testncted
percentage assumed of
Actual

defined
is (T;-T)+(T,-T)l
-T)=C,(T,-T)+ work
inter-cooler heat air
of heat
perfect in by he
air and heat 1s
compressor 1-2 Exhoust to
done Fig.
the
transferring then transfer
exhaust
and given
actual
and due
(T, as inter-coolercomnpressor of the
transfer
is 26.11 power to gases. temoeratnre
by
=T) heat a 3-4 given between the

SMAte
6 effectivenesstheortically
gases
26.Fi11.g. (6) (6).
with T-son T-s
inter-cooler to
developed weight surface the
of by is the can
exchanger
airinter-cooler
as (T; shown
passing
air rse
diagram diagram T, two be and
area possible
entering -T,=T,-T, -T,l reduced is
through
of
as
inFig.26. as by sDace given air
shown shown th e gives in

which is for limitations

bygas highest s
effectiveness. by the
the
less gas compressing m,CT,-T,) m,CaT; -T) heat
the is turbine in
11
in
reduces less than figure, (a). Fig.
eCha
compressor 613
than the If 6.26.11 is and (26.18)
plant then
compression the cost (26.19)
the vertical
the the
(a).
withEntropy(s) 5 ana
temperature
C, work P2 The by
work
distanceinter-cooler. 6
P
required

of 2-2,
air by
 SSMAte

26.14
Considering actual
stages nnd
imperfoct
compressions in both
inte-cooling.. (T3 > T) b.
the work
doe per lkx
ofair
s IHERMAL ENGINt CASTURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

26 12, perfect
rthereis
shown
both
in Fig.
compressors is
given by

Isentropic eflicieney
T,))
of
for
inter-cooling, then
the maximnum work output is given by

P,= PP,
K l
and if n,, n then the
26.15

),=compressor C.
Substituting this , intermediate pressure
lsentropic eficicncy
of value for the
n., =
compressor C, T, > T,
which is
condition for imperfect intor
above-mentioned condition in
..(26.22)
equation 26.20, we get
cooling \5l7-1)/|
Cpa (T-T,)+(T,-T,) Fig. 26.12. Actual s EnlropY
2CpuT;
compression within P
Cpa T3
Y-1

inter-co ler, plantis

Thethermal
given by
offciency and work output per kg of air
fuel mass of an
...(26.23)

inter-ocooled turbine
where p. is the intermediate pressure betwccn tho tuwo oto
Assuming T/T, = K (T,-T)-T,(T; -T,)
=T)+(T,-T
and W, =W, - W ..(26.24)

W=
CpaTi 1 + Cpa KT; IfT, = T, then
(T;-T)(T;-(T,-T)+T,-2T) ...(26.25)
The minimum work requirement condition is given by
Thenumber of stages used for compression depends
upon the
plant. More than two stages with inter-cooler after every stage overall pressure ratio of the
can be used for high
dp ratios. The number of stages used are generally decided as per the pressure
savingin the work done and
extra capital required for the equipments used as compressors and
Y-1 inter-coolers.
Conerally only tW0-stage compressor is used in gas turbine plants
10 only. as maximum pressure
P2Y ratio is limited to
mhe work available with inter-cooling per kg of air is given by
W, = (W,- W)
W remains same as the inlet temperature to the turbine of the gases remains same but
K (p,)- 1-1(p)-2n =0 w is reduced with inter-cooling, therefore the intercooling helps to increase the net output per
1 k¡ of air. The temperature of the air coming out of compressor with inter-cooling (T, as shown
(9,)-l/y K in Fig. 26.12) is less than the temperature of air coming out of compressor without inter-cooling
p;)(2y-D7Y
(T, as shown in Fig. 26.12). Therefore the quantity of fuel required to raise the temperature of
air to T: with inter-cooling is greater than the fuel required to raise the temperature of air to T,
without inter-cooling. This lowers the thermal efficiency of the plant.
(p)2(-1| = K (c) Reheating. A considerable improvement in the output can be achieved byexpanding
Me2 the gases in two stages with areheater between the two as shown in Fig. 26.13 (a). There is also
a small increase in the cycle efficiency. The corresponding T-s diagram is shown in
)7/(r-1) Pig. 26.13 (6).
The network done per kg of gas by two turbines with reheating as shown in figure is given
by
|Y/(y-1) W, =C (T,-T) + C, (T,-T)=Cpg M(T,-T)+CpgeT-T)
.(2691 Where n, and n., are the isentropic efficiencies of turbine one and turbine two.
 26.16
SSMAte
HERMAL ENGNK
Fuel
Fuel

TURBINES
AND JET
GAS PROPULSION

p=I2and T, =T. 611

If then K=1 and the
6
P= NPP, above
pressure for reheating is the egyatáon, is reduced to
2627)
Air The intermediate
equations26.22 and 26.2
Exhoust goses
out 28.The
Y-1in bothrequired
6 6
condiandtions sarne
the cases as
are Der
426.28)

neinteThr-coohng
above
compressors(for conditions are not
the
If according to the
(a) Gas turbine plant with reheater. (6) T-s
diagram for (s) ENTROPY minimum(for work to begiven, thenns=and
for the turbines the
gas
selected
supplied) intermedifromate thepressureeselected for the
of maximum work to be diferent,
is
W, =CpTea T,1- T,/7J+CgNa T,l1 - turbine
The thermal
becausethe effciency the reheat
Fig. 26.13.
plantw turbine work ot the cycle is alsodeveloped).
greater than the intermediate
pressure

ithreheater
cvcle cycle
(T,/T)1 hat of a
betaken into
account. without afifectingrehneat
simple
the ing cycle per ka of ezhanst effiáency of an
ordinary
and s )-1)/y
The thermal
effciency of
turbine
compressor Work Increase ingases is than
greatershould
heat. addition
givenby plant shown in fg.
Substituting these values in above equation: 21.13. (a) neglecting the fuel
y(7-)/ 7
(T;-T) +(T,-T)-(T,-T) mass is

\(Y-1)/]
In the above
mass is neglected expression, the(T,speciñc
-T,)+(T,heat-T)of gases and air are -.(26.29)

The required condition to gain the

maximum work
considered same and fuel

reheating is with two 26.7 ADVANTAGES OF GAS

stages TURBINES OVER LC ENGINES AND
dW,
dp,
=0
expansion and Adyantages Over I.C. Engines:
YPerfect
/o The
balancing the rotating parts is possible is gas
of
STEAM TURBINES

mechanical ]
(85%) because theeficiency
of the turbine is very high turbines.
(-1/) (95%)
number of sliding parts.conpared with the LC.
d (7-1)/y) engine LC. engine has large
dp, (3) As the gas turbine is a
continuous power developing machine(hereas theLC.engine
avolons the power intermittently) the torque on the
Assuming T1, =K where T- turbine shaft is continuous and
compared with I.C. engine and therefore does not require flywheel. uniform
equal.
may be less than 1g or may be
greater than T, 0T (4) The work developed by the turbine per kg of air
supplied is more compared with work
16-1/7) Mayte developed by I.C. engine because the expansion of gases upto atmospheric
in gas turbine whereas the expansion upto atmospheric pressure is not pressure is possible
possible in I.C. engine.
P2) =0 when T, is (5) The weight of gas turbine per kW developed is less than I.C. engine. The weight of gas
constat turbine is hardly 0.15 kg/kW whereas the weight ofI.C. engine is 2.5-kg/kW.
(6) The compression, combustion and expansion take place in different unitsin gas turbine
plants and therefore these can be designed, tested and developed individually and there is
flexibility in arrangement of these components as per requirements.
(7) The gas turbine can be driven at much high speeds(40,000 r.p.m.).
P,)-D (8) The maximum pressures used in the gas turbine are very low (5 bar) compared with
I.C. engine (60 bar) therefore components of thegas turbine can be madelighter.
d=K (9) The lubrication and ignition systems are much moresimple compared with I.C. engnes.