V.S.

M Degree College (A),

Ramachandrapuram.

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
 UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1. COMPUTER?

Ans: A computer can be defined as an electronic device that is designed to accept data, perform the required
mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and output the result.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER?

Ans: A computer accepts data, processes it, and produces information. Here data refers to some raw facts or
figures, and information implies the processed data. Computers are basically meant to solve problems quickly and
accurately.

I. Speed:

Computers can perform millions of operations per second. The speed of computers is usually given in
nanoseconds and picoseconds.

a. 1 nanoseconds = 1 x 10-9 seconds

b. 1 picoseconds = 1 x 10-12 seconds

II. Accuracy:

A computer is a very fast, reliable, and robust electronic device. It always gives accurate results, provided
the correct data and set of instructions are input to it.

III. Automation:

Besides being very fast and accurate, computers are automatable devices that can perform a task without any
user intervention.

IV. Diligence:

Unlike humans, computers never get tired of a repetitive task. It can continually work for hours without
creating errors.

V. Versatile:
Versatility is the quality of being flexible. Today, computers are used in our daily life in different fields. For example,
they are used as personal computers (PCs) for home use, for business-oriented tasks, and so on. Computers are
versatile devices as they can perform multiple tasks of different nature at the same time.

VI. Memory:

Similar to humans, computers also have memory. Computers have internal or primary memory as well as
external or secondary memory. The internal memory of computers is very expensive and limited in size, the
secondary storage is cheaper and of bigger capacity.

3. APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS?

Computers are widely used in fields such as engineering, health care, banking, education, and so on.

I. Word Processing:

Word processing software enables users to read and write documents. Users can also add images, tables and
graphics for illustrating a concept. The software automatically corrects spelling mistakes and includes copy-paste
features.

II. Internet:

The Internet is a network of networks that connects computers all over the world. Using email, the user can
communicate in seconds with a person who is located thousands of miles away. Video-conferencing tools are
becoming popular for conducting meetings with people who are unable to be present at a particular place.

III. Digital Video or Audio Composition:

Computers make audio or video composition and editing very simple. This has drastically reduced the cost
of equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics engineers use computers for developing short or full-
length films and creating 3D models and special effects in science fiction and action movies.

IV. Desktop Publishing:

Desktop publishing software enables you to create page layouts for entire books.

V. Government:

Computers are used in government organizations to keep records on legislative actions, Internal Revenue
Service records, etc.
VI. Traffic Control:

In the United States, computers are used by the government for city planning and traffic control.

VII. Retail Business:

Computers are used in retail shops to enter orders, calculate costs, and print receipts. They are also used to
keep an inventory of the products available and their complete description.

VIII. Movies:

Computers are used to create sets, special effects, animations, cartoons, imaginary characters, videos, and
commercials.

IX. Travel and Tourism:

Computers are used to prepare tickets, monitor the routes of trains and aero planes and guide planes to a safe
landing. They are also used to research about hotels in an area, reserve rooms, or to rent a car.

X. Business and Industry:

In Business and Industry, computers are used mainly for data processing, which includes tasks such as word
processing, analyzing data, entering records, payroll processing, personnel record keeping, and inventory
management.

XI. Hospitals:

Hospitals use computers to record every information about patients, from the time of their admission till
their exit. For example, the date, time, reason for being admitted, the doctor being consulted, all prescribed
medications, doctor visits, other hospital services, bills, etc., are all stored in computers.

XII. Weather Forecasting:

When computers are fed with mathematical equations along with data about air pressure, temperature,
humidity, and other values, the solution of these equations gives an accurate prediction of the weather of a particular
area.

XIII Education:

A Computer is a powerful teaching aid and acts as another teacher in the classroom. Teachers use computers
to develop instructional material. Teachers may use pictures, graphs and graphical presentations to easily illustrate
an otherwise difficult concept.
XIV. Online Banking:

The world today is moving towards a cashless society, where you need not have money in your pocket to
purchase anything. You can just have your credit card or debit card with you. The ATMs provide a 24 X 7 service
and allow you to draw cash, check the balance in your account, and order a product.

XV. Robots:

Robots are computer-controlled machines mainly used in the manufacturing process in extreme conditions
where humans cannot work, for example, in high-temperature, high-pressure conditions or in processes that demand
very high levels of accuracy.

4. BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION?

Ans:

A computer is an electronic device that basically performs five major operations:

1. Accepting Data or Instructions(input)

2. Storing Data
3. Processing Data
4. Displaying Results(output)
5. Controlling and Co-Ordinating all operations inside a computer

Block Diagram of a Computer:

 Flow of data and instructions.

……… Control exercised by Control Unit

1. Input Unit:

This is the process of entering data and instructions in to the computer system. The data and instructions can
be entered by using different input devices such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, and trackball. Note that computers
understand binary language, which consists of only two symbols (0 and 1), so it is the responsibility of the input
devices to convert the input data into binary codes.

2. Storage (memory):

It is the process of saving data and instructions permanently in the computer so that they can be used for
processing. A computer has two types of storage areas:

i. Primary Storage:

This, also known as the main memory, is the storage area that is directly accessible by the CPU at very high
speeds. It is used to store the data and parts of programs, the intermediate results of processing. Primary storage
space is very expensive and therefore limited in capacity. Another drawback of main memory is that is volatile in
nature; that is, as soon as the computer is switched off, the information stored gets erased. An example of primary
storage is the RAM.

ii. Secondary Storage:

Also known as the Secondary memory or auxiliary memory, this is just the opposite of primary memory. It
is cheaper, non-volatile, and used to permanently store data and programs of those jobs that are not being currently
executed by the CPU.
3. Processing:

The process of performing operations on the data as per the instructions specified by the user is called processing.
Data and instructions are taken from the primary memory and transferred to the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU),
which performs all sorts of calculations. The intermediate results of processing may be stored in the main memory,
as they might be required again. When the processing completes, the final result is then transferred to the main
memory.

4. Output Unit:

Output is the process of giving the result of data processing to the outside world. The output devices,
therefore, convert the results available in binary codes into a human-readable language before displaying it to the
user.

5. Control Unit:

The Control unit (CU) is the central nervous system of the entire computer system. It manages and controls
all the components of the computer system. It manages and controls all the components of the computer system.
The CU decides the manner in which instructions will be executed and operations performed. It takes care of the
step-by-step processing of all operations that are performed in the computer.CPU is a combination of the ALU and
the CU. The CPU is better known as the brain of the computer system because the entire processing of data is done
in the ALU, and the CU activates and monitors the operations of other units (such as input, output and storage) of
the computer system.

5. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS?

Ans: Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed, amount of data that they can
hold, and price.

1. SUPER COMPUTERS:

Among the four categories, the supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer.
Supercomputers were first developed in the 1980s to process large amounts of data and to solve complex scientific
problems. Supercomputers use parallel processing technology and can perform more than one trillion calculations
in a second.

A single supercomputer can support thousands of users at the same time. Such computers are mainly used
for weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, aircraft design, automotive design, online banking, controlling
industrial units, etc. Some examples are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10.
2. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS:
Mainframe Computers are large-scale computers. These are very expensive and need a very large clean room with
air conditioning, thereby making them very costly to deploy. As with supercomputers, mainframes can also support
multiple processors. For example, the IBM S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users at the same time. Users can
access mainframes by either using terminals or via PCs. There are basically two types of terminals that can be used
with mainframe systems.

2.1 DUMB TERMINALS:

Dumb terminals consist of only a monitor and a keyboard. They do not have their own CPU and memory
and use the mainframe system’s CPU and storage devices.

2.2 INTELLIGENT TERMINALS:

Intelligent terminals have their own processor and thus can perform some processing operations. However,
just like the dumb terminals, they do not have their own storage space. Usually, PCs can be used as intelligent
terminals to facilitate data access and other services from the mainframe system.

Mainframe computers are typically used as servers on the World Wide Web. They are also used in large
organizations such as banks, airline companies, and universities, where a large number of users frequently access
data stored in their databases. Some examples of mainframe computers include IBM S/390, Control Data CYBER
176, Amdahl 580, etc.

3. MINICOMPUTERS: As the name suggests, minicomputers are smaller, cheaper, and slower than mainframes.
They are called minicomputers because they were the smallest computer of their times. Also known as midrange
computers, the capabilities of minicomputers fall between mainframe and PCs.

Minicomputers are widely used in business, education, hospitals, government organizations, etc.
Minicomputers can also be used as servers in a networked environment, and hundreds of PCs can be connected to
it.

4. MICROCOMPUTERS:

Microcomputers, commonly known as PCs, are very small and cheap. The first microcomputer was designed
by IBM in 1981 and was named IBM-PC.

PCs can be classified into the following categories:

Desktop PCs:

A desktop PC is the most popular model of PCs. The system unit of the desktop PC can be placed flat on a
desk or table. It is widely used in homes and offices.
Laptops:

Laptops are small microcomputers that can easily fit inside a briefcase. They are very handy and can easily
be carried from one place to another. The memory and storage capacity of a laptop is almost equivalent to that of a
desktop computer. As with desktop computers, laptops also have HDDs, floppy disk drives, zip disk drives, etc. For
input, laptops have a built-in keyboard and a trackball/touchpad, which is used as a pointing device.

Workstations:

Workstations are single-user computers that have the same features as PCs, but their processing speed
matches that of a minicomputer or mainframe computer. Workstation computers have advanced processors, more
RAM and storage capacity than PCs.

Network Computers:

Network computers have less processing power, memory, and storage than a desktop computer. These are
specially designed to be used as terminals in a networked environment. Network computers that are specifically
designed to access only the Internet or intranet are known as Internet PCs or Internet boxes.

Handheld Computers:

Handheld computers can fit in one hand, while users can use the other hand to operate them. Handheld
computers are very small in size, and hence they have small-sized screens and keyboards.

Some examples of handheld computers are

1. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

2. Cellular telephones
3. H/PC Pro devices

1. PDA’s:

A number of PDA’s available in the market offer a collection of application software for word processing
spreadsheets, games etc,. PDA’s are used to take notes, organize telephones numbers, and store addresses. Many
PDA’s are web enable the user to access the internet. Some PDA’s also provide telephone capabilities.

2. Cellular Phones:
Cellular phones are web enabled telephones that have features of both analogue and digital devices. Such phones ➢
are also known as smart phones.

3. H/PC Pro Devices:

The size and features of the H/PC Pro devices is more than PDA’s but less than that of typical notebook
PC’s. The H/Pc pro devices includes a full sized keyboard, RAM with very low storage capacity and a slow speed
processor, these devices do not have a secondary storage disk.

6. INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES?

Input Devices: An input device is used to feed data and instructions into the computer.

1. KEYBOARD:

The Keyboard is the main input device for computers. Computer keyboards look very similar to the
keyboards of typewriters with some additional keys. Using a keyboard, the user can type a document, use keystroke
shortcuts, access menus, play games, and perform numerous other tasks. Most keyboards have between 80 and 110
keys, which include the following:

1. Typing Keys: These include the letters of the alphabet.

2. Numeric Keys: These include a set of 17 keys, arranged in the same configuration found on calculators to speed
up data entry of numbers.

3. Function Keys: These are used by applications and operating systems to input specific commands. They are often
placed on the top of the keyboard in a single row.

4. Control Keys: These are used to handle control of the cursor and the screen. Four arrow keys are arranged in an
inverted T-type fashion between the typing and the numeric keys, and are used to move the cursor on the screen in
small increments.

Advantages:

➢ The keyboard is easy to use and cheap.

Disadvantages:

➢ The keyboard cannot be used to draw figures.

 r position is very slow.
➢ Mouse and other pointing devices are more apt for this purpose.

2. POINTING DEVICES:

A pointing input device enables the users to easily control the movement of the pointer to select items on a
display screen, to select commands from commands menu, to draw graphs, etc. Some examples of pointing devices
include mouse, trackball, light pen, joystick, and touchpad.

I. Mouse:

The mouse is an input device that was used in a Graphical User Interface (GUI). It can be used to handle the
pointer easily on the screen to perform various functions such as opening a program or file. The mouse has two
buttons and a scroll wheel. It can be held in the hand and easily moved, without lifting, along a hard flat surface to
move the cursor to the desired location – up, down, left or right.

Once the mouse is placed at the appropriate position, the user may perform the following operations:

a. Point:

Placing the mouse pointer over the word or the object on the screen by moving the mouse on the desk is
termed as pointing.

b. Click:

Pressing either the left or the right button of the mouse is known as clicking. Clicking a mouse button initiates
some action.

c. Drag:

Dragging means pointing to a desired location while pressing the left button.

d. Scroll:

The scroll wheel, which is placed in between the left and right buttons of the mouse, is used to vertically
scroll through long documents.

Advantages:

➢ The mouse is easy to use and can be used to quickly place the cursor anywhere on the screen. It is cheap.

Disadvantages:

➢ The mouse needs extra desk space to be placed and moved easily.
II. Trackball:

A trackball is a pointing device that is used to control the position of the cursor on the screen. It is usually
used in note book computers, where it is placed on the keyboard. The trackball is an upside-down mouse where the
ball rotates in place within a socket. The user rolls the ball to position the cursor at an appropriate position on the
screen and then clicks one of the buttons near the track ball, either to select objects are to position the cursor for text
entry. To move the pointer, the ball is rotated with the thumb, fingers or palm of the hand.

Advantages:

➢ The trackball provides better resolution.

➢ It occupies less space.

Disadvantages:

➢ The trackball chamber is often covered with dust, so it must be cleaned regularly.

III. Touchpad:

A touchpad is a small, flat, regular stationary pointing device with a sensitive surface of 1.5-2 square inches.
The user has to slide his or her fingers across the surface of the pad to point to a specific object on the screen. The
surface translates the motion and position of the user’s fingers to a relative position on the screen. There are also
buttons around the edge of the pad that work like mouse buttons. Touch pads are widely used in laptops, and are in
built on the laptop keyboards.

Advantage:

➢ Touchpad occupies less space

➢ They are easier to use as compared to a mouse as its use involves less hand and movements
➢ A touchpad is in built in the keyboard, and hence negates the need to carry an extra device

3. HANDLED DEVICES:

A handled device is a pocket-sized computing device with a display screen and touch input and/or a miniature
keyboard. Some common examples devices include smart phones, PDAs, stylus (pen) and touch screens

I. Joystick:

A joystick is a cursor control device widely used in computer games and computer aided design (CAD)/
computer aided manufacturing (CAM) applications. It consists of a handled lever that pivots on one end transmits
its coordinates to a computer. A joystick has one or more push buttons, called switches, whose position can also be
read by the computer. The lever of a joystick moves in all directions to control the movement of the pointer on the
computer screen.

II. Stylus:

A stylus is pen shaped input device used to enter information or write on the touch screen of a handled
device. It is a small stick that can also be used to draw lines on a surface as input into a device, choose an option
from a menu, move the cursor to another location on the screen, take notes, and create short messages.

III. Touch Screen:

A touch screen is a display screen that can identify the occurrence and position of a touch inside the display
region. The user can touch the screen either by using a finger or a stylus. The touch screen facilities the users to
interact with what is displayed on the screen in a straight forward manner, rather than in an indirect way by using a
mouse or a touchpad. Touch screen monitors are an easy way of entering information into the computer or mobile
phone, etc. Touch screen monitors are widely used in different applications including Point-Of-Sale (POS), PDAs,
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs), car navigation screens, mobile phones.

4. OPTICAL DEVICES:

Optical devices, also known as data-scanning devices, use light as a source of input for detecting or
recognizing different objects such as characters, marks, codes, and images. The optical device converts these objects
into digital data and sends it to the computer for further processing.

Some examples of optical devices include barcode readers, image scanners, Optical Character Recognition
(OCR) devices, Optical Mark Readers (OMR), and Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) devices.

i. Barcode Reader:

A barcode reader works by directing a beam of light across the bar code and measuring the amount of light
reflected back. The dark bars reflect less light when compared to the amount of light reflected by the white spaces
between those bars. The scanner converts this light energy into electrical energy. The decoder then converts these
signals into data and sends it to the computer for processing.

Advantages:

➢ Barcode readers are cheap

➢ They are portable
➢ They are handy and easy to use
Disadvantages:

➢ Barcode readers must be handled with care.

➢ If they develop a scratch, the user may not be able to read the code
➢ They can interpret information using a limited series of thin and wide bars.
➢ To interpret other unique identifiers, the bar display area must be widened

ii. Image Scanner:

A scanner is a device that captures images, printed text and handwriting, from different sources such as
photographic prints, posters, and magazines and converts them into digital images for editing and display on
computers.

Advantages:

➢ Any printed or handwritten document can be scanned and stored in a computer for further processing
➢ The scanned and stored document will never deteriorate in quality with time. The document can displayed
and printed whenever required
➢ There is no fear of loss of documents. The user can scan important documents and store them permanently
in the computer.

Disadvantages:

➢ Scanners are usually costlier than other input devices.

➢ The documents that are scanned and stored as images have a higher size as compared to other equivalent text
files.

iii. Optical Character Recognition:

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is the process of converting the printed materials into text or word
processing files that can be easily edited and stored.

The steps involved in OCR include:

1. Scanning the text character by character

2. Analyzing the scanned image to translate the character images into character codes.

In OCR processing, the analysis of the scanned images is done to detect light and dark areas so as to identify
each alphabet or numeral. When a character recognized, it is converted into an ASCII code.
OCR is widely used in the following areas:

➢ In libraries to digitize and preserve documents.

➢ To process checks and credit card slips.
➢ To sort letters for speeding up mail delivery.

Advantages:

➢ Printed documents can be converted into text files.

➢ Advanced OCR can be recognizing handwritten text and convert it into computer readable text files.

Disadvantages:

➢ OCR cannot recognize all types of fonts.

➢ Documents that are poorly typed or have strikeover cannot be recognized
➢ Very old documents when passed through OCR may not convert into an exact copy of the text file.

iv. Optical Mark Recognition:

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is the process of electronically extracting data from marked fields, such
as checkboxes and fill-in fields, on printed forms. The optical mark reader is fed with OMR sheet that has pen or
pencil marks is predefined positions to indicate each selected response (such as answers for multiple choice
questions in an entrance examination).

The OMR sheet is scanned by the reader to detect the presence of a mark by measuring the reflected light
levels. The dark or the marked areas reflect less light than the unmarked ones. The optical mark reader interprets
this pattern marks and spaces, and stores the interpreted data in a computer for storage, analysis, and reporting.

Advantages:

➢ Optical mark reader work at very high speeds.

➢ They can read up to 9,000 forms per hour.

Disadvantages:

➢ It is difficult to gather large amounts of information using an OMR.

➢ Some data may be missing in the scanned document.
➢ It is a sensitive device that rejects the OMR sheet if it is folded, torn, or crushed.

v. Magnetic Ink Character Reader:

Magnetic ink character reader (MICR) is used to verify the legitimacy of paper documents, especially bank cheques.
It consists of magnetic ink printed characters that can be recognized by high speed magnetic recognition devices.
MICR is widely used to enhance security, speed up the sorting of documents, and minimize the exposure to cheque
fraud.

Output Devices: Any device that outputs/gives information from a computer can be called an Output device. Output
devices are electromechanical devices that accept digital data (0’s and 1’s) from the computer and convert them into
Human-Understandable Language

Classification of output devices:

I. Soft Copy Devices:

Soft copy output devices produce an electronic version of an output – for example, a file that is stored on a
hard disk, CD, or pen drive –and is displayed on the computer screen (Monitor).

Features of Soft copy output include the following:

➢ The output can be viewed only when the computer is on.

➢ The user can easily edit soft copy output.
➢ Soft copy cannot be used by people who do not have a computer.
➢ Searching for data in a soft copy is easy and fast.
➢ Electronic distribution of material a soft copy is cheaper. It can be done easily and quickly.

A. MONITORS:

The Monitor is a soft copy output device used to display video and graphics information generated by the
computer through the video card. Computer monitors are similar to television screens but they display information
at much higher quality.

Monitors come in three variants:

a. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

b. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor c.

Plasm
a
Monitor

a. CRT Monitor:

CRT Monitors work by firing charged electrons at a phosphorus film. When electrons hit the phosphor-
coated screen, they glow, thereby enabling the user to see the output.

b. LCD Monitor:

An LCD Monitor is a thin, flat, electronic visual display unit that uses the light modulating properties of
liquid crystals, which do not emit light directly. LCD screens are used in a wide range of applications ranging from
computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays etc to consumer devices such as video
players, gaming devices etc.LCD screens are more portable, compact, lightweight, more reliable, and easier on the
eyes.

c. Plasma Monitor:

These monitors are thin and flat monitors widely used in televisions and computers. The plasma display
contains two glass plates that have hundreds of thousands of tiny cells filled with xenon and neon gases. The address
electrode and the transparent display electrode are sandwiched between the glass plates. The display electrode is
covered by a magnesium oxide protective layer and is arranged in horizontal rows along the screen, while the address
electrodes are arranged in vertical columns, thereby forming a grid-like structure.

B. PROJECTORS:

A Projector is a device that takes an image from a video source and projects it onto a screen or another
surface. Projectors are used for a wide range of applications, varying from home theater systems for projecting
movies and television programs onto screen much larger than even the biggest available television, to organizations
for projecting information and presentations onto screens large enough for rooms filled with many people.

Projectors can be broadly classified into two categories depending on the technology they use.

a. LCD Projector:

LCD projectors make use of their own light to display the image on the screen. To use these projectors, the
room must be first darkened; else the image formed will be blurred.

b. Digital Light Processing (DLP) Projector:

DLP projectors use a number of mirrors to reflect the light. When using the DLP projector, the room may or may ➢
not be darkened because it displays a clear image.

C. SPEAKERS:

Initially, Computers were designed to be used only for scientific purposes. Today, all business and home
users demand audio capabilities for their computers. For this purpose, speakers were developed in different sizes
and shapes, and with different powers and sound quality. With all these types of speakers, the user can enjoy music,
movie or game, and the voice will be spread through the entire room. Headphones are small devices that fit in or
on the ear, and give about the same quality and power of the sound, as the speakers, only to the listener.

II. Hard Copy Devices:

Hard copy output devices produce a physical form of output. For example, the content of a file printed on
paper is a form of hard copy output.

Features of hard copy output include the following:

➢ A computer is not needed to see the output.

➢ Editing and incorporating the edits in the hard copy is difficult.
➢ Hard copy output can be easily distributed to people who do not have a computer.

A. PRINTERS:

A printer is a device that takes the text and graphics information obtained from a computer and prints it on
to a paper. Printers are available in the market in various sizes, speeds, sophistication, and costs. The Resolution of
a printer means the sharpness of text and images rendered on paper. High-speed printers are quite expensive. Most
printers have a small amount of memory, which can be expanded by the user. Printers can be broadly classified into
two groups: Impact printers and Non-impact printers.

AA. Impact Printers:

These printers print characters by striking an inked ribbon against the paper. Examples of impact printers
include dot matrix printers, Daisy wheel printers, and line printers.

Advantages:

➢ These printers enable the user to produce carbon copies.

Disadvantages:

➢ Impact printers are slow.

➢ They offer poor print quality, especially in the case of Graphics.
➢ They can be extremely noisy.

AB. Dot Matrix Printers:

A dot matrix printer prints character and images of all types as a pattern of dots. This printer has a print head
that consists of pins representing the character or image. The print head runs back and forth, or in an up-and-down
motion on the page and prints by striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print
mechanism of a typewriter. Several dot matrix printer manufacturers implemented color printing through a multi-
color ribbon. The speed of dot matrix printers varies in the range of 50-500 characters per second.

AC. Daisy Wheel Printer:

A daisy wheel printer uses an impact printing technology to generate high-quality output comparable to
typewriters, and is three times faster. Today, daisy wheel technology is found only in some electronic typewriters.
The print head of a daisy wheel printer is a circular wheel, about 3 inches in diameter with arms. The key benefit
of using a daisy wheel printer is that the print quality is high, as the exact shape of the character hits the ribbon to
leave an impression on the paper.

AD. Line Printer:

A line printer is a high-speed impact printer in which one typed line is printed at a time. The speed of a line
printer usually varies from 600 to 1200 lines per minute, or approximately 10-20 pages per minute. These printers
used in data centers and in industrial environment.

AE. Band Printer:

A band printer is an impact printer with a printing mechanism that uses a metal loop or band to produce
typed characters. Band printer is its high speed, it can print 2,000 lines per minute. However, band printers cannot
be used for any graphics printing, as the characters are predetermined and cannot be changed unless the band is
changed. Today, laser printers have replaced band printers.

BA. Non-Impact Printers:

They offer better print quality, faster printing, and the ability to create prints that contain sophisticated graphics. B.
Non-impact printers use either solid or liquid cartridge-based ink, which is either sprayed, dripped, or electro PLO
statically drawn onto the page. The main types of non-impact printers are inkjet, laser and thermal printers. TTE
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Advantages:

➢ Non-impact printers produce prints of good quality, and hence render sophisticated graphics.
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➢ They are noiseless.
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➢ They are fast.
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➢ They can print text in different fonts.
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Disadvantages: ng
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➢ These printers are expensive.
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➢ The ink cartridges used by them are also costly.
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BB. Inkjet Printer: usuall
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The print head of inkjet printers have several tiny nozzles, also called jets. As the paper moves past the print
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head, the nozzles spray ink onto it, forming characters and images. If observe a printout that has just come out from
to
an inkjet printer, the dots are extremely small (usually between 50 and 60 microns in diameter) and are positioned
print
very precisely, with resolutions of up to 1440 x 720 dpi. To create a colored image, the dots can have different colors
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combined together. An inkjet printer can produce from 100 to several hundred pages, before the ink cartridges must
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BC. Laser Printer:
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A laser printer is a non-impact printer that works at very high speeds and produces high-quality text and qualit
graphics. It uses the technology used in photocopier machines. y.
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When a document is sent the printer, the following steps take place:
are
➢ A laser beam ‘draws’ the document on a drum (which is coated with a photo-conductive material) using widel
electrical charges. y
➢ After the drum is charged, it is rolled in a toner (a dry powder type of ink). used
➢ The toner sticks to the charged image on the drum. to
➢ The toner is transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the paper with heat and pressure. draw
➢ After the document is printed, the electrical charge is removed from the drum and the excess toner is maps,
collected. in
scientific applications, and in CAD, CAM, and Computer Aided Engineering (CAE). Architects use plotters to draw
blueprints of the structures.

A plotter is basically a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on paper
with one or more automated pens. Since plotters are much more expensive than printers, they are used only for
specialized applications.

There are different types of plotters:

A. Drum Plotters
B. Flatbed Plotters.

A. DRUM PLOTTER:

A drum plotter is used to draw graphics on paper that is wrapped around the drum. This type of plotter is
usually used with mainframe and minicomputer systems. It works with drum back and forth to produce vertical
motion.

B. FLATBED PLOTTER:

In a flatbed plotter, the paper is spread on the flat rectangular surface of the plotter, and the pen is moved
over it. Flatbed plotters are less expensive, and are used in many small computing systems. In this type plotter, the
paper does not move; rather, plotting is done by moving an arm that moves a pen over the paper.
 Communication Between CPU&O/P devices

SOFTWARE:
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific tasks. It
is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer. Software is a generic term used to
refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device
TYPES OF SOFTWARE:
Software or PC software is basically sort of program that permits clients to play out specific assignments or really
use them to work their PC. It basically indicates all peripherals in whole PC system – precisely what to do and
how to carry out responsibility.
Software assumes significant job as go between client and PC equipment. Without software, client can not really
accomplish any work on PC. Software item advancement organization creates software for clients.
Point by point rundown of software types :
When all is said in done, there are two fundamental groupings of software: system software and application
software. How about we examine them.
System software :
On account of system software, it helps client just as equipment to work and associate effectively with one
another. Ordinarily, this is bit of software that is utilized to deal with conduct of PC equipment so client needs
essential usefulness. Basically, system software is basically go-between or middle of road layer between client and
equipment.
This software permits earth or stage for other software to work easily. Along these lines, system software is
significant in dealing with whole PC system. At the point when you first turn on PC, it is system software, which
is begun and afterward stacked into system memory. The system software basically runs out of sight and isn’t
really utilized by end clients. Consequently, system software is otherwise called “low-level software”.
Organizations typically utilize best software improvement organization to make system software.
A few instances of normal system software are :
1. Operating System :
Being an unmistakable model for system software, it is basically an assortment of software which
handles assets just as offers general administrations for different other application which really run
over them. There are various kinds of working systems like installed, ongoing, circulated, single-client,
multi-client, versatile, web and significantly more. Full stack web improvement administrations create
applications to work o versatile working system like Android and iOS. A portion of key instances of
working systems are as per following :
 MS Windows
 macOS
 Linux
 iOS
 Android
 CentOS
 Ubuntu
 Unix

2. Gadget Drivers :
This kind of software controls specific hardware which is basically connected to system. Diverse
hardware gadgets which require driver to interface with system effectively comprise of showcases,
printers, sound cards, hard circles, console, and mice. Not many of instances of such drivers are :
 Profiles Driver
 Motherboard Drivers
 Show Drivers
 ROM Drivers
 Printer Drivers
 USB Drivers
 Sound Card Driver
 VGA Drivers
 in system’s perused just memory. It is basically lot of guidelines which are for all time put away onto
to hardware gadget. It offers essential data in regards to how specific gadget collaborates with various
other hardware. A portion of instances of firmware are :
 PC Peripherals
 Inserted Systems
 UEFI
 Profiles

4. Utility :
These software are intended to help with breaking down, just as advancing, alongside arranging and
keeping up given PC system. It offers help to PC foundation. Software like circle cleanup and board
apparatuses, against infections, defragmenters, pressure devices and so forth are on whole utility
software. A portion of its models are :
 Norton Antivirus
 McAfee Antivirus
 WinRAR
 WinZip
 Piriform CCleaner
 Windows File Explorer
 Registry Opus
 Razer Cortex

Application Software :
They are likewise prevalently known as end-client programs or even efficiency programs which help client in
finishing different undertakings like leading on web research, making notes, planning illustrations, looking after
records, completing computations or in any event, playing PC games. They basically lie over system software.
They are really utilized by end-client just as have explicit usefulness or undertakings which they are intended to
perform. These software are regularly evolved through custom software improvement, in light of prerequisites of
clients. There is an assortment of use software. Some of them are :
1. Word Processors :
Such applications are intended for documentation. It helps with putting away just as organizing and in
any event, printing of reports. Key instances of such software are :
 MS Word
 Apple iWork-Pages
 Corel WordPerfect
 Google Docs

2. Database Software :
It is utilized to make just as deal with database and furthermore known as Database Management
System or to put it plainly, DBMS. Such software aids information association. A portion of instances
of DBMS are :
 MS Access
 FileMaker
 dBase
 Scissors
 MySQL
 FoxPro

3. Sight and sound Software :

This is software which can play, make just as record pictures, sound or even video documents. These
 ions just as picture altering. Because of popularity for such software, each software item improvement
organization has huge roads in creating them. A portion of instances of such software are :
 Adobe Photoshop
 Picasa
 VLC Media Player
 Windows Media Player
 Windows Movie Maker

4. Internet Browsers :
These software are used to peruse web. Internet browsers help clients in situating just as recovering
information well over web. A portion of key instances of them are :
 Google Chrome
 Mozilla Firefox
 Web Explorer
 Drama
 UC Browser
 Safari

Be that as it may, there additionally exists another characterization of software. They can without much of a
stretch be characterized based on their accessibility just as sharability.
Their classification is as underneath :
1. Freeware :
These software are accessible liberated from cost. A client can undoubtedly download them from web
and can undoubtedly utilize them without paying any charges or expenses. Be that as it may, they don’t
give any kind of freedom to change whole software or charging fixed expense for its conveyance. A
best software advancement organization can build up its own freeware to connect with more clients. A
portion of instances of these software are :
 Adobe Reader
 Skype
 ImgBurn
 Group Viewer
 Yahoo Messenger

2. Shareware :
This software is circulated openly to clients on fixed preliminary premise. It for most part accompanies
set time limit, and on termination of as far as possible, client is at long last approached to pay fixed
charge for proceeded with administrations. There are various sorts of shareware, for example,
Freemium, Donationware, Adware, Demoware and so forth. Not many of instances of shareware are :
 Adobe Acrobat
 PHP Debugger
 WinZip
 Getright

3. Open-source :
Such kinds of software are generally accessible to clients alongside their source code which implies
that client can without much of stretch alter and circulate software just as add extra highlights to them.
They can either be chargeable or free. Not many of instances of such software are :
 Mozilla Firefox
 Thunderbird
 GNU Compiler Collection
With expanding job of software in every day lives of individuals, full stack web advancement administrations are
presently offering most recent software to satisfy their requests. As we probably am aware, there are different
kinds of software where market of system software is as of now soaked with huge players like Microsoft, Apple
and so forth while application software have hardened rivalry with built up players and new players contending to
pick up additional edge. Referenced above is clarification of what software is and kinds of software. A so ftware
improvement organization can wander into advancement of any of these software to gain enormous benefits.

Number system is important from the viewpoint of understanding how data are represented before they can
be processed by any digital system including a digital computer. there are two basic ways of representing the
numerical values of the various physical quantities with which we constantly deal in our day to day lives. The
arithmetic value which is used for representing the quantity and used in making calculations are defined as
NUMBERS. A symbol like “4, 5, 6” which represents a number is known as numerals. Without numbers,
counting things is not possible, date, time, money, etc. these numbers are also used for measurement and used for
labelling. The properties of numbers make them helpful in performing arithmetic operations on them. These
numbers can be written in numeric forms and also in words.

Types of Number Systems

Based on the base value and the number of allowed digits, number systems are of many types. The four common
types of Number System are:
 Decimal Number System
 Binary Number System
 Octal Number System
 Hexadecimal Number System

Binary Number System

Number System with base value 2 is termed as Binary number system. It uses 2 digits i.e. 0 and 1 for the creation
of numbers. The numbers formed using these two digits are termed Binary Numbers. The binary number system is
very useful in electronic devices and computer systems because it can be easily performed using just two states
ON and OFF i.e. 0 and 1.
Decimal Numbers 0-9 are represented in binary as: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, and 1001 For example,
14 can be written as 1110, 19 can be written as 10011, 50 can be written as 110010.
Hexadecimal Number System
Number System with base value 16 is termed as Hexadecimal Number System. It uses 16 digits for the creation of
its numbers. Digits from 0-9 are taken like the digits in the decimal number system but the digits from 10-15 are
represented as A-F i.e. 10 is represented as A, 11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D, 14 as E, and 15 as F. Hexadecimal
Numbers are useful for handling memory address locations.The hexadecimal number system provides a condensed
way of representing large binary numbers stored and processed

UNIT-II
 OPERATING SYSTEM
Introduction of Operating System
An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and computer hardware. The purpose
of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs conveniently and
efficiently.
An operating system is a software that manages computer hardware. The hardware must provide appropriate
mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering
with the proper operation of the system.
Operating System – Definition:

 An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs and acts as an
interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.
 A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at all times on the
computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application programs.
 An operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such as memory,
processors, devices, and information. The operating system correspondingly includes programs to
manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler, a memory management module, I/O
programs, and a file system.

Features of Operating system – Operating system has the following features:
1. Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.
2. Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used efficiently.
3. Ability to Evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective development,
testing, and introduction of new system functions at the same time without interfering with service.
4. Throughput: An OS should be constructed so that It can give maximum throughput(Number of tasks
per unit time).
Major Functionalities of Operating System:
 Resource Management: When parallel accessing happens in the OS means when multiple users are
accessing the system the OS works as Resource Manager, Its responsibility is to provide hardware to
the user. It decreases the load in the system.
 Process Management: It includes various tasks like scheduling and termination of the process. It is
done with the help of CPU Scheduling algorithms.
 Storage Management: The file system mechanism used for the management of the
storage. NIFS, CFS, CIFS, NFS, etc. are some file systems. All the data is stored in various tracks of
Hard disks that are all managed by the storage manager. It included Hard Disk.
 Memory Management: Refers to the management of primary memory. The operating system has to
keep track of how much memory has been used and by whom. It has to decide which process needs
memory space and how much. OS also has to allocate and deallocate the memory space.
 Security/Privacy Management: Privacy is also provided by the Operating system by means of
passwords so that unauthorized applications can’t access programs or data. For example, Windows
uses Kerberos authentication to prevent unauthorized access to data.
The process operating system as User Interface:
1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
4. Hardware
Every general-purpose computer consists of hardware, an operating system(s), system programs, and application
programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, I/O devices, peripheral devices, and storage devices.
The system program consists of compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc. The application program consists of business
programs, and database programs.
Types of Operating Systems
An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files, processes, and memory. Thus operating
system acts as the manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus, the operating system becomes an
interface between user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some widely used operating systems are as follows-
1. Batch Operating System –
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which takes
similar jobs having the same requirement and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to
sort jobs with similar needs.

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of CPU as
they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single
user or different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is
over OS switches over to the next task.
4. Distributed Operating System –
These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and are
being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various autonomous
interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared communication network.
Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems. These system’s processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of
working with these types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the
files or software which are not actually present on his system but some other system connected within this
network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.
5.Real-Time Operating System –
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very
small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic
control systems, robots, etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and even the shortest
possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or
airbags which are required to be readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely
found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.

MS- DOS:

AS soon as the computer is switched ON, self test are performed and we can see. c:\> on the screen. It is
known as “c prompt”. This indicates that Dos is loaded and the computer is ready to accept DOS command.

The DOS commands are divided by two categories such as

1. Internal commands

2. External commands

1. INTERNAL COMMANDS:
Internal commands are built-in commands. They are the programs which are loaded in to memory of computer. We
cannot alter this command. There are about 25 internal commands.

Some important commands are explained below:

a. MD/MKDIR: This command is used for create a new directory.

The syntax is MD directory name,

C:\>MD demo

When you type the above command and press enter key, the directory demo will be created.

b. DIR: The DIR command is used to display a list of files/subdirectories in directory.

The command for displaying files in the root directory is,

C:\>DIR

C:\>DIR/P display files/ directories page wise

C:\>DIR/w display files/ directories width wise

c. CD: The CD command is used to change over to any other directory from the current directory.

The command for command for displaying files in the root directory is,

C:\>CD demo

C:\ demo>

So, you are now in the directory demo.

d. COPY: The copy command copies files between directories and between directories and between disk drives
either by keeping the same file name or by changing it to another name. The following command copies the file
AAA.C to the BBB.C.

C:\>copy AAA.C BBB.C

The command given below copies the file test.doc from B drive (floppy drive) to the file test1.doc in the directory
demo.

B:\>copy test.doc C:/demo/test 1.doc

e. DEL: The DEL command is used to delete files. The command given below deletes the file book.doc
C:\>DEL book.doc

Deletes the file big.c the directory demo.

C:\demo>DEL big.c

f. REN: Files may be renamed by using the REN command. The following command renames the file old.c
as new.c

C :\>REN old.c new.c

g. RD: Directories may be removed by suing the RD or RMDIR command. command given below
removes the subdirectory demo. It is essential that all files in a directory be removed, before removing the
subdirectory.

C:\>RD demo

h. CLS: VDU screen can be cleared of the contents using the CLS command.

C:\>CLS

i. DATE: The DATE command is used for displaying date.

C:/>DATE

display the current date as

Current date is MON 1-18-2016

Enter new date (mm-dd-yy)

j. TIME: The TIME command is used for displaying current time

C:/>TIME

displays time as

Current time is 11:25:45:05a

2. EXTERNAL COMMANDS:

External commands are loaded in the memory of the computer, only when specially asked for this command
is given externally by the user.
Some important external commands are explained below:

a. FORMAT: The format command is used for formatting a disk. Formatting a disk is the process of
dividing the disk into logical zones called tracks and sectors.

C:\>FORMAT B:

Formats the disk in the drive B.

b. DISKCOPY: Copies the contents of one floppy to another floppy on a track for track

basis. That is, the entire directory structure is copied. The command works with only floppies.

C :\> DISKCOPY A:B:

c. CHKDSK: This command is used to check the disk space. It gives clear picture of

total space used space and remaining space available, interms of bytes.

C :\> CHKDSK

Showing memory status of D Drive

d. SCANDISK: This command is used to scan the disk for any errors occurred in the disk.

C :\> SCANDISK

Checking file allocation table and all folders for errors.

e. EDIT: It is used to modify the file contents.

C :\> EDIT(File name)

Modified the current file.

f. DELTREE: This command used to delete a directory with its subdirectories and files.

C :\> DELTREE(main directory)

Delete the main directry along with its contents.

g. PRINT: This command is used to print a file.

C :\> PRINT(File name)

h. LEVEL: This command is used to put the volume leave to disk drive
C:\>LEAVE

i. RESTORE: It is used to recover previous deleted files.

C:\>RESTORE

j. TREE: This command is used for displaying tree structure of directories graphically. The following displays
the entire directory structure of C Drive. C:\>TREE

Operating System Installation.

Generally, we use operating systems to perform day-to-day tasks. So what would you do if your OS was corrupted
or lost? You will try to recover or at last, you end up reinstalling the OS.
To install the OS you need bootable media & you need boot media creation tools for the creation of bootable
media.
A Bootable media is storage (can be a Pendrive, CD/DVD, etc) that holds the OS installation files. Boot Creation
Tools is a tool that converts normal media to bootable media.
 It makes bootable media by adding the necessary OS installation files from .img/.iso file to normal
storage/media.
 Ex: Nero, Rufus, Windows media Creation tools, etc.

INSTALLATION STEPS:

 Use this when you have an OS corrupted PC and you want to install a new OS.

 Take the OS file (mostly it will be in .ISO or .IMG format) and keep it in some folder on your android
phone.
 Then mount the OS File on an android phone using a file manager.
 After mounting, in file manager, you will see OS files present in the .ISO/.IMG file needed for installation.
 Just copy all the OS files to the root level of the destination place ( on the same android phone).
 It means the files should be in top level directories of the bootable media.
 Ex: If the .ISO/.IMG file is in internal storage and after the ISO mounts, copy the OS files to the
SDCARD root directory.
 Unmount the ISO file after copying.
 Plug the android phone into the OS Corrupted PC.
 Change the phone’s USB settings to mass storage mode so that the SDCARD will become virtually
isolated from the android phone.
 By making these PC BIOS, we will be able to detect SDCARD as a bootable media.
 Restart the PC, select the bootable media in BIOS, and press enter.
 Now, the PC will boot from bootable media to perform OS installation.
 Once the OS is installed, move the files present in the parent directory to the subdirectory of the SDCARD.
 Doing so, the PC BIOS will detect SDCARD as storage but not as a bootable media.
 BIOS cannot search for OS installation files in subdirectories.
This method brings effective usage of smartphone external storage for creating bootable media and avoids using
third-party media creation tools( such as Nero, Rufus, Windows media Creation tools, etc) to create bootable
media.
After OS installation, you can use the SDCARD (with boot files present), for different purposes, since the SDcard
is not formatted with any file system and no data is lost .

1.
WHA
T
ARE
THE
FEA
TUR
ES
OF
MS-
WOR
D?

MS-Word
1. Features of MS-Word
2. MS-Word Window Components
3. Creating, Editing, Formatting and Printing of Documents
4. Headers and Footers
5. Insert/Draw Tables, Table Auto Format
6. Page Borders and Shading
7. Inserting Symbols, Shapes
8. Word Art, Page Numbers, Equations
9. Spelling and Grammar
10. Thesaurus
11. Mail Merge
Ans: Features of MS-Word:

A. SHARE DOCUMENTS:

Word 2010 lets you post your documents online and then access, view, and edit them from almost any
computer or your Windows phone. Microsoft Word Web App edits documents in a Web browser when you’re away
from your office or home, without compromising the quality of your viewing experience. You can also stay current
and take immediate action using an enhanced mobile version of Word specifically suited to your smart phone.

B. ADD VISUAL EFFECTS:

With Word 2010, you can apply formatting effects such as shadow, bevel, glow, and reflection to your
document text. You can spell-check text that uses visual effects, and add text effects to paragraph styles

C. TURN YOUR TEXT INTO DIAGRAM:

Word 2010 offers you more options to add visual impact to your documents. You can choose from dozens
of additional Smart Art Graphics to build diagrams just by typing a bulleted list. Smart Art enables you to transform
basic, bullet-point text into visuals that illustrate your ideas.
D. IMAGE EDITING:

New picture-editing tools in Word 2010 enable you to add special picture effects without additional photo-editing
software. You can easily adjust pictures with colour saturation and temperature controls. You also get improved
tools for easier and. more precise cropping and image correction

E. NEW FILE MENU:

The new Microsoft Office Backstage view replaces the traditional File menu to let you save, share, print,
and publish your documents with just a few clicks. With the improved Ribbon, you can access your favorite
commands even more quickly by customising tabs.

F. WORD TRANSLATION:

Word 2010 helps you work and communicate across different languages. It translates a word, phrase, or
document more easily than before. You can set separate language settings for ScreenTips, Help content, and displays

G. DOCUMENT CREATION, STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL:

➢ Type a document through the keyboard and save it on a disk.

➢ Edit characters, words, lines and images anywhere in the document.
➢ Retrieve documents from the disk.
➢ Reduce or increase the left, right, top and bottom margins according to the requirement.
➢ Change the text font and style.
➢ Search for a particular word or phrase.
➢ Search for error in spelling and make corrections.
➢ Print a document in various formals.

2. EXPLAIN MS-WORD WINDOW COMPONENTS?

Ans: Ms-Word Window Components

M. MICROSOFT OFFICE BUTTON:

A button that provides access to menu commands in Word. The Microsoft Office Button replaces the File
button in previous versions. Here is where you will find commonly known features such as New, Open, Save, Print
and Recent Documents. This is also where you will find the Word Options commands that were previously located
in the Tools menu in previous versions.

O. RIBBON:

An area across the top of the screen that makes almost all the capabilities of Word available in a single area.
The Ribbon replaces the menus and toolbars in previous versions. The Ribbon exposes most of the features that
used to be hidden in File menus. The Ribbon makes it easier to see and find commands to format your document.
The Ribbon can be reduced to a single line of tabs by pressing CTRL + F1.

H. TAB:

An area on the Ribbon that contains buttons that are organized in groups. The default tabs are Home, Insert,
Page Layout, Reference, Mailings, Review and View.

A. QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR:

A customizable toolbar at the top of an activedocument. By default the Quick Access Toolbar displays the
Save, Undo, and Repeat button sand is used for easy access to frequently used commands. To customize this toolbar
click on the dropdown arrow and select the commands you want to add.

N. TITLE BAR:
A horizontal bar at the top of an active document. This bar displays the name of the document and application. At
the right end of the Title Bar is the Minimize, Restore and Close buttons.

M. GROUPS CATEGORIES:

A Group of buttons on a tab that are exposed and easily accessible. These buttons were formally embedded
in menus on the Menu Bar.

U. DIALOG BOX LAUNCHER:

A button that launches a dialog box containing options for refining a command.

N. STATUS BAR:

A horizontal bar at the bottom of an active window that gives details about the active document.

N. VIEW TOOLBAR:

A toolbar that enables, adjusts, and displays different views of a document’s content.

A. ZOOM BUTTON:

A button that magnifies or reduces the contents in the document window.

3. HOW TO CREATE EDIT FORMAT AND PRINT MS-WORD DOCUMENT?

Ans:

I. To Create a New Word Document:

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button.

2. Click New.
3. Select Blank Document.
4. Click on Create.
II. EDITING A DOCUMENT(Selecting Text)

A. SELECT A WORD:

Click and drag or double-click on the word.

B. SELECT A SENTENCE:

Click and drag or click in the sentence while holding down the CTRL key.

C. SELECT A PARAGRAPH:

Click and drag or triple-click in the paragraph or double-click in the selection area to the left of the paragraph.

D. SELECT A BLOCK OF TEXT:

Click and drag or click to the left of the first word, hold down the SHIFT key, and then immediately click to
the right of the last word.

E. SELECT A LINE:

Click and drag or click in the selection to the left of the line.

F. SELECT AN ENTIRE DOCUMENT:

Triple-click in the selection area or hit the CTRL + A keys.

G. DELETING TEXT:

Select the text and hit the DELETE key.

H. UNDO AN ACTION:

On the Quick Access Toolbar click the Undo key.

III. DELETING TEXT:

When deleting text in your document you can either use the Delete key or the Backspace key. The Delete key deletes
text to the right of your cursor while the Backspace key deletes text to the left of your cursor.

A. CUT, COPY AND PASTE:

Often times you will need to move text from one location in a document to another, or to a different
application. In this case you will perform a Cut and Paste. To reproduce a specific part of a document and place it
elsewhere, you will perform a Copy and Paste.

1. TO CUT TEXT:

➢ Select the text you want to move.

➢ Click on the Cut icon located on the Home tab in the Clipboard group.

2. TO COPY TEXT:

➢ Select the text you want to copy.

➢ Click on the Copy icon located on the Home tab in the Clipboard group.

3. TO PASTE TEXT:

➢ Click in the area of the document where you want to paste your text.
➢ Click on the Paste icon located on the Home tab in the Clipboard group.

4. FORMATTING A DOCUMENT:

To Make Font Changes:

1) Select the desired text that you want to format

2) Make your font changes using one of the methods listed below.

C
 ommands for font formatting can be found on the Home tab in the Font group. For more font formatting 1)
options click on the Dialog Box Launcher in the lower right corner of the group. This will launch the Font dialog
box.

You can also use the Mini Toolbar. The Mini Toolbar is activated when you select text to be formatted. This
toolbar is miniature and semi-transparent to help you work with fonts, font styles, font sizing, alignment, text color,
indent levels, and bullet features.

5. LIVE PREVIEW:

Using Live Preview temporarily applies formatting on selected text or objects whenever a formatting
command is hovered.

On the Home tab, in the Font group, do any of the following:

a. Click the arrow next to the Font box and move the pointer over the fonts that you want to preview.

b. Click the arrow next to the Font Size box and move the pointer over the font sizes that you want to preview.

c. Click the arrow next to the Text Highlight Color button and move the pointer over the highlight or fill colors that
you want to preview.

d. Click the arrow next to the Font Color button and move the pointer over the font colors that you want to preview.

6. FORMATTING A PARAGRAPH:

A paragraph is a select group of text that can have its own formatting characteristics, such as alignment,
spacing and styles.
Select the desired paragraph(s) that you want to format.

2) Make your paragraph formatting selections using one of the methods listed below.

Commands for paragraph formatting can be found on the Home tab in the Paragraph group.

For more paragraph formatting options click on the Dialog Box Launcher in the lower-right corner of the
group. This will launch the Paragraph dialog box. You can also use the Mini Toolbar for paragraph alignment, indent
levels, and bullet features.

6.1 FONT: This option is used to change font, style, size and color and apply effects on the selected text in the word
document.

1) Select the text.

2) Select Format Menu

3) Select Font option

4) In the box change Font, Style, size and color and also effects

6.2 PARAGRAPH:

This option is used to set Alignment, indentation, spacing before and after paragraph and line spacing in Ms-
Word.

1) Select Paragraph

2) Change Indentation, Alignment and spacing.

6.3 BULLETS AND NUMBERING:

This option is used to insert bullets and numbers in the document when we want to write point wise.
TO INSERT BULLETS:

1) Select Bullet and Numbering option

2) Select Bullet tab

3) Select any bullet style from the list and click ok.

TO INSERT NUMBERS:

1) Select Format Menu

2) Select Bullet and Numbering option

3) Select Number tab

4) Select any number style from the list

5) Click ok

TO INSERT BORDERS:

1) Select Borders and Shading and select Borders tab

2) Select Border style from the list and its colour also.

page boarders and shadings:

This option is used to insert page borders and shadings in the document.

TO INSERT PAGE BORDERS:

1) Select Borders and Shading and select Page Borders tab

2) Select Border style from the list and its color also.

COLUMNS:

This option is used to insert columns in the document. In this select Columns option and specify no. of
columns in the number of column box.

CHANGE CASE:
 his option is used to change the selected text into upper case (Capital letter), Lowe case (small letters), Title 4.
case, sentence case and toggle case.

1) Select the text and select Change Case option.

2) Select Lower (or) Upper (or) Title (or) Sentence (or) Toggle Case.

TAB:

This option is used to insert tabs on ruler to facilitate in typing tabular data (columns & rows). In this we can
insert tab stops at specific position in the ruler.

TEXT DIRECTION:

We can change the text direction to vertically or horizontally in the text box tool or table contained text.

7. PREVIEWING AND PRINTING A DOCUMENT:

Click the Microsoft Office Button, point to print and select one of the following options:

➢ Print allows you to select a printer, number of copies, and other printing options before printing.

➢ Quick Print allows you to send the document directly to the default printer without making changes.

➢ Preview allows you to preview and make changes to pages before printing.

4. EXPLAIN HEADER AND FOOTER IN MS-WORD?

Ans:

Header and Footer:

Header and Footer appear at top and bottom respectively of a document. Header is a special text, which is
often used to repeating the title of document from a page to page and entering page number at the top of the
document. Footers are often used for the same purpose but at the bottom of a document.

To create the Header and Footer:

1. Select the Header and Footer command from Insert tab.

2. A header and footer dialog box will be displayed.

3. A non printing dashed open dialog box which is header editing box will be displayed at the top of the
document.
 alignments. Left, Right or Center.

5. Move the mouse pointer in the header editing box and type the text.

6. Select Switch to button from tool bar and move to footer editing box.

7. You can insert date, time, page number and total number of pages information in both header and footer.

8. In page setup dialog box you can select Different Odd or Even option or Different First page option or this
point forward option or applying whole document options to setup the header and footer to current document.

5. HOW TO INSERT TABLE IN MS-WORD?

Ans:

To Create /Insert/Draw Table:

To insert a table into a document, or you can insert one table into another table to a document the below
process is followed.

5.1 Draw Table: This option is used to draw table in the insert tab.

1. Select Draw table option in the insert tab.

2. The Shape of cursor changes to (+), now drag left mouse button to draw table, rows and columns.

5.2 Insert:

a. Table: Used to insert a table with specified no of rows and columns.

b. Columns to left: Used to insert a column to the left of cursor position.

c. Columns to right: Used to insert a column to the right of cursor position.

d. Rows above: Used to insert a row above the cursor position

e. Rows below: Used to insert a row below the cursor position

f. Cells: Used to insert a cell to the right, down, entire row or column at the cursor position.

5.3 Select:

This option is used to select a table, a row, a column or a cell.

5.4 Merge Cells:

 his option is used to merge two or more cells as a single cell. Select two or more cells and select Merge cells
option.

5.5 Split Cells:

This option is used to divide a cell into specified no of rows and columns.

1. Select a cell.

2. Select split cells option in table option.

3. Specify no of row and columns in the dialog box.

5.6 Delete:

This option is used to delete entire table, a row, a column or a cell. To perform delete option the cursor
should be inside the table.

6. EXPLAIN TABLE AUTO FORMAT IN MS-WORD?

Ans:

6.1 Table Auto Format:

Table auto formats are used to apply different formats to a cell range. A table auto format is a collection of
cell styles used to format all cells of a range. The style applied is dependent on the position of the cell.

The table auto format contains separate information about four different row types and four different column types:

First Row, First Data Area Row, Second Data Area Row, Last Row.

First Column, First Data Area Column, Second Data Area Column, Last column.

The row or column types for the data area (between first and last row/column) are repeated in sequence.
Each cell of the formatted range belongs to one of the row types and column types, resulting in 16 different auto-
format fields.

In the example below, the highlighted cell has the formatting of the first data area row and last column field.
Additionally, this example shows the indexes of all the auto format fields. These indexes are used to access the field
with the interface.

7. EXPLAIN PAGE BORDERS AND SHADING IN MS-WORD?

Ans: Page Boarders and Shadings is used to insert page borders and shadings in the document.
To Insert Page Borders and Shadings:
)
1. Select Borders and Shading and select Page Borders tab.

2. Select Border style from the list and its color also.

3. Use the Picture to add a picture as the background rather than a color.

4. Use the Gradient option to add color gradient in the background.

5. You can use the pre-defined gradients or click on "More Gradients…" to customize the shading gradient
colors.

6. Use the Texture option to add a pre-defined texture instead of a color shade.

Inserting Symbols:

Inserts symbols and special characters from the fonts that are installed on your computer.

Shapes:

A group of readymade shapes that include basic shapes such as a rectangle, circle plus a variety of stars and
connectors, block arrows, flow chart symbols, banners, lines, callouts. To insert an auto shape, click auto shapes on
the drawing toolbar. Auto shapes include several categories of tools. In the lines category, curves, freeform, scribble
can be used.

Word Art:

This is used to insert decorative text. With this shadowed, skewed, rotated and stretched text can be created.

Page Numbers:

This option is used to insert page numbers in the document. On the Insert tab, in the Header and Footer
group, click Page Number. Choose the position in the header or footer where you want the page numbers to appear.
To insert page numbers we have to specify the position and alignment.
 Select Page Numbers

2) In the Position box, change the position (top or bottom of page)

3) In the Alignment box, change the alignment (left, right or center) and apply it.

Equations:

1. Equations will be converted to images.

2. You will not be able to edit the equations until the document is converted to a new file format.

3. If you save the document in word format, equations will be converted to images that you can’t edit.

4. However, if you later convert the document to office word 2010 file format, the equations will become text
and you will be able to edit them.

8. SPELLING & GRAMMAR?

Ans: Microsoft Word provides several ways to check spelling and grammar.

1. AUTOMATICALLY CORRECT SPELLING AND GRAMMAR:

To fix spelling and grammatical errors without having to confirm each correction, use the Auto Correct
feature. For example, if you type definitely and then type a space or other punctuation. AutoCorrect can make
corrections that are generated by the spelling checkers main dictionary, and by a list of built-in AutoCorrect entries.

2. CHECK SPELLING AND GRAMMAR ALL AT ONCE:

You can check for spelling and grammar option in Review tab and then confirm each correction. This method
is useful if you want to postpone proofing a document until after you finish editing it.

1) SELECT THE TEXT

2) SELECT REVIEW TAB

3) SELECT SPELLING & GRAMMAR OPTION

4) FROM THE LIST SELECT THE CORRECT WORD.

5) CLICK CHANGE BUTTON

9. MAIL MERGE?

Ans:
 he term Mail Merge is typically used to describe the process of merging some form of address database with ➢
a form of letter to create a group of individual letters. Mail Merge is used to print letter, envelopes mailing labels
etc.

Suppose if you want to call 100 candidates for an interview, then you will either type 100 letters one by one
or just create one letter and get the 99 Xerox copies. After this you will fill their name and address on processing
speed also becomes slow. In all the above cases it will waste your time and processing speed. To avoid such problem
we use Mail Merge concept.

1. Data File or Data Source:

In Mail Merge we store the Name, and the addresses in one file is called data file or data source.

2. Master File or Main File:

The general body of the letter which is common for all 100 candidates is stored in another file called master
file or main file. Mail merge use the main file and picks the first Name, addresses or label addresses from the data
file or label files and combine these file into one. Similarly it will continue this process up to the last address in the
data file.

PROCEDURE TO CREATE MAIL MERGE:

1. Create The Main Letter: It has the general body of letter.

2. Create The Data Source: It has the label addresses of the letter.

3. Define the Merge Fields in the Main Document: User defines merge fields in the main document. These fields
tell the MS-Word where to insert specific data items from the data source.

4. Merge the data with Main Document: When the main document and the data source are ready, you can merge
two. The result is a single document containing all the personalized documents with page break separating one
document from another.

5. Print the Document: As all personalized documents are placed in a single document file, you can print all the
documents in one operation.

Few Types of Documents you can create used in Mail merge:

➢ Form Letters

➢ Envelopes

➢ Labels
CREATING A FORM LETTER:

1. Open the new document named interview.doc and type the body of the letter.

2. Select the Mail Merge command from the tools menu. A mail merge helper dialog box will be displayed.

3. This dialog box has three options:

➢ Create for creation of main document.

➢ Get data for create data source.

➢ Merge for merging of the data source with the main document.

➢ Click the create button.

MS-Word displays a list box that contains the various types of Mail merge documents that you can create. The
lists have Form letter, mailing label, Envelopes and catalog. Click the form letters option. It displays message box
to create a new Mail merge document (i.e. interview.doc).

4. Now create the Data source or data file. For this click the get data button from the Mail merge helper dialog box.
Now MS-Word displays four options in the list box as Create data source, open data source, use address book and
Header options.

5. As we have not created any data source file, so select the create data source option from the list. Now MS Word
will display the create Data source dialog box. In this we enter various filed names. Word also has its own-filed list
in the field name. We skip this box and enter our own fields Name, Address, City and Phone Number.

6. Click the remove filed name button to remove all fields from the list box. At last list box will be empty.

7. Type our own fields- Name, Address… into list box by clicking add field name command button.

8. To save the above fields in the data source file, click the OK button. In save dialog box give data source file name
and click save button. Then it will display another message box. Here are two options: Edit data source and Edit
main document.

9. Click edit data source option to add record in the form containing the above fields. Add record by record by
clicking Add new button.
10. When you typed all the records in the Data form. Click the OK button to close the data form. Word closes the 5.
Data form and returns you to the INTERVIEW.DOC file. Now it also opens a new Mail Merge Toolbar. This mail
merge tools bar has many tools as: to insert merge field, to insert word field, merge to new document etc.

11. Move the mouse at the desired position where you want to insert fields. Now click the insert merge field button
and then list of merge fields will be displayed. Insert required fields at required position.

12. As you have completed the process of entering fields form the source data into the document file, now you want
to view the merged fields with data on the document file. For that select “Merge to New Document” option in Mail
merge tool bar. Then we can see the merged document for different addresses in new document window.

10 MACROS?

Ans: A macro is a series of Word commands and instructions that you group together as a single command to
accomplish a task automatically.

Here are some typical uses for macros:

● To speed up routine editing and formatting.

● To combine multiple commands; for example, inserting a table with a specific size and borders, and with a
specific number of rows and columns.

● To make an option in a dialog box more accessible.

● To automate a complex series of tasks.

Creation of Macros:-

We can create a Macro in two ways.

1. Record a series of actions using the keyboard and mouse. This is the easiest way.

2. Type a Macro directly into a macro-editing window. This way we have a more flexibility.

Record A Macro in Word:-

1. On the View tab, point to Macro.

2. Then click Record New Macro.

3. In the Macro name box, type a name for the macro.

4. In the Store macro in box, click the template or document in which you want to store the macro.
 n for the macro.

6. If you don't want to assign the macro to a view tab, or shortcut keys, click OK to begin recording the macro.

7. To assign the macro, click Macro option in view tabs.

8. In the Commands box.

9. Click the macro you are recording, and drag it to the view tab you want to assign it to.

10. Click Close to begin recording the macro.

11. To assign the macro to shortcut keys.

12. Click Keyboard. In the Commands box, click the macro you are recording.

13. In the Press new shortcut key box, type the key sequence, and then click Assign.

14. Click Close to begin recording the macro.

15. Perform the actions you want to include in your macro.

16. You can use the mouse to click commands and options, but the macro recorder cannot record mouse actions
in a document window.

17. To move the insertion point or select, copy, or move text, for example, you must use shortcut keys.

18. To stop recording your macro, click Stop Recording.

 1.
MS-PowerPoint
1. Features of PowerPoint
2. Creating a blank presentation using a template
3. Inserting and Deleting Slides in a Presentation
4. Adding Clip Art/Pictures
5. Inserting Other Objects, Audio, Video
6. Resizing and Scaling of an Object
7. Slide Transition
8. Custom Animation

1. FEATURES OF MS-POWER POINT?

Ans:

Power point is GUI animation tool, which is used to design a slide show. This slide show consists of group
of slides, which can be displayed with different animation techniques and color combinations.

The following are the features of power point:

 the Web, complete with audio and video.

2. You can animate text, graphics, sounds, movies, charts, and other objects on your slides so that you can
focus on important points, control the flow of information, and add interest to your presentation.

3. You can set up the way you want text or an object to appear on your slide to fly in from the left.

4. You can change the order and timing of your animations, and you can set them to occur automatically without
having to click the mouse.

5. You can preview the animation of your text and objects, to see how they all work together and adjust
animations if necessary.

6. The slide master controls certain text characteristics such as font type, size, and color called "master text,"
as well as background color and certain special effects, such as shadowing and bullet style.

7. Transitions are special effects that introduce a slide in a slide show.

8. You can choose from a variety of transitions and vary their speed.

9. You can change the transition effect to indicate a new section of a presentation.

BETTER ORGANIZATION CHARTS AND NEW DIAGRAM TYPES:

Organization charts now use the drawing tools in PowerPoint, resulting in smaller fields sizes and easier
editing. Also, PowerPoint includes a new gallery of common conceptual diagrams.

SAVE BACKGROUND OR SELECTION AS PICTURE:

When you want to create a presentation using the drawing tools in PowerPoint, you can save it as a picture
by right-click it. you can also save a texture or picture background from a slide in the same way, that makes it easy
to reuse these graphic elements.

INSERT MULTIPLE PICTURES:

When you want to insert pictures from files on your hard disk drive, you select multiple pictures and insert
them all at once.

PICTURE ROTATION:

You can rotate and flip types of image file in a PowerPoint presentation including bitmaps.

SUPPORT FOR AUDIO AND VIDEO:

 sounds and videos that you include in a presentation broadcast are heard and seen by the audience, both in
real-time or when archives

ERROR PREVENTION AND RECOVERY:

Documents you are working on can be recovered if the program encounters an error or stops responding.

2. CREATING A Blank/New PRESENTATION IN MS- POWER POINT?

Ans:

Step-1: Click on the Start button, located in the lower left corner of the Windows task bar.

Step-2: Point to All programs, click Microsoft Office.

Step-3: Select Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2010.

Step-4: Now display Blank presentation in PowerPoint.

Step 5: Select any of the four options (Blank presentation, Form Design Template, from Auto content wizard,
New from the existing presentation) displayed in the task pane.

Step-6: From design template: it will create a presentation with color scheme and a look for the slides, such
as “ocean” or you can select any one of your choice. In this you have to provide the content of the
presentation.

Step-7: From auto content wizard, through this wizard you can select the type of presentation you want to
create (Generic, Recommending a strategy, Training, Brainstorming Session) and PowerPoint creates
an outline for the selected presentation.

Step-8: Type the text, and apply designs and animations etc. After completing the presentation close the
button in Right corner side.

3. CREATING A PRESENTATION USING A TEMPLATE?

Ans: When you create a template, add any content to the slide master in Slide Master view that you want to protect
from being changed by users of your template, such as instructional prompt text, logos, header and footer
information, subject matter content, a background, formatting, colors, fonts, and effects.

Users of your template will work in Normal view, guided by the instructional prompts that you added. The
template users will replace the instructional prompt text and other placeholder content with data that is specific to
their own project or presentation.
PowerPoint comes with two types of templates:

1. DESIGN TEMPLATES contain predesigned formats and color schemes you can apply to any presentation to
give it a particular look.

2. CONTENT TEMPLATES Content Templates contain formats and color schemes just like design templates,
plus slides with suggested text for specific subjects.

To modify any of the templates to suit your needs or you can make a new template based on a presentation
you’ve already created. You can add the new template to the Auto content wizard so that it will be available the next
time you use the wizard.

4. INSERTING AND DELETING SLIDES IN A PRESENTATION?

Ans:

1. TO INSERT A SLIDE FROM YOUR PRESENTATION:

On the View tab, in the Presentation Views group, click Normal. On the left pane that contains the Outline
and Slides tabs, click the Slides tab, right-click the slide that you want to add a slide, and then click new Slide.

2. TO DELETE A SLIDE FROM YOUR PRESENTATION:

On the View tab, in the Presentation Views group, click Normal. On the left pane that contains the Outline
and Slides tabs, click the Slides tab, right-click the slide that you want to delete, and then click Delete Slide.

3. Another way to delete a slide is to click the thumbnail of the slide in the Slide Preview pane and then press the
Delete key or the Backspace key.

4. If you delete the wrong slide, just click the Undo button to restore the slide.

CLIPART:

Adding clip art and pictures to your document can be a great way to illustrate important information or add
decorative accents to existing text. You can insert images from your computer or search Microsoft's extensive
selection of clip art to find the image you need. Once an image has been inserted, you can format text to wrap around
the image.
PICTURES:

To resize an image, click and drag one of the corner sizing’s handles. The image will change size while
keeping the same proportions. If you want to stretch it horizontally or vertically, you can use the side sizing handles.

5. DIFFERENT VIEWS IN MS-POWERPOINT?

Ans: A list of the different views available to you in PowerPoint. To change views, click the View menu, and
click the view you want.

A. NORMAL VIEW:

Normal view shows the slide, the Outline, and the Notes text box, where you can work on one slide at a time
or organize the structure of all the slides in your presentation.

B. OUTLINE VIEW:

Switches to outline view, where you can work with the structure of your file in outline form. Work in outline
view when you need to organize the structure of your file.

C. SLIDE VIEW:

Switches to Slide view, where you can work on one slide at a time

D. SLIDE SORTER VIEW:

The Slide Sorter view lets you view miniature versions of all the slides in a presentation complete with text
and graphics. In slide sorter view, you can reorder slides; add transitions, and animation effects. You can also set
the timings for electronic slide shows.

E. NOTES PAGE VIEW:

The Notes Page view will show a small version of the current slide along with a larger view of the Notes
text box. (Similar to the Normal View except doesn't display the Show Outline).

F. SLIDE SHOW VIEW:

The Slide Show command on the View menu lets you run the Slide Show in a full screen, beginning with
the current slide if you are in slide view or the selected slide if you are in slide sorter view.

G. PRESENTER VIEW:

P
 resenter View helps you manage your slides while you present by tracking how much time has elapsed,
which slide is next, and displaying notes that only you can see (while also allowing you to take meeting notes as
you present). For more information about using presenter view, see Use presenter view.

H. MASTER VIEWS:

The master views include, Slide, Handout, and Notes view. They are the main slides that store information
about the presentation, including background, theme colors, theme fonts, theme effects, and place holder sizes, and
positions.

The key benefit to working in a master view is that on the slide master, notes master, or handout master, you
can make universal style changes to every slide, notes page, or handout associated with your presentation. For more
information about working with masters, see Modify a slide master.

6. INSERTING OTHER OBJECTS, AUDIO and VIDEO?

Ans:

PowerPoint, Microsoft's presentation and slide software, allows you to create animated presentations
featuring text, images, sounds and other media objects. In addition to these custom features, you can also add linked
objects to your presentation.

While objects embedded in your PowerPoint presentation remain unchanged even when the source file
changes, linked objects reflect any changes made to the source file. For instance, if you insert a spreadsheet into
your presentation and then edit that spreadsheet, the updated file will also appear in PowerPoint.

There are two ways of objects:

1. Linked Objects

2. Embedded Objects

A. AUDIO:

PowerPoint allows you to add audio to your presentation. For example, you could add background music to
one slide, a sound effect to another, and even record your own narration or commentary. You can then edit the audio
to customize it for your presentation.

B. VIDEO:

If
 you’re using Microsoft PowerPoint, you might have encountered problems with embedding video files. They 15
might get displayed as a thumbnail on a slide but then don’t play during the presentation or might show an error and
can’t be inserted into your slides at all. This is esp. true for older versions like PowerPoint 2007 or 2010

C. RESIZING AND SCALING OF AN OBJECT IN POWERPOINT:

If you have an AutoShape containing text, you may desire automatic resizing whenever the text size changes.
You can adjust the AutoShape size to fit the text inside. Then, if you reduce the size of your text, the AutoShape
will automatically resize to fit around the text. For information, refer to the Scale command allows you to enlarge
or reduce an AutoShape or image by very precise amounts while retaining its original proportions.

7. TO CREATE A CUSTOM ANIMATION?

Ans:

1. Select the slide which you want to apply the animation to.

2. From the menu bar, select the Animations tab and the Animation Pane button.

3. The Animation Pane appears on the right side of the screen.

4. Animate text and objects

5. In normal view, display the slide that has the text or objects you want to animate.

6. On the Slide Show menu, click Custom Animation, and then click the Effects tab.

7. If you are animating a chart created in Microsoft Graph, click the Chart Effects tab.

8. Under Check to animate slide objects, select the check box next to the text or object you want to animate.

9. Under Entry animation and sound and Introduce text (if you are animating text), select the options you want.

10. Repeat same process for every object you want to animate.

11. Click the Order and Timing tab.

12. To change the order of animation, select the object you want to change under Animation order, and then
click one of the arrows to move the object up or down in the list.

13. To set the timing, select the object and then do one of the following:

14. To start the animation by clicking the text or object, click on mouse click.
 ick automatically, and then enter the number of seconds you want to have elapse between the previous
animation and the current one.

16. To preview animations, click Preview.

8. SLIDE TRANSITION/ SLIDE TRANSACTION?

Ans:

1. A special effect used to introduce a slide during slide show.

2. Add transitions to a slide show.

3. In slide or slide sorter view, select the slide or slides you want to add a transition to.

4. On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition.

5. In the Effect box, click the transition you want, and then select any other options you want.

6. To apply the transition to the selected slide, click Apply.

7. To apply the transition to all the slides, click Apply to All.

8. Repeat the process for each slide you want to add a transition to.

9. To view the transitions, on the Slide Show menu, click Animation Preview.
 MS-Excel
1. Overview of Excel features
2. Creating a new worksheet, Selecting cells
3. Entering and Editing Text, Numbers
4. Formulae, Referencing Cells
5. Inserting Rows/Columns
6. Changing Column widths and row heights
7. Auto Format
8. Changing Font sizes, Colors, Shading, Functions and Charts

1. OVERVIEW OF EXCEL FEATURES?

Ans:

! ENTERING AND EDITING TEXT:

To enter any text, simply activate any cell by clicking on it and starting typing press enter to conclude enter. If we
made any mistake while typing, simply press backspace key to erase the present contents and type the correct text.
If you notice an error after finishing the entry, activate the relevant cell and press F2 function key.

@ ENTERING NUMBERS:

Numbers are basic raw materials for spreadsheets. You can type numbers either by using the number keys
on top of letter keys or by using extended numeric pad on the keyboard.

# ENTERING FORMULAS:

The real power of excel lies in it being able to store complex formulas. You can either build formulas using
absolute numbers or use relative cell address like=A1+B1.

$ ENTERING DATES:

In Excel you cannot only enter dates but can also do mathematics on them. Here dates are stored as numbers.

% ALIGNMENT:

Any text that you type is always left aligned within the cell. Any number that you type is always right aligned
within the cells. These alignments can be changed as per you requirements.

^ WORD PROCESSING:

Using this facility we can do almost all the functions provided by a word processor. for example, writing
texts, changing its fonts, formattingtext,cut,copy,paste,save etc.

& DATABASE:

Using this facility we can do almost all the functions provided by a database package. For example, making
lists, records, adding and deleting records, query, data storing, data filling, etc.

* GRAPHICS:

Using this facility we can present our data in terms of some picture. There are more than enough
graphs/charts available in MS-Excel, by which we can represent our data.

2. MS – EXCEL WINDOW PARTS?

! FILE TAB:

The Office Button in Excel 2007 was a replacement for the file menu in earlier versions of Excel. Like the
old file menu, the File tab options are mostly related to file management such as opening new or existing worksheet
files, saving, printing, and a new feature - saving and sending Excel files in PDF format.

@ FORMULA BAR:

Located above the worksheet, this area displays the contents of the active cell. It can also be used for entering
or editing data and formulas.

# NAME BOX:

Located next to the formula bar, the Name Box displays the cell reference or the name of the active cell.

$ COLUMN LETTERS:
Columns run vertically on a worksheet and each one is identified by a letter in the column header.

% ROW NUMBERS:

Rows run horizontally in a worksheet and are identified by a number in the row header. Together a column
letter and a row number create a cell reference. Each cell in the worksheet can be identified by this combination of
letters and numbers such as A1, F456, or AA34.

^ SHEET TABS:

By default there are three worksheets in an Excel file. The tab at the bottom of a worksheet tells you the
name of the worksheet - such as Sheet1, Sheet2 etc. Switching between worksheets can be done by clicking on the
tab of the sheet you wish to access. Renaming a worksheet or changing the tab color can make it easier to keep track
of data in large spreadsheet files.

& QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR:

This customizable toolbar allows you to add frequently used commands. Click on the down arrow at the end
of the toolbar to display the toolbar's options.

* RIBBON:

The Ribbon is the strip of buttons and icons located above the work area. The Ribbon is organized into a
series of tabs - such as File, Home, and Formulas. Each tab contains a number of related features and options. First
introduced in Excel 2007, the Ribbon replaced the menus and toolbars found in Excel 2003 and earlier versions.

3. CREATING A NEW WORKSHEET?

Ans: To create a new excel workbook follow these steps:

➢ OPEN MICROSOFT EXCEL.

➢ WITH THE MOUSE, GO TO THE EXCEL MENU BAR AND LEFT-CLICK THE FILE MENU.
➢ WITHIN THE FILE MENU FIND AND LEFT-CLICK NEW.
➢ THERE SHOULD NOW BE A NEW WORKBOOK PANE ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF YOUR EXCEL
PROGRAM.
➢ LEFT-CLICK BLANK WORKBOOK TO CREATE A NEW WORKBOOK.
4. SELECTING CELLS? ➢

Ans: Click the first cell in the range, and then drag to the last cell, or hold down SHIFT while you press the arrow
keys to extend the selection. You can also select the first cell in the range, and then press F8 to extend
the selection by using the arrow keys. To stop extending the selection, press F8 again.

4.1 ENTERING AND EDITING TEXT?

Ans: To enter data into a cell

➢ Click the cell where you want to type information.

➢ Type the data.
➢ The data can be typed in either the cell or in the formula bar.
➢ Data being typed appears in the both active cell and the formula bar.
➢ Notice the Cancel and Enter buttons in the formula bar.

5. NUMBERS?

Ans:

➢ Add the values in a column or row by using a button. You can use AutoSum to quickly sum a range
of numbers in a column or row.
➢ Click an empty cell below a column of numbers or to the right of a row of numbers, and then click
AutoSum. Excel selects what it determines to be the most likely range of data.
➢ Add numbers in Excel 2013 (3:03) You can use Excel to add numbers using formulas, buttons, and functions.
➢ The SUM function (4:48) When adding a few cells, the SUM function will save you time. With larger ranges
of cells, it’s essential.
➢ The SUMIF function (5:37)
➢ The SUMIF function allows you add cells that meet a criteria that you provide.

6. FORMULAE?

➢ Select the range that you want to calculate, type the formula, and then press CTRL+ENTER. For example,
if you type =SUM(A1:B1) in range C1:C5, and then press CTRL+ENTER.
➢ Excel enters the formula in each cell of the range, using A1 as a relative reference. Formulas are equations
that perform calculations on values in your worksheet. A formula always starts with an equal sign (=).
➢ You can create a simple formula by using constants and calculation operators.
➢ Simple formulas can include values you enter, cell references, or names you have defined. For
example, =A1+A2 or =5+2 are simple formulas that add the values in cells A1 and A2 or the values that you
specify.
 ction. For example, the formulas =SUM(A1:A2) and SUM (A1,A2) both use the SUM function to add the
values in cells A1 and A2.
➢ In addition to formulas that use a single function, you can create formulas with nested functions or arrays
that calculate single or multiple results.

7. REFERENCING CELLS?

Ans: Cell references in Excel are very important. Understand the difference between relative, absolute and mixed
reference, and you are on your way to success.

CELL, ACTIVE CELL, CELL RANGE & CELL ADDRESS:

7.1 CELL:

Cell in Microsoft Excel is a rectangular-shaped box on a worksheet. Any combination of numbers or words
can be entered in the cell; however, Excel is generally used as a calculation tool.

7.2 ACTIVE CELL:

Alternatively referred to as a cell pointer or selected cell, an active cell is a rectangular box, highlighting the
cell in a spreadsheet. It helps identify what cell is being working with and where data will be entered. In the picture
below of Microsoft Excel, you can see that the active cell is D8. When a cell is an active cell, it will differ in
appearance from other cells such as having a bold border.

7.3 CELL RANGE:

It is a range is a group or block of cells in a worksheet that have been selected or highlighted. When cells
have been selected they are surrounded by a black outline or border. Normally there is only one cell in the
worksheet with a black outline. This is the active cell. Whatever command is executed by Excel affects the
active cell. Using the mouse, keyboard or Name Box, more than one cell can be selected to create a range, and
commands executed by Excel will affect the entire range.

7.4 CELL ADDRESS:

A cell reference refers to a cell or a range of cells on a worksheet and can be used in a formula so that
Microsoft Office Excel can find the values or data that you want that formula to calculate. In one or several formulas,
you can use a cell reference to refer to: Data from one cell on the worksheet.
8.
INSE
RT AND DELETE ROWS AND COLUMNS? ➢

Ans:

To insert a row or column:

1. Select the row above or the column to the right of where the insertion should occur.
2. Choose Home Cells and click the arrow to the right of the Insert button to open the drop-down list for the
Insert button.
3. From the menu, choose Insert Sheet Rows or Insert Sheet Columns.
4. You can insert blank cells above or to the left of the active cell on a worksheet.
5. When you insert blank cells, Excel shifts other cells in the same column down or cells in the same row to
the right to accommodate the new cells.
6. Similarly, you can insert rows above a selected row and columns to the left of a selected column. You can
also delete cells, rows, and columns.

Deleting a row or column:

Deleting a row or column works in a similar way:

1. Select the row(s) or column(s) you want to delete.

2. Choose Home→ Cells→ Delete.
3. The Delete button has a drop-down list, just like the Insert button does. From it, you can choose what you
wanted to delete: cells, rows, or columns.
4. However, in Step 1, you select what you want to delete, so that isn’t necessary in this case; you can simply
click the button to delete what was selected.

9. CHANGING COLUMN WIDTHS AND ROW HEIGHTS?

Ans:

➢ Supposing you have a large worksheet which has multiple columns or rows need to be adjusted their width
or height alternately, you can change the row height or column width one by one manually if there is few
columns or rows.
➢ But, how could you change multiple row height or column width at once in Excel?
➢ On a worksheet, you can specify a column width of 0 (zero) to 255. This value represents the number of
characters that can be displayed in a cell that is formatted with the standard font.
➢ The default column width is 8.43 characters. If you set a column width to 0 (zero), the column is hidden.
➢ You can specify a row height of 0 (zero) to 409. This value represents the height measurement in points (1
point equals approximately 1/72 inch or 0.035 cm).
 proximately 1/6 inch or 0.4 cm). If your set a row height to 0 (zero), the row is hidden.
➢ If you are working in Page Layout view (View tab, Workbook Views group, Page Layout button), you can
specify a column width or row height in inches.
➢ In this view, inches are the measurement unit by default, but you can change the measurement unit to
centimeters or millimeters (On the File tab, click Options, click the advanced category, and under Display,
select an option from the Ruler Units list).

10. CHANGING FONT SIZES?

Ans: Change the default font or font size for new workbooks. Click the Microsoft Office Button, and then
click Excel Options. In the Popular category, under when creating new workbooks, do the following: In the Use
this font box, click the font that you want to use.

11. SHADING AND ATTRIBUTES?

Ans:

1. Open the worksheet.

2. Select the cell range that you want to shade, or press Ctrl+A to select the whole worksheet.
3. Click the Home tab.
4. In the Styles group, click Conditional Formatting, and then click Manage Rules.
5. Click New rule.

11.1 COLORS:

1. Select the data range that you want to color the specific cells.
2. Then apply this Select Specific Cells feature, in the popped out dialog box, click Cell under the Selection
type, and choose Equals from the Specific type drop down list, then enter the specific text or value that you
want to select. Jozef is looking for a way to change background colors of specific cells in the worksheet he
created.
3. For example, he would like to find all red background cells and change them to blue, or find all yellow
backgrounds and change them to blue. Jozef wonders if there is an easy way to do this.
4. It's fairly obvious that you can change the background colors of any cells manually, so there is no need to go
into that option for making the changes. What you need to do is use a simple tool, such as the Find and
Replace tool, to make the color changes.

OPE
N
THE
COLOR PALETTE MENUS WITH ALT+H+ (WORKAROUND)

QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR (WORKAROUND)

F4 KEY OR ALT+ENTER (WORKAROUND)

COPY/PASTE FORMATTING (WORKAROUND)

KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS ADD-IN (CUSTOM SOLUTION)

12. DATA SORTING AND FILTERS?

Ans: Sort quickly. To sort with just two mouse clicks, click Sort & Filter (on the Home tab, in the Editing group),
and then click either of the Sort buttons. Select a single cell in the column on which you want to sort. Click the top
button to perform an ascending sort (A to Z or smallest number too largest).

13. FUNCTIONS?

Ans: Function are predefined formulas that perform calculations by using specific values called arguments, in a
specific order, or structure. Arguments can be numbers, text, logical values or constants or other functions.

A. MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS:

a. Abs(): Returns absolute value of number.

Ex: abs(-90) Result : 90

b. Int(): Returns only the integer value.

Ex: int(123.90) Result: 123

c. Sqrt() : Returns the square root of given number.

Ex: sqrt(9) Result: 3

d. Fact(): Returns the factorial of the given number.

Ex: fact(4) Result: 24

e. Mod(): Returns remainder after a number is divided with another number.

Ex: mod(9,2) Result: 1

f. Power() : Returns a number which is answer to the number raised to another number
Ex: power(2,3) Result: 8

g. Round(): Rounds a number to the specified number of digits.

Ex: round(145.678,2) Result: 145.68

h. Sign(): Returns 1 if the value is positive, returns –1 if the value is negative or returns 0 if the
value is zero.

Ex: sign(90-800) Result: -1

i. Roman(): Used to convert a number into roman number.

Ex: roman(4) Result: iv

j. Sum(): Adds all the numbers in a range of cells.

Ex: sum(a1:b4)

B. STATISTICAL FUNCTIONS:

a. Average(): Returns the average of arguments or from the range of cells.

Ex: average(a1:c6)

b. Max(): Returns the largest value in a set of values or in given range of cells.

Ex: Max(5,7,8,9) Result: 9

c. Min(): Returns the smallest value in a set of values or in range of cells.

Ex: min(5,6,7,9) Result: 5

d. Count(): Counts the numbers of cells containing values in a given range of cells.

Ex: count(a1:b8)

e. Countif(): Counts the number of cells containing values which satisfies the given condition.

Ex: countif(a1:b7)

C. DATE AND TIME FUNCTIONS:

a. Date(): Returns number in a date format.

Ex: date(03,11,29) Result: 11/29/03

b. Day(): Returns day from the given date expression.

Ex: day(date(03,11,29)) Result: 29

c. Month(): Returns month from the given date expression.

Ex: month(date(03,11,29)) Result: 11

d. Year(): Returns year from the given date expression.

Ex: year(date(03,11,29)) Result: 03

e. Now(): Returns systems current date and time.

Ex: now() Result: 11/29/03 4:30:45 PM

f. Time(): Returns a particular time in hh:mm:ss format.

Ex: time(04,20,30) Result: 4:20:30 AM

g. Weekday(): Returns day of the week. The day is given as an integer from 1 to 7 where 1

for Sunday … 7 for Saturday.

Ex: weekday(date(03,11,29)) Result:7(Saturday)

h. Today(): Returns systems current date.

Ex: today() Result: 11/29/03

D. LOGICAL FUNCTIONS:

a. And(): Returns true when all its arguments are true and returns false when any of its arguments are false.

Ex: and(a1>20,a1<90)

b. Or(): Returns true if any of the arguments are true and returns false if all its arguments are false.

Ex: or(a1<20,a1>90)

c. Not(): Reverses the value of its arguments. If the argument is true the result will be false. If the argument is
false the result will be true.

Ex: not(a1>90)
d. If(): This function checks a condition and if the condition is true it returns true value and if the condition
is false it returns false value.

Ex: if(a1>35,”Pass”, ”Fail”)

E. TEXT FUNCTIONS:

a. Char(): Returns character for the specified number.

Ex: char(65) Result: A

b. Code(): Returns numeric code for the specified character.

Ex: code(“a”) Result:- 97

c. Concatenate(): Joins several text strings into one text string.

Ex: concatenate(“rcpm”,”egdt”) Result: rcpmegdt

d. Len(): Returns number of characters in text string.

Ex: len(“rcpm”) Result: 4

e. Left(): Returns specified number of characters from the left most side of string.

Ex: left(“Rcpuram”,3) Result: Rcp

f. Right(): Returns specified number of characters from the right most side of string.

Ex: right(“Rcpuram”) Result: ram

g. Mid(): Returns specified number of characters from a text string starting at the position you specify.

Ex: mid(“Rcpuram”,2,4) Result: cpur

h. Lower(): Converts all upper case letters into lower case.

Ex: lower(“RCPM”) Result: rcpm

i. Upper(): Converts all lower case letters into upper case.

Ex: upper(“rcpm”) Result: RCPM

j. Rept(): Repeats a string , specified number of times.

Ex: rept(“*”,5) Result: *****

14. CHARTS IN MS-EXCEL?

Ans: Among its many features, Microsoft Excel enables you to incorporate charts, providing a way to add visual
appeal to your business reports. Pairing a chart with its correct data style will make the information easier to
understand, enhancing the communication within your small business.

Excel Chart Types:

1. Pie Chart
2. Column Chart
3. Line Chart
4. Bar Chart
5. Area Chart
6. Scatter Chart etc.,

Today we will discuss the six most common chart types supported by Microsoft Excel and provide many
sample charts as well. In addition, each of the different chart's sub-types, such as stacked, 100% stacked, and 3-D,
are also discussed.

Column Chart:

You can take any Excel data arranged in columns or rows and plot it on a standard column chart. The chart's
horizontal axis presents the categories being charted, while the vertical axis shows the charted values. Vertical
columns of differing colors rise from the horizontal axis to visually represent the desired data. The simple
presentation and colored columns make for easy visual comparisons. Column charts also come in a variety of
different forms, including clustered columns, stacked columns and 3-D columns.

Bar Chart:

Bar charts are essentially horizontal column charts. A bar chart organizes the categories along the vertical
axis and the values along the horizontal axis. Horizontal bars stretch left to right across the chart to plot the data.
Bar charts are excellent for charting multiple values over extended durations, with colored bars representing each
value.

Line Chart:
Line charts use one or more horizontal lines to visually depict data points. The chart distributes categories evenly
along the horizontal axis and values evenly along the vertical axis. The horizontal line connects the plotted points,
providing a clear picture of data trends. Line charts work best when presenting data over evenly distributed time
intervals.

Pie Chart:

A pie chart divides a circle into slices to represent a data series. The chart depicts each pie slice in a different
color for easy recognition of how the individual slice relates to the greater whole. Pie charts work best when you're
charting only one data series, when none of your data are negative, when your data features no zero values and when
you have seven values or fewer.

Doughnut Chart:

Although similar to pie charts in that they show the relationship of individual parts to the greater whole,
doughnut charts feature more than one data series. The chart shows each data series in a circular ring, one inside the
other and a hole in the middle like a doughnut. Instead of pie slices, each ring has colored segments to represent
data values. Some individuals may find doughnut charts difficult to read, making stacked column charts or stacked
bar charts better options.

Area Charts:

Data that is arranged in columns or rows on a worksheet can be plotted in an area chart. Area charts
emphasize the magnitude of change over time, and can be used to draw attention to the total value across a trend.
For example, data that represents profit over time can be plotted in an area chart to emphasize the total profit.

Stock Charts:

Data that is arranged in columns or rows in a specific order on a worksheet can be plotted in a stock chart.
As its name implies, a stock chart is most often used to illustrate the fluctuation of stock prices. However, this chart
may also be used for scientific data. For example, you could use a stock chart to indicate the fluctuation of daily or
annual temperatures. You must organize your data in the correct order to create stock charts.

Surface Charts:

Data that is arranged in columns or rows on a worksheet can be plotted in a surface chart. A surface chart is
useful when you want to find optimum combinations between two sets of data. As in a topographic map, colors and
patterns indicate areas that are in the same range of values.

Bubble Charts:
Data that is arranged in columns on a worksheet so that x values are listed in the first column and corresponding y
values and bubble size values are listed in adjacent columns, can be plotted in a bubble chart.

Radar Charts:

Data that is arranged in columns or rows on a worksheet can be plotted in a radar chart. Radar charts compare
the aggregate values of several data series.
 UNIT-III

COMPUTER NETWORKS

Network: Network is a collection of hardware components and computers

interconnected by communication channels (Transmission media) that allows sharing
of resources and information.
Network Components: The important components used in the computer network
are:
 Media: It is the medium through which the data travels. The various alternatives
for transmission media are: twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optics, etc.
 Processor: Processor is the hardware which helps to transfer the data from
source to destination. Different processors used in the data communication are:
modem, router, bridge, etc.
 Software: To transfer the data from source to destination we require software,
examples are: networking operating system software, internet explorer, etc.
 Topology: It is the way which data travels, the various topologies available are:
star, ring, bus, mesh, tree, etc.
Advantages: -
 Easy communication and speed: People can communicate efficiently using a
network with a group of people. They can enjoy the benefit of emails, instant
messaging, telephony, video conferencing, chat rooms etc.
 Ability to share Files, Data and Information: People can find and share
information and data because of networking. This is beneficial for large
organizations to maintain their data in an organized manner and facilitate access
for desired people.
 Sharing Hardware: Ability to share hardware Resources such as printers, fax
machines and modems can be shared.
 Sharing Software: Users can share software within the network easily.
Networkable versions of software are available at considerable savings compared
to individually licensed versions of software. Therefore large companies can
reduce the cost of buying software by networking their computers.
 Security: Sensitive files and programs on a network can be passwords
protected. Then those files can only be accessed by the authorized users. Each
and every user has their own set of privileges’ to prevent those accessing
restricted files and programs.
 Speed: Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid. Thus
saving time, while maintaining the integrity of the files.
 Backup: All data is stored on the server, backing up the critical data is a simple
process.

Disadvantages: -
 Breakdown and possible loss of Resources: One major disadvantage of
networking is the breakdown of the whole network due to an issue of the
server. Such breakdowns are frequent in networks causing losses of thousands
of dollars each year.
  Expensive to build: Building a network is a serious business in many
occasions, especially for large scale organizations. Cables and other hardware
are very expensive to buy and replace.
 Security Threats: Security threats are always problems with large networks.
There are hackers who are trying to steal valuable data for large companies for
their own benefit.
 Band width issues: In a network there are users who consume a lot of more
bandwidth than others. Because of this some other people may exist experience
difficulties.
Data Communication: “Data communication means sharing the information. This
sharing can be local or remote or with in a building. Local communication usually
occurs in face to face, while remote communication takes place over distance.”
Data communication is the exchange of data between the two devices via
some of transmission medium. Data communication devices must be the part of
the communication system made up of combination of hardware and software.
The Effectiveness of Data Communication System depends on Three
Fundamental Characteristics.
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Accuracy: The System must deliver data accurately.
Timeliness: The System must deliver data in a timely manner.

Components of Data Communication: -

 Sender: A device that is used for sending messages (data) is called sender. It is
also called transmitter or source. The sender can be a computer, telephone, or a
video camera etc.
 Receiver: A device that is used for receiving messages is called receiver. It is also
known as sink. The receiver can be a computer, telephone set, printer, or a fax
machine etc.
 Message: The message is the information or data that is to be communicated. It
may consist of text, numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination of these.
 Transmission Medium: The path through which data is transmitted (sent) from
one location to another is called transmission medium. It may be a wire, or fiber
optic cable, or telephone line etc.
 Protocol: These are some set of rules which govern data communication. It
represents an agreement between the communication devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just a person speaking
German cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
 Data transmission:
 Data transmission refers to the transfer of data from one place to another. It
requires a medium to transfer information.
 The speed with which data can be transmitted from one place to another is called
data transmission speed or data transfer rate.
 Data rates are often measured in megabits or megabytes.

Data transmission modes:

 The term transmission mode defines the direction of data flow between two linked
devices.
 The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data
transmission mode.
 There are three ways for transmitting data from one location to another.

1. Simplex Mode:
Simplex: A to B Only

 In simplex mode the communication can take place in only one direction.
 In this mode a terminal can only send data and cannot receive it or it can only
receive data but cannot send it.
 It is like one way street where traffic moves in only one direction. Example of
simplex communication modes are Radio, TV, keyboard and Monitor.

2. Half-Duplex Mode:

Half-Duplex A to B or B to A

 In half-duplex mode the communication can take place in both directions but
only in one direction at a time. Data is sent and received alternatively.
 In this mode, at a time only one end transmits the data while other end
receives.
 In addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the sender to
re-transmit the data.
  Example of half-duplex mode is walkie-talkie system. It can only send or
receive a message at any given time. It cannot do both.

3. Full-Duplex Mode:

Full-Duplex: A to B and B to A

 In full-duplex mode the communication can take place in both directions

simultaneously. It represents truly bi-directional system.
 It is the fastest mode of data communication.
 An example of full-duplex mode is telephone network in which two persons
talk on telephone line, both can listen and speak simultaneously.

Network:
 A computer network is a set of connected computers. The connection between
computers can be done via Ethernet cable or wirelessly.
 Connected computers can share recourses, like access to the internet, printers, file
servers and other devices.
 Networks are categorized based on their scale and scope, design and implementation
issues.
 Common types of area networks are LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN.

Local area network (LAN):

 LAN was first invented for communication between two computers.
 Later, with growth in technology, it was used to connect computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, and office building or computer lab.
 A LAN can be two types- wired or wireless. A wired LAN uses the Ethernet cable to
physically connect all the computers on the network.
 A wireless LAN uses radio waves for communication and eliminates need for wires.
 LANs are the preferred networks because they have higher data transfer rates and
smaller geographic range.

 LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable
among computers.
Metropolitan area network (MAN):
 A MAN is a network that interconnects computers and other devices in a
geographical area or region larger than LANs but smaller than WANs.
 A MAN may interconnect networks in a city, a campus, or community to form a
single larger network.
 MAN may be formed by interconnecting several LANs by bridging them with
backbone lines with help of fiber optic cables.
 A MAN is high speed network that allows sharing of regional resources. It covers an
area of 5-50 square km.

Wide area network (WAN):

 WANs span a large geographical area such as a city or country using a
communication channel that combines telephone lines, cable and air waves.
 A WAN can be created by linking LANs together via routers (network device).
 WANs are equipped with very high speed backbone, and use very expensive
network equipment.
 WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
 WAN may be managed by multiple administrations.
 The internet is the largest WAN, spanning the earth.
Personal area network (PAN):
 PAN is a computer network designed for communication between computer devices
such as mobile computers,cell phones and personal digital assistantes (PDA) that
are close to one person.
 PANs can be used to transfer files including email,calender appointments,digital
photos and music.
 PAN may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
 PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
 PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

2) What is Network Topology? And explain various Network Topologies?

 Network Topology refers to the layout of a network and how different nodes in a
network are connected to each other and how they communicate.
 Topologies are either physical or logical.
 Network topology is also referred to as 'network architecture’. Devices on the
network are referred to as 'nodes.'
 The most common nodes are computers and peripheral devices.
 Both physical and logical network topologies can be categorized into five basic
models. There are star, ring, bus, tree and hybrid topologies.

Star Topology:
All the nodes in the network are connected to a central device like a hub or switch
via cables.
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the hub.
This topology is the most preferred and popular model.
In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of the network.
If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes shutdown.
Ring Topology:

In a ring topology all the nodes are connected to each other in the shape of a closed
loop, so that every node is connected directly to two other nodes.
In a ring network, messages travel through the ring in a circular fashion in the same
direction (either clock wise or counter clock wise).
A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can cause the network to
shutdown.
In a ring topology each device acts as repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels.

Bus topology:-
In a bus topology, each computer or server is connected to a central cable, called
bus or backbone.
All the nodes (computers and other devices) share the same communication
channel.
Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.
The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end,
the terminator removes the data from the line.
Failure of a single node does not affect the network.
A failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.
Tree Topology:-
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in
LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between
upper layer and lower layer.
The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network.
If the root goes down, then the entire network becomes shutdown.

Hybrid topology:
Hybrid network topology uses a combination of two or more topologies.
Two very commonly used hybrid network topologies include star-ring and star-bus
networks.
Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, topologies.
Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology.
The exact configuration of a hybrid network depends on structure of the
organization.
3) What is Internet? Explain services of Internet.
 Internet: The internet is a global network that connects billions of computers all
over the world. It is a network of networks. The internet links different organizations,
academic institutions, government offices, and home users to share information
among large group of users.
 When two devices are connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all
kinds of Information such as text, graphics, and voice, video and computer
programs.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in internet is
identified by a unique IP address.

Services of Internet: -
 Today the internet become a part of not only the big organizations, universities, and
offices, but has become the need of home users all over the world.
 It allows us to access huge amount of information such as text, graphics, sound and
software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four different categories of
Internet Services.

1. Communication Services: -
 There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of
information with individuals or groups.
  E-mail: Sending and receiving E-mails around the world at minimal price.
 Telnet: One can login on to other network via Internet as if one is a member of
that network this is done through utility called TELNET.
 News group: Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common interests.
 Internet Relay Chat (IRC): Allows the people from all over the world to
communicate in real time.
 Internet Telephony (VoIP): Allows the internet users to talk across internet
to any PC equipped to receive the call.
 Instance Messaging: Offers real time chat between individuals and group of
people. Ex. Yahoo messenger, MSN messenger.
 Videoconferencing: One can have a live talk with persons all round the world
and can hold meetings as if sitting just by their side by video conferencing of
multimedia conferencing.

2. Information retrieval service: -

 There exist several Information retrieval services offering easy access to information
present on the internet.
 FTP: It is also used to send data inform of files from one computer to other with
the facility called FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
 Gopher: Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on remote sites.
 Archive: It is a search utility that search on the Internet based on file names or
partial file names.

3. Web Services: -
 Web services allow exchange of information between applications on the web. Using
web services, applications can easily interact with each other.
 Web services are built on top of open standards such as TCP/IP, HTTP, Java, HTML,
and XML.
 The basic web services platform is XML + HTTP. All the standard web services work
using the following components − SOAP, UDDI, WSDL, RSS, Restful and RDF .

4. World Wide Web (WWW): -

 WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access documents spread over the
several servers over the internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics,
audio, video, hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the users to navigate between the
documents..

4) What are the applications of Internet? Explain.

 The Internet is a telecommunications network that uses telephone lines, cables,
satellites and wireless connections to connect computers and other devices to the
World Wide Web. All modern computers can connect to the Internet, as can many
mobile phones and some televisions, video game consoles and other devices.

Applications of Internet: -
 Search engine: It can be used to search anything and everything. Most popular
search engines are Google and yahoo searches.
  Online Shopping: Shopping has become easier with the advent of internet. You
can buy or sell online.
 Entertainment: Downloading games, visiting chat rooms or just surfing the web
are some most widely used Entertainment features.
 Communication: This is a major role of the internet. It helps people to
communicate either with the use of social networking websites or through e mails.
Even chatting is a major use of the internet.
 Job search: Nowadays, many people search for their jobs online as it is quicker
and there is a larger variety of job vacancies present.
 Research: Research papers are present online which helps in the researcher
doing literature review.
 Studying: They find many useful things to learn on the internet (though with
supervision). Up to doctorate level education, people rely on internet for their
education. Online educational books have even reduced the need for a library.
 Online booking: There is no need to visit the booking counters to book tickets
(or) to contact the agents that might ask for more money in order to process your
request. You can do all these things sitting at home, using Internet.
 Real Time updates: There are various websites on the Internet which provides
you with the real time updates in every field be it in business, sports, finance,
politics, entertainment and others. Many a time the decisions are taken on the real
time updates that are happening in various parts of the world and this is where
Internet is very essential and helpful.
 Financial Transactions: Financial transaction is the term which is used when
there is exchange of money. With the use of Internet in the financial transaction,
your work has become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at
the branch of your particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank
website with the credential that has been provided to you by the bank and then
can do any transaction related to finance at your will.
 Education: There are a number of books, reference books, online help centers,
expert’s views and other study oriented material on the Internet that can make
the learning process very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There are
lots and lots of websites which are related to different topic. You can visit them
and can gain endless amount of knowledge that you wish to have.

5) What is a Computer Virus? Explain types of viruses and its effects.

 Virus (Vital Information Resources under Siege): A computer virus is
embedded code or attached to a file, where it infects the computer when the file is
executed.
 Viruses are programs, which are designed to replicate, attach to other programs, and
perform unsolicited and malicious actions.
 Viruses are spread through users transferring files, file sharing, through E-mails,
downloading vital programs from Internet etc.
 To prevent virus attack follow the below techniques: Install Licensed version
antivirus software’s, Perform Daily scans, Don’t click on email links or attachments,
Enable the Firewalls in Computer.
 ICT-2 BSC/ BCOM/BA/BBA/BCA – III SEM
Types of Viruses: -
 Resident Viruses: This type of virus is a permanent which dwells in the RAM
memory. From there it can overcome and interrupt all of the operations executed
by the system: corrupting files and programs that are opened, closed, copied,
renamed etc
 Multipartite Viruses: Multipartite viruses are distributed through infected media UBS
and usually hide in the memory. Gradually, the virus moves to the boot sector of 18
the hard drive and infects executable files on the hard drive and later across the
computer system.
 Direct Action Viruses: The main purpose of this virus is to replicate and take
action when it is executed. When a specific condition is met, the virus will go into
action and infect files in the directory or folder that it is in and in directories.
 Overwrite Viruses: Virus of this kind is characterized by the fact that it deletes
the information contained in the files that it infects, rendering them partially or
totally useless once they have been infected.
 Boot Virus: This type of virus affects the boot sector of a floppy or hard disk.
This is crucial part of a disk, in which information on the disk itself is stored
together with a program that makes it possible to boot (start) the computer from
the disk.
 E-mail Virus: Generally this is a macro virus which multiplies by sending itself to
other contacts in your address book, in hopes they'll activate the virus as well.
 Trojan horse: A piece of code embedded in a useful program for Nefarious
(Criminal) purposes, for instance to steal Information. A Trojan horse cannot
infect other files or replicates itself.
 Worm: A program that replicates (copying it) itself by installing copies of itself
on other machines across a Network. Once active within a system, they perform
any number of disruptive actions.
 Trap Door: An undocumented entry point intentionally written in to a program.
Often for Debugging purposes, this can be exploited as a security flaw.
 Logic bomb: Malicious Instructions that triggers on some event in the future,
such as a particular time occurring.
 Malware: Malicious software (software designed for wrong intensions) specially
designed to gain access to a computer either to disrupt its operations or to gather
sensitive data from it.

8) What is a Web Browser? Explain the different types of Web browsers?

 Web Browser: A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software
application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the
World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource
Identifier (URI/URL) that may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content.
 In 1991, a computer expert named Tim Berners-Lee created the first Web browser.
 When the browser is used for browsing web pages, the pages may contain certain
links which can be opened in a new browser. Multiple tabs and windows of the same
browser can also be opened.
 The most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge (preceded by
Internet Explorer), Safari, Opera and Firefox.
 ICT-2 BSC/ BCOM/BA/BBA/BCA – III SEM
Types of Web browsers: -

Internet Explorer:
 Internet Explorer (IE) is a product from software giant Microsoft. This is
the most commonly used browser in the universe. It is also called as
Microsoft Internet Explorer (MSIE). UBS
 Internet Explorer Developed in 1995 along with Windows 95 launch 19
and ithas passed Netscape popularity in 1998. It is a supportive package
to Microsoft windows line of operating systems.
 Users can also use Internet Explorer to listen to and watch streaming
content, access online banking, and make purchases over the Internet, and
much more.
 Internet Explorer has been included with all versions of Windows since
then. As of October 2017, the latest version of Internet Explorer is IE 11.

Google Chrome: 
 Google Chrome is a freeware web browser developed by Google. It was
first released in September 2008, for Microsoft Windows, and was
later ported to Linux, macOS, iOS and Android..
 The latest version of Google chrome is 60.0.
 Today, chrome is known to be one of the most popular web browsers
with its global share of more than 50%.
 Chrome offers tight integration with Google sites and services, such
as YouTube and Gmail, and manages its system resources differently
than other browsers.

Mozilla Firefox: 
 Mozilla Firefox (or simply Firefox) is a free and open-source web
browser developed by Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary, Mozilla
Corporation.
 It was released in 2004 and has grown to be the second most
popular browser on the Internet.
 Firefox is available for Windows, macOS, Linux, and BSD operating
systems. Firefox is also available for Android mobile operating system.
 The latest version of Firefox is 57.0.

Safari: 
 Safari is web browser that was produced and developed by Apple Inc.
which functions on a Mac OS X, and Windows operating system.
 It was first put out in public on January 7, 2003 by Apple Inc. It was Apple’s
default browser known as “Panther” for Mac users and released on June 11,
2007 on Microsoft Windows operating system.
 ICT-2 BSC/ BCOM/BA/BBA/BCA – III SEM

 Apple's Safari browser was the first to utilize private browsing, which is
significant for those who crave privacy on the Web. And included in Mac OS
X.
 Safari has very good support for latest technologies like XHTML, CSS2
etc. Safari 9 running on OS X El Capitan.
UBS
20

Opera: 
 Opera is a web browser for Windows, macOS, and Linux
operating systems developed by Opera Software AS.
 Opera was conceived at Telenor as a research project in 1994 and
was bought by Opera Software in 1995. Initially a commercial web
browser, Opera became freeware in 2005.
 Features of the Opera web browser include private browsing,
tabbed browsing, download manager, mouse gestures and browser
extensions.
 In a modern version, Opera 45, users can use the "Speed Dial" page,
which allows Internet users to access their favorite pages using a "Dial Pad"
like application.
 Opera is a well-known browser that continues to grow and increase its
user base.

9) Explain about Internet addressing?

 In general, Internet addressing is a systematic way to identify people, computers
and Internet resources.
 On the Internet, the term "address" is used loosely. Address can mean many
different things from an electronic mail address to a URL.
 Internet addressing is a way to locate people, computers, and Internet resources.
It can be:
 IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
 Domain names.
 Electronic mail addresses.
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator).

IP Address:
 An IP address is a unique number that identifies computers on the
Internet; every computer directly connected to the Internet has one.
 Every client, server and network device must have a unique IP address
foreach network connection (network interface).
 An IP address consists of four numbers separated by periods(dot).
Each number must be between 0 and 255. For example 204.81.205.32

Domain Names:
 Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for
application- specific naming and addressing purposes. Most computers on
the Internet have a unique domain name.
ICT-2 BSC/ BCOM/BA/BBA/BCA – III SEM

 In general, a domain name represents an Internet Protocol (IP)

resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, a server
computer hosting a web site, or the web site itself or any other service
communicated via the Internet.
 An example domain name is: healthyway.com UBS
21
Electronic Mail Address:
 Networks may use different electronic mail addressing schemes within
their own networks.
 To be used in Internet e-mail, these addresses often need to be
modified.
 For example, within CompuServe an e-mail address consists only of
two numbers separated by a comma: 36547,891.
 To convert this to an address that can be used on the Internet, the
comma is changed to a period and the number serves as the
username.
 The domain name is compuserve.com, so the Internet address would
be: 36547.891@compuserve.com

URL:
 URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. URLs are used to identify
specific sites and files available on the World Wide Web.
 Similar to an e-mail address, a URL is read like a sentence. For ex:
http://www.healthyway.com
INTRODUCTIOIN TO THE INTERNET
1) What is Internet Explorer? Explain Internet Explorer Environment.

 Internet Explorer:
 Internet Explorer (IE) is a product from software giant Microsoft. This
is the most commonly used browser in the universe. It is also called as
Microsoft Internet Explorer (MSIE).
 Internet Explorer Developed in 1995 along with Windows 95 launch and
it has passed Netscape popularity in 1998. It is a supportive package to
Microsoft windows line of operating systems.
 Users can also use Internet Explorer to listen to and watch streaming
content, access online banking, and make purchases over the Internet, and
much more.
 Internet Explorer has been included with all versions of Windows since
then. Asof October 2017, the latest version of Internet Explorer is IE 11.
 Opening Internet Explorer: To open Internet Explorer, perform any one of the
following steps:
 Double-click the Internet Explorer icon located on the desktop.
 Click the Internet Explorer icon from Quick launch.
 Click Start, and select Internet Explorer.
 Click Start, select All Programs, and then select Internet Explorer.
Then internet explorer window will appear. The internet explorer window
is:

 Internet Explorer Environment: When Internet Explorer is opened, the main

screen of the program is displayed. This main window has many parts to it; these
parts are described in detail below.
 Title Bar: It is located at the very top of the window and tells you the
title of the page you are viewing. Title bar also tells you which Internet
Explorer application is currently active. In addition, like all other Microsoft
applications, it has the Minimize, Restore/Maximize, and close buttons.
 Menu Bar: This bar has many different sub-menus, which controls all
options, functions, and commands for the entire Internet Explorer program.
  Tool bar: Tool bar contains short cut buttons to menu options,
which speedup your work.
 Address Bar: This bar displays the Internet address (URL) of the
page currently being displayed. You can access a site by typing its URL
into the Address box and clicking on Go or by pressing Enter.
 Status Bar: This bar displays the current status of activity of the web
pages. Apart from this, other information that appears on the status bar
includes the size of the web page, percentage of the web page that has been
downloaded, error in the web page being downloaded, and whether the user
is working online or offline.

2) Explain standard Internet Explorer buttons?

 The most frequently used buttons in a web browser are listed below:
 Back Button: This button will take you back to whatever document you were
previously viewing. Pressing it immediately takes you back one document. If
you have browsed many pages, or are well into a multi-page document,
pressing it repeatedly will continue to back you up one page at a time. Once you
reach your starting location, it will be grayed-out and unavailable.
 Forward Button: This button will take you forward to the next document if you
have previously browsed multiple documents and had then backed-up to the
page you are currently viewing. (If you have not backed up at all, the forward
button will be grayed-out) Pressing it repeatedly will continue to move you
forward one page at a time. You can move forward until you reach the last page
that you had browsed, at which time the forward button will be grayed-out.
 Refresh Button: This button will reload the current document that you are
viewing. It is useful if the page updates very frequently so that you can view
these changes as soon as they are available. If you are loading a document and
the transfer was interrupted, you can reload the full document again by clicking
here. . Press the F5 key to refresh the page from the keyboard.
 Home Button: This button will return you to the page you have selected as
the default start-up page for Internet Explorer., Which has been set by the user.
The Home page can be set to any page you would like through the Tools,
Internet Options menu.
 Favorites Button: This toolbar button opens a pane of sites on the left side of
your browser window. Opens up the favorites menu, where users can choose a
favorite web site that they wish to go to, add a favorite web site to the list, or
organize the favorites from this menu.
 Print Button: The print button will bring up a Print dialog box. In the box y u
o
can
decide if you would like to print the contents of the page you are viewing, how
many pages you will print, and also how many copies you will print.
 Edit Button: If you press this button it will launch the Editor and open the
document you are currently viewing it. This button will ONLY be on your toolbar
if you have a Windows system Web editor (such as Microsoft FrontPage or
Microsoft Word) installed on your computer. If you press this button, it will
launch that editor and open the document you are currently viewing in it.
 Search: Today’s Browsers search box what is called as Omni box, which is
asearch function built into the address bar.
 n: Stops any current operations by Internet Explorer. However,its function may still
be executed by pressing the Esc key. The stop button stops any current
operations by Internet Explorer.
 History: This feature allows users to view the pages that have been visited
since the browser history was last cleared. All your saved pages are stored in
your Internet cache. The shortcut key is Ctrl+H.

3) Write about entering a website address and searching the internet using IE?
 Entering a website address:
 The area which is dedicated to enter the website address in the internet
explorer is address bar. Put cursor at the address bar then type the address of
the website you want to open.
 For example if you want to open Facebook website then type
www.facebook.com in the address bar and then press the enter button the
Facebook page will displayed at web page area in the browser.

 Searching the internet:

 Using the search engines, searching the information on the internet is easy.
Search engine is an approach to organize the information and locating the
information on the web, which is a computer program.
  Popular search engines are: www.google.com, www.ask.com,
www.alltheweb.com, etc. for example you want to search about the applications
of internet on the internet. Then you have followed these steps:
 Enter the website of the search engine at the address bar for example
www.google.com.
 After Google page opened then type “applications of internet” at the search
box and then press enter button on the keyboard.
 The Google will search about “applications of internet” in its server and
displays some results.
 Open the results one by one; in any one of them you got the relevant
information.

4) What is Social Networking? Explain different types of Social Networking.

 Social Networking: -
 Social networking is the use of internet-based social media programs to
make connections with friends, family, classmates, customers and clients.
 The Word ‘Social’ implies two‐way interaction, so included in social media is
any medium of communication that allows Interaction.
 The most well-known social media sites are: Twitter, Linkedin, Facebook,
Flickr, Skype, Yahoo!, Google+, Youtube, WhatsApp, etc.
 A social network web site allows a user to:
 Create a “profile”: Set up an account to create a digital Representation of
themselves
 Select other members of the site as contacts or connections
 Communicate and engage with these users.
 “The information in a social network collects about a user”, Includes contact
information, location, associations, personal Information, work history, personal
preferences, who you’re friends with, etc.

Types of Social Networking: -

1. Facebook:
 Facebook is an online social networking service based in Menlo Park, United
States.
  The Facebook website was launched on February 4, 2004 by Mark
Zuckerberg, along with fellow Harvard College students and roommates.
 Facebook is a popular free Social Networking website that allows registered
users to create profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep
in touch with friends, family and colleagues.
 The site, which is available in 37 different languages. It can be used by
anyone wherever they are in the world as long as they have internet access.
 In the facebook we can search by name or e-mail to find people.
 Facebook is available 24 hours a day, so people can communicate without a
time zone problem.
 Most of us already know that Facebook is the top social network on the web.
 As of the first quarter of 2018, Facebook had 2.19 billion monthly active
users.

2. WhatsApp:
 WhatsApp is the most popular instant messaging provider worldwide.
 WhatsApp Messenger is a cross-platform mobile messaging app which allows
you to exchange messages without having to pay for SMS/MMS.
 Users can send messages to individuals or groups using text, photos, videos
and even voice messages.
 Unlike other popular messaging apps, WhatsApp uses your phone number
rather than usernames or pins (despite being an alternative to SMS).
 As of February 2016, WhatsApp had a user base of one billion, making it the
most popular messaging application.
 WhatsApp Inc., based in Mountain View, California, United States, was
acquired by Facebook Inc. on February 19, 2014, for approximately US$19.3
billion.
 WhatsApp Messenger is available for iPhone, BlackBerry, Windows Phone
and Android mobiles phones.

3. LinkedIn:
 LinkedIn is a business-oriented social networking service. Founded on
December14, 2002, and launched on May 5, 2003, it is mainly used for
professional networking.
 As of 2015, most of the site's revenue came from selling access to
information about its users to recruiters and sales professionals.
 As of March 2016, LinkedIn has more than 433 million users, out of which
more than 106 million are active.
 LinkedIn is used for keeping track of and growing a professional social
network, finding and applying for jobs, posting and viewing online resumes,
giving and receiving recommendations, learning more about companies,
tracking industry news and moves, and more.
 With LinkedIn you do discussion to the point and you get answers for what
actually you might be searching for.
4. Twitter:
 Twitter is a social network and real-time communication service launched in
July 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams, Biz Stone, and Noah Glass.
 Twitter is an online social networking service that enables users to send and
read short 140-character messages called "tweets". These messages or
tweets are public by default and visible to all those who are following the
twitter.
 As of 2016, Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users.
 Registered users can read and post tweets, but those who are unregistered
can only read them.
 Twitter allows you to follow other users you are interested in so that you'll
see their updates on your home page.
 Twitter provides very high level security about users account. Twitter has
very high kind of security policies.
 Katy Perry is currently the most followed account on Twitter.

5. Skype:
 Skype is a computer program that can be used to make free calls over the
Internet. Skype allows these registered users to communicate through both
instant messaging and voice chat.
 Voice chat allows telephone calls between pairs of users and conference
calling.
 Skype uses a technology called voice over IP, or VoIP. VoIP is a method of
transmitting the human voice over Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
 In addition to standard telephone calls, Skype enables file transfers, texting,
video chat and videoconferencing.
 Skype is available for Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, or Linux, as well as
Android, Blackberry, and both Apple and Windows smart phones and tablets.
 Skype Credit or a subscription is required to call a landline or a mobile phone
number.
 Skype offers free communication and screen sharing. It allows a group call
without the need for group features.
 Current version of Skype is 11.0

6. Google+:
 Google Plus (stylized as Google+) is an Internet-based social network that is
owned and operated by Google.
 Making its debut in the early summer of 2011, Google+ became the fastest
growing social network the web has ever seen.
 Google+ is a social network that builds off of your Google Account. If you
have a Google Account, you can activate your Google+ account as easily as
you would activate Google Now.
  By combining the best of Facebook and Twitter into one site – and backing it
by the power of the world’s largest search engine, Google has given users a
social site that has a little something for everyone.
 It provides business deals face to face, easy searching for any information
and latest Google news.
 It provides job opportunity for sharing and uploading resumes and any data
for particular sites.

7. Yahoo!:
 Yahoo is an American multinational technology company headquartered in
Sunnyvale, California.
 It is globally known for its Web portal, search engine Yahoo! Search, and
related services, including Yahoo! Directory, Yahoo! Mail, Yahoo! News,
Yahoo! Finance, Yahoo! Groups, Yahoo! Answers, advertising, online
mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports and its social media website.
 It is one of the most popular sites in the United States.
 Yahoo was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994 and was
incorporated on March 2, 1995. Marissa Mayer, a former Google executive,
serves as CEO and President of the company.
 With Yahoo’s standard yahoo mail service, you can send email, receive it,
and manage contacts and maintain a calendar. All yahoo mails are 100
percent encrypted and users have 1TB of storage to hold emails and files.
 Although you can send instant message (IM) from your yahoo mail page,
you have the option to install yahoo messenger on your computer and
mobile phone.
 Like Google, Yahoo indexes the web and makes information from web pages
available to web searches.

8. Youtube:
 YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno,
California.
 The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad
Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005.
 Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion; YouTube now
operates as one of Google's subsidiaries.
 YouTube allows users to upload, view, rate, share, add to favorites, report,
comment on videos, and subscribe to other users.
 It offers a wide variety of user-generated and corporate media videos.
Available content includes video clips, TV show clips, music
videos, short and documentary films, audio recordings, movie trailers, live
streams, and other content such as video blogging, short original videos,
and educational videos.
 YouTube provides fast and easy video sharing, privacy features and quick
access to various videos.
 9. Flickr:
 Flickr is an image hosting and video hosting website and web services suite
that was created by Ludicorp in 2004 and acquired by Yahoo in 2005.
 In addition to being a popular website for users to share and embed
personal photographs, and effectively an online community.
 The service is widely used by photo researchers and by bloggers to host
images that they embed in blogs and social media.
 The Verge reported in March 2013 that Flickr had a total of 87 million
registered members and more than 3.5 million new images uploaded daily.
 In August 2011 the site reported that it was hosting more than 6 billion
images and this number continues to grow steadily, according to reporting
sources.
 Photos and videos can be accessed from Flickr without the need to register
an account, but an account must be made to upload content to the site.

5) What is Social Networking? Explain its advantages and disadvantages?

 Social Networking (Social media) is the use of internet-based social
media programs to make connections with friends, family, classmates, customers
and clients.
 The most well-known social media sites are: Twitter, Linkedin, Facebook, Flickr,
Skype, Yahoo!, Google+, Youtube, WhatsApp, etc.
 Social networking sites are varied. They can incorporate a range of new information
and communication tools, operating on desktops and on laptops, on mobile devices
such as tablet computers and smart phones.

Advantages: -
 Connectivity – The first and main advantage of the social media is connectivity.
People from anywhere can connect with anyone. Regardless of the location and
religion. The beauty of social media is that you can connect with anyone to learn
and share your thoughts.
 Education – Social media has a lot of benefits for the students and teachers. It
is very easy to educate from others who are experts and professionals via the
social media. You can follow anyone to learn from him/her and enhance your
knowledge about any field.
 Help – You can share your issues with the community to get help and giddiness.
Whether it is helping in term of money or in term of advice, you can get it from
the community you are connected with.
 Promotion – Whether you have an offline business or online, you can promote
your business to the largest audience. The whole world is open for you, and can
promote to them.
 Helps Govt and Agencies Fight Crime- It is also one of the advantages of the
social media that it helps Governments and Security Agencies to spy and catch
criminals to fight crime.
Disadvantages: -
 Hacking – Personal data and privacy can easily be hacked and shared on the
Internet. Which can make financial losses and loss to personal life, Several
personal twitter and Facebook accounts have been hacked in the past and the
hacker had posted materials that have affected the individuals personal lives.
 Addiction – The addictive part of the social media is very bad and can disturb
personal lives as well. The teenagers are the most affected by the addiction of
the social media.
 Security Issues – Now a day’s security agencies have access to people personal
accounts. This makes the privacy almost compromised. You never know when
you are visited by any investigation officer regarding any issue that you
mistakenly or unknowingly discussed over the internet.
 Cheating and Relationship Issues – Most of the people have used the social
media platform to propose and marry each other. However, after some time they
turn to be wrong in their decision and part ways.
 Health Issues – The excess usage of social media can also have a negative
impact on the health. Since exercise is the key to lose weight, most of the people
get lazy because of the excessive use of social networking sites.
 Glamorizes Drugs and Alcohol – One of the disadvantages of the social media
is that people start to follow others who are wealthy or drug addicted and share
their views and videos on the web. This eventually inspires others to follow the
same and get addicted to the drugs and alcohol.

E-Mail
1) What is an E-mail? Explain its advantages and disadvantages?
 E-mail: E-Mail or electronic mail is a system for sending messages from one
individual to another via telecommunications links between computers or terminals
using dedicated software. The sender and receiver must have email addresses to
share their data.
 Email was invented by Ray Tomlinson in 1972. The only Internet service that is more
frequently used than the Web is electronic mail.
 People most commonly use e-mail to send and receive text messages; you may be
able to exchange audio or video messages with someone else messages through
Internet.

Advantages: -
 As in the early days of the telephone, the original users of email only had a
limitednumber of people whom they could communicate. Now that email is more
prevalent, some of the advantages of using email are:
 Easy to use: E-mail helps us manage our contacts, send mails quickly,
maintain our mail history, store the required information, etc.
 Speed: An email is delivered instantly and anywhere across the globe. No
other service matches the email in terms of speed. You can send the same
message/mail to multiple users simultaneously; thus, a lot of time is saved.
 Reliable and secure: Constant efforts are taken to improve the security in
electronic mails. It makes the email one of the secured ways of
 h a subject line, it is easy to prioritize them and ignore the ones that
are unwanted.
 Advertising tool: Nowadays, many individuals and companies are using the
email service to advertise their products, services, etc.
 Data Storage: The providers of email service offer enough space for data
storage. Also, the process of sorting and arranging mails as per the subject,
date, etc. is made quite easy for users.
 Provision of Attachments: The feature of attachments allows users to
send huge chunks of data in the same mail. Also, sending attachments
doesn't raise the cost as in the postal service.
 Informal and conversational: The language used in emails is generally
simple and thus, makes the process of communication informal. Sending and
receiving emails takes less time, so it can be used as a tool for interaction.

Disadvantages: -
 Despite all of the advantages, we should bear in mind that not everyone
everywhere has access to email. Although the telephone is not truly universal
either, it still far outdistances email in terms of its worldwide availability.
 Viruses: These are computer programs which have the potential to harm a
computer system. Viruses copy themselves and further infect the computer.
Recipients need to scan the mails since; viruses are transmitted through
them and have the potential to harm computer systems.
 Spam: Emails when used to send unsolicited messages and unwanted
advertisements create nuisance and are termed as spam. Checking and
deleting the unwanted mails can unnecessarily consume a lot of time.
 Hacking: The act of breaking into computer security is termed as hacking.
In this form of security breach, emails are intercepted by hackers. An email,
before it is delivered to the recipient, "bounces" between servers located in
different parts of the world; hence, it can be hacked by a professional
hacker.
 Crowded inbox: Over a period of time, the email inbox may get crowded
with mails. It becomes difficult for users to manage such a huge chunk of
mails. This information overload often repels the readers from using the
email service.
 Internet Access is required: There are many parts of the world where
people don't have access to the Internet. The email doesn't serve any
purpose in such areas.
2) Explain how to create an email ID (email account)?
 There are various email service provider available such as Gmail, hotmail, yahoo
mail, rediff mail etc.
 Gmail is an extremely popular email service provided by Google.
 In order to create a Gmail account, you actually must sign up for a Google account.
This account will give you access to the Google Suite.

To create Gmail account: -

 Open up your internet browser and go to the Google home page
http://www.google.co.uk and then click on Gmail at the top right corner of the
page.
 You’ll now be in the ‘Sign in’ section. As you don’t have a Google account yet,
you need to create one. Click Create an account.
 On the account creation screen, fill out all of the fields (A) and then click Next(B).
 On the next screen, fill out your birth date and gender (A) as well as any optional
information that you are comfortable with, and then click Next (B).

 Read Google's Privacy and Terms, then click the button.

 Click the until you've moved through the features menu.

button
 Click the and you'll be able to access your new account.
 Wow!! You are done with creating your email account with Gmail. It’s that easy.
 Now you will see your Gmail account as shown in the following image:
 Key Points: -
 Gmail manages the mail into three categories namely Primary, Social
and Promotions.
 Compose option is given at the right to compose an email message.
 Inbox, Starred, Sent mail, Drafts options are available on the left pane which
allows you to keep track of your emails.

3) Explain the Procedure for composing and sending E-mail?

 There are several email service providers available in the market with their enabled
features such as sending, receiving, drafting, storing an email and much more.
Gmail, Yahoo Mail, Hotmail, iCloud Mail, Inbox.com etc.
 To Login Open the browser and type gmail.com into the address bar at the top of the
screen. Enter your user name and password into the box on the right.

Composing an E-mail: -
 Before sending an email, we need to compose a message. When we are
composing an email message, we need to specify the following things:
 Sender “address in ‘To’ field
 CC (if required)
 BCC(if required)
 Subject of email message
 Body (Actual message)

 Click on Compose mail button.

 Type the recipient's email address in the To box. Enter multiple addresses by
separating them with a comma. NOTE: If the person is in your Address Book, you
can just start typing the email address (or the name you've entered as their
"Display Name") and a list of choices will appear. Just choose the correct one
from the list.
 In the Add CC box (carbon copy) type the email addresses you want to receive a
copy of the email. (A recipient who is CC is able to see and correspond with the
other recipients of the message.)
  In the Add BCC box (blind carbon copy) type the email addresses you want to
receive a copy of the email. (The email addresses of recipients who are BCC will
not appear in the headers of the message.)
 Type a brief description of the email message in the Subject box. For example, if
you're sending out a recipe for oatmeal cookies, the subject might be "My
oatmeal cookies recipe".
 Type the body of the email message.
 If you wish to add a signature to your email, select one from the Signature pull-
down menu.
 If you wish to attach files to this message, use the Browse buttons at the
bottom of the page to choose files from your hard drive. You can include up to
three attachments with a message.
 Once you have completed your message, send it by clicking on the Send button
at the bottom of the window. The mailer program provides a Send button to send
email, when you click Send, it is sent to the mail server and a message “mail
sent successfully”
 If you want to send your email message later, or work on it more at a later time,
click Save as a draft and you'll be able to retrieve it from the Drafts folder later.
 New message window:

4) Explain about the E-mail Message Components?

 E-mail message comprises of different components: E-mail Header, Greeting, Text,
and Signature.
 E-mail Header: -
 The first five lines of an E-mail message is called E-mail header. The
header part comprises of following fields:
 From
 Date
 To
 Subject
 CC
 BCC
  The from field indicates the sender’s address i.e. who sent the e-mail.
 The Date field indicates the date when the e-mail was sent.
 The to field indicates the recipient’s address i.e. to whom the e-mail
issent.
 The Subject field indicates the purpose of e-mail. It should be precise and
to the point.
 CC stands for Carbon copy. It includes those recipient addresses whom
wewant to keep informed but not exactly the intended recipient.
 BCC stands for Black Carbon Copy. It is used when we do not want one
ormore of the recipients to know that someone else was copied on the
message.
 E-mail Body: -
 Greeting -Greeting is the opening of the actual message. Eg. Hi Sir or Hi
Guys etc.
 Text - It represents the actual content of the message.
 Signature -This is the final part of an e-mail message. It includes Name
ofSender, Address, and Contact Number.
 The above components are described in the following diagram:

5) Explain about the inner working of Email?

 Here we provide a simplified description of how email actually works. If we split the
mailing or a letter into three phases:
In the first phase you need to perform compose the letter.
In the second phase, a mail person retrieves the letter from its place of deposit,
is routed to its final destination mailbox.
In the third phase, the recipient checks for mail, retrieves the letter from the
mailbox, opens the envelope, reads the mail.
  Three main components are necessary for the email system to work. In reality, the
system is much more complex.
 Mailer: A mailer is the software that allows you to manage, read, and compose
mail. Examples for mailers are: gmail.com, mail.yahoo.com, rediffmail.com,
ymail.com, etc.
 Mail server: the mail server is a computer whose function is to receive, store,
and deliver email. Conceptually the mail server is always listening for the arrival
of new email.
 Mailboxes: an electronic mailbox is a disk file specifically formatted to hold
email messages and information about them. Your mail box is generally created
for you by a system administrator when you first establish your account.
 Email inner working: -
 Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the mailer i.e.
the mail application or mail program and server is a device that manages emails.
 When the user sends the message, the email text and attachments are uploaded
to the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) server as outgoing mail.
 All outgoing messages wait in the outgoing queue while SMTP server
communicates with the DNS to find out where the recipients Email server is
located, and transfer the message to the recipient server.
 When the Recipient is logged in to his Email then the message moved in to his
Inbox from Server.

6) Explain about Mail Management?

 Email management is a systematic approach to maximizing the efficiency of email
practices and minimizing the negative effects that email handling can have on an
individual's productivity and job satisfaction. Tips for effective email management
include:
 Inbox: -
 When you log into Gmail, the number of new or unread
messages isindicated in parentheses next to the word “Inbox” in the
left-hand navigation column.
 By default, email messages are viewed in the Inbox. New messages are
inbold font. To view your message, click on the subject to open it.
  Receiving and Reading E-mail (Messages): -
 Every email program offers you an interface to access email messages.
Like in Gmail, emails are stored under different tabs such as primary,
social, and promotion. When you click one of tab, it displays a list of
emails under that tab.
 In order to read an email, you just have to click on that email. Once
you click a particular email, it gets opened.
 By default, email messages are viewed in the Inbox. New messages are
inbold font. To view your message, click on the subject to open it.
 The attachments are shown at the bottom of the opened email with
anoption called download attachment.
 Replying to a Message: -
 Replying to a message sends it back to the person who sent it to you.
 When you click on Reply, your message will automatically be sent to
the person who sent you the email.
 Once you click on Reply, it will automatically copy the sender‟s address in
to the To field. Below the To field, there is a text box where you can type
the message.
 Click on the reply button to reply only to the sender.
 Forwarding an E-mail: -
 When you click on forward button, you may share the email you’ve
received by sending it to others. You may add your own message before
sending.
 Forwarding the Message - This feature copies the message you
are viewing for delivery to another email address. You can't see the
original message but you can add text at the beginning of the message
before sending it.
 The difference between replying and forwarding an email is that when you
reply a message to a person who has send the mail but while forwarding
you can send it to anyone.
 Deleting a message: -
 Deleting a Message: When you click on this option, the message you are
viewing is moved to the Trash folder.
 Gmail does not automatically delete messages in the Trash folder
right away, so you must enter the trash folder by clicking on it in the
left navigation bar, select messages you wish to delete, and then click
the Delete Forever button in order to delete messages permanently.
 Moving Messages: -
 Messages can be moved to folders by selecting them in the Inbox,
and selecting a location using the Move To menu.

7) Explain about User ID and Password?

 User ID: -
 A computer system uses user-ids and passwords together to grant access to the
system. You need the correct combination of user-id and password, to access
your account.
  The user-id identifies you to the computer. User-ids are typically some form of
your name. A user-id must be unique throughout the computer system.
 Your user-id is also used for communication with other people through electronic
mail. You cannot change your User ID once it is established.
 User ID Rules: -
 User IDs must be 7-14 characters.
 User IDs must contain at least one letter; numbers are allowed,
but not required.
 User IDs cannot contain spaces.
 User IDs cannot contain your Social Security Number, Tax
Identification Number, or Customer Access Number.
 No special characters are allowed, such as ! @ # $ % ^ &.
 Use of an underscore is allowed but not required: _
 Do not use your Password as your User ID.

 Password: -
 To prevent other people from using your account via your user-id, you are
required to have a password.
 A password allows you and only you to access the computer system through your
user-id.
 Password Rules: -
 Passwords must be 7-14 characters.
 Passwords must include at least one letter and one number.
 Passwords cannot contain spaces.
 Semicolons cannot be part of a Password.
 Passwords are case-sensitive.
 Do not use your User ID as your Password.
 If you forget your User ID or Password, you can retrieve them
through the "User ID & Password Help" link.

8) Explain about Domain names and email addresses?

 Domain Names: -
 Domain names are used to identify one or more IP addresses. For example, the
domain name microsoft.com represents about a dozen IP addresses.
  Domain names are used in URLs to identify particular Web pages. For example, in the
URL http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html , the domain name is
pcwebopedia.com.
 Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain (TLD) it
belongs to. The three-letter Top-Level Domains have these meanings as follows.
 gov - Government agencies
 edu - Educational institutions
 org - Organizations (non profit)
 mil – Military
 com - commercial business
 net - Network organizations
 If there is a two-letter top-level domain, that is a country code. Here are some
examples.

 us – United States
 in – India
 uk – United Kingdom
 my – Malaysia
 de - Germany(Deutschland)

 Email addresses: -
 Email addresses are two strings separated by the character "@" (the "at sign"):
user @ domain.
 The right-hand part describes the domain name involved, and the left-hand part
refers to the user who belongs to that domain. One or more mail servers correspond
to each domain.
 Example : balu.pdbs@gmail.com
 In the above example first part is the User ID i.e.; balu.pdbs that refers
to the recipient’s mailbox.
 Then there is after @ sign becomes next part is Gmail is the host name
are also called Domain Name. This refers to the mail server, it is the name of
the company or organization.
 The end of the Domain Name consists of a dot(“.”) followed by three
or more letters(such as “.com”) that indicate top-level Domain of the any
organization or country.
 Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
 Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are
physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and
interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers,
Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
 1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star
topology connectors connecting if original strength. It is a 2-port device.
 2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the
 best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
 Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean,
boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as
well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between
nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning
and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables
an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure
each port in the hub.
 3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with
add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the
source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the
same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port
device.
 Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted
from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges
make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover
the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads
through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
 4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost
its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is
a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding
data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the
same.
 Types of Switch
 Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do
not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for
use as an expansion to a larger network.
 Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as
VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex
networks and allow for centralized management.
 Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized
networks.
 Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model
and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network
segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model
and can route data between different network segments. They are more advanced
than Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
 PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows
them to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster
than traditional Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server
rack and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
 Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small
office environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
 Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy
expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on
their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally
connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on
which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the
broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.





 6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two

networks that may work upon different networking models. They work as
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to
another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at
any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.
A gateway is also called a protocol converter.
 7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines
features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a
network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks
and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

 UNIT-IV
PROBLEM SOLVING AND PROGRAMMING

What is an Algorithm? Algorithm Basics

The word Algorithm means ” A set of finite rules or instructions to be followed in calculations
or other problem-solving operations ” Or ” A procedure for solving a mathematical problem in a
finite number of steps that frequently involves recursive operations”.

Use of the Algorithms:-

Algorithms play a crucial role in various fields and have many applications. Some of the key areas
where algorithms are used include:
Computer Science: Algorithms form the basis of computer programming and are used to solve
problems ranging from simple sorting and searching to complex tasks such as artificial intelligence
and machine learning.
Mathematics: Algorithms are used to solve mathematical problems, such as finding the optimal
solution to a system of linear equations or finding the shortest path in a graph.
Operations Research: Algorithms are used to optimize and make decisions in fields such as
transportation, logistics, and resource allocation.
Artificial Intelligence: Algorithms are the foundation of artificial intelligence and machine learning,
and are used to develop intelligent systems that can perform tasks such as image recognition,
natural language processing, and decision-making.
Data Science: Algorithms are used to analyze, process, and extract insights from large amounts of
data in fields such as marketing, finance, and healthcare.
These are just a few examples of the many applications of algorithms. The use of algorithms is
continually expanding as new technologies and fields emerge, making it a vital component of
modern society.
Algorithms can be simple and complex depending on what you want to achieve.
What is a Flowchart?
Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Programmers often use it as a program-
planning tool to solve a problem. It makes use of symbols which are connected among them to
indicate the flow of information and processing.
The process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is known as “flowcharting”.

Basic Symbols used in Flowchart Designs

1. Terminal: The oval symbol indicates Start, Stop and Halt in a program’s logic flow. A
pause/halt is generally used in a program logic under some error conditions. Terminal is
the first and last symbols in the flowchart.

 Input/Output: A parallelogram denotes any function of input/output type. Program

instructions that take input from input devices and display output on output devices are
indicated with parallelogram in a flowchart.

 Processing: A box represents arithmetic instructions. All arithmetic processes such as

adding, subtracting, multiplication and division are indicated by action or process symbol.
 Decision Diamond symbol represents a decision point. Decision based operations such
as yes/no question or true/false are indicated by diamond in flowchart.

 Connectors: Whenever flowchart becomes complex or it spreads over more than one
page, it is useful to use connectors to avoid any confusions. It is represented by a circle.
Looping in programming languages is a feature which facilitates the execution of a set of
instructions/functions repeatedly while some condition evaluates to true. Java provides three ways
for executing the loops.

Pseudo code: It's simply an implementation of an algorithm in the form of annotations and
informative text written in plain English. It has no syntax like any of the programming language and
thus can't be compiled or interpreted by the computer.

PROGRAMMING LAUNGUAGES:

Programming languages are used to write instructions that guide computers to carry out specified tasks.
The difference between machine language and assembly language is that machine language is a low-
level programming language, and assembly language is lower than a lower than a high-level language and
more than a low-level language. here we have discussed these languages in detail along with the difference
between machine language and assembly language.

The major difference between machine language and assembly language is that machine language is
referred to as a binary language. It can be run on a computer directly. While an assembly language is a
low-level programming language that must be converted into machine code using software called an
assembler. Candidates can have a better understanding of the concepts of machine language and assembly
language, and the difference between machine language and assembly language provided in the upcoming
sections.

Interpreter Vs Compiler

Interpreter Compiler
 Scans the entire program and translates it as a whole
Translates program one statement at a time.
into machine code.

Compilers usually take a large amount of time to

Interpreters usually take less amount of time to
analyze the source code. However, the overall
analyze the source code. However, the overall
execution time is comparatively faster than
execution time is comparatively slower than compilers.
interpreters.

No Object Code is generated, hence are memory Generates Object Code which further requires linking,
efficient. hence requires more memory.

Programming languages like JavaScript, Python, Ruby

Programming languages like C, C++, Java use compilers.
use interpreters.

Working of Compiler and Interpreter