A Brief History of Media Anthropology

Author(s): E. B. EISELEIN and MARTIN TOPPER

Source: Human Organization , Summer 1976, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Summer 1976), pp. 123-134
Published by: Society for Applied Anthropology

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44125305

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 Abstract

Media anthropology is nothing new. Media and

anthropology have been inalienably linked since the
beginning of anthropology. Anthropologists have experi-
mented with a wide variety of media to communicate

A Brief
anthropology to new audiences. This interaction
between anthropologists and the media has rarely been
formalized in terms of studies which allow us to make
broad generalizations and thus utilize the experiences of
others.

History
Une brève histoire sur la façon

of
de faire connaître l'anthropologie

L'anthropologie des média n'est pas nouvelle. Média

et anthropologie ont été inaliénablement liés depuis la

Media naissance de l'anthropologie. Les anthropologues ont

experimente avec une grande variété de média, afin de
faire connaître l'anthropologie à de nouvelles audiences.
Cette action réciproque entre les anthropologues et les
média a été rarement formalisée en termes d'études qui

Anthropology nous permettent de généraliser amplement et d'utiliser

ainsi les expériences des autres.

La anthropologic de la difusión :
breve reseña
E. B. EISELEIN
MARTIN TOPPER
La anthropología de la difusión no es tan reciente
como se cree. Tanto la actividad difusora como la
antropología han sido ciencias afines desde los orígenes
de la última. Los antropólogos han ensayado una gran
gama de formas de comunicar su profesión al público
oyente. La interacción operante entre antropólogos y
comunicadores se ha presentado en muy pocas ocasiones
con fines de estudio que permitan derivar reglas y, como
es de esperarse, valerse de las conclusiones de otros.

Anthropologists
volved with volved with media.
media. Perhaps have
the most Perhaps always the most been obvious in-
obvious
example of this media involvement has been the anthro-
pologists's concern for getting data and conclusions
published. In the beginning, this publication took the
form of the various print media, such as the journal and
the book. More recently, anthropologists have begun to
E. B. Eiselein is an applied media anthropologist with
"publish" in the media of radio, film, and television.
KUAT-TV-AM-FM in Tucson, Arizona. He has produced
and directed numerous radio and television programs
Most anthropologists are products of complex urban-
industrial societies. These societies are media societies.
and won the " Arizona School Bell" Award for radio
Here man can be envisioned as being immersed in a
programming in 1974. Martin Topper is Assistant Profes-
sor of Anthropology at Southern Methodist Universitymedia ambiance or a media stream. He enjoys, suffers,
in Dallas, Texas. endures, and ignores an almost constant mental massage

VOL. 35, NO. 2 SUMMER 1976 123

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by the various media. "Modern" man listens to the Age in Samoa in 1928. During the 1930s and 1940s
radio, watches television, talks on the telephone, reads a anthropologists such as Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict,
newspaper, listens to the stereo, reads grafitti on Clyde Kluckhohn, and Ashley Montagu wrote a number
rest room walls, hears a lecture over an electronic of books which attracted a general audience and made
amplification system, reads his favorite magazines, goes the public aware of other cultures and of anthropology.
to the movies, and even makes his own home movies. These books tended to be popular with the general
This media milieu is by no means unique to the reader for a variety of reasons. First, they maintained
so-called "civilized" man. The anthropologist studying their accuracy while not "talking down" to the public.
many of the "primitive" societies of the world en- Second, they were fairly general. They were not esoteric
counters indigenous forms of media such as signal essays on anthropological theory and methodology. The
drums, petroglyphs, smoke signals, as well as the ever most important factor in the popularity of these books,
present transito r radio and the battery-operated however, was their style. They were written in a manner
phonograph. It is rather amazing that anthropologists which could be easily understood by the common man.
have tended to ignore media in their holistic studies of Today one can walk into almost any drugstore or
man. grocery store and find several books written by anthro-
pologists.from
In the present article we would like to examine, The same is true of brochures and advertise-
a historical perspective, the developmentments
of thefor four
the various book clubs. Anthropological
most common media- print, film, radio, television-
writers suchand
as Oscar Lewis, Carlos Casteneda, Lionel
the involvement of anthropologists in theseTiger,
media.George and Nena O'Neil, V. Gordon Childe, and
many others have become well known among general
readers. Their popularity has been in part due to an
Print Media adherence to the formula established by the earlier
popular anthropology books. They are readable and they
The first modern media began with printing. Writing have general interest.
appears to have been discovered or invented in four Museum books and pamphlets also play an important
different areas of the world- Egypt, Mesopotamia, role in the communication of anthropology to the
China, and Mesoamerica. This early step in the mech- general audience. Written specifically for the general
anical amplification of human communication, accord- audience, and often aimed at children, these books and
ing to Childe (1951:148) "was destined to revolutionize pamphlets help satisfy the curiosity aroused by the
the transmission of human knowledge." Early writing museum displays. Closely akin to the museum book is
allowed man to break through temporal and geographic the book club book. Examples of this type of book
barriers and have his thoughts, ideas, and observations would include the Time-Life series on The Emergence of
obtain a degree of immortality and fame far greater than Man and the Old West. Books of this type are written in
that of the oral traditions. the museum book style utilizing a great many illustra-
tions and pictures and a text aimed at the general reader.
THE EMERGENCE OF THE BOOK. The book is They are distributed through special book club member-
perhaps the oldest form of the print media ships
and rather than through museum desks.
is most
closely associated with the elitist scholastic and Anthropology has not been confined to the non-
academic audience. Nearly 500 million books are sold in fiction genre. Novels such as Oliver LaFarge's Laughing
the United States each year. Two-thirds of these are Boy and Laura Bohannan's Return to Laughter lead
paperbacks and over half of the clothbound books are their readers into other cultures without the formality of
distributed through book clubs. The capability of using an academic presentation. Nonanthropological novelists,
the book medium to communicate with the masses is such as Ted Mark and James Michener, have utilized
anthropological
evident. University and commercial book publishers are writings to lend a sense of realism to
their stories. Anthropologists have also been used as
eager to publish "sound, well-written, nontechnical
characters
interpretations of scholarship presented for the en- in novels such as Michener's The Source and
lightenment of serious readers" (Shugg 1963:73). Frank Herbert's Soul Catcher.

THE EMERGENCE OF THE MAGAZINE. The Ameri-

ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND BOOKS. Anthropologists
have felt most at home in the medium of the book. Here
can magazine is the historical descendant of three
they have had their greatest success in using media to traditions in print media. The first of these is that of the
reach other anthropologists and a general audience. The scholarly journal. This tradition began with the publica-
current trend of the popular anthropological book in the tion of the Parisian Journal des Scavans on January 5,
United States dates from the publication of Coming of 1665. This journal summarized all of the important

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scholarly books published in Europe. By the eighteenth October 1971 issue of New Yorker Magazine. In other
century, the scholarly journals began to specialize. The instances, writers for magazines such as the popular
trend in specialization is seen today in the number of sex-violence men's magazines have used quotes from
specialized anthropological journals. anthropologists to lend authenticity to their stories.
The second tradition is that of news. Andrew
Bradford's American Magazine and Ben Franklin's THE EMERGENCE OF THE NEWSPAPER. Print as a
General Magazine , both appearing for the first time in medium for the masses had to await two important
January 1741, offered their readers a combination of developments: the power printing press and mass
general in-depth news, essays, and advice. Later the news literacy. These two developments led to the establish-
format of the magazine was influenced by the journal- ment of the "penny" press which began with the New
istic style of the penny press. York Sun on September 3, 1833. The Sun marked the
The third tradition of the magazine is fiction. In the beginning of modern journalism. Its editors redefined
beginning, magazine fiction tended to be the "high- news to fit the tastes, interests, and (most importantly)
class" literary style. With the increasing literacy of the the reading skills of the less educated level of American
masses and the popularity of the dime novel, many society (DeFluer 1970).
magazines began publishing the formula-written stories The gazettes and journals prior to the "penny press"
which emphasized sensationalism, heroism, violence, and were concerned with philosophical discourse, editorials,
emotionalism. Today the American magazine offers a and essays. The Sun's orientation toward the common
myriad of forms for a variety of audiences. The diversity man ushered in a new journalistic style. Today the
of magazines is such that Wolseley (1972a:85) com- canons of modern journalism (including electronic
ments, "In America, it appears, if three or more people media journalism) include a heavy emphasis on objec-
get together their first act is to form a committee and tivity and accuracy, as they relate and interpret the news
their second is to launch a publication; generally it is a for the "average citizen." As the anthropologist W.
magazine." Lloyd Warner has stated in his classic study of the
symbolic life of Americans:

ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND MAGAZINES. The involve- Despite the intrusion of modern canons of accuracy
ment of the anthropologist with magazines has varied. and
In the infusion of the spirit of rationality into
those magazines which stem primarily from the newspapers and other mass media, a casual listing of
scholastic tradition, such as Psychology Today , the prevailing selection of stories and the simplest
analysis of the criteria of a "good story" that will
Sexology , and others, we find that anthropologists are
hold readers and perhaps build circulation demon-
frequent contributors. On the other hand, we find very
strate that the "objective" coverage of what happens
few anthropologists among the contributors to those every day to the people of the world is dominated by
magazines which have strayed from the scholastic the basic wishes, the hopes and fears, the non-logical
tradition and which focus upon news or entertainment. symbolic themes and folk beliefs of the people who
The notable exception to this has been Dr. Margaret buy and read the papers (1959:54-55).
Mead's column in Redbook. Through this column, Dr.
Mead has carried her observations on child development, In addition to beginning modern journalism, the Sun
human sexuality, and human behavior to a fairly broad and its imitators were instrumental in establishing a new
audience. This in turn has strengthened the public economic structure of communications. The simplest
communications model involves a sender and a receiver.
recognition of her as an authority on many aspects of
human behavior. In pr e-Sun times, the elitist press (the sender) was
Another interesting example of anthropologists writ- economically supported by its readers (the receivers).
ing for a nonscholastic magazine is found in American The penny press, however, developed the philosophy
Way , the inflight magazine of American Airlines. In thisthat the newspaper should reach as many people as
magazine, a number of anthropologists and other expertspossible at a very low cost to the reader. Therefore a
published a series of articles on the American Indian.third figure entered our communications model- the
This series proved so popular that it was later reprintedadvertiser. The penny price of the Sun barely covered
in book form. the cost of the newsprint. For a fee the Sun carried
Anthropologists have contributed to magazines incommercial messages. These messages in turn eco-
ways other than being authors. They have provided nomically supported the printing and news-gathering
journalists and other writers with background informa-operations.
tion and story ideas. For example, Calvin Trillin worked During the 1 30 years following the founding of the
with anthropologists and other social scientists to writeSun many minor technological innovations were made in
an article on American Indian alcoholism for the the printing industry; wood engravings gave way to

VOL. 35, NO. 2 SUMMER 1976 125

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photoengraving, the linotype speeded typesetting, the findings of the Kinsey report to the press, Pomeroy
telephone line led to the development of the wire service (1972:252) has pointed out that a reporter
and faster news gathering, and color printing became
must try to understand what a specialist is telling
possible. However, the next major revolution in the print
him, extract from it what will be of most interest to
media came with offset printing. With a little training, a
his mass audience and write it in a way that will
spare room, and minimal investment in equipment, any
inform them- and possibly, in the case of magazines,
dissatisfied political science major could become the amuse, titillate, or otherwise entertain them as well.
printer of his own paper. By 1966 the offset press
provided the impetus for a fast-spreading underground This problem is compounded by the specialist. Pomeroy
press (Glessing 1970:41-43; Kunkin 1972:117). (1972:252) continues:
"In one sense it can be said that underground
The scientist usually finds it exceedingly difficult to
newspapers are written by the alienated for the aliena-
talk on a comprehensible lay level. If he is obliging
ted" (Glessing 1970:3). The beginnings of the under-
enough, he will try to explain or interpret what he is
ground press actually predate offset printing. Among the doing in the most simplified way he can manage. In
first of the underground papers was the Village Voice doing so, he cannot document or support his ideas in
which began on October 26, 1955 in "response to the the detailed technical manner he would employ if he
social indifference and journalistic vacuum at the end of were writing a paper himself for a professional journal
the silent generation of the 1950V' (Glessing 1970:13). or lecturing to an audience of colleagues.
Today there are several hundred newspapers which can
be classified as "underground" and collectively these can Often the anthropologist expresses himself in a jargon
be seen as a major medium (Sale 1972; Kunkin 1972). that is either incomprehensible to the layman or, worse,
confusing because of the shift in meaning of common
words.
ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND NEWSPAPERS. The
One of the side effects of the interplay between the
history of anthropologists and their relationship with
social sciences and journalists worth developing further
newspapers is one of sporadic interaction whichhas
is been
verythe adoption of some social science techniques
difficult to trace. During the nineteenth century the
by newsmen. As journalists have moved from the
newspapers often carried stories on "amateur" anthro-
straight reporting of facts to the interpretation of these
pologists. These stories covered the reportsfacts,
of thethey have found that the social science techniques
"naked" or "noble savages" which the Reverend X or participant -observation, and field experimen-
of surveys,
Mr. Y encountered in their travels to "exotic" places.
tation have provided them with better fact-finding tools.
Times have changed, but on the whole newspapers The result has been greater accuracy in many newspaper
devote little space to reporting social science articles
news andin a greater concern for understanding the deep
general and anthropology news in particular.meanings
In one of the events around us.
survey of eight American newspapers it was found that
only one-third of one percent of the stories focused on
anthropology (Divale 1972). Even with the scarce Film
newspaper coverage of anthropology, there have been a
few anthropologists who have written regular newspaper
columns (e.g., the late Bernice Johnson's "Museum A BRIEF HISTORY. The motion picture appeared on
Piece" in the Arizona Daily Star). There are also the amedia
few scene in the 1890s when Kinetoscope parlors
anthropologists, Margaret Mead, Lionel Tiger, began opening across the U.S. For a nickle or a dime the
Ashley
Montagu, Edmund Leach, who have been considered viewertocould see brief visual portrayals of slapstick
be "newsmakers." comedy or pornography. Thus motion pictures began
Communication between the anthropologist (or any with a concern for the trivial and inconsequential.
Following the pattern of the burlesque house and the
scientist) and the press is difficult for a number of
reasons. First, anthropologists tend to be quite naive theater, the patrons of the movies paid admissions which
when it comes to understanding how the press works. provided the major economic base for their production
and distribution of films. As Richard Randall states:
They are unable to interact with the press so that it will
report an accurate picture of what the anthropologists
Economically, the movies depended almost entirely
feel are the important aspects of their discipline. Second,
upon those who paid their way to see them. With few
there are very few reporters who specialize in anthropol- exceptions, no advertisers influenced the content of
ogy, social science, or science in general. Most reporters the pictures out of a need to sell products of their
have little if any, formal training in anthropology. In own. The movies were essentially a consumer's
talking about the difficulty in communicating the medium (1970:9).

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This does not mean that films were free from all forms
tions with pencil and paper. A few supplemented these
of economically inspired influence. Understanding thenotes with still photography. Very few, however, had
economics of film is important. According to British the skills or the money to use film as a recording device.
film historian Paul Rotha (1952:53): Jean Rouch, an ethnologist with the Musée de
l'Homme in Paris, began using film to record his
Whatever its claims to artistic or instructional virtues,
ethnographical work in Africa in the 1940s. When asked
the film must always be primarily regarded as a
by Roy Levin (1971:133) why he began making films,
problem in economics. Not only has this meant that
its development must have been controlled by the Rouch replied because "I studied ethnology. I became a
laws of production and distribution, but its subjectsfilmmaker because I discovered that you have to have a
and to some extent its styles have necessarily been camera to do research." Rouch has become an advocate
influenced, if not dictated by commercial specula- for the use of film in ethnography: "I sincerely believe
tion. that it is impossible to describe an African or American
Indian or Polynesian ceremony, in which several things
Not only has the motion picture followed the book in are happening at once, without a film camera" (Issari
terms of economic support (that is, the viewer-reader 1971 :71). Rouch has also commented on ethnology and
pays for the production), but also in terms of format. film:
Most motion pictures have centered around fictional
themes. Even biographies (a second major theme) often I think that to make a film is to tell a story. An
have fictional elements woven into them. ethnographic book tells a story; bad ethnographic
books, bad theses are accumulations of documents.
ANTHROPOLOGY AND FILM. The landmark of
Good ethnology is a theory and a brilliant exposition
of this theory-and that's what a film is (Levin
filming other cultures came in 1922 with the release of
1971:140).
Nanook of the North. The film was the first effort of
Robert Flaherty who is today considered one of
Thethe
future of anthropological publication may be in
fathers of the documentary, of the nonfiction film,
film.and
According to Rouch, "I am almost sure that in, say
of cinema verite. Flaherty was not trained as filmmaker,
50 years' time, there won't be a single anthropological
rather Barsam (1973:125) calls him "an ecologist and
book written to describe behavior. It will all be done
ethnologist, in love with man and the natural with
world,films" (quoted in Issari 1971:71).
fascinated with the crafts of primitive man and appalled
Film as ethnographic publication, and in fact, the
by the dehumanizing technology of modern man."multimedia publication of ethnographic data, has al-
During the early 1920s other filmmakers wereready
also been done for some studies. Robert Gardner
producing fairly accurate "travel" pictures. In 1925 on the study of the Dani in New Guinea:
comments
Paramount released Merian C. Cooper's Grass. Grass "is a
strangely incoherent, but fascinating film" (BarsamFrom the beginning I decided that the New Guinea
1973:19) about the Bakhtiari tribesmen of central would be done by professionals trained and
work
Persia. Richard Griffith notes that "geographersexperienced
and in both film and anthropology. The goals
were to produce at the end of three years a major
ethnologists rushed into print to spread its fame"
film, a scientific monograph, a general book, a book
(Jacobs 1971:23). The film had some popularity and
of still photographs, and a comprehensive series of
Cooper went next to the Siamese jungle to film Chang
sound recordings, all of which have now been
(released in 1927). completed (Levin 1971:430).
In spite of the success of Nanook and Cooper's two
films, the film industry felt that fictionalization wasThe breakthrough which has increased the use of film
the
route to better box office returns. Instead of ethno-
in ethnography in the second half of the century has
graphic accuracy, they preferred story lines based been partially technological. Television has been largely
upon
their stereotypes of "native" cultures. The nonfiction for the increased interest in anthropological
responsible
travelogue gave way to the "adventure" film and film. Television adopted the 16mm format instead of the
to the
"jungle" film with plots, savages, and White heros.35mm format. This advanced 16mm film and equipment
During the 1930s, while Americans were from amatuer to professional status (Issari 1971). In
being
titillated with "jungle" thrillers, Robert Flaherty addition,
was in the 16mm equipment is smaller, easier to work
England. With the backing of Gaumont-British he with,
madeand less expensive.
During
the sound film Man of Aran (1934) based upon life in the 1960s and 1970s the commercial movie-
the Aran Islands. The film was attacked by a numbermaking ofindustry changed its orientation considerably.
British critics but did win one international award.Movies became less a product for the theater and more a
product for television. Television has given anthropolo-
During the first half of the twentieth century,
gists and filmmakers the opportunity to join forces in a
anthropologists tended to record most of their observa-

VOL. 35, NO. 2 SUMMER 1976 127

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number of endeavors. Perhaps one of the most successful the AM signal carries further and thus the FCC restricts
television films dealing with anthropology has been The nighttime broadcasting to prevent interference. Nearly
Man Hunters. The making of this film is described two-thirds of the nighttime stations reduce their power
elsewhere in this volume (Hockings 1976). at night.
Ethnographic film has become well established in We might think of AM radio as reaching the listener
anthropology. It is now fairly common to use film for on the go, the listener who is in an automobile or at the
recording data and for its publication. The film sessions beach. FM, on the other hand, reaches the listener in
at the meetings of the American Anthropological As- front of a good sound system. Settel (1967) feels that
sociation and the increase of film reviews in professional the rise of FM was due in part to a "reaction to noisy,
journals attest to this. low-IQ offerings" of AM. He compares FM in the early
There is a fear among some anthropologists that the 1960s with England's Third Programme. However, as FM
use of film as a publication may somehow distort the became more popular, we find that, "Commercials,
scientific objectivity of their work. According to John popular music, live sports broadcasts, and sexy -voiced
Collier (1967:122): "Because film is so popular a form girl announcers invaded the cloistered world of FM.
of entertainment there is always an artistic and com- Some listeners regretted it" (Settel 1967:179).
mercial temptation to distort the data to conform to FM radio's nearly 3,000 stations offer a variety of
more popular tastes." programming. The concept of "prime" time is different
in FM than in AM. In AM radio prime time is "drive"
time, that is, the early morning and late afternoon
Radio
hours. For FM, prime time is the evening. This again
points to the portability of AM and the listening quality
of FM. However, the number of FM portables and FM
A BRIEF HISTORY. The "tribal drum" of radio entered
car radios is increasing and thus FM is becoming more
the media scene in 1920 when KDKA and 8XK began portable.
regular broadcasting. At first it was felt that radio, like
A distinction between AM, FM, and shortwave is also
motion pictures, could be economically underwritten by
a possibility. However, the United States, unlike some
its audience. However, on August 28, 1922, WEAF ran a
nations, has allocated shortwave frequencies for private
commercial for the Hawthorne Court Apartments and stations to those stations which are concerned with
the commercial trend which has characterized modern
international broadcasting. At the present time there are
radio got under way.
only three such stations in the United States-WNYW in
The heyday of radio lasted from 1930 to 1952.
Scituate, Massachusetts, WINB in Red Lion, Pennsyl-
During this time programming was dominated by the
vania, and KGEI in Belmont, California. The Voice of
networks and focused upon drama, variety, serials, and
America, an instrument of the United States Informa-
comedy. Radio was predominantly entertainment and
tion Agency, operates a large number of high power
was often referred to as the "poor man's entertainment" stations both in the United States and abroad.
because it was "free." Television, however, dethroned
Frequently overlooked in considerations of radio in
radio as the king of mass entertainment. Radio today is the U.S. is the fact that there are more than 500
vaster and more massive than ever, but its programming
noncommercial public or educational stations on the air.
and its functions have changed.
These range from numerous small 10 watt FM stations
The radio networks today provide only brief news
to one 50,000 watt AM station (KUAT-AM, Tucson).
and information services to about one-third of the
Educational and public radio began with the University
commercial stations. According to Jerry Buck, "Radio
of Wisconsin's experimental station 9XM in 1919 (which
today is very localized, very personal" (1971:97). Buck
became WHA in 1922). Following this precedent most
goes on to say that, "Radio is: all-news, all-talk, all-rock,
of the noncommercial stations are licensed to colleges
all-pop, all-country, all-Black, and dozens of other
and universities and function as a part of universities'
specialities and combinations."
extension service to the community, as a training
One major factor in radio broadcasting concerns the
laboratory for students, and/or a service to the student
difference between AM and FM. Radio began as AM
body. Other noncommercial stations are operated by
(audio modulation) which occupies the 540 to 1600
religious organizations, local school boards, community
kilocycle band on the radio. AM radio is the most
organizations, libraries, and other public service organi-
massive and the most portable in the United States
zations. National Public Radio (NPR) interconnects 118
today due to the transistor and the car radio. A
stations into a national noncommercial radio network.
consideration for AM stations is whether the station is
full-time or daytime only. Almost half of the AM
stations broadcast only from sunrise to sunset. At night ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND RADIO. Anthropologists

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have been involved with radio since the early years. The Eiselein and Barber 1973; Eiselein and Wong 1973a,
history of this involvement is one of intermittent and 1973b).
sporadic merging of broadcasting and anthropological
interests. The involvement has also been quite varied in
nature. Television
In a few instances radio has been used as a "publica-
A BRIEF HISTORY. Television is often thought of as
tion" media. Just as university and museum presses have
published many of the ethnographies and monographs the infant of the mass media in terms of age, but in fact
produced by anthropologists, university-based radio
it has been in existence for some time. There were
series have also served as vehicles for the dissemination working television sets as early as 1884. By 1936
of information about anthropologists, their work, and regularly scheduled television broadcasts were being sent
their opinions. One example of this was the University out from the Eiffel tower in Paris and by the BBC in
of Chicago Round Table series. Initiated in the 1930s,London. Moscow and Leningrad got their first television
the roundtable dealt with the condition of mankind in a stations in 1938. Regularly scheduled television broad-
world which was undergoing rapid technological, social, casting in the U.S. began in New York in 1939 with
religious, and political change. The scholars which NBC's W2XBS. Following the pattern established by
appeared on the program came not only from the newspapers and by radio, television in the U.S. began
University of Chicago, but also from other prestigious airing commercials on July 1 , 1941 . As in the other two
universities from around the world. Anthropologists media, commercials have become the economic back-
such as Fred Eggan, Froelich Rainey, Sol Tax, and bone of television.
Robert Redfield were among these who expressed their Like most successful innovations, television incor-
views and insights on the series. porated familiar elements into something novel. During
Most frequently, the anthropologist has been involved the early years of the television boom following the
with radio as "talent" or "newsmaker." In these roles Second World War, television was primarily radio with

the anthropologist has been able to give lectures or allow pictures. Summers and Summers (1966:78) point out
himself to be interviewed. For example, the BBC aired a that, "Practically all of the program forms used on
series of lectures by Edmund Leach as a part of its television were first developed on radio." During the
first two years of television networking, the most
prestigious Reith Lecture series. These lectures were
later published in book form as A Runaway World ? popular programs were taken directly from radio. This
(Leach 1967). The Pacifica Tape Library, which consists reliance on radio programming techniques and upon
of tapes of radio programs from noncommercial Pacifica motion pictures has continued through today.
stations, includes lectures and interviews with Oscar In terms of audience, television is the most massive
Lewis (1968), Ashley Montagu (1967), Neil Eddington medium in the U.S. today. It is not uncommon for a
(1968), Gregory Bateson (n.d.), and Gerald Berreman single program to reach over one-third of the households
(1970). in the country in a single evening. This massive audience
of television is due in large part to the nature of the
The best-known use of radio for publishing anthro-
medium's content. Television consists primarily of fic-
pology is Walter Goldschmidťs Ways of Mankind , a
tional entertainment programs aimed at the masses.
series of recordings which were originally produced for
As a kind of caution against the elitist intellectual
the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and later re-
bias against television, Leo Rosten (1971) makes the
leased as a set of records. In reviewing the records, John
following observations concerning the medium:
Gillin points out that they "represent the first system-
atic, nation-wide attempt to bring some of the view- Television reaches the largest and most heterogeneous
points of social anthropology to the general listening audiences of any form of communication in human
public" (1956:369). In the Ways of Mankind 26 dramas history .... Television is a department store: it offers
are used to introduce the listener to other cultures at a a great variety of products for a greatly varied body
of consumers (1971 : 137).
relatively elementary conceptual level. The success of
this approach is seen both in Gillin's review and in the Television is a combination of newspaper, vaudeville
fact that these dramas are still heard today in a variety show, movie, circus, Chautauque, theater, forum,
of classrooms. discussion group, debating society, sports arena, flea
show, auction .... Television producers appraise
Some anthropologists have studied radio. Examples "success" according to audience size (1971:138).
of this include Warner and Henry's (1948) study of radio
soap operas and Eiselein 's study of various aspects of The television producer's concern for audience size is
Anglo-American and Mexican-American radio (Eiselein a reflection of the commercial nature of television. Nye
1973, 1975a, 1975b, 1975c, 1975d, 1975e, 1975f; (1970:408) has shown that "television is primarily a

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selling machine of great efficiency" and that it "must outside of the cities, cable today is a major national
therefore always see its audience not only as an audience media business. The cable experience in San Diego and
but as a market; what it presents is not only entertain- New York has shown that cable can succeed in the city
ment but advertising." The television advertiser does not too.

simply buy television time; rather he buys an audience Perhaps cable's greatest potential lies in its ability to
to which he can sell his product. The producer, in turn, originate its own programming. Broadcast television is an
must create a program which attracts a large audience. In elitist business. It is a scarce and expensive medium and
simple economic terms, the larger the audience, the hence is controlled by either a capitalistic elite (commer-
more the advertiser is willing to pay for the time to cial television) or an educational elite (public television).
make his spiel. Can the alienated create an underground television?
In the television boom which has followed the 1950s, What about the modern pamphleteer, can he utilize
the technology of the medium has changed considerably. television? With respect to broadcast television, the
Today one sees very few live programs other than the answer to all of these questions is no. The potential lies
local news. Programs are either recorded on videotape or in cable and its programming ability.
filmed. Color has become the norm in television. With Since the Sloan Commission report (1971) was
more than half of the households containing color sets written, the interconnection of small, local systems into
virtually all national and most local programs are larger systems has resulted in some major steps toward
produced in color. Television is not an inexpensive what Smith (1970, 1973) sees as a wired nation. The
medium; the costs of production are often much more Federal Communications Commission has ruled that
than a small independent producer can underwrite. To cable systems with more than 3,500 subscribers must
help alleviate the high cost of production, networks are originate some programming. Handbooks have been
concerned with programs which they can broadcast written to provide citizens with a guide to public access
more than once, thus allowing them to yield a higher to cable (Price and Wicklein 1972). Cable-originated
profit. material has attempted to provide a communications
outlet for the Black and for the alienated (Shamberg
PUBLIC TELEVISION. Not all television stations in the 1971).
U.S. are commercial. When the television channels were
allocated during the "freeze" in 1948-1952, a number of ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND TELEVISION. Television
people held the idealist philosophy that television could today is the most popular of the media. In spite of
be educational. Consequently certain television channels criticism against "popularizing" anthropology, some
were reserved for noncommercial stations. Presently anthropologists have been involved with television since
there are more than 200 of these stations, approximately the early days of the "boom." One of these was Froelich
two-thirds of which are licensed to universities. The Rainey and the University of Pennsylvania Museum's
other noncommercial stations are licensed to municipal series What in the World. This series premiered on CBS
or community organizations, school systems, and states. in 1950 and ran nationally for five years. It ran for an
The philosophy of public (or educational) television additional ten years on local Philadelphia television.
differs from its commercial counterpart. While the goal Another museum oriented intellectual television
of the commercial station is to attract all of the audience parlor game was Animal Vegetable , Mineral . This BBC
all of the time, the public station is more likely to series features a prominent archaeologist, Sir Mortimer
recognize the heterogeneity of the television audience. Wheeler, and a format similar to What in the World.
Public television programming is generally designed to More recently, BBC's Fyfe Robertson produced another
serve specific segments of the larger audiences. While it is series on British museums called Brush off the Dust. In
traditionally felt that public television services a high- this series museum objects were used as the central part
education, high-income elite, research on current pro- of a theme or story for the program.
gramming would indicate that public television is reach- The idea of allowing the viewer to vicariously
ing a fairly significant portion of television households participate-observe other cultures materilized in the CBS
of all income and educational levels.
series Adventure which ran through the 1953 season.
Developed in conjunction with the American Museum of
CABLE. Cable began as a way to get a better television Natural History, Adventure ran for some forty programs.
picture in fringe reception areas. In the last two decades Anthropologists served as consultants who helped CBS
cable has changed a great deal. No longer is it concerned film various cultures throughout the world (Robert
with television alone, but most cable systems also carry a Northshield).
variety of radio signals, both FM and AM. While cable During the 1960s-1970s there were no national
started as a local, small business to serve viewer needs television series directly relating to anthropology (with

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the exception of the BBC's Brush off the Dust men- number of film reviews in the American Anthropologist
tioned above). There have been some specials (such as attest to the increasing use of film in the classroom.
the Man Hunters) and one drama series which featured Coupled with this is an awareness that "publication" via
James Stewart as an "anthropology professor." How- film "may" be a valid academic exercise.
ever, anthropologists have helped produce segments for In a survey of public broadcasting Katzman (1973)
both network and local news programs; they have found that nearly eight percent of all air time was
appeared as newsmakers; they have been guests on devoted to instructional social science programming.
national and local discussion programs. This figure represents nearly 27% of all instructional air
Anthropologists have not restricted their use of time for the 149 public stations in his sample. Nearly
television to the transmission of anthropological infor- two-thirds of the instructional programming was aimed
mation. There have been major projects in which an at children in elementary school.
applied anthropologist has used television as a tool in The use of audio recordings in the classroom is still
introducing certain sociocultural changes (see Eiselein somewhat limited. At most a professor may use some
1974, 1975a; Eiselein and Marshall 1971; Marshall, musical recordings for a lecture on ethnomusicology or
Eiselein, Duncan, and Gamez 1974; Eiselein and Barber the records of Goldschmidt's Ways of Mankind. Some
1975). schools, such as Flathead Valley Community College,
Outside of the applied anthropology projects, there maintain rather primitive audio labs where students may
has been little anthropological study of television. listen to tapes dealing with various cultural situations.
Today's urban anthropologists seem to have a standard The use of television (both closed and open circuit)
intellectual antitelevision bias, which, coupled with an and video-recording is still in the experimental stage.
overconcern for studying the "primitive" or "exotic" While there is some fear among college professors that
aspects of urban life, has left them blind to the fact that they will be replaced by the boob tube, research tends to
television is a major social and cultural force. Yet indicate that television is most effective when supple-
broadcasters at a recent NAEB symposia on media mentary to person-to-person contact (Gordon 1970;
anthropology (Eiselein, Topper, Reining, and James Schramm, Coombs, Kahnert, and Lyle 1967). Thus, we
1972) expressed a feeling that the study of television by might see television used in the classroom much the
anthropologists might be the area where anthropology same way that the Spindler series of monographs are
can contribute the most to the media. used -as a means of allowing the student to observe
An overview of anthropology and the media of other cultures.
television shows a somewhat spotty interrelationship of There is also a multimedia approach which is being
the two. There have been some anthropologists who developed by MacRae (1976) and others. This is an
have had some involvement with the media over the attempt to use various media in a coordinated way to
years. However, anthropological avoidance, or perhapsconvey something of the "feeling of actually being
shyness, of the media has been the general rule. Yet there" to the student. This multimedia approach is
limited involvement of anthropology with television has combined with the more traditional lecture and quiz
shown that TV is excellent for transmitting certain kindssection approach to teaching on the university level. Up
of anthropological information, that it can be a tool for to the present time the responses from the students have
sociocultural change, and that it can provide the focus been very encouraging.
for interesting and significant study. Finally, it must be recognized that in speaking of
instructional media we are referring to much more than
university-level teaching. With the development of ITV
Instructional Media in recent years, and with instructional films and records,
during the 1940s and 1950s the electronic media entered
every level of the American educational system. Most of
The concept of instructional media refers to the use
the present generation has grown up under their in-
of all of the major media mentioned above plus a host of
fluence. Furthermore, the three "R's" which were
minor media. The most common form of instructional
taught to all students are in themselves media skills at
media is, of course, the text book. The text book their most basic level. Before we can teach our children
generally grows out of the teaching experience and is
to think, we have to teach them how to communicate to
designed for the student (though lay readers are often
others and understand what others are communicating
conceived as a secondary audience).
to them.
Anthropologists involved in teaching anthropology
(approximately 98% of the profession) have found that Summary
films, slides, and filmstrips are a great aid in helping the
student understand other cultures. The increasing From this brief discussion several important elements

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 REFERENCES CITED
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