CN Module 1

INTRODUCTION - DATA COMMUNICATION

• Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to
processed data that enables us to take decisions.
• The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is
agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.
• Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information
• In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over
a transmission medium.
• This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware
and software.
• The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the
intermediate devices through which the data passes.
• The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be
communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a
Protocol.

4 Fundamental Characteristics for Effective Data Communication (JAT-D)

• Delivery
o The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
• Accuracy
o The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered
in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
• Timeliness
o The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless.
o In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as
they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
 • Jitter
o Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
o For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay,
then, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

Components of Data Communication

• Message
o Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the
receiver.
o Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.
• Sender
o The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
o It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and
so on.
• Receiver
o The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data
(message).
o It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and
so on.
• Transmission Medium
o It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can
be wired or wireless and has many subtypes in both.
o Examples: twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
waves
 • Protocol
o It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to
communicate data.
o A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
o A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without which the
communicating entities are like two persons trying to talk to each other in
different languages.

Data Representation
• Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images,
audio, and video.
• Text
o In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence
of bits (0s or 1s).
o Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols.
o Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called
coding.
o Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits
to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world.
o The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII),
developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the
first 127 characters in Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.
• Numbers
o Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
o A code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the number is
directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations.
• Images
o Images are also represented by bit patterns.
o In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture
elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on
the resolution.
o Higher the resolution required, higher will be the memory required.
 o After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.
o The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image. For an image
made of only black- and white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is
enough to represent a pixel and for images not made of pure white and
pure black pixels, we can increase the size of the bit pattern to include
gray scale.
o For example, to show four levels of gray scale, we can use 2-bit patterns. A
black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray
pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11.
o There are several methods to represent color images. One method is
called RGB, so called because each color is made of a combination of three
primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is
measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called
YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three other primary
colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
• Audio
o Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
o It is continuous, not discrete.
• Video
o Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
o Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera),
or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion.

Data Flow
1. Simplex

• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way

street.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive.
 • Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
• The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in
one direction.
2. Half Duplex

• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way
must wait.
• In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
3. Full Duplex

• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously.
• The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time.
• In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other direction.
• This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two
physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling
in both directions.
 • One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network.
• When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.
• The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two direction.

Networks
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication.
• A device can be a host (or an end system as it is sometimes called) such as a
large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system
or can also be a connecting device such as a router, which connects the network
to other networks, a switch, which connects devices together, a modem
(modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of data, and so on.
• These devices in a network are connected using wired or wireless transmission
media such as cable or air.
• Thus, a computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can
be any device capable of transmitting or receiving data. The communicating
nodes have to be connected by communication links.

Network criteria: (Performance, Reliability, and Security)

1. Performance
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay.
 • However, these two criteria are often contradictory i.e., if we try to send
more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the
delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
2. Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the
network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
3. Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communication
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur,
two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There
are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
1. Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links,
are also possible.
• Eg: When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television’s control system.
2. Multipoint
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it
is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.

Physical Topology
• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node.
• Node 1 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1
nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n – 1 nodes. We need n (n – 1)
physical links.
• However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex
mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a
mesh topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
• To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1 stations.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• It guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating
the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
• Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or Security is maintained, i.e., when every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
• Easy Fault identification and fault isolation
• Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables
the network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in
finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required is huge. First, because
every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
• Physical Limitations can happen(in walls, ceilings, or floors) and hence mesh
topology might be infeasible in such places.
• The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be
prohibitively expensive.
• For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for
example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that
can include several other topologies.

Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
• No direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs often use
a star topology with a central hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
• Less expensive than a mesh topology. • Easy to install and reconfigure.
• In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others.
• Far less cabling needs to be housed. • Easy modifications i.e., Additions, moves,
and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.
• Robustness is ensured i.e., if one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active. • Easy fault identification and fault isolation.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.
• Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a
central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some
other topologies like bus or ring.

Bus Topology

• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. (multipoint)
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
Advantages of Bus Topology
• Ease of installation. It uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the
nodes by drop lines of various lengths.
• Unlike Star Topology where all network devices in the same room require all the
way cabling to the hub, in a bus topology, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the
backbone cable stretches through the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach
only as far as the nearest point on the backbone
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. Less scalability - difficult to add new
devices
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can
be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given
length of cable.
• Adding new devices may require modification or replacement of the backbone.
• In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem.
• The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in
both directions.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. Hence
there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance
between those taps

Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• Easy to install and reconfigure. • Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbours (either physically or logically). • Simple fault isolation
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only
constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number
of devices).
• Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive
a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• A simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire
network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of
closing off the break.
• Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network, Token
Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.

Hybrid Technology
• A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each
branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown:
Network Types
Basis of
LAN MAN WAN
Comparison

Expansion Local Area Network Metropolitan A.N. Wide Area Network

Meaning A network that connects It covers relatively large It spans large locality
a group of computers in region such as cities, and connects countries
a small geographical towns together. Example
area, like building Internet.

Ownership Private Private and Public Private and Public

Design and Easy Difficult Difficult

Maintenance

Propagation Short Moderate Long

Delay

Speed High Moderate Low

Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant Less Tolerant

Congestion Less More More

Application Colleges, Homes Towns and Cities Country/Continent

Elements of a Protocol (S.S.T.)

• Syntax:
o It means the structure or format of the data.
o It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
• Semantics:
o It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of
each section.
o It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
• Timing:
o It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
o It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Standards in Networking
• Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and
interoperability between various networking hardware and software components.
• Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure
national and international interconnectivity.
• Examples:
o International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
o International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications Standard
(ITU-T)
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
o Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
o Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

Networking Devices
• Repeaters
o When signals leave a transmitting station, they are clean and more
recognizable. However, as the cable length increases, the signals become
weaker and deteriorate in strength.
o Repeaters solve the above problem by regenerating the original signal and
retransmitting it over the network.
• Hubs
o In a star topology, a repeater is a multiport device, often called a hub, that
can be used to serve as the connecting point and at the same time function
as a repeater.
o A hub is similar to the repeater but connects several pieces of a LAN.
• Bridge
o A bridge eliminates unnecessary traffic and minimizes the chances of
collisions occurring on a network by dividing it into segments.
o Bridges use tables to determine whether or not to forward data to other
segments of the network

• Routers
o Routers are devices that pass data packets between networks based on a
network protocol.
o They have the ability to take intelligent decisions like finding the best path for
delivery of data on the network.

Network Models
• Since the computer networks are created by different entities, there is a
requirement for Standards so that these heterogeneous networks can
communicate with one another.
• The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the TCP/IP model. The OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) model defines a seven-layer network; the TCP/IP
model defines a five-layer network.
• Peer To Peer
o Group of user-oriented PCs
o Each system works as server & client
o Small Networks
(Small office
e.g., Internet browsing Centres)
• Client Server Model
o It is a computing model one computer provide services to many systems
o Server offers services to other system (PCs)
o Client requests services from Servers

Protocol Layering
• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the
communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between different
layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
• Scenarios:
o First Scenario: In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can
occur in only one layer.

o Assume Maria and Ann are neighbours with a lot of common ideas.
Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to
face, in the same language, as shown in the above figure.
o Protocols to be followed:
• Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet.
• They know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their
friendship. Each party knows that she should refrain from speaking when
the other party is speaking.
 • Each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog, not a monolog:
both should have the opportunity to talk about the issue.
• They should exchange some nice words when they leave
o Second Scenario: Ann and maria communicating via email

o Additional Protocols apart from previously mentioned protocols:

• They do not want their ideas to be revealed by anyone else. Hence, they
agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
• The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an
intruder; the receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original letter.
• Now we can say that the communication between Maria and Ann takes
place in three layers.
Advantages of Protocol Layering
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks.
• Offers modularity. (independent layers - can do changes in one layer without
affecting others)
• it allows us to separate the services from the implementation. A layer needs to be
able to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to give the services to the
upper layer; we don’t care about how the layer is implemented.
• The communication does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers. If we did not
use protocol layering, we would have to make each intermediate system as
complex as the end systems, which makes the whole system more expensive.
Disadvantage of Protocol Layering: Increases overhead in communication

Principles of Protocol Layering

• First Principle
o The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we
need to make each layer such that it is able to perform two opposite tasks,
one in each direction.
• Second Principle
o The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the
two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
Between each layer we can assume to have a logical connection between the end
systems.

OSI Reference Model

• The Open Systems Interconnection Model is an ISO (International Standards
Organization) standard that covers all aspects Network Communication.
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI
model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.

Application Away
Presentation Pizzas
Session Sandwiches
Transport Throw
Network Not
Datalink Do
Physical Please
Physical Layer
• The Physical Layer provides a standardized interface to physical transmission
media, including :
o Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example
maximum cable length
o Electrical specification of transmission line
o Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
• On the sender side, the physical layer receives the data from Data Link Layer and
encodes it into signals to be transmitted onto the medium.
• On the receiver side, the physical layer receives the signals from the transmission
medium decodes it back into data and sends it to the Data Link Layer.
• Interface
o The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of interfaces between the
devices & transmission medium.
• Representation of bits
o The physical layer is concerned with transmission of signals from one device
to another which involves converting data (1‘s & 0‘s) into signals and vice
versa.
o It is not concerned with the meaning or interpretation of bits.
• Data rate
o The physical layer defines the data transmission rate i.e., the number of bits
sent per second.
o It is the responsibility of the physical layer to maintain the defined data rate.
• Synchronization of bits
o To interpret correct and accurate data the sender and receiver have to
maintain the same bit rate and also have synchronized clocks.
• Line configuration
o The physical layer defines the nature of the connection i.e., a point-to-point
link, or a multi-point link.
• Physical Topology
o The physical layer defines the type of topology in which the device is
connected to the network.
 o In a mesh topology it uses a multipoint connection and in other topologies it
uses a point-to-point connection to send data.
• Transmission mode
o The physical layer defines the direction of data transfer between the sender
and receiver.
o Two devices can transfer the data in simplex, half duplex or full duplex mode
• Main responsibility of the physical layer: Transmission of bits from one hop to the
next

Datalink Layer
• The Data Link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by providing error
detection and correction mechanisms.
• Framing
o On the sender side, the Data Link layer receives the data from Network Layer
and divides the stream of bits into fixed size manageable units called as
Frames and sends it to the physical layer.
o On the receiver side, the data link layer receives the stream of bits from the
physical layer and regroups them into frames and sends them to the
Network layer. This process is called Framing.
• Physical Addressing
o The Data link layer appends the physical address in the header of the frame
before sending it to physical layer.
o The physical address contains the address of the sender and receiver.
o In case the receiver happens to be on the same physical network as the
sender; the receiver is at only one hop from the sender and the receiver
address contains the receiver‘s physical address.
o In case the receiver is not directly connected to the sender, the physical
address is the address of the next node where the data is supposed to be
delivered.
• Flow control
o The data link layer makes sure that the sender sends the data at a speed at
which the receiver can receive it else if there is an overflow at the receiver
side the data will be lost.
o The data link layer imposes flow control mechanism over the sender and
receiver to avoid overwhelming of the receiver.
• Error control
o The data link layer imposes error control mechanism to identify lost or
damaged frames, duplicate frames and then retransmit them.
o Error control information is present in the trailer of a frame.
• Access Control
o The data link layer imposes access control mechanism to determine which
device has right to send data in a multipoint connection scenario.
• Main Responsibility
o The main responsibility of the data link layer is hop to hop transmission of
frames.

Network Layer
• The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to the receiver despite
multiple intermediate devices.
• At the sending side it accepts data from the transport layer, divides it into
packets, adds addressing information in the header and passes it to the data link
layer.
• At the receiving end the network layer receives the frames sent by data link layer,
converts them back into packets, verifies the physical address (verifies if the
receiver address matches with its own address) and the send the packets to the
transport layer.

• The network layer is responsible for source to destination of delivery of data.

Hence it may have to route the data through multiple networks via multiple
intermediate devices. In order to achieve this the network layer relies on two
things:
o Logical Addressing
o Routing
• Logical Addressing
o The network layer uses logical address commonly known as IP address to
recognize devices on the network.
o An IP address is a universally unique address which enables the network layer
to identify devices outside the sender‘s network.
o The header appended by the network layer contains the actual sender and
receiver IP address.
• Routing
o The network layer divides data into units called packets of equal size and uses
a sequence number for rearranging on the receiving end.
o Each packet is independent of the other and may travel using different routes
to reach the receiver hence may arrive out of turn at the receiver.
o Hence every intermediate node which encounters a packet tries to compute
the best possible path for the packet. The best possible path may depend on
several factors such as congestion, number of hops, etc
 o This process of finding the best path is called as Routing. It is done using
routing algorithms.
• Main Responsibility: The main responsibility of Network Layer is transmission of
packets from source to destination.

Transport Layer
• The transport layer takes care of process-to-process delivery of data and makes
sure that it is intact and in order.
• At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the session layer,
divides it into units called segments and sends it to the network layer.
• At the receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from the network layer,
converts and arranges into proper sequence of segments and sends it to the
session layer.

• To ensure process to process delivery, the transport layer makes use of port
address to identify the data from the sending and receiving process.
• A Port Address is the name or label given to a process. It is a 16-bit address. Ex:
o TELNET uses port address 23,
o HTTP uses port address 80.
• The data can be transported in a connection oriented or connectionless manner.
• The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation and reassembly of the
message into segments which uses sequence numbers.
• This numbering enables the receiving transport layer to rearrange the segments in
proper order.
• Flow Control & Error control
o the transport layer also carries out flow control and error control functions
o but unlike data link layer these are end to end rather than node to node.
• Main Responsibility: The main responsibility of the transport layer is process to
process delivery of the entire message.

Session Layer
• The session layer establishes a session between the communicating devices called
dialog and synchronizes their interaction.
• It is the responsibility of the session layer to establish and synchronize the dialogs.
It is also called the network dialog controller.
• At the sender side, the session layer accepts data from the presentation layer and
adds checkpoints to it called syn bits and passes the data to the transport layer.
• At the receiver end, the session layer receives data from the transport layer
removes the checkpoints inserted previously and passes the data to the
presentation layer

Presentation Layer
• The communicating devices may be having different platforms.
• The presentation layer performs translation, encryption and compression of data.
• At the sending side, it receives the data from the application layer adds header
which contains information related to encryption and compression and sends it to
the session layer.
• At the receiving side, it receives data from the session layer decompresses and
decrypts the data as required and translates it back.

• Translation
o The sending and receiving devices may run on different platforms (hardware,
software and operating system).
o Hence a translation service may be required which is provided by the
Presentation layers
• Compression: Compression ensures faster data transfer.
• Encryption and Decryption
o It is the process of transforming the original message to change its meaning
before sending it.
o The reverse process called decryption has to be performed at the receiving
end to recover the original message from the encrypted message.
• Main responsibility: The main responsibility of the Presentation layer is
translation, compression and encryption.

Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user to communicate its data to the receiver by
providing certain services.
• For Ex: Email is sent using X400 service, X500 is a directory service used to provide
information and access to distributed objects
• FTAM (File transfer, access and management) provides access to files stored on
remote computers and mechanism for transfer and manage them locally.
• Main Responsibility: Provide access to network resources

Note: Here, the data from the receiver goes up till the Network Layer in the
intermediate nodes and checks if its physical address matches with destination
physical address. As it doesn’t match, the data goes to the next node.
Data Transfer in Intermediate Nodes:
TCP/IP Architecture
• It is also called as the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is a collection of protocols.
• It is a hierarchical model i.e., There are multiple layers and higher layer protocols
are supported by lower layer protocols.
• Originally had four layers:
o 4. Application Layer
o 3. Transport Layer
o 2. Internet / Network / IP Layer
o 1. Host to Network Layer
• The structure TCP/IP model is very similar to the structure of the OSI reference
model. The OSI model has seven layers where the TCP/IP model has four layers.
• The Application layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Session, Presentation &
Application Layer of OSI model. (A = SAP)
• The Transport layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI
model.
• The Network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Network Layer of OSI model
• The Host to network layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the Physical and
Datalink Layer of OSI model.
• Host-to-Network Layer
o This layer is a combination of protocols at the physical and data link layers.
o It supports all standard protocols used at these layers.
o It is also called as network interface layer.
• Network Layer or IP Layer: IP is a combination of four protocols:
▪ ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• It is used to resolve the physical address of a device on a network, when
its logical address is known.
▪ RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• It is used by a device on the network to find its Internet address when
its physical address is known.
▪ ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• It is a signalling mechanism used to inform the sender about datagram
problems that occur during transit. It is used by intermediate devices.
▪ IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
• It is a mechanism that allows to send the same message to a group of
recipients.
• Transport Layer
o Transport layer protocols are responsible for transmission of data running on
a process of one machine to the correct process running on another machine.
o The transport layer contains three protocols: TCP, UDP and SCTP
▪ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
• TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol. i.e., a connection is
established between the sender and receiver before the data can
be transmitted.
• It divides the data it receives from the upper layer into segments
and tags a sequence number to each segment which is used at
the receiving end for reordering of data.
▪ UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• UDP is a simple protocol used for process-to-process transmission.
• It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that
do not require flow control or error control.
 • It simply adds port address, checksum and length information to
the data it receives from the upper layer.
▪ SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
• SCTP is a relatively new protocol added to the transport layer of
TCP/IP protocol suite.
• It combines the features of TCP and UDP.
• It is used in applications like voice over Internet and has a much
broader range of applications
• Application Layer
o The Application Layer in TCP/IP protocol is a combination of the Session,
Presentation & Application Layers of OSI model.
o It defines high level protocol like File Transfer (FTP), Electronic Mail (SMTP),
Virtual Terminal (TELNET), Domain Name Service (DNS), etc.

TCP/IP vs OSI Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Open System Interconnection. It has 7 Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

layers. Protocol. It has 4 layers.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent TCP/IP is based on standard protocols

standard, acting as a communication around which the internet has developed.
gateway between the network and end It is a communication protocol which
user. allows connection of hosts over a
network.

In OSI, the Transport layer guarantees In TCP/IP, the Transport layer does NOT
delivery of packets. guarantee the delivery of packets but still
TCP/IP is more reliable.

OSI follows vertical approach. TCP/IP follows horizontal approach.

OSI has separate Presentation and TCP/IP does NOT have separate
Session layers. Presentation and Session layers.

In OSI, Transport layer is connection In TCP/IP, Transport layer is both

oriented. connection oriented and connection less.
 OSI Model TCP/IP Model

In OSI, Network layer is both connection In TCP/IP, Network layer is connection

oriented and connection less. less.

OSI is a reference model using which TCP/IP Model is an implementation of the

networks are built and is used for OSI model.
guidance purpose.

OSI has a problem of fitting the TCP/IP does NOT fit any protocol.
protocols in the model.

Protocols are hidden in OSI and an be Replacing protocols is NOT easy in TCP/IP.
easily changed and technology changes.

OSI defines services, interfaces and In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and

protocols clearly and makes a clear protocols are not clearly separated. It is
distinction between them. It is protocol also protocol dependent.
independent.
 Addressing

Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses:

source address and destination address. Although it looks as if we need
five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer, we normally have only four
because the physical layer does not need addresses; the unit of data
exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an
address. Figure below shows the addressing at each layer.

As the figure shows, there is a relationship between the layer, the

address used in that layer, and the packet name at that layer. At the
application layer, we normally use names to define the site that provides
services, such as someorg.com, or the e-mail address, such as
somebody@coldmail.com. At the transport layer, addresses are called
port numbers, and these define the application-layer programs at the
source and destination. Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish
between several programs running at the same time. At the network-
layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope. A
network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the
Internet. The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are
locally defined addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router
in a network (LAN or WAN).
 Transmission Media (Guided and Unguided)

Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly
controlled by the physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to
layer zero.
Figure below shows the position of transmission media in relation to the physical
Layer

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry

information from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission
medium for two people having a dinner conversation is the air.

The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore.
For a written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck,
or an airplane. In data communications the definition of the information and the
transmission medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free
space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.

The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from
another form. The use of long-distance communication using electric signals
started with the invention of the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century.
Communication by telegraph was slow and dependent on a metallic medium.

In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad

categories: guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space. Figure below
shows this taxonomy.
7.2 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal
traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits
of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors
that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a
cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

7.2.1 Twisted-Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure 7.3.

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In
addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same
in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or
crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther).

➢ This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance

is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the
noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
➢ Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external
influences (noise or crosstalk).
➢ This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the
two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly
cancelled out. From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of
twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the
cable.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as

unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use, called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or
braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk,
it is bulkier and more expensive. Figure 7.4 shows the difference between UTP
and STP
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid
or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in
turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the
two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover (see Figure 7.7).
Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each RG
number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge
of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the
construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable
defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as shown in Table
7.2.
Application of Coaxial cable

➢ 1.Analog telephone network where a single cable could carry 10,000 voice
signals. Later it was used in Digital telephone networks where cable can
carry 600Mbps
➢ 2.Cable TV network: hybrid network use coaxial cable only at the network
boundaries, near the consumer. Cable TV use RG-59
➢ 3.Traditional Ethernet LANs.10-base-2 or “Thin Ethernet”, uses RG-58 coax
cable to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185m.10-base-5,or “Thick
Ethernet”, uses RG-11 to transmit 10 Mbps with rang of 500 m .

Fiber-Optic Cable

Is made of glass or plastic and transmit signals in the form of light.Light travels in
a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray
of light traveling through one substance enters another substance of different
density, the ray change direction as shown:

I: angle of incidence: the angle the ray makes with line perpendicular to the
interface between the two substances
Critical angle: property of substance, its value differs from one substance to
another
Fiber construction Performance

Performance: Attenuation is flatter than in the case of UTP and coax cable. We
need fewer (actually 10 times less) repeaters when we use fiber optic cable

Applications of Fiber-optic cable

Cable TV network: hybrid network uses a combination of optical fiber and coax
cable. Optical provides the backbone while coaxial cable provides the
connation to the user.
2.Local area networks such as 100base-FX (fast Ethernet) and 1000base-XLANs.
3.Backbone networks because its wide bandwidth

Advantages of fiber-optical

➢ 1.Higher Bandwidth
➢ 2.Less signal attenuation
➢ 3.Immunity to electromagnetic interference (noise)
➢ 4.Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistance to corrosive
material
➢ 5.Light weight. Fiber cables are much lighter than copper cables
 ➢ 6.Greater immunity to tapping: copper cables create antenna effects that
can easily tapped

Disadvantages of fiber-optical

• Installation and maintenance. It’s a new technology. Its installation and

maintenance require expertise that is not yet available every where
• 2.Unidirectional light propagation. If we need bidirectional, two fibers are
needed.
• 3.Cost. The cable and the interfaces are more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand of BW is not high , often use of optical fiber
cannot be justified

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in
Figure below.
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all
directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
Distance depends on the
amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the greater the distance.
In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are
reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with
lower output power.
In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional,
facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together not to be
affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of sight propagation is tricky because
radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.