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Global Warming
DEFINITION

Global warming is a phenomenon of climate change characterized by a general increase in average

temperatures of the Earth, which modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. It is
directly linked to the increase of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, worsening the greenhouse effect.

In fact, the average temperature of the planet has increased by 0.8º Celsius (33.4° Fahrenheit) compared
to the end of the 19th century. Each of the last three decades has been warmer than all previous decades
since the beginning of the statistical surveys in 1850.

At the pace of current CO2 emissions, scientists expect an increase of between 1.5° and 5.3°C (34.7° to
41.5°F) in average temperature by 2100. If no action is taken, it would have harmful consequences to
humanity and the biosphere.

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. However, the increase in greenhouse gases is linked to
human activities. It is thus no surprise that the world's leading climate scientists believe that human
activities are very likely the main cause of global warming since the mid-twentieth century, mostly
because of:

FOSSIL FUELS: The massive use of fossil fuels is obviously the first source of global warming, as
burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon dioxide - the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere
- as well as nitrous oxide.

DEFORESTATION: The exploitation of forests has a major role in climate change. Trees help regulate
the climate by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. When they are cut down, this positive effect is lost
and the carbon stored in the trees is released into the atmosphere.

INTENSIVE FARMING: Another cause of global warming is intensive farming, not only with the ever-
increasing livestock, but also with plant protection products and fertilizers. In fact, cattle and sheep
produce large amounts of methane when digesting their food, while fertilizers produce nitrous oxide
emissions.

WASTE DISPOSAL: Waste management methods like landfills and incineration emit greenhouse and
toxic gases - including methane - that are released into the atmosphere, soil and waterways, contributing
to the increase of the greenhouse effect.

MINING: Modern life is highly dependent on the mining and metallurgical industry. Metals and minerals
are the raw materials used in the construction, transportation and manufacturing of goods. From
extraction to delivery, this market accounts for 5% of all greenhouse gas emissions.

OVERCONSUMPTION: Finally, overconsumption also plays a major role in climate change. In fact, it
is responsible for the overexploitation of natural resources and emissions from international freight
transport, which both contribute to global warming.

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CAUSES

• The utilization of fossils fuels like coal and petroleum has been increasing steadily for more than 200
years after the invention of steam engine and I C engine.

• The carbon –di-oxide in the atmosphere which was bout 280ppm at the beginning of the industrial
revolution, has now reached levels like 354 ppm.

• There has been an explosive growth of research on global warming due to carbon-di-oxide emissions
and other gases released by the industry.

• Many scientists believe that global warming has arrived due to excessive burning of fossil fuels and the
removal of carbon sinks by deforestation.

• Several countries across the globe agreed to reduce consumption of fossils fuels over the coming
decades.

• Efforts in this direction are halting, especially since the biggest consumers like the USA is unwilling to
reduce its contribution to carbon emission.

• Populus countries like India and china are also emerging as major consumers of fossils fuels although
their capita energy consumption is below the levels in western countries.

• Industrialisation of these countries will certainly add to the Global warming unless new low
energy strategies are developed.

• In the European Union 40% of the total energy consumption is accounted for buildings sector.

• The buildings also contribute 30% of the total CO2 emission in European Union.

• This shows that development is invariably associated with high impact on global environment.

Hence essential to explore ‘Energy Efficiency Building Alternatives’ Two categories of energy efficiency
need to be recognized.

1) Firstly, the embodied energy in a building needs to reduced

2) Secondly, the energy used during the operational life of building should also be reduced.

• In UK 10% of the industrial energy consumption goes to building materials production.

• 56% of the energy is used in the maintenance of the building.

• This shows that buildings consume far more energy during its life time than what is spent during
its construction.

• In UK, the energy used by a low rise flat over 25 years is about 12 GJ/m 2 ,while the energy
content of the building is only 4 GJ/m 2

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• In the Indian context, a 2 storeyed brick and RC building consumed 2.65 GJ/m2 during its
construction, while it consumed 5.83GJ/m2 over a 25-year period.

• India has not reached the levels of developed country like UK in energy consumption.

• Recent trends in air conditions buildings in India can exacerbate the situation since most of
buildings are poorly insulated.

• Use of solar passive cooling concepts and improved thermal insulation are needed to mitigate
these problems.

• Brick vaulted building with simple solar passive cooling concepts was built which was showed
significant improvements in indoor climate with marginal cost inputs.

EFFECTS

1. On biodiversity: The increase of temperatures and the climate upheavals disturb the ecosystems,
modify the conditions and cycles of plant reproduction. The scarcity of resources and climate change are
changing life habits and migratory cycles of animals. We are already witnessing the disappearance of
many species - including endemic species - or, conversely, the intrusion of invasive species that threaten
crops and other animals. Global warming therefore impacts biodiversity. It is the balance of biodiversity
that is modified and threatened. According to the IPCC (Intergornvenmetal Panel on Climate Changes), a
1.5°C (34.7°F) average rise might put 20-30% of species at risk of extinction. If the planet warms by
more than 2°C, most ecosystems will struggle.

2. On oceans: Because of global warming, permafrost and ice are melting massively at the poles,
increasing the sea level at a rate never known before. In a century, the increase reached 18 cm (including
6 cm in the last 20 years). The worst case scenario is a rise of up to 1m by 2100.
The acidification of the oceans is also of great concern. In fact, the large amount of CO2 captured by the
oceans makes them more acidic, arousing serious questions about the adaptability of seashells or coral
reefs.

3. On humans: Human beings are not spared by these upheavals. Climate change is affecting the global
economy. It is already shaking up social, health and geopolitical balances in many parts of the world. The
scarcity of resources like food and energy gives rise to new conflicts.
Rising sea levels and floods are causing population migration. Small island states are in the front line. The
estimated number of climate refugees by 2050 is 250 million people.

4. On the weather: For decades now, meteorologists and climatologists around the world have been
watching the effects of global warming on the weather phenomena. And the impact is huge: more
droughts and heatwaves, more precipitations, more natural disasters like floods, hurricanes, storms and
wildfires, frost-free season, etc.

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PREVENTION

1. Renewable energies: The first way to prevent climate change is to move away from fossil fuels.
Renewable energies like solar, wind, biomass and geothermal.

2. Energy & water efficiency: Producing clean energy is essential, but reducing our consumption of
energy and water by using more efficient devices (e.g. LED light bulbs, innovative shower systems) is
less costly and equally important.

3. Sustainable transportation: Promoting public transportation, carpooling, but also electric

and hydrogen mobility, can definitely help reduce CO2 emissions and thus fight global warming.

4. Sustainable infrastructure: In order to reduce the CO2 emissions from buildings - caused by heating,
air conditioning, hot water or lighting - it is necessary both to build new low energy buildings, and to
renovate the existing constructions.

5. Sustainable agriculture & forest management: Encouraging better use of natural resources, stopping
massive deforestation as well as making agriculture greener and more efficient should also be a
priority.

6. Responsible consumption & recycling: Adopting responsible consumption habits is crucial, be it

regarding food (particularly meat), clothing, cosmetics or cleaning products. Last but not least, recycling
is an absolute necessity for dealing with waste.

CONTRIBUTION OF BUILDINGS TOWARDS GLOBAL WARMING

Today, buildings are responsible for more than 40 percent of global energy used, and as much as one third
of global greenhouse gas emissions, both in developed and developing countries.

Buildings play a significant role in contributing to global warming. Their impact stems from various
factors, including energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and resource use. Here are some key
ways in which buildings contribute to global warming:

1. Energy consumption: Buildings account for a substantial portion of global energy consumption. The
electricity and heat required to power and operate buildings are often generated from fossil fuels like coal,
oil, and natural gas, which release greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) into the
atmosphere when burned. The energy used for heating, cooling, lighting, and running appliances in
buildings contributes to these emissions.

2. Greenhouse gas emissions: Buildings are responsible for a significant share of global GHG emissions.
According to the United Nations Environment Programme, buildings and construction sectors contribute
around 39% of global CO2 emissions, primarily from the operational phase (energy use). Additionally,
the production and transportation of construction materials, as well as the emissions associated with
building construction and demolition, contribute to the overall GHG footprint of buildings.

3. Inefficient building design: Many buildings lack energy-efficient design features, such as proper
insulation, efficient heating and cooling systems, and energy-saving lighting. Inefficient design leads to
higher energy consumption and increased emissions, further contributing to global warming.

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4. Cooling and refrigerants: The use of air conditioning and refrigeration systems in buildings contributes
to global warming. Some refrigerants, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), used in older systems, have a
high global warming potential. The release of these refrigerants into the atmosphere exacerbates the
greenhouse effect and contributes to climate change.

5. Urban heat island effect: Concentrations of buildings in urban areas can create the urban heat island
effect. Asphalt, concrete, and other building materials absorb and re-emit heat, causing higher
temperatures in cities compared to surrounding rural areas. This effect increases energy demand for
cooling, further contributing to GHG emissions.

To mitigate the contribution of buildings to global warming, several strategies can be implemented. These
include:

1. Energy-efficient design and construction: Implementing energy-efficient practices and using

sustainable building materials can significantly reduce a building's energy consumption and associated
emissions. This includes improved insulation, efficient HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
systems, energy-efficient lighting, and use of renewable energy sources.

2. Retrofitting existing buildings: Upgrading existing buildings with energy-efficient technologies and
retrofits can help reduce energy consumption and emissions. This may involve improving insulation,
replacing outdated equipment, and optimizing energy management systems.

3. Green building certifications: Promoting and incentivizing green building certifications, such as LEED
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), encourages the construction of environmentally
sustainable buildings. These certifications emphasize energy efficiency, water conservation, and
sustainable materials.

4. Renewable energy integration: Promoting the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar panels
and wind turbines, in buildings can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and decrease associated emissions.

5. Sustainable urban planning: Adopting sustainable urban planning practices that focus on compact,
mixed-use development, efficient transportation systems, and green spaces can help reduce energy
consumption, promote walkability, and mitigate the urban heat island effect.

By implementing these strategies and adopting sustainable building practices, the contribution of
buildings towards global warming can be significantly reduced, helping to mitigate climate change.

CARBON FOOTPRINT

A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide and methane) that
are generated by our actions.

The average carbon footprint for a person in the United States is 16 tons, one of the highest rates in the
world. Globally, the average carbon footprint is closer to 4 tons. To have the best chance of avoiding a
2℃ rise in global temperatures, the average global carbon footprint per year needs to drop to under 2 tons
by 2050.

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Lowering individual carbon footprints from 16 tons to 2 tons doesn’t happen overnight! By making small
changes to our actions, like eating less meat, taking fewer connecting flights and line drying our clothes,
we can start making a big difference.

The major contributors to carbon footprints are: food, consumption, transportation, and household energy.
Food is a major contributor to carbon footprints, and meat in particular is an issue.

The carbon footprint refers to the total amount of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2),
emitted directly or indirectly by an individual, organization, event, or product throughout its lifecycle. It
is a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment, particularly in terms of climate
change.

The carbon footprint encompasses emissions from various sources, including the burning of fossil fuels
for energy production, transportation, industrial processes, deforestation, and the manufacturing and
disposal of products. These activities release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere, trapping heat and contributing to global warming.

Calculating a carbon footprint involves considering both direct and indirect emissions. Direct emissions,
also known as scope 1 emissions, are those generated from sources that are owned or controlled by the
entity, such as on-site fuel combustion. Indirect emissions, known as scope 2 and scope 3 emissions,
include the emissions associated with purchased electricity, transportation of goods and services, waste
management, and other activities in the supply chain.

Reducing carbon footprints is crucial for mitigating climate change and transitioning to a more
sustainable future. Here are some strategies to minimize carbon footprints:

1. Energy efficiency: Improve energy efficiency in buildings, industries, and transportation to reduce the
amount of fossil fuels burned and the associated emissions.

2. Renewable energy: Transition to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower to
decrease reliance on fossil fuels and reduce carbon emissions.

3. Transportation: Promote sustainable transportation options such as public transit, cycling, and walking.
Encourage the use of electric vehicles or vehicles with lower emissions.

4. Waste management: Implement recycling and waste reduction strategies, including composting, to
minimize the release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, from landfills.

5. Sustainable agriculture: Support sustainable agricultural practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from livestock, optimize fertilizer use, and protect forests.

6. Forest conservation: Prevent deforestation and promote reforestation efforts, as forests act as carbon
sinks by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere.

7. Consumption habits: Make conscious choices about consumption, considering the environmental
impact of products and services. Opt for energy-efficient appliances, choose locally sourced and
sustainable goods, and reduce food waste.

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8. Carbon offsetting: Offset remaining emissions by investing in projects that reduce or remove
greenhouse gases, such as reforestation initiatives or renewable energy projects.

By adopting these measures and implementing sustainable practices, individuals, organizations, and
governments can work towards reducing their carbon footprints and mitigating climate change.

GLOBAL EFFORTS TO REDUCE CARBON EMISSIONS

As of my last update in September 2021, global efforts to reduce carbon emissions were underway, and
various initiatives and commitments were being made by countries, organizations, and individuals to
address the challenges posed by climate change. However, please note that the information provided here
may not include recent developments beyond September 2021.

The Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is an international treaty adopted in 2015 at the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties (COP 21). It
aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with an
aspiration to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Each participating country commits to setting national targets
and regularly reporting on their progress toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Under the Paris Agreement, countries submit their
NDCs, outlining their intended actions and targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These targets
are periodically updated, and countries are encouraged to strengthen their commitments over time.

Renewable Energy Adoption: Many countries are increasing their use of renewable energy sources like
wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal power to replace fossil fuels. Renewable energy offers a more
sustainable and low-carbon alternative to traditional energy sources.

Energy Efficiency Measures: Implementing energy efficiency measures across various sectors,
including buildings, transportation, and industries, can significantly reduce energy consumption and
carbon emissions.

Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Sustainable Transportation: Encouraging the adoption of electric vehicles
and investing in sustainable public transportation systems can help decrease emissions from the
transportation sector, a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.

Reforestation and Afforestation: Planting trees and restoring forests can act as carbon sinks, absorbing
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and helping to offset emissions.

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Carbon Pricing: Some regions and countries have implemented carbon pricing mechanisms, such as
carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems, to create economic incentives for reducing emissions.

International Cooperation: Collaborative efforts between countries, organizations, and private sectors
are crucial for sharing knowledge, technology, and resources to address climate change on a global scale.

Climate Finance: Developed countries have pledged to provide financial support to developing nations
to help them transition to low-carbon economies and adapt to the impacts of climate change.

In civil engineering, several global efforts are being made to reduce carbon emissions and promote
sustainable practices. As the construction and infrastructure industries are significant contributors to
greenhouse gas emissions, civil engineers play a crucial role in designing, implementing, and managing
projects with lower carbon footprints. Here are some key strategies and initiatives in civil engineering to
reduce carbon emissions:

1. Green Building Design: Civil engineers are involved in the design and construction of buildings. The
adoption of green building practices, such as using energy-efficient materials, optimizing building
orientation for natural lighting and ventilation, and incorporating renewable energy sources, can
significantly reduce the operational carbon footprint of structures.

2. Sustainable Infrastructure: Designing infrastructure with a focus on sustainability is critical. This

includes using sustainable materials, reducing waste during construction, and ensuring the longevity of
structures to minimize the need for frequent replacements.

3. Low-Carbon Concrete: Concrete production is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions due to the
cement manufacturing process. Civil engineers are exploring alternatives to traditional concrete, such as
low-carbon concrete, which incorporates supplementary cementitious materials or carbon capture
technologies to reduce its carbon footprint.

4. Smart Transportation Planning: Civil engineers are involved in designing transportation systems.
Encouraging sustainable transportation options like walking, cycling, and public transit, as well as
promoting the use of electric vehicles, can help reduce emissions from the transportation sector.

5. Water Management: Implementing efficient water management strategies, such as rainwater

harvesting, stormwater management, and wastewater recycling, can reduce energy consumption and
associated carbon emissions in water treatment and distribution processes.

6. Climate-Resilient Design: Civil engineers are incorporating climate change considerations into their
designs to ensure that infrastructure can withstand and adapt to the impacts of a changing climate. This
reduces the need for frequent repairs and replacements, thereby reducing carbon-intensive construction
activities.

7. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Conducting life cycle assessments of infrastructure projects allows
civil engineers to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project from raw material extraction to
construction, operation, and eventual decommissioning. This approach helps identify opportunities to
reduce carbon emissions throughout a project's life cycle.

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8. Green and Blue Spaces: Civil engineers can design urban landscapes that include green spaces and
incorporate sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) to manage stormwater runoff. These efforts
contribute to carbon sequestration and reduce the urban heat island effect.

9. Carbon Offsetting: Civil engineering projects can participate in carbon offsetting schemes by
investing in renewable energy projects, reforestation efforts, or other initiatives that help remove or
reduce carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

To foster global efforts to reduce carbon emissions, civil engineers are continually innovating and
adopting sustainable practices and technologies. Collaborative partnerships between governments,
engineering organizations, and industry stakeholders are essential to drive the transformation toward a
low-carbon and resilient infrastructure future.

GREEN BUILDINGS

Definition

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a structure
and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a
building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and
demolition. This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the client
at all project stages. The Green Building practice expands and complements the classical building design
concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building also refers to saving resources to the
maximum extent, including energy saving, land saving, water saving, material saving, etc., during the
whole life cycle of the building, protecting the environment and reducing pollution, providing people with
healthy, comfortable and efficient use of space, and being in harmony with nature Buildings that live in
harmony. Green building technology focuses on low consumption, high efficiency, economy,
environmental protection, integration and optimization.

FEATURES OF GREEN BUILDINGS

Energy efficiency: Efficient use of energy is a vital aspect for buildings to minimise their impact on the
environment. Systems such as Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS) help in reducing and
optimising the energy consumption of buildings for their operations.

Renewable energy source: The use of renewable energy, such as solar energy, can reduce the reliance on
fossil fuels and also help in reducing the energy bills as most of the power needs are met with in-house
energy production. BEMS can help manage energy from different sources to not only provide
uninterrupted energy but also minimise the energy consumption from external sources. This ensures that
the energy bills are the lowest and the non-renewable energy consumption is also minimised.

Minimising the use of water and other resources: Right from construction to its operation, green
buildings would look to reduce the amount of water and other vital resources such as fuel consumed. The
use of water meters, efficient taps, or even rainwater harvesting are some of the methods by which water
can be saved.

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Pollution and waste reduction measures: As green buildings look to reduce the impact on the
environment, the pollution and waste from these infrastructures need to be as low as possible. Promoting
re-use and recycling habits, use of low-waste products and processes, and the right treatment of waste are
some of the ways buildings can achieve this.

Good indoor environmental quality: For the inhabitants or occupants within the building, it is important
to ensure a pleasant and healthy atmosphere. Right thermal control, air cleanliness, and low noise are a
few considerations to have in this regard.

Use of non-toxic and sustainable materials: During construction and everyday use, green buildings
should look to use materials and resources that are more sustainable or even recycled materials. For
example, for insulation, cellulose can be a great greener alternative as most of them are recycled
newspapers. Whereas for regular upkeep such as cleaning the floors and other areas, there are solutions
that are more eco-friendly.

Ideal location: The location is important because the buildings should not affect the natural habitat in
their surroundings by having them built in environmentally sensitive locations. Moreover, a location
which can be accessed with public transportation would mean lower use of private vehicles and thus the
burning of fossil fuels is subsequently minimised.

Design innovation: Green buildings must be built on a design that enables the sustainable strategies
planned for the building. It enables the building to be adaptable to changing environments. A smart design
can maximise the resources available to the green building in order to attain maximum efficiency in
construction and operation. For example, passive design is a popular concept that looks to maximise the
local climate to create and maintain the ideal indoor environment for the inhabitants of the building. This
helps in reducing the dependence on energy and devices to control the indoor environment.

List of Green building Features

• Building Design

• Glass

• Envelope

• Appliances

• Lighting System

• Renewable energy source

• Energy Monitoring

• Water fixture, Sourcing Building Material.

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NECESSITY OF THE GREEN BUILDING

Green building is not just a luxury or a trend; it has become a necessity in the context of the challenges
posed by climate change and the need for sustainable development. Several factors highlight the necessity
of green building:

1. Climate Change Mitigation: Buildings are significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions,
primarily through energy consumption and construction materials. Green building practices, such as
energy efficiency, renewable energy use, and sustainable materials, help reduce carbon footprints, thus
contributing to global efforts to mitigate climate change.

2. Resource Conservation: Green buildings are designed to optimize resource use, including energy,
water, and materials. By using resources more efficiently and sustainably, green buildings help conserve
finite resources and reduce the strain on ecosystems.

3. Energy Efficiency: Green buildings employ various technologies and design features to reduce energy
consumption. Lower energy use not only reduces carbon emissions but also leads to cost savings for
building owners and occupants.

4. Improved Indoor Air Quality: Green buildings prioritize indoor environmental quality, leading to better
air quality, thermal comfort, and natural lighting. This enhances the health and well-being of occupants,
resulting in increased productivity and reduced healthcare costs.

5. Resilience to Climate Impacts: Green building designs often take into account climate resilience by
considering extreme weather events and natural disasters. This resilience is crucial in the face of the
increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related events.

6. Market Demand and Occupant Preference: With growing awareness of environmental issues, there is
increasing demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly buildings from both tenants and buyers.
Green buildings tend to attract a broader and more eco-conscious market.

7. Regulatory Compliance and Incentives: Many governments and local authorities worldwide are
implementing green building regulations and offering incentives to promote sustainable construction.
Compliance with these regulations and incentives can benefit developers, homeowners, and communities.

8. Long-Term Cost Savings: Although the initial investment in green building technologies and materials
may be higher, the long-term operational cost savings, including reduced energy and water bills, often
outweigh the initial costs.

9. Positive Impact on Communities: Green buildings can have a positive impact on the surrounding
communities by contributing to improved air quality, reduced traffic congestion through smart urban
planning, and better public health outcomes.

10. Global Sustainable Development Goals: Green building aligns with several of the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals, such as affordable and clean energy, sustainable cities and communities,
and climate action, making it an essential component of the global sustainability agenda.

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Green building is necessary to combat climate change, promote sustainable resource use, improve indoor
environmental quality, enhance community well-being, and contribute to global efforts towards a more
sustainable and resilient future. Its adoption is critical in addressing the environmental and social
challenges of the 21st century.

ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF THE GREEN BUILDINGS

• High efficiency, windows and insulation

• Roofs that crests high solar reflectance (thereby reducing heat transfer to the building) and high
thermal remittance (when a large percentage of absorbed/ non reflected solar energy is able to be
released) these are called “cool roofs”.

• These design/efficient material reduce costs directly in maximizing natural light, heating and
cooling thereby requiring less electricity usage

• Capitalised natural ventilation

• Heat recovery heat form used air and transfer it to fresh air

• Install fluorescent lighting to use 2/3 to 3/4 less energy than incandescent bulbs

• This lowers electricity use directly, as well as indirectly with cooling loads

• LED Lamps

• Installing highly efficiency appliances

• Low flow toilets

• Energy efficient appliances will reduce energy use directly by their efficiency and also by
producing less waste heat.

HEALTH BENEFITS

Most of our dwelling have too much lead dust or chippings, causing kidney and red blood cell damage,
impairs mental and physical development, may increase high blood pressure.

About a quarter of the nation’s largest industrial plants and water treatment facilities are in serious
violation of pollution standards at any one time.

These risks can be reduced and conditions improved by following green building concepts in

• Regulating natural air ventilation and quality

• Non toxic, natural and renewable materials

• Regulated water and efficient appliances

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SOCIAL BENEFITS

Green buildings offer a wide range of social benefits that positively impact individuals, communities, and
society as a whole. Here are some of the key social benefits of green building practices:

1. Improved Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ): Green buildings prioritize the health and well-being of
occupants by providing better indoor air quality, ample natural light, and optimal temperature and
humidity levels. This enhances occupant comfort, reduces respiratory issues, and improves overall health
and productivity.

2. Enhanced Health and Well-being: Green buildings often incorporate features such as biophilic design
(connecting people with nature), access to green spaces, and natural ventilation, which have been shown
to reduce stress, increase cognitive function, and improve overall mental well-being.

3. Community Health and Safety: Green building practices often extend to the surrounding community by
encouraging green spaces, pedestrian-friendly designs, and access to public transportation. These features
promote physical activity, reduce pollution, and create safer neighborhoods.

4. Economic Benefits for Local Communities: Green building projects often create jobs and stimulate the
local economy. Construction and maintenance of sustainable buildings can generate employment
opportunities in various sectors, contributing to economic growth.

5. Social Equity and Inclusivity: Green building initiatives often focus on creating spaces that are
accessible and inclusive for people of all ages and abilities. For example, buildings designed with
universal design principles can accommodate individuals with disabilities, promoting social inclusion.

6. Community Engagement and Collaboration: The process of designing and implementing green
building projects typically involves community engagement. Local residents and stakeholders are often
included in the planning stages, fostering a sense of ownership and pride in the community's
development.

7. Reduced Strain on Infrastructure: Green buildings are designed to be resource-efficient, which can
alleviate the strain on local infrastructure such as water supply and waste management systems. This
indirectly benefits the community by ensuring a more resilient and sustainable urban environment.

8. Climate Change Mitigation: Green buildings contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by
employing renewable energy sources, energy-efficient technologies, and sustainable construction
materials. This helps combat climate change and its associated social impacts, such as extreme weather
events and health issues.

9. Education and Awareness: Green building projects often serve as educational tools, showcasing
sustainable practices and technologies to the public. This can raise awareness about environmental issues
and inspire individuals and other developers to adopt more eco-friendly practices.

10. Long-term Cost Savings for Residents: Green buildings are designed to be energy-efficient and often
have lower operating costs. This can translate into lower utility bills for residents, especially in affordable
housing projects, freeing up resources for other essential needs.

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ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS

A sustainable site: Reuse of an existing building means that new land is not developed, that fewer
resources are used in construction and that it is in a downtown location.

Accessible transportation: Public transportation is easily accessible and the building includes bicycle
storage, showers and pedestrian-friendly access.

Energy conservation: NonProfit Center’s sustainable building design contributes to reduced

environmental impact by conserving energy, decreasing air pollution emissions, and wisely using water
and natural energy sources to improve performance.

Materials and resources conservation: Whenever possible, the center uses non-toxic materials to
maintain good indoor air quality. Additionally, there is strong commitment to using renewable,
sustainably harvested, and/or recycled materials. Water efficiency will also keep water and sewer costs
low, slowing the growth of operating costs.

• Reduced environmental impact through material and resource conservation

• Increased efficiency of heating and cooling systems

• Reduced operating and utility costs

• Increased daylight access

• Enhanced occupant comfort and health

• Green buildings help reduce carbon, water, energy and waste. The Department of Energy
reviewed 22 LEED-certified buildings managed by the General Services Administration and saw
CO2 emissions were 34 percent lower, they consumed 25 percent less energy and 11 percent less
water, and diverted more than 80 million tons of waste from landfills.

• The IPCC report calls for a reduction in energy demand and strong electrification of the building
sector, as well as a shift to high-performance lighting, appliances and water heating equipment.
Green buildings help building owners and managers, architects, developers and product
manufacturers navigate this transition and verify performance.

• According to the EPA, heating and cooling accounts for about 43 percent of all energy use in the
country, which contributes to air pollution and generates the largest amounts of greenhouse gases.
By improving energy efficiency, green buildings also help reduce indoor air pollutants related to
serious health issues.

• LEED projects are getting results across the board, scoring an average ENERGY STAR score of
89 points out of a possible 100. In a study of 7,100 certified construction projects, more than 90
percent were improving energy performance by at least 10 percent.

• Buildings account for 12 percent of total water consumed in the U.S. while the average person
uses 80-100 gallons of water per day. Water-efficiency efforts in green buildings help reduce
water use and promote rainwater capture, as well as the use of non-potable sources.

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• Standard building practices use and waste millions of tons of materials each year; green building
uses fewer resources and minimizes waste. LEED projects are responsible for diverting more than
80 million tons of waste from landfills, and by 2030 that number is expected to grow to 540
million tons.

MAJOR ENERGY EFFICIENT AREAS FOR BUILDINGS

• For achievement of energy efficiency in the existing building the following points are important

 Reduce consumption of energy by following simple disciplines, such as switching off, lights, fans
and other appliances when not needed

 Replace old appliances such as fan refrigerator, air condition, lighting, etc with better energy
efficiency BEE star rated appliances. Consequent reduced electricity bills and better pay back
returns, the investment is justifiable.

 For commercial building with over 100 KW of connected load, it is mandatory to conduct energy
audit as per energy conservation act 2001 and scope for energy star rating of BEE.

 Reduction in consumption of water – to solve acute water scarcity, in addition to the associated
energy used for pumping and distribution of water.

• There are numerous schemes from government, implementable, either mandatory, or voluntary.

• Energy audit - studies in buildings have shown large potential for energy savings both in
government and commercial office buildings.

• STAR RATING OF BUILDINGS - The Bureau of Energy Efficiency had developed a scheme
for energy efficiency, labeling of buildings in February 2009. The star rating of building is aimed
at accelerating energy efficiency activities in commercial buildings across the country.

• The Star rating programme would provide public recognisation to energy Efficient buildings, thus
creating a market demand for such buildings.

• This programme would treat buildings on a 1-5 stars scale with five star labeled buildings being
the most efficient.

• BEE Star rating scheme is based on actual performance of the building in terms of specific energy
usage termed as Energy Performance Indicator, (EPI).

Energy performance assessment of existing buildings

Energy performance indicator (EPI) - average annual hourly EPI (EPI = Total KWH/surface Area
AAHEPI = EPI/hours working) with, assessment of (1) cooling loads from a building (2) HVAC system
and (3) lighting system

Assessment of Energy Saving Potential

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• Rating apply to buildings with a connected load of hundred kW or a contract demand of 120
KVA, which ever is greater and are intended to be used for commercial purposes.

• The program covers five categories of commercial buildings, office buildings, hotels, hospitals,
rental Malls and IT parks in four climate zones across the country

• Buildings in climatic zones namely, warm and humid, composite hot and dry temperate regions
are being currently rated.

• Criteria indicating EPI value and corresponding Star label under the various climatic zones ( for
buildings having air-conditioned area greater than 50% of their built-up area and for buildings
have air condition area is less than 50% of their built-up area) a referred for assigning star label.

EMBODIED ENERGY IN MATERIALS

All types of construction activities involve expenditure of energy in one form or the other. In traditional
construction, the source of energy was either animate energy which used the muscle power of human
beings and animals or biomass energy which was used as a source of thermal energy. After the advent of
Industrial revolution, human society is increasingly dependent on fossil fuels for energy. Modern
construction employs significant amounts of energy whether it is thermal energy or energy for
transportation. It is useful to recognize different categories of energy consumption in a building.

This may be listed as follows

(a) Embodied energy in building materials.

(b) Energy consumption during building construction.

(c) Energy utilized for maintenance during the life span of a building.

(d) Energy spent in demolition of the building at the end of its life.

Four categories of energies listed above constitute the life cycle energy cost of a building

• Energies in (a) & (b) together the will constitute the energy embodied in a building.

• In item (b), one can consider energy spent in 1) transporting materials to site 2) energy spent in
hoisting materials / water 3) energy spent in concrete mixing 4) floor polishing etc.

• Item c) refers to the energy spent to meet the needs of the occupant of building. Very often, this is
mostly electrical energy.

• The electrical energy may be used in lighting, air-conditioning, water pumping, and elevators, in
residential buildings, use of ovens, water heaters, TV, entertainment electronics, computers etc.

• There is a need to understand the nature of energy utilization in embodied energy and
maintenance energy in buildings since developing countries like India have limited energy
resources vis- a vis the large population.

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ENERGY IN BUILDING MATERIALS

• The primary use of energy in building materials is in the production of the building material. For
instance, bricks and tiles are produced by burning coal or firewood in kilns.

• cement and lime are again produced by heating clay and limestone using coal.

• Steel is also produced by using coking coal as the fuel.

• In all these cases, the basic energy use in the form of thermal energy.

• Many materials also need mechanical processing through electricity energy. For instance,
pugging of clay bricks may use electricity. Grinding the raw materials and clinker in the case of
cement manufacture needs electricity.

• Some materials like sand essentially need transportation energy for procurement at site.

Table-1: List of Typical Building Materials and Their Energy Content Per Unit of Measurement

Material Unit Energy per unit, MJ Type of Energy

Burnt brick One brick 3.75-4.5 Coal/wood/Rice Husk
Cement 1 Kg 5.85 Coal + Electricity
Lime 1 Kg 5.63 Coal/wood
Lime + Fly Ash 1 Kg 2.33 Coal/Wood
Steel 1 Kg 42.0 Coal + Electricity
Aluminium 1 Kg 236.8 Electricity
Glass 1 Kg 25.83 -
Sand 1 cu.m 206 Diesel
Marble 1 sq.m 206 Diesel
Polyester 1 Litre 220 Petroleum+ Electricity
GFRP 1 Kg 100 Petroleum+ Electricity
Mangalore Tile 1 Tile 5.0-15.0 Firewood/Coal

 Energy in brick is usually calculated by determining the amount of firewood or coal used for
brick burning.
 In south India, one brick needs 0.25 to 0.3 kg of wood for energy. Assuming an energy value of
wood of 15MJ per kg, we get an energy content in the range of 3.75-4.5MJ.

ENERGY IN BUILDING BLOCKS

• Building blocks used for wall construction constitute a significant component of embodied energy in a
building.

• Walls represent the largest volume component in a building.

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Table-2: List of The Energy in Various Building Blocks

Sl No Type of Block Typical Size, Energy per Energy per Block Energy
Block mm Block MJ Brick Brick Energy
Equivalent, %
MJ
1 Size Stone 180x180x180 0 0 0
2 Burnt Brick 230x105x70 4.25 4.25 100
3 Stabilized Mud Block 230x190x100 2.60 1.00 23.5
4 Hollow Concrete Block 400x200x200 12.30 1.32 31.2
5 Steam Cured Block 230x190x100 6.7 2.58 60.6

 Stabilized mud block (SMB) is produced by pressing a mixture of soil, sand and cement in a
machine (6% cement is used for stabilization).
 Hallow concrete block had 7% cement in the mixture.
 The steam cured block is made by pressing lime, soil and fly ash mixture and curing in a steam
chamber. Lime percentage is 10% of soil and fly ash.

ENERGY IN BUILDINGS

• The total embodied energy in a building depends on the type of technologies used.

• The below table provides a comparison of four different building technologies and the total
embodied energy in the building

Table – 3: Total Embodied Energy in a Building

Type of Building No of Total Embodied Energy Equivalent Coal for

Storeys per 100m2 GJ 100m2, T
RC framed Construction with 8 421 21
Brick in fill walls
Load Bearing Brick Walls, 2 292 15
RC Roof, mosaic Floor
SMB wall, Filler Slab, 2 161 8
roof/floor, terracotta floor
SMB walls, Reinforced tile, 1 93 4.7
work roof, cement floor

LIFE CYCLE COST OF BUILDINGS

The extended lifespan and high expense of buildings are the end product of construction projects.
Therefore, all decisions relating to construction projects are made with long-term and noteworthy effects.

Life cycle costs (LCC) generally include an initial investment (typically construction costs) and ongoing
expenses (regular payments such as energy, utilities, cleaning and maintenance, as well as irregular costs

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for renewal or replacement). Some life cycle costing techniques also take demolition expenses into
account.

Life cycle costing is a technique to help with the cost of ownership estimation. The procedure is ready to
assist the decision-making process for building investment projects. Life cycle analysis is particularly
beneficial for early-stage project cost estimation of total costs.

A report focusing on life cycle costing was published after proper research. As a result, the total costs
incurred throughout a building are represented as life cycle costs or LCC.

Life cycle costing process

Performing a life cycle cost assessment (LCCA) can help you gain a better understanding of how much a
business will pay on acquiring a new asset. To calculate the life cycle costing for an asset, need to
estimate these expenses:

Purchase, Installation, Operation, Maintenance, Finance (include interest and other such costs),
Depreciation and Disposal

We will need to add up all of these expenses associated with different stages of the asset’s life cycle to
find the total life cycle costing. Can choose to use past data for accurate cost prediction. Try starting with
fixed costs, which refer to costs that stay the same from month to month, to simplify the process. We can
estimate variable costs after that.

Life cycle costing process for intangible assets

The process of life cycle costing can also be conducted to find out the cost of intangible assets, which are
non-physical properties like business’s brand and your patents. It’s more challenging to determine the life
cycle costing for an intangible asset as compared to that of a physical asset. Nevertheless, it is still
possible. To do this, you need to add the costs of obtaining and maintaining this intangible asset. For
instance, obtaining a patent can cost thousands of dollars. Plus, you’ll need to pay fees for maintaining
your patent and hire a lawyer to help you get one. All of these costs will have to be added to determine
the whole life cycle cost.

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Life cycle costing assessment example

Here is a small example of life cycle costing assessment that can help you understand the concept better.
Suppose you want to get a new printer for your business. Let’s add up the associated costs:

Purchase: You buy the printer for Rs 30,000.

Installation: You pay an additional Rs 5,000 for installation and set up.

Operation: You have to buy paper and ink cartridges to operate the printer. So, you’ll have to spend
around Rs 10,000 on these supplies. Also, consider Rs 2,000 the electricity charges for operating the
printer.

Maintenance: In case of any damage of functional flaws, let’s assume that repair costs will amount to Rs
3,000.

Finance: If you purchase the printer with a credit card, you’ll have to pay a monthly interest of around
3.5%. Even if you pay it off in a month, you still have to pay 3.5% of Rs 30,000 i.e. Rs 1,050.

Depreciation: Let’s predict that the printer will lose its value by Rs 3,000 each year.

Disposal: Let’s assume that it will take around Rs 500 to find someone to dispose of the copier properly
once you’re done with it.

After adding all of these costs, you’ll find that while you are purchasing the printer for Rs 30,000, its life
cycle cost will cost your business over Rs 54,000.

Execution of life cycle costing

Several essential factors comprise LCC in construction:

Perform a structured cost study that pinpoints the expense sources that significantly impact your
comprehensive costs.

It is likely to determine the top areas for refinement in the baseline layout if the key funding sources are
clear.

Compare the advantages and consequences of the many layout alternatives to select the most suitable
technique for the project.

Life cycle costing: Strategies for maximising value

Throughout the project, keep repeating the Life Cycle Costing. LCC should be viewed as a continuous
process to ensure accuracy and high-quality analysis. Estimates should be made repeatedly as the project
moves through its phases and should be kept updated.

Perform the Life Cycle Costing early. The LCC is most effective in the early stages of a project before
significant decisions have been taken.

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To make the optimal choices for your project in terms of cost and carbon reduction, incorporate LCC with
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment).

Get the entire team involved. Mainly when developing alternatives to guarantee the project’s full potential
is achieved.

Advantages of life cycle costing

Long-term worth: Even if initial expenses are not significantly decreased, an LCC assures that your task
has the maximum value feasible. It offers a method for locating and resolving problems with the actual
layout. Good durability, less upkeep, fewer dangers, cheaper operational costs, and even a longer building
lifespan are all benefits of an LCC’s lifetime view.

Risk reduction and trustworthy preparation: LCC is an excellent tool for long-term planning. You can
successfully avoid surprises and lower financial risks with an adequately executed LCC.

Certification points for green construction: LCC credits are a common component of green building
certification programmes, and in some of these programmes, LCC is a required credit.

Disadvantages of life cycle costing

 Due to advancements in new technologies, life cycle costing analysis has grown excessively
complex.
 Operating costs will increase with the duration of the project.
 Lacks sufficient knowledge of how to use LCC calculations to save money and increase
profitability.
 Insufficient and inaccurate data because of the advancing technologies; data limitations.

Applications of life cycle costing

Any capital investment choice in which comparatively higher initial costs are exchanged for lower future
cost responsibilities can be subject to LCCA(Life Cycle Cost Analysis). It is especially well suited for
evaluating design choices that meet a necessary level of building performance but may have different
initial investment prices, operating, maintenance, and repair costs, as well as potentially varying lifetimes.
Compared to other financial processes that evaluate initial or short-term functional expenses, LCCA
significantly outperforms them in assessing a project’s long-term costs.

It is possible to do LCCA at different levels of complexity. Its complexity can range from a “back of the
envelope” study to a complete analysis with well-documented input data, supplemental economic
evaluation measures, and detailed uncertainty assessments. The size of the effort should be adjusted based
on the project’s requirements.

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