Strength and Insulating Properties of Building Blocks Made

from Waste Materials

K. S. Al-Jabri1; A. W. Hago2; R. Taha3; A. S. Alnuaimi4; and A. H. Al-Saidy5
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Abstract: This paper presents the results of an investigation to study the possibility of developing concrete blocks using waste materials.
The blocks were produced from three waste materials: vermiculite and polystyrene beads, which were used as lightweight aggregates with
different proportions in the mix, and cement kiln dust 共CKD兲, which was used as a partial replacement for cement. The strength of the
three types of blocks and the strength of masonry columns constructed from the blocks were compared with another two types of normal
weight concrete blocks with and without high thermal insulation properties. The thermal insulation property of the developed lightweight
concrete blocks was also compared. Results showed that lightweight concrete blocks manufactured from polystyrene had lower thermal
conductivity than vermiculite and ordinary concrete blocks despite the variation in the density and compressive strength, and that the
addition of up to 15% CKD as a cement replacement has a negligible effect on the strength of the block.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2009兲21:5共191兲
CE Database subject headings: Lightweight concrete; Masonry; Thermal factors; Recycling; Material properties.

Introduction
Concrete blocks, whether of normal weight or lightweight, are
widely used in the construction of claddings and load and nonload
bearing walls and partitions. In countries with extreme hot or cold
climates, lightweight concrete blocks possessing low thermal con-
ductivity also serve as a thermal insulation material, which
reduces energy consumption by reducing the dependence on elec-
tricity for air conditioning or heating. In many countries around
the world, the price of most conventional building materials is
increasing and in some countries there is a general paucity of
natural materials that are suitable for construction. In recent years,
there has been an increase in the consumption of raw materials in
the construction industry at a rate far exceeding their replacement.
This justifies the need for a concentrated research effort towards
seeking alternative building materials, which can be used as a
partial or full replacement of either cement or aggregates, which
are considered the main ingredients used in the manufacturing of
blocks. Therefore, the use of waste, recycled, and by-product ma-
terials in the manufacturing of masonry blocks could provide a
1
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
Sultan Qaboos Univ., PO Box 33, Al-Khoudh, PC 123, Oman 共corre-
sponding author兲. E-mail: aljabri@squ.edu.om
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
Sultan Qaboos Univ., PO Box 33, Al-Khoudh, PC 123, Oman.
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qa-
boos Univ., PO Box 33, Al-Khoudh, PC 123, Oman.
4
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
Sultan Qaboos Univ., PO Box 33, Al-Khoudh, PC 123, Oman.
5
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
Sultan Qaboos Univ., PO Box 33, Al-Khoudh, PC 123, Oman.
Note. Associate Editor: Manoochehr Zoghi. Discussion open until
October 1, 2009. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual
papers. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on September 20, 2006; approved on November 5, 2008.
This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol.
21, No. 5, May 1, 2009. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/2009/5-191–197/
$25.00.
viable solution to the problem. This can yield the dual benefits of
reducing the costs of disposal and minimizing environmental pol-
lution problems that arise from the manufacturing of such mate-
rials.
The use of waste materials in the manufacturing of concrete
blocks has been the subject of an intensive research work in re-
cent years. Rashid and Frantz 共1992兲 determined the compressive
strength of concrete blocks containing municipal solid waste in-
cinerator ash. They reported that the compressive strength of con-
crete containing up to 30% ash by weight exceeds the
specifications for exterior and interior load bearing walls. The
thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete made from polysty-
rene as an aggregate was evaluated by Park and Chisholm 共1999兲.
Lightweight concrete with densities of 600, 800, and 1,000 kg/ m3
were manufactured. Results indicated that there was a good im-
provement in the thermal insulation properties of concrete as the
concrete density was reduced. Resheidat et al. 共2002兲 investigated
the effect of charcoal addition as a partial substitute for portland
cement on the thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete. Re-
sults showed that there was a reduction in the thermal conductiv-
ity of concrete with a decrease in density as charcoal content was
increased in the concrete mix. The thermal conductivity of light-
weight concrete was also investigated by Demirboğa and Gül
共2003兲 using silica fume and fly ash as replacements for cement
by decreasing cement contents in the ratios of 10, 20, and 30% by
weight. Both expanded perlite and pumice aggregates were used
in the study. They concluded that both silica fume and fly ash had
a decreasing effect on the thermal conductivity of lightweight
concrete. However, fly ash was more effective than silica fume in
reducing thermal conductivity.
Abdel-Raheem et al. 共2003兲 studied the mechanical, physical,
acoustic, and thermal properties of lightweight concrete blocks
made from leca, polystyrene foam, vermiculite, and aerated con-
crete 共with aluminium powder to generate air bubbles in the aer-
ated concrete兲 as aggregates. Results indicated the superiority of
aerated concrete with high insulation properties compared with
other materials. Udoeyo and Rindap 共2002兲 investigated the prop-
erties of hollow sandcrete blocks made with cement kiln dust

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(5): 191-197

 共CKD兲 as an additive and as a replacement for ordinary portland
cement. They observed that when CKD was used as a replace-
ment for cement, the compressive strength and density of blocks
generally decreased with higher replacement levels of cement by
CKD. However, when CKD was used as an additive, within the
investigated levels, an improvement in the compressive strength
of up to 54% was observed. The use of coconut coir in the pro-
duction of soil-cement blocks with a low thermal conductivity
was studied by Khedari et al. 共2005兲. Various mixture ratios were
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considered and tested. It was concluded that the use of coconut
fiber as an admixture can reduce the thermal conductivity and
weight of the block. The optimum volume ratio of soil:cement-
:sand to produce good properties was 5.75:1.25:2 and the corre-
sponding decrease in thermal conductivity was 54% compared to
that of ordinary soil-cement blocks. Recently, Al-Jabri et al.
共2005兲 described the current systems used in construction to pro-
duce masonry walls with high thermal insulation properties in hot
climates. They also reviewed the research work concerned with
the development of lightweight concrete blocks for thermal insu-
lation by either using different hole arrangements in the blocks or
by using indigenous and byproduct materials.
Research Significance
For many years, research in the field of concrete technology con-
centrated on seeking alternative cheap materials to be used as a
partial or full cement substitution and as filler materials. The use
of industrial wastes and by-products to fulfill this goal provides
an additional advantage of securing means for disposal of these
materials without causing harm to the environment. A few re-
search studies have been reported on the use of waste and byprod-
uct materials in building blocks. With the increasing need to
recycle industrial waste and byproduct materials and to protect
the environment, there is a growing need to provide technical data
about the potential use of waste materials in the construction in-
dustry. The results from this research work, together with research
done by others, will form the basis towards producing design
guidelines for the utilization of waste materials in the manufac-
turing of normal and lightweight concrete blocks used for the
construction of load and nonload bearing walls and partitions.
Research Objective
The main objective of this research work was to investigate the
strength and insulating properties of building blocks made from
various materials.
Materials
Three materials were used to study the possibility of developing
concrete masonry blocks for nonload bearing walls. The materials
used were polystyrene beads, used normally for packing and
manufacturing of thermal insulation boards, vermiculite, which is
used as a screed for thermal insulation, and CKD. CKD is a
byproduct material generated as a result of cement production.
CKD was added in different proportions as a partial replacement
for portland cement, while the former two materials were used as
aggregate. All materials used are locally available in Oman.
192 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MAY 2009
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(5): 191-197
Table 1. Physical Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement and CKD
Material
Ordinary Cement
Test type portland cement kiln dust
Fineness 共cm2 / g兲 3,357 4,824
Specific gravity 3.05 2.4
Initial setting 共min兲 110 150
Polystyrene Beads
Polystyrene is a lightweight cellular plastic foam material com-
posed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. It is produced from petro-
leum and natural gas by-products 共Cook 1973; Hago et al. 2002兲.
Over the years, the outstanding physical properties of this mate-
rial have been proven. Properties include excellent vapor diffu-
sion and fire resistance, frost proof, lack of toxic components and
outgassing, and vermin and insect proof. The lightweight aggre-
gates used in this project are polystyrene beads that have a density
ranging from 12 to 25 kg/ m3 and a diam ranging from 1 to 6 mm.
Vermiculite
Vermiculite is a material with a platy structure, somewhat similar
to that of mica, and is found in America and Africa. Vermiculite
can expand to 30 times its original volume by exfoliation of thin
plates when it is heated to temperatures of 650 to 1,000° C 共Hago
et al. 2002; DeLavasto et al. 1996兲. As a result, the bulk density of
the exfoliated vermiculite is only 60 to 130 kg/ m3. The vermicu-
lite aggregates used in this research have a bulk density ranging
from 65 to 80 kg/ m3.
Cement Kiln Dust
CKD, also known as cement bypass dust, is a byproduct of the
manufacturing of portland cement produced by the dry process. It
is generated during the calcining process in the kiln. As the raw
materials are heated in the kiln, dust particles are produced and
then carried out with the exhaust gases at the upper end of the
kiln. These gases are cooled and accompanying dust particles are
captured by efficient dust collection systems. Composition of
CKD is quite variable from source to source due to raw materials
and process variations. The Oman Cement Company generates
about 25,000 to 30,000 tons of CKD every year 共Al-Jabri et al.
2002兲. The product comes out as a fine powder, which is ready to
use in cement mixes. Table 1 presents a comparison between the
physical properties of ordinary portland cement and CKD.
Cement
The cement used in this project was an ordinary portland cement
共OPC兲, Type I cement, purchased from the Oman Cement Com-
pany. This cement is the most widely used one in the construction
industry in Oman.
Coarse and Fine Aggregates
The coarse aggregate used was a crushed limestone with a maxi-
mum size of 10 mm. The sand was a local pit sand. Both sand and
coarse aggregates were obtained from a local supplier and con-
form to BS 882 共BS 1992b兲.
 Table 2. Batch Quantities 共by Volume兲, Average Compressive Strength, and Density of Lightweight Concrete Trial Mixes Made with Vermiculite as
Aggregate
Mix proportions 共by volume兲
Average 28-day cube
Mix 10 mm compressive strength Density
number Cement Sand aggregates Water Vemiculite 共MPa兲 共kg/ mm3兲
1 1 2 0.5 0.7 0.000 28 2,324
2 1 2 0.5 0.7 0.090 23.7 2,242
3 1 2 0.5 0.7 0.119 19.4 2,163
4 1 2 0.5 0.7 0.149 17.8 2,138
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5 1 2 0.5 0.7 0.194 14.1 2,054

6 1 2 0.5 0.7 0.269 4.1 1,865
7 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.000 21.4 2,255
8 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.090 17.3 2,161
9 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.119 15.1 2,127
10 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.149 14.4 2,085
11 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.194 14.1 2,012
12 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.269 13 1,885
13 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.269 11.2 2,147
14 1 2 0.5 0.8 0.269 6.7 1,973
15 1 1.5 0.5 0.8 0.319 1.4 1,765
16 1 1 0.75 0.9 0.419 0.271 1,405
17 1 1 0.75 1 0.419 2.27 1,758
18 1 1 0.75 1.2 0.419 2 1,563
19 1 0 0.75 0.8 0.269 4.8 1,700
20 1 0 0.75 0.8 0.269 1.5 1,564
21 1 0 0.75 0.8 0.269 0.7 1,675
22 1 1 0.75 0.8 0.419 0.7 1,509
23 1 1 0.75 1 0.419 1.5 1,553
24 1 1 0.75 0.8 0.269 1.8 1,687

Experimental Program Concrete Mix Preparation

For polystyrene beads and vermiculite, a number of lightweight
concrete trial mixes were prepared in the laboratory. The optimum
mixture was selected for block production.
To investigate the potential use of CKD in the production of
normal weight concrete blocks, concrete specimens were pre-
pared using different proportions of CKD ranging from 0 to 15%
as a partial substitute for portland cement. The work was con-
ducted using block manufacturing facilities at the Oriental Com-
pany. From each mix, five block samples were tested in
compression at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of curing.
Three series of trial mixes were prepared in order to find the
optimum mix proportions. In the first series, 24 trial mixes were
made by using vermiculite as a lightweight aggregate for con-
crete. In the second series, 10 trial mixes were prepared using
polystyrene, also as a lightweight aggregate, and in the third,
seven trial mixes were cast with different proportions of CKD
used as a partial replacement of cement. Proportions for the se-
lected mixes are presented in Tables 2–4 for vermiculite, polysty-
rene, and CKD, respectively. For the vermiculite group, the dry
sand, coarse aggregate, cement, and lightweight material were

Table 3. Batch Quantities 共by Volume兲, Average Compressive Strength, and Density of Lightweight Concrete Trial Mixes Made with Polystyrene Beads
as Aggregate
Mix proportions 共by volume兲
Average 28-day cube
Mix 10 mm compressive strength Density
number Cement Sand aggregates Water Polystyrene 共MPa兲 共kg/ mm3兲
1 1 0.5 2 0.6 0.042 6.5 1,510
2 1 0.75 1 0.6 0.042 7.05 1,555
3 1 0.75 0.5 0.6 0.042 0.92 850
4 1 0.75 0.5 0.6 0.042 1.5 1,040
5 1 0.75 0.75 0.6 0.042 1.94 1,035
6 1 0.75 1.5 0.6 0.042 4.00 1,310
7 1 1 0.5 0.6 0.042 3.62 1,340
8 1 1 0.7 0.6 0.042 3.54 1,350
9 1 1 1 0.6 0.042 4.64 1,320
10 1 1 1.5 0.6 0.042 4.03 1,340

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 Table 4. Compressive Strength of Blocks and Masonry Column at shows the different types of blocks.
Different Proportions of CKD as a Cement Replacement For the CKD group, natural aggregates were used and were
Average compressive mixed with cement and CKD for 3 min prior to the addition of
Average 28-day
strength of block water. Water was then added to the mix gradually. Before con-
Cement column compressive
共MPa兲 crete was poured in the mold, workability was measured using the
kiln strength
dust 共%兲 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days 共MPa兲 slump test. Thereafter, casting of the blocks was made in three
layers, and each was well compacted on the vibrating table. The
0 — — — 10.4 10 concrete was then left to dry out in the open atmosphere of the
5 8.5 10.8 — 14.8 15 laboratory for 24 h 共temperature about 25° C兲, before the molds
7 8.4 9.6 — 12.7 12.7 were removed. Concrete was then cured in a water tank until the
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9 8.8 11.2 — 13.1 14.6 date of testing.

11 11 12 12.1 11.9 12.7
13 10 9.7 11.4 11.7 —
15 5.9 7 9.6 10.1 — Testing the Properties of the Blocks

blended in a rotating mixer for about 3 min until a gray color was
achieved. Water was then added gradually while the mixer was
operating and the mixing continued until good consistency was
achieved. Before casting, the molds were pre-oiled and fixed on
the vibrating table. For each mix, control specimens of 100 mm
standard cubes were cast. During casting, the specimens were
compacted by means of a rectangular rod in three layers while
they were being vibrated. The specimens were then kept in their
molds for 24 h and finally demolded and cured under water at a
temperature of 20° C until the time of testing. For the polystyrene
group, half of the mixing water was premixed with the polysty-
rene beads. The dry sand, 10 mm coarse aggregate, and cement
were blended in the mixer for 2 min. The water was added gradu-
ally while the mixer was still in motion and the mixing was con-
tinued for an additional 4 min. The polystyrene and the remaining
water were then added to the mix until a good consistency was
obtained.
After 28 days from the date of casting, the cubes and blocks were
removed from the curing room. They were dried, weighed, and
subjected to the following tests: 共1兲 compression, 共2兲 masonry
column compression evaluation, and 共3兲 thermal conductivity.
Compressive Strength Test
Compressive testing of the blocks was done in accordance with
OS1 共OS 1977兲. Each block was first dried, weighed, and placed
between the platens of a Dartec compression machine. Soft wood
plates were placed beneath and on the top of the block separating
it from the platens of the machine. The load was applied in small
increments until failure, and the failure load of the block was
recorded. The stress at failure was calculated using the gross area
of the block normal to the load. Results were compared with the
Omani specifications for the production of precast concrete
blocks 共OS1兲 共OS 1977兲, and are shown in Tables 2–4.

Masonry Column Test

Blocks Production and Designation
The molds for the blocks were pre-oiled and fixed on the vibrat-
ing table. The block’s size was 200⫻ 200⫻ 400 mm with two
holes each measuring 110⫻ 75⫻ 200 mm. The blocks manufac-
tured using vermiculite as a lightweight aggregate were desig-
nated as VerBlock, and those using polystyrene beads were
designated as PolyBlocks. Two methods of production of the Po-
lyBlocks made from the polystyrene beads were investigated. In
the first method, the mix was poured in the mold and cured
共pour-in situ method兲 and was designated as PolyBlock1, while in
the other method, a polystyrene board was sandwiched between
two layers of normal concrete shells, and were designated as Po-
lyBlock2. The latter type of PolyBlocks was solid, and was mar-
keted commercially by the Oriental Company of Muscat. Fig. 1
Fig. 1. Different types of blocks selected for masonry column and
thermal conductivity tests
Masonry columns were built from the blocks in each series in
order to determine the strength of blocks when they constitute
part of a masonry structure. The masonry column consisted of
eight layers of blocks. The height of the column was 1.6 m. The
mortar used for the masonry was a sand-cement mortar, designa-
tion III, according to BS 5628 共BS 1992a兲. A soft board of 10 mm
thickness was used under the upper platen to distribute the load
over the rough surface of the top block of the column as shown in
Fig. 2. Table 5 shows the average column compressive strength
for different types of block.
Thermal Conductivity of Lightweight Concrete Blocks
The thermal conductivity of the lightweight concrete blocks was
measured using a specially made guarded hot box constructed
from plywood plates and was insulated from inside with 100 mm
thick polystyrene panels. The design and construction of the box
was in accordance with ASTM C236-89 共ASTM 1993; Hago and
Al-Jabri 2005兲 as shown in Fig. 3. Details of the experimental
procedure are presented elsewhere 共Hago and Al-Jabri 2005兲. The
apparatus was built of a guarded box that contained an electrical
heater and a fan for air circulation inside the box. The fan was
used to increase the heat transfer inside the box and to supply air
velocities commonly used to simulate wind conditions. One wall
of the box contained the test specimen consisting of two blocks
and the rest were made of plywood 共having thermal conductivity
k = 0.115兲 sheets of 12 mm thickness covered by one or more
sheets of extruded polystyrene 共k = 0.03兲 for insulation. The out-

194 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MAY 2009

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(5): 191-197

 Table 6. Determination of Heat Flow through the Sides of the Guarded
Box for One of the Blocks
Temperature Rate of
difference heat
between the generated
Thermal two faces of by the
Thickness Area resistance per one side heater
共t兲 共A兲 unit area 共R兲 共⌬T兲 共Q兲
Side 共m兲 共m2兲 共m2 ° C / W兲 共°C兲 共W兲
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Block 0.20 0.16 25.1

Back 0.112 0.16 21.49 32.2 1.499
Top 0.092 0.24 11.55 32.1 2.780
Bottom 0.112 0.24 14.32 28.6 1.997
Right 0.112 0.36 9.55 27.7 2.901
Left 0.112 0.36 9.55 31.1 3.257
⌺Q= 12.434

To find the thermal conductivity k of the block, the heat flow

through every side of the box had to be estimated from the mea-
surements of the temperatures of the inside and outside walls of
the guarded box. The thermal conductivity of the blocks was de-
Fig. 2. Masonry column test arrangement termined using the following equations:

Qb = Q − 兺 Qi−1 共1兲
side of the box was exposed to the air-conditioned environment
space of the laboratory. Thermocouples were attached on each ⌬Ti
Qi = 共2兲
wall on the inside and on the outside of the box to measure the R iA i
temperature difference. The thermocouples were also placed on
the inner and outer faces of the specimen. The thermocouples twi tpi
were attached to a data logger unit, which had 30 channels for Ri = + 共3兲
Aikwi Aikpi
continuous recording of the temperatures inside and outside the
box. t
k= 共4兲
Ri
Table 5. Summary of Properties of the Different Types of Blocks Devel- where k = thermal conductivity, W/m°C; Q = rate of heat generated
oped for Thermal Insulation 关Adapted from Al-Jabri et al. 共2005兲兴 by the heater, W; Qb = rate of flow through the specimen 共two
Gross Block Column Thermal
blocks兲, W; Qi = rate of heat flow through side i 共i.e., block face兲,
Weight density strength strength conductivity W; ⌺Qi = summation of the rate of heat through all sides except
Block type 共kg兲 共kg/ m3兲 共MPa兲 共MPa兲 共W/m°C兲 the block side, W; ⌬Ti = temperature difference between the two
faces of one side, °C; Ri = thermal resistance per unit area of side
Ordinary 19.08 1,193 5–15 5.48 1.60
i; m2 ° C / W; Ai = area of side i, m2; twi , tpi = thickness of plywood
PolyBlock1 12.77 798 3.3 2.24 0.626 and insulation boards, respectively, m; t = thickness of block, m;
PolyBlock2 22.68 1,418 10.2 7.56 0.616 and kwi , kpi = thermal conductivity of plywood 共kwi = 0.115兲 and in-
sulation 共kpi = 0.03兲 boards, respectively.
Data logger Several heat rate regimes were tried to achieve the one that
simulates the actual heat rates and the difference between inside
and outside room temperatures in Oman. The power input of
25 watts was selected to generate a temperature of about 60° C
inside the box, which simulates the outdoor summer temperature
in Oman. Table 6 shows the data used for determining the thermal
Testing blocks
conductivity of blocks.
Thermocouple

Results and Discussion

Insulated box Properties of Lightweight Concrete Blocks Made from

Vermiculite and Polystyrene Beads as Aggregates
Tables 2 and 3 show the results of the 28-day compressive
strength and density for the trial mixes prepared to determine the
Fig. 3. Hot guarded box for measuring the thermal conductivity of suitable mix for the manufacturing of the blocks. From each mix,
the blocks six standard 100 mm cubes of concrete and 10 blocks were tested

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(5): 191-197

 after 28 days of casting. Table 2 indicated that none of the ver-
miculite early trial mixes 共i.e., Mixes 1–14兲 had a density lower
than 1,500 kg/ m3, which excludes them from the scope of the
present study. Further trial mixes were made to produce a light-
weight concrete with densities less than 1,500 kg/ m3 by increas-
ing the vermiculite content in the mix 共Mixes 15–24兲, which
resulted in some weaker blocks having a compressive strength of
less than 2 N / mm2. Such blocks did not satisfy the Omani speci-
fications 关OS1 共OS 1977兲兴 for the strength of nonload bearing
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blocks. In addition, an increase in the vermiculite content in the
mix required a greater water demand to complete the hydration
process producing drier mixes, which in turn resulted in further
reduction in the strength and a great difficulty in the production of
blocks. Adding admixtures such as superplasticizers to improve
workability and consistency of the mixes was not found viable
since vermiculite, due to its organic nature, reacts with admix-
tures causing a disintegration of the cubes and blocks immedi-
ately after immersion in water. Consequently, the work on these
blocks was discontinued, and no further testing was carried out.
Work was then continued on other types of blocks.
Table 3 showed that most of the lightweight concrete mixes
with polystyrene beads achieved a density less than 1,500 kg/ m3
and a cube compressive strength greater than 2.8 N / mm2, which
is the minimum 28-day compressive strength required for Class B
blocks for nonload bearing walls according to OS1 共OS 1977兲.
The best results in terms of both low density and high strength
were obtained in Mixes 6–10. All these mixes had comparable
densities and strength. However, the strength of Mix 9
共4.64 N / mm2兲 was higher than the strength of other mixes, while
the density was almost the same 共1,320 kg/ m3兲. Mix 9 was then
selected to make hollow concrete blocks for masonry columns for
the compression and thermal conductivity tests.
The masonry column compression and the thermal conductiv-
ity tests were conducted on three types of block. These blocks
were:
• Blocks made from polystyrene beads manufactured in the
laboratory using the same mix proportions as that of Mix 9
共Table 3兲. These blocks were called PolyBlock 1;
• Polystyrene blocks that are marketed commercially by Orien-
tal Company, Muscat as solid blocks with high thermal insu-
lation properties. In these blocks, a polystyrene board was
sandwiched between two layers of normal shells 共PolyBlock
2兲; and
• Ordinary normal blocks, which are widely used in construc-
tion.
Fig. 1 shows the different types of blocks while the properties
of these blocks are shown in Table 5. The ordinary block is a
normal weight concrete with a gross density of 1,193 kg/ m3, a
compressive strength between 5 and 15 N / mm2, a column
strength of 5.48 N / mm2, and a thermal conductivity of
1.6 W / m ° C. Results from Table 5 show that the average com-
pressive strength for 10 PolyBlock1 blocks was 3.3 N / mm2 with
an average gross density of 798 kg/ m3, which are within the
range of 2.8 and 7.0 N / mm2 and density less than 1,000 kg/ m3,
specified by the Omani Standard 关OS1 共OS 1977兲兴 for the
strength and density of lightweight concrete blocks, respectively.
The compressive strength of the masonry column made from the
blocks was found to be 2.24 N / mm2, which is within the range of
1.7 and 3.5 N / mm2 as per BS5628 共BS 1992a兲. Therefore, the
results were acceptable. The weight of PolyBlock2 is heavier than
the ordinary hollow block 共gross density of 1,418 kg/ m3兲 with
average compressive block and column strengths of 10.2 N / mm2
and 7.56 N / mm2, respectively, which are comparable to ordinary
196 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MAY 2009
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(5): 191-197
18
Compressive strength (MPa)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Cement kiln dust (%)
Fig. 4. Average 28-day compressive strength of blocks made with
different proportions of CKD
blocks. Further, by comparing the three types of concrete blocks
for thermal insulation, it was found that polystyrene beads was a
better material to be used as a lightweight aggregate for making
blocks. The thermal conductivity of PolyBlock1 共hollow兲 was
found to be 0.626 W / m ° C, which is comparable to the thermal
conductivity of PolyBlock2 共solid兲 共k = 0.616 W / m ° C兲. It should
be noted that the weight and the shape of PolyBlock2 make the
handling of such blocks more expensive than the other types of
blocks, even though they had the lowest thermal conductivity.
The other type of polystyrene blocks 共PolyBlock1兲 appears to be
superior to the types listed in Table 5. It has the lowest density, a
very low thermal conductivity, and an acceptable compressive
strength, both as a block and as masonry column.
Properties of Ordinary Normal Weight Concrete Blocks
Made from CKD as a Partial Replacement for Cement
Average strength results for the third series of CKD blocks are
presented in Table 4 along with the strength of masonry columns
constructed from the produced blocks. Table 6 indicates that all
mixes with CKD 共exception is the mix prepared using 15% CKD兲
gave higher or comparable average strengths than that of the con-
trol mix prepared using 100% cement. Average strength of all
mixes was within the Omani Standard OS1 共OS 1977兲 for precast
concrete blocks for load bearing walls, which specifies average
and minimum 28-day compressive strengths of 7.5 N / mm2 and
6 N / mm2, respectively. Further, the average strength of the ma-
sonry column was higher than the strength of the control mix for
mixes with 5, 7, 9, and 11% CKD. Fig. 4 shows the 28-day
compressive strength raw data for the five blocks tested at each
CKD content. The data indicate that the block strength generally
increases with an increase in CKD content up to 5% with an
average 28-day compressive strength of 14.8 N / mm2. Beyond
5% CKD, the strength decreases with an increase in CKD con-
tent. Generally, it can be said that addition of up to 15% of CKD
causes insignificant reduction in the block and column strengths
in comparison with the control mix 共0% CKD兲.
Conclusions
This research work investigated the potential use of waste mate-
rials in the production of normal weight and lightweight concrete
blocks. Three materials were evaluated including vermiculite,
polystyrene, and cement kiln dust. The former two materials were
 used as aggregates, while the latter was used as a partial replace-
ment for cement. Several trial mixes were prepared and the best
mix was selected for the production of blocks. The blocks were
tested for compressive strength, masonry column strength, and
thermal conductivity. Results indicated that polystyrene is a good
material for developing lightweight concrete blocks with a low
thermal conductivity for use in nonload bearing walls, while ver-
miculite did not yield good results within the scope of the current
investigation. Results also showed that the addition of up to 15%
CKD as a cement replacement gave a comparable 28-day com-
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pressive strength to the ordinary normal weight concrete blocks
widely used in construction.
Acknowledgments
This research was performed under the sponsorship of Sultan Qa-
boos University Research Grant No. IG/ENG/CIVL/03/03. The
writers also wish to express their gratitude to the Oriental Com-
pany personnel for their cooperation.
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