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Distributed real-time strain monitoring for Nb3Sn sextupole superconducting

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DOI: 10.1007/s10409-023-23302-x

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 Acta Mechanica Sinica
• RESEARCH PAPER • Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-023-23302-x

Distributed real-time strain monitoring for Nb3Sn sextupole

superconducting magnets: from assembly to excitation
Xingzhe Wang1*, Taolue Yang1,2, Mingzhi Guan3,4*, Canjie Xin3,4, Beimin Wu3,4, Wei Wu3,4,
Liangting Sun3, Hongwei Zhao3, and Youhe Zhou1
1
Key Laboratory of Mechanics on Western Disaster and Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics,
Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China;
2
China Southern Power Grid Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510080, China;
3
Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China;
4
Advanced Energy science and technology Guangdong Laboratory, Huizhou 516000, China

Received July 2, 2023; accepted November 28, 2023; published online January 30, 2024

In pursuit of a fourth-generation electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) source, a powerful Nb3Sn superconducting magnet
system employing a sextupole-in-solenoid configuration has been recently developed at the Institute of Modern Physics (IMP)
in Lanzhou, China. These superconducting magnets operate under extreme conditions, experiencing high magnetic fields,
cryogenic temperatures, and mechanical stresses. Understanding their stress/strain behaviors, therefore, is of utmost im-
portance to ensure reliable operation and optimal performance. However, the conventional single-point strain gauges com-
monly exhibit certain limitations that pose challenges in measuring global strain within complex and larger structures. The
presence of substantial electromagnetic interference further exacerbates the difficulty in obtaining accurate strain measure-
ments. To address these challenges, a novel approach was undertaken in this study to develop a distributed real-time strain
monitoring system specifically designed for the sextupole superconducting magnets, which is based on optical frequency
domain reflectometry (OFDR) combined with high spatial resolution distributed optical fiber technology. The strain profile and
evolution of the magnets system have been comprehensively monitored throughout the entire operational process, including
assembly, cooling down, excitation, and quenching stages. Consequently, valuable insights into the global strain characteristics
of the superconducting magnets have been attained, revealing intriguing features such as asymmetrical distribution and
extreme values. The development of this distributed real-time strain monitoring system represents a notable advancement in
the field of superconducting magnet technology.
Superconducting magnets, Cryogenic temperature, Strain profile, Distributed and real-time measurement, Rayleigh-
scattering-based DOFS

Citation: X. Wang, T. Yang, M. Guan, C. Xin, B. Wu, W. Wu, L. Sun, H. Zhao, and Y. Zhou, Distributed real-time strain monitoring for Nb3Sn sextupole
superconducting magnets: from assembly to excitation, Acta Mech. Sin. 40, 723302 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-023-23302-x

1. Introduction speed transportation systems [1-3]. These magnets are ty-

High-field superconducting magnets have played a crucial
role in numerous scientific and technological applications,
including fusion reactors, particle accelerators, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) systems, and advanced high-
*Corresponding authors. E-mail addresses: xzwang@lzu.edu.cn (Xingzhe Wang);
mzg615@impcas.ac.cn (Mingzhi Guan)
Executive Editor: Huadong Yong
© The Chinese Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024
pically exposed to extreme conditions of high magnetic
fields, cryogenic temperatures, and mechanical stresses,
often in the presence of other environmental factors such as
radiation or high pressures [4,5].
In recent developments, the Institute of Modern Physics
(IMP) in China has embarked on the development of a Nb3
Sn superconducting magnet system specifically designed to
meet the requirements for injected beam intensity at the new
high-intensity heavy ion accelerator facility (HIAF) [6,7].
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
This large-scale superconducting magnet system is based on a
sextupole-in-solenoid configuration, contributing to the
fourth-generation electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) ion
source, which will hold a world-record frequency of 45 GHz.
Due to the brittleness of reacted Nb3Sn wire during post-
production testing and service life, there is a significant risk
of frequent instances of unnecessary quenching and sub-
sequent destruction. To address this challenge and ensure the
production of a stable Nb3Sn superconducting magnet system
capable of withstanding assembly stress, high thermal stress,
and intense electromagnetic stress, a half-size prototype with
a shell-based structure has been constructed for thorough
testing [8]. However, research on stress and strain testing and
analysis of superconducting materials and structures under
extreme multi-field environments is currently lacking inter-
nationally, with few mature technologies available.
At cryogenic temperatures, previous studies have explored
the feasibility of using resistive gauges and fiber Bragg
gratings (FBGs) to measure temperature and strain [9-11].
However, to address the challenges of low-temperature en-
vironments, employing temperature compensation bridges
with strain gauges and adhesive dummy sensors becomes
crucial. Unfortunately, these approaches introduce notable
drawbacks, including the need for extensive redundant
wiring and vulnerability to electromagnetic interference
[12,13]. Additionally, these measurement techniques are
generally inadequate for assessing distributed strains across
an entire structure due to their single-point nature. Theore-
tically, distributed measurements can be achieved by ar-
ranging numerous single-point features using optical FBGs
or resistive strain gauges. However, demonstrating dis-
tributed contributions becomes infeasible when the com-
pensation circuit incorporates a large number of sensors.
This limitation hampers the practical implementation of
distributed strain measurement techniques [14,15].
Recent preliminary research has proposed alternative ap-
proaches to address the challenges and enable accurate and
distributed strain measurements. These approaches include
Brillouin scattering, Rayleigh scattering, and Raman scat-
tering techniques [15-17]. These methods utilize optical fi-
bers that are either bonded or embedded into the structure,
and they measure the changes in the fiber’s optical proper-
ties induced by temperature or strain. By analyzing the
distributed signal changes in the fiber, it is possible to de-
termine the distribution of temperature and strain along the
structure [18]. However, when operating at very low tem-
peratures, such as below 40 K, the optical techniques face a
significant challenge due to the reduced coefficients of
thermal effect in most materials. This limitation results in
insufficient thermal sensitivities under such scenarios.
Rayleigh-scattering-based distributed optical fiber sensors
(DOFSs) have been proposed for monitoring temperature
and strain in certain structures, including simple super-
723302-2
conducting tapes and coils, demonstrating attractive benefits
[19,20]. Rayleigh backscatter in an optical fiber is caused by
random fluctuations in the refractive index along the fiber’s
length. These fluctuations create a random but static scat-
tering amplitude and phase pattern that varies with the fi-
ber’s length. The fiber can be considered as a continuous
Bragg grating with a random period, allowing for the utili-
zation of Rayleigh scattering for distributed strain and tem-
perature sensing purposes. Under cryogenic temperatures
and wide temperature variations, the temperature depen-
dence of thermo-optic coefficients is commonly significant.
To address the complexities associated with the Rayleigh-
scattering-based DOFS technique at cryogenic temperatures,
we have innovatively developed a compensation method for
thermo-optic effects. This approach enables us to accurately
calibrate the thermo-optic coefficients for typical single-
mode optical fibers. Our work, meticulously documented in
Refs. [21,22], not only proposes a viable solution but also
rigorously validates the precision and stability of our mea-
surement method under low-temperature conditions, ensur-
ing reliability and accuracy in challenging environments. It
was shown that a polymer coating material, always can en-
hance the mechanical strength and survival rate of optical
fibers at low temperatures.
Focused on the development of a distributed real-time strain
monitoring system, this study aims to achieve global and dis-
tributed strain measurements on the Nb3Sn sextupole super-
conducting magnets system within the fourth-generation ECR
ion source. A proposed measurement system combined optical
frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR) with high spatial
resolution distributed optical fiber technology has been de-
veloped. By implementing the system, a comprehensive
monitoring of the strain profile and evolution of the super-
conducting magnets is enabled throughout the entire opera-
tional process, which includes critical stages such as assembly,
cooling down, excitation, and quenching. The findings de-
monstrate a good agreement between the distributed strain
measurements obtained from the proposed system and those
measured using conventional single-point resistive strain gau-
ges at several locations. Moreover, the system accurately
captures global strain profiles along the circumferential direc-
tion of the assembled sextupole magnets, revealing intriguing
features such as asymmetrical distribution and extreme values.
2. The tested superconducting magnet
The Nb3Sn sextupole superconducting magnet system is
designed for the fourth-generation FECR ion source and can
be used in HIAF [6,23]. The central field strength reaches
about 12 T to achieve a 45 GHz microwave frequency. The
utilization of Nb3Sn superconducting wires to achieve high
confinement fields presents several new challenges. There-
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024) 723302-3

fore, a half-size shell-based prototype was initially con- closed within three Nb3Sn superconducting solenoids. The
structed to evaluate the structural design. shell-based structure allows for the simultaneous pressur-
The half-size prototype has a 200 mm diameter, with an ization of the six bladders, thereby applying uniform pres-
outer diameter of the aluminum shell measuring 788 mm and tress to the magnet system. Consequently, it is crucial to
a thickness of 38 mm. Additionally, it has an axial length of accurately detect the distributed real-time strain on the shell-
approximately 553 mm. Detailed information regarding the based structure to monitor the overall uniformity of the
half-size prototype and its parameters can be found in pre- magnet structure. This ensures precise control of prestress
vious reports [7,24]. Figure 1 illustrates the preparation pro- without the requirement for excessively stringent tolerances.
cess for the prototype test, which includes magnet assembly,
position marking, deployment of fiber optics and strain gau-
ges, and the subsequent hoisting of the magnet into the dewar. 3. Principle of distributed optical fiber sensing
Furthermore, Fig. 2 presents the flowchart depicting the technique
application of prestress and electromagnetic stress for the
Nb3Sn prototype magnet during assembly, cooling down and This research introduces Rayleigh-scattering-based DOFSs as
excitation stages. It is noteworthy that the prestress of the
Nb3Sn prototype magnet is directly applied through the
magnet yoke structure. Bladders positioned between the coil
pack and the surrounding yoke inside the shell are pressur-
ized to approximately 30 MPa, to create an interference gap.
This gap is then occupied by keys, which replace the func-
tionality of the bladders. Once the assembly is complete, the
bladders are deflated and removed. During assembly, the
combination of the bladder-key system generates the initial
prestress. Subsequently, the difference in thermal expansion
between the shell and yoke during the cooling process (from
room temperature to 4.2 K) produces an additional prestress.
Ultimately, this accumulated prestress balances the electro-
magnetic force generated during excitation.
It should be noted that the prototype magnet, unlike
conventional Nb3Sn dipoles, features a shell-based structure Figure 2 Flowchart of application of prestress and electromagnetic stress
where the six Nb3Sn superconducting sextupoles are en- throughout the entire assembly and operation process of the magnet system.

Figure 1 Test preparation of the sextupole superconducting magnets system: a magnet system assembly; b position marking; c sensors deployment; d
magnet hoisting into the dewar.
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
a novel approach to monitor the development of distributed
strain on the complex Nb3Sn magnet during its assembly and
commissioning. The DOFSs demonstrate the capability to
provide accurate, real-time temperature and strain measure-
ments along optical fibers. These sensors consist of a glass
core, cladding, and robust protected coating.
The sensing mechanism of these DOFSs relies on the
principle of Rayleigh backscattering, which occurs due to
random refractive index fluctuations along the fiber. By ana-
lyzing the Rayleigh backscattered light, temperature and strain
distributions can be determined. Rayleigh backscattering
spectrum (RBS) refers to the frequency distribution of light
reflected by weak FBGs within the fiber. Local shifts in the
RBS, induced by variations in strain and temperature, can be
accurately determined through cross-correlation analysis.
Figure 3 schematically illustrates the procedure for indu-
cing Rayleigh scattering. In this process, a single-mode
optical fiber is employed in conjunction with a variable-
wavelength laser source. The laser source emits light with
varying wavelengths, thereby instigating scattering events
along the fiber. The backscattered light is subsequently
captured by a detector situated at one end of the fiber.
Through appropriate signal processing techniques, it be-
comes feasible to identify the center frequency of the
backscattered light. This identification process ultimately
enables the achievement of distributed sensing using Ray-
leigh-scattering-based DOFSs.
In Rayleigh-scattering-based DOFSs, variations in tem-
perature and strain can affect the refractive index and length
of the fiber core, resulting in shifts in the RBS. The RBS, or
frequency shift response, is influenced by both strain and
temperature changes in the fiber core can be mathematically
represented as follows [22]:
df
= K (T )d + KT (T )dT .
f0
In Eq. (1), K represents the strain sensitivity coefficient,
which is associated with the elastic-optical coefficient of the
fiber, df is the frequency shift which corresponds to the
change in the center frequency f0 of the scattered light in the
Figure 3 Diagram of optical network for Rayleigh-scattering-based DOFS.
723302-4
fiber, KT denotes the temperature sensitivity coefficient or
the thermo-optic coefficient, and d and dT indicate the
strain and temperature changes in the fiber, respectively.
When optical fiber sensors are utilized at cryogenic tem-
peratures beyond room temperature, it becomes imperative
to consider the influence of temperature on the properties of
the fiber material. Please note that Eq. (1) represents a
general formulation for the frequency shift response in
Rayleigh-scattering-based DOFSs.
By meticulously controlling the measurement conditions,
it is possible to experimentally determine the strain and
temperature sensitivity coefficients independently. When
temperature variations are absent or when strains are not
present, the strain and temperature sensitivity coefficients
can be expressed as follows:
1 df 1 df T
K (T ) = , KT (T ) = , (2)
f0 d f 0 dT
where df denotes the RBS shift resulting exclusively from
the fiber strain, primarily governed by the elastic-optical
effect, and df T represents the RBS shift arising solely from
the temperature change, independent of any applied strain.
The calibration of strain sensitivity coefficients plays a
crucial role in achieving accurate measurements in Rayleigh
scattering-based DOFS systems. While these coefficients
typically exhibit minimal temperature dependence, it is es-
sential to perform calibrations at various temperatures, in-
cluding room temperature and cryogenic temperatures.
Previous research has shown that the fiber glass core’s
mechanical properties, which remain relatively constant
over a wide temperature range, primarily contribute to this
characteristic. The mean value of the strain sensitivity
coefficient is approximately 0.77. However, it should be
noted that the presence of coating layers on the fiber can
(1) induce thermal deformation, thereby impacting the sensi-
tivity coefficients. Specifically, the temperature sensitivity
of polyimide-coated optical fibers and uncoated optical fi-
bers may differ under cryogenic temperatures, as in-
vestigated in prior studies [22]. For the present study, the
basic calibration curves obtained from the investigations
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
were directly utilized for subsequent distributed strain
measurements of the magnet.
4. Distributed strain measurement and results
Based on the previously established measurement technique,
this section focuses on the real-time distributed strain
measurements of the superconducting magnets system. The
signal acquisition and demodulation processes rely on a
commercially available OFDR system (e.g., LUNA, ODiSI
6100), which offers high spatial resolution (sub-millimeter)
and fast sampling rate capabilities.
In our experiment setup, as depicted in Fig. 4, two fiber
optic channels were utilized: channel 1 for testing and
analysis purposes, and channel 2 as a reference and backup.
Both channels followed identical paths, adhering to two
parallel turns around the middle of the magnet’s aluminum
shell in the circumferential direction. To ensure secure at-
Figure 4 a Cross section of sextupole magnet; b fiber optic deployment and its temperature compensation.
Figure 5 Schematic drawing of assembly of Nb3Sn sextupole magnet system.
723302-5
tachment, the fibers were affixed using a low-temperature
adhesive, and their positions were accurately calibrated to
correspond with the locations of the sextupole coils.
Furthermore, to safeguard against potential damage or
abrasion during the lifting process of the magnet, the fibers
affixed to the magnet were shielded with a velour cloth.
Additionally, the exposed section of the fiber leading out of
the dewar was protected by Teflon tubing. For the testing
process, the fiber sampling frequency was set at 1 Hz,
providing a spatial resolution of 0.65 mm. In order to fa-
cilitate comparison, conventional single-point resistive
strain gauges were also employed at select key points.
4.1 Assembly and loading process
The assembly and loading process of the Nb3Sn super-
conducting sextupole magnet employs the Bladder and Key
technology, which enables the application of pre-pressure to
the entire coils. Figure 5 depicts the schematic drawing of
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024) 723302-6

the magnet system assembly. The concept involves injecting
high-pressure water into the Bladder to expand and apply
thrust to the workpieces in contact with the upper and lower
surfaces, thereby increasing the assembly gap. Subse-
quently, the stress state is secured by adjusting the thickness
of the load keys positioned between the assembled compo-
nents. The application of prestress is completed by releasing
the pressure within the Bladder and removing it.
During this process, the aluminum shell experiences out-
ward thrust from the internal components, resulting in hoop
tension, while the sextupole magnet coil undergoes hoop
compression due to the action of the aluminum shell.
Therefore, precise control of the prestress and mechanical
tolerance is essential, which is based on the sextupole-in-
solenoid configuration, during assembly and loading. This
control is achieved through the measurement of strain in the
aluminum cylinder.
Figure 6a-d illustrates the hoop strain measurements at
positions 1#-6# during the assembly and loading process,
utilizing a single strain measurement mode employing
Rayleigh-backscattering interrogated optical fibers. The
depicted strains in these figures specifically represent the
stress experienced by the magnet at room temperature dur-
ing its assembly process. Since the temperature is main-
tained constant in this scenario, the strains showcased are
essentially the pre-strains (elastic strains) applied during the
assembly of the magnet. It is crucial to highlight that these
assembly-induced stresses result in non-uniform strains
across the magnet and its cryogenic structure, potentially
impacting the stability of the magnet systems. This under-
scores the significance of employing distributed strain
measurements, as conventional single-point resistive strain
gauges may not suffice for capturing the strain distribution
in some critical regions of the system.
Figure 7 presents the novel distributed real-time strain
measurement approach utilizing Rayleigh-backscattering
interrogated optical fibers for the sextupole superconducting
magnet, which has not been previously performed and re-
ported in existing literature. In Fig. 7a, accurate strain
measurements along the position of the optical fiber during
the assembly and loading process are demonstrated. The
strain measurements are performed on the circumference of
the aluminum cylinder, which serves as the external support
structure of the sextupole magnet system, under varying
water pressures during the bladder injection operation. At a
water pressure of 27.5 MPa, the expected strain value is
1490 μm. Remarkably, the average strain value for the entire
assembly is measured to be 1605 μm, with each coil ex-

Figure 6 Strain measurements at positions 1#-6# during the assembling process: a simultaneous application of pressure to six bladders before Key
adjustment; b simultaneous application of pressure to six bladders after Key adjustment; c load-strain relationship before Key adjustment; d load-strain
relationship after Key adjustment.
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
hibiting nearly identical prestress. Furthermore, Fig. 7a
clearly shows the strain distribution at different water
pressures. The strain distribution is found to be uniform at
locations 3#-6#, while slightly non-uniform at locations 1#-
2#. Additionally, Fig. 7b provides a comprehensive view of
the full strain distribution under polar coordinates through-
out the magnet assembly and loading process. These sig-
nificant findings serve as a valuable reference for the
mechanical assembly of similar systems, contributing to the
advancement of related research in the field.
4.2 Cooling down process
During the cooling process, the aluminum shell undergoes
contraction, resulting in additional prestress that is trans-
mitted to the superconducting coils through the iron yoke,
keys, and load pads. This generates circumferential con-
straints and the secondary prestress, which is caused by
thermal expansion mismatch between the magnet compo-
nents. The distributed strain measurements during cooling
down need to account for the temperature compensation. In
this experiment, a free compensation block was utilized to
compensate for the thermal expansion of the aluminum shell
and the thermal-optic effect of the optical fiber, enabling the
measurement of circumferential elastic strain.
Figure 8 meticulously depicts the three cooling stages of
the sextupole magnet system: the exposure to cold nitrogen
gas, immersion in liquid nitrogen (77 K), and subsequent
cooling in liquid helium (4.2 K), spanning a total duration of
3 days. In this comprehensive analysis, signals from optical
fibers located at three distinct positions are captured and
compared: the free section (“free fiber”), the section at-
tached to the magnet’s outer shell (“aluminium shell”), and
the section attached to the compensation block (“compen-
sation block”). The “Free fiber” predominantly reveals the
inherent thermal response of the fiber, stabilizing at
−1397 με (με denotes the microstrain with a value of 10-6)
at 77 K and −1501 με at 4.2 K, primarily reflecting the
Figure 7 Distributed strain measurements of the cylinder during magnet assembly and loading: a strain along the position of the Rayleigh-backscattering
interrogated optical fiber; b full strain distribution under polar coordinates.
723302-7
thermal-optic effect and the thermal expansion of the fiber’s
coating layer. On the other hand, the “aluminium shell”
segment provides a more complex signal, encapsulating not
only the fiber’s thermooptic response and the thermal strain
of the aluminum shell but also the elastic strain due to
thermal mismatch. This signal stabilizes at −4343 με at
77 K and −4670 με at 4.2 K. The “Compensation block”
shows the response of a fiber attached to a temperature
compensation block, capturing both the thermooptic effect
and the aluminum shell’s thermal strain, and eventually
stabilizes at −4969 με at 77 K and −5317 με at 4.2 K.
By meticulously subtracting the signal from the “com-
pensation block” from that of the “aluminium shell”, we can
isolate and precisely quantify the mechanical strain ex-
clusively due to the thermal mismatch of the aluminum
shell. This method ensures consistency with traditional re-
sistive strain gauge measurements, providing a robust vali-
dation of our approach. Throughout the cooling process, the
compensation block contracts freely, while the internal
components restrict the contraction of the shell, resulting in
superimposed elastic deformation on the signal and leading
to circumferential tensile stress. This nuanced analysis un-
derscores the notable differences among the signals from the
three sections, shedding light on the complex interplay of
Figure 8 Three representative fiber-optic measurement points (free sec-
tion, attached to the aluminum shell, attached to the compensation block)
during the cooling process.
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024) 723302-8

thermal and mechanical strains during the cooling of the
magnet system.
Figure 9 amalgamates the high spatial resolution cap-
abilities of our strain measurement technique with a com-
prehensive display of fiber-optic signals along the entire
length of the system at two pivotal temperatures, 77 and
4.2 K. This intricate display not only reveals the distinct
periodic pattern exhibited by the section of the fiber attached
to the aluminum shell, but also portrays the relatively uni-
form signal from the compensation block. Furthermore, the
fiber-optic signal from the free section eloquently captures
the temperature distribution along the path from the magnet
to the exterior of the dewar. Through this detailed visuali-
zation, Fig. 9 transcends the capabilities of traditional re-
sistive strain gauges, providing a nuanced and granular
perspective on the strain distribution, and solidifying our
technique’s position at the forefront of precision and re-
solution in strain measurement at cryogenic temperatures.
As depicted in Fig. 10a, the circumferential strain dis-
tribution of the aluminum shell can be determined by sub-
tracting the compensation block signal from the shell
segment signal. During the cooling process from room
temperature (291 K, signal zeroed) to 77 K, the circumfer-
ential strain exhibits periodic distribution along the cir-
cumferential direction. The configurations at positions 1#
through 6# show relatively consistent strain values, in-
dicating that the shell applies consistent additional prestress
at these positions during cooling. It also indicates that the
strain does not exhibit significant increase from 77 to 4.2 K.
This suggests that the thermal expansion coefficients of the
materials involved are small and relatively similar within
77-4.2 K, leading to negligible thermal mismatch stress. By
combining the pre-applied mechanical strain through the
Bladder and Key technology (pre-elastic strain) with the
strain applied after cooling to 4.2 K (elastic strain due to
cooling), the total pre-strain is obtained. The maximum
value of the total pre-strain is approximately 1900 με, while
the minimum value is around 500 με, as illustrated in Fig.
10b. These pre-strains counteract the coil deformation
caused by the electromagnetic forces during the energization
process. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate good
agreement between the distributed strain measurements

Figure 9 Fiber-optic signals along the entire length during cooling process to 77 and 4.2 K.

Figure 10 Circumferential strain distribution: a during the cooling process; b after the assembly and cooling process.
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
obtained from the proposed system and those obtained using
conventional single-point resistive strain gauges at several
locations.
Additionally, the two cooling tests conducted with a 2-
month interval, as depicted in Fig. 11, exhibit good con-
sistency, validating the repeatability and effectiveness of the
proposed system during the cooling process. Any minor
differences can be attributed to changes in internal contact
conditions and slight plastic deformation after the first
heating and cooling cycle.
4.3 Excitation process
Upon cooling down to 4.2 K, the sextupole magnets were
subjected to an excitation process, during which the strain
induced by electromagnetic forces was meticulously mon-
itored. Figure 12 provides a detailed representation of the
measured strain at a single point on the optical fiber
throughout this process. As the current progressively in-
creases, a gradual augmentation in strain is observed, peak-
ing at a modest value of only −6 με, indicative of minimal
electromagnetic strain on the aluminum shell. This is a tes-
Figure 11 Comparison of circumferential strain distributions for two
cooling experiments.
Figure 12 Strain measurement at a specific point on the optical fiber during the excitation process.
723302-9
tament to the adequate prestress applied during the assembly
and cooling stages, ensuring that the strain remains close to
the noise level and results in significant signal fluctuations.
Notwithstanding, the application of filtering techniques
brings the underlying trend to the forefront, showcasing the
precision and stability of our measurement approach.
At a critical juncture when the current reaches 580 A,
slightly below the design threshold of 600 A, the magnet
undergoes a quench. This event triggers the immediate ac-
tivation of the protection circuit, leading to a swift cut-off of
the power supply and the dissipation of electromagnetic
energy through a dump resistor. Consequently, the electro-
magnetic forces experience a rapid decay to zero, culmi-
nating in a sudden drop in strain as depicted in Fig. 12. This
abrupt change serves as a clear indicator of the effectiveness
of our prestress application and control strategies, ultimately
contributing to the achievement of stable magnet excitation
under these stringent conditions.
Figure 13a illustrates the distribution of circumferential
strain around the circumference. The maximum strain ob-
served at 580 A is only −13 με, indicating that the strong
electromagnetic force is effectively restrained and does not
cause significant coil deformation. This finding suggests that
the support structure maintains relatively small deformations
of the superconducting magnet system under intense elec-
tromagnetic forces. The excitation process generates com-
pressive strain, which is consistent with the simulation
results reported in previous studies [7,24]. Furthermore, it
indicates that the six sextuples, together with the support
structure, experience compression during excitation. Figure
13b demonstrates that the circumferential strain along the
aluminum shell is non-uniform when the excitation current is
580 A. It exhibits a pattern of six large and six small petals
arranged alternately, corresponding to the presence of 12
Keys. These detailed distributed results cannot be captured
using conventional single-point strain gauges, as they can be
influenced by the intense electromagnetic field.
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
Figure 13 Electromagnetic elastic strains under a current of 580 A load: a measurement in Cartesian coordinates; b measurement in polar coordinates.
5. Conclusion
This study has addressed critical issues related to the suc-
cessful implementation of strain monitoring for super-
conducting magnet structures operating under extreme
environments. By utilizing Rayleigh-scattering-based DOFS,
an effective technique has been developed to measure the
distributed real-time strains of a Nb3Sn sextupole super-
conducting magnet system at cryogenic temperatures and in
intense magnetic fields.
The measurement technique is based on OFDR combined
with high spatial resolution distributed optical fiber. The
strain profile and evolution of the magnet system were
comprehensively monitored throughout various stages, in-
cluding assembly, cooling down, excitation, and quenching.
The measured global and distributed strain provide valuable
insights into the applied prestress during assembly process
of a complicated magnet system. The real-time detection
capability enables the identification of regions with ex-
cessive or insufficient prestress, which could potentially
lead to unpredictable damage to the superconducting struc-
tures. Moreover, the monitoring of the strain evolution
during the cooling process, from room temperature to an
723302-10
operating temperature of 4.2 K, provides additional in-
formation on the prestress exerted on the superconducting
magnet. This evaluation plays a critical role in assessing the
uniformity of strains on the coils and the support structures
of the magnet system. Additionally, the electromagnetic
strains of the magnet during the excitation process were
obtained to validate the structural integrity and overall sta-
bility of the superconducting coils. The study has demon-
strated the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed
distributed real-time strain measurement technique. Future
research efforts will be focused on the decoupling of the
strain and temperature effects, as well as developing an al-
gorithm for distributed strain-based quench detection tech-
nique.
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author
states that there is no conflict of interest.
Author contributions The present work was conceptualized by Xingzhe
Wang and Mingzhi Guan, with research design undertaken by Taolue Yang.
The experimental setup and data processing were carried out by Taolue
Yang, Canjie Xin, Beimin Wu, and Wei Wu. The initial draft of the
manuscript was authored by Taolue Yang and Mingzhi Guan. Xingzhe
Wang, Liangting Sun, and Hongwei Zhao played pivotal roles in organizing
the manuscript, while Xingzhe Wang and Youhe Zhou contributed to the
revision and editing of the final version.
 X. Wang, et al. Acta Mech. Sin., Vol. 40, 723302 (2024)
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11932008 and 12172357), the
Key Projects of Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Fund Joint
Fund (Grant No. 2022B1515120051), the Key Projects of Natural Science
Fund of Gansu Province (Grant No. 22JR5RA127), the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. lzujbky-2022-
kb06), and Gansu Science and Technology Program.
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Nb3Sn六极复合超导磁体测试全过程的实时分布式应变检测:
从组装到励磁
王省哲, 杨韬略, 关明智, 辛灿杰, 吴北民, 吴魏, 孙良亭, 赵红卫, 周又和
摘要 六极Nb3Sn超导磁体系统是第四代电子回旋共振离子源(FECR)中的核心部件. 这些超导磁体处于高磁场、超低温以及高应力
的极端运行环境, 由此关联的磁体应力/应变特征和行为的精确表征对于确保系统可靠性和最优功能实现极具重要意义. 传统的单点
应变测量技术仅能实现局部小区域的测量, 并且存在显著的电磁干扰等, 这些局限性严重影响了测量精度和可靠性, 使得大型复杂超
导磁体极端多场下的力学测量面临着诸多挑战. 本文建立了低温极端多场下的光纤测量新技术, 可实现六极复合超导磁体的实时、分
布式应变测量. 该测量系统基于光频域反射技术(OFDR)和高空间分辨率分布式光纤技术, 首次实现了超导磁体系统的组装、冷却、励
磁及失超全过程中应变状态的实时监测. 相关结果有效揭示了超导磁体在整个运行过程中的全局应变特性, 如磁体内部全局应变状态
的非对称分布现象等. 本文研究对于超导磁体研制中的实时和全局力学性能监测和评估提供了有效途径.
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