2023 Heat Pipe A Comprehensive Review On Heat Pipe Based Battery Thermal Management Systems

11/12/23, 7:35 AM A comprehensive review on heat pipe based battery thermal management systems - ScienceDirect
Applied Thermal Engineering

Volume 224, April 2023, 120070
A comprehensive review on heat pipe based battery

thermal management systems
Delika M. Weragoda a, Guohong Tian a , Arman Burkitbayev a, Kin-Hing Lo a, Teng Zhang a b
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.120070
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Highlights
• Heat generation of Lithium ion batteries and consequences of thermal
instability.
• Capability of heat pipes in maintaining thermal stability of Li-ion cells.
• Gaps in heat pipe based battery thermal management.
• Current status, challenges and future direction of heat pipe based battery
thermal management.
Abstract
Heat pipes are currently attracting increasing interest in thermal management of Electric vehicle (EV) and Hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV) battery packs due to its superconductive capability, robustness, low maintenance and longevity.
With the focus of battery thermal management directed towards both convective and conductive cooling, a significant
number of research, both experimental and numerical investigations have been performed during the past decade.
However, heat pipe based battery thermal management systems (HP-BTMS) are yet to be commercialized due to lack of
understanding their limitations during rapid heat fluctuations and adverse environmental conditions, performance
under multiple heat loads, failure criteria in the context of battery thermal management and lack of simple and
versatile thermal models to accurately predict the battery thermal performance at module and pack level. This
comprehensive review highlights the different heat generation mechanisms of Li-ion batteries and their resulting
consequences, followed by the operating principles of heat pipes along with background and shortcomings related to
heat pipe based battery thermal management, for the mere purpose of further development of this promising thermal
management system. Different heat pipe based thermal management systems developed during the last decade along
with their modelling approaches, including the methods adopted for enhancing heat transfer are critically analysed.
Heat pipes have demonstrated to be an effective approach in maintaining optimum cell surface temperature, however,
several areas require attention if this system is to be commercialized. Niche types of heat pipes such as pulsating heat
pipes, loop heat pipe, mini/micro heat pipe have also been reviewed and their advantages, disadvantages, and
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359431123000996 1/58
challenges in the context of BTMS are discussed. Finally, the current status, challenges and prospects of the future
direction in HP-BTMS are highlighted.
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Keywords
Lithium ion battery; Battery heat generation; Heat pipe battery thermal management; Heat transfer enhancement;
Heat pipe modelling
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
BTMS
Battery thermal management system
CC
Constant current
CCC
Cell cooling coefficient
CFD
Computational Fluid dynamics
CV
Constant voltage
HP
Heat pipe
LFP
Lithium Iron Phosphate
LHP
Loop heat pipe
LTO
Lithium Titanate Oxide
MHPA
Micro heat pipe array
OHP
Oscillating heat pipe
PCL
Phase change liquid
PCM
Phase change material
PHP
Pulsating heat pipe
SEI
Solid electrolyte interface
SOC
State of Charge
TEC
Thermoelectric cooler
Symbols
Surface area of cell
Specific heat capacity
Convective heat transfer
Latent heat of vapourization
Thermal conductivity
Length (m)
M
Merit number
Pressure
Heat generation
Universal gas constant
Temperature
Time
Thickness of vapour core
Velocity of electrolyte
Porosity
Average thermal conductivity
Dynamic viscosity
Density
Surface Tension
Subscripts
adiabatic section
battery
condenser section
capillary
effective
evaporator section
gravity
liquid
solid
vapour
1. Introduction
During the past two decades the transportation sector has been considerably transformed through the
commercialization of Hybrid electric vehicles and Electric vehicles. Although electric cars account for only 2.6 % of the
global car sales [1], records show that even amidst the pandemic a 41 % increase in registration of electric cars were
recorded at the end of 2020 [2]. With the current and planned policy frameworks to minimize greenhouse gas
emission, electrification of transport vehicles play a pivotal role. Even if end-use electrification (such as means of
household electricity) is not matched by decarbonizing the means of generating electricity, vehicle electrification will
highly likely contribute to the reduction of global emissions [3]. Therefore, with plans to phase out conventional
internal combustion engines [4] several challenges and requirements in EVs such as driving range, battery life span,
fast charging, performance and cost will have to be met by the next few decades.
Research and development of the battery itself plays a crucial role in overcoming these challenges. Improving the
battery power and energy densities, driving range, cycle life (life corresponding to battery degradation due to charging
and discharging), shelf life [5] (life corresponding to degradation caused by storage), performance and safety are
several attributes that are continuously explored in the research community [6]. With increasing electrification of
vehicles, different types of batteries have been developed over the past few decades. Out of all types of batteries, for its
high energy and power densities, long life and durability, high operating voltage, good cycling performance, absence of
memory effect and low self-discharge, Li-ion and Li-polymer batteries have been the choice of most automotive
manufacturers around the world [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]. It’s well established applicability also expands to areas such as
electronic devices, satellites, and aerospace. Li-ion batteries have also undergone a considerable amount of research
and development, especially in the use of different materials, to improve its overall performance [12], [13]. Even with
all these advantages and developments, Li-ion batteries are still prone to thermal instabilities [14]. Next generation Li
ion batteries capable of fast charging/discharging and high energy densities, would still generate a considerable
amount of heat [15], unless research is focused on finding means of minimizing heat generation within the cell. It is
therefore vital to maintain these batteries within their optimum operating temperature conditions of around 15 °C –
35 °C [16], [17], not only to avoid fatal phenomenon such as thermal runaway and lithium plating, but also to improve
the overall cell performance, durability, cell longevity and reduce the rate of cell degradation.
The battery thermal management system of an electric vehicle serves the purpose of monitoring, controlling, and
maintaining the optimum operating temperature conditions of a battery. Out of the several methods of thermally
managing the battery, air cooling and liquid cooling have been successfully commercialized. Even though EVs have
already established liquid cooling, the design of these types of cooling systems are quite complex due to the number of
connections [18] and hence are prone to risk of failure [19]. Several reviews articles based on air [20], [21], [22], [23]
and liquid cooling (both direct and indirect) [24], [25], [26] highlighting different design and configurations,
advantages, disadvantages and future direction have been extensively reviewed.
It is to be noted that existing thermal management systems of battery electric vehicles that are designed to handle heat
generated during average C-rates (the rate at which a battery is charged/discharged, whereby 1C corresponds to a
complete charge (or discharge) of the battery in 1 h from 0 % to 100 % (or 100 % to 0 %) SOC) of about 1 – 1.5C [27] and
peak C- rates around 3 – 4C [28], are inadequate in maintaining optimum temperature of the battery during extreme
fast charging rates as high as 6C (i.e. a theoretical charge of 10 mins) [19], [29]. It is therefore vital to improve existing
cooling system while exploring alternative thermal management technologies if fast charging is to become a reality
and hence expand their potential customers in the EV market [30], [31].
In the recent decade, heat pipes have received a lot of attention in battery thermal management, for its ability to
operate at adverse conditions, high thermal conductivity, efficiency and compact structure [32]. Heat pipes also have a
service life of around 15 years [33], [34] and are well established in aerospace, electronics and solar thermal
management [35]. Therefore, their potential applicability in battery thermal management is quite promising. Many
researchers have conducted experiments by considering different scenarios, such as heating power, cooling conditions,
types and configuration of heat pipes, heat transfer improvement strategies and developed models considering both
analytical and numerical approaches. The main focus of heat pipe based battery thermal management has been the
means of enhancing the heat transfer contact area between the cell and the heat pipe. This has led to the integration of
heat pipes with phase change materials and different metal sheets with various designs. Further work has also been
conducted on improving the condenser end heat transfer by adding fins, air and liquid cooling and the use of novel
techniques such as delay quenching. Although several review articles have highlighted some applications of heat pipes
in battery thermal management[14], [17], [24], [36], [37], an exhaustive review dedicated to their applicability,
limitations, modifications, cooling strategies and modelling techniques have not yet been published to date. Therefore,
this paper collates an in-detail critical review of the progress of heat pipe based battery thermal management during
the past decade, starting with an outline of Li-ion battery heat generation and its consequences, followed by a general
outline of battery thermal management systems and the working principle behind heat pipes, subsequently providing
a thorough analysis of heat pipe based battery thermal management systems developed during the past decade and
the future direction of heat pipe based battery thermal management.
2. Heat generation and thermal management

Advances in battery chemistry, improvements in characteristics, performance and safety and the future of Li-ion and
Li-polymer batteries are detailed in [12], [38], [39], [40]. Li ion batteries operating on the principle of intercalation and
deintercalation, generate both irreversible and reversible heat. Around 50 % of the irreversible heat generated is due to
Joule heating while electrode reaction heating accounts for up to 30–40 % [41]. While heat generation due to change in
entropy accounts for about 5–10 % of the total cells’ heat budget [19], [42]. Both experimental [43], [44] and numerical
modelling approaches [8], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58] have also been used
to determine heat generation in Li-ion batteries.
Heat generation in Li-ion cells causes thermal instabilities in the cell. This impacts the overall cell’s performance,
increasing degradation rates, eventually resulting in adverse effects such as thermal runaway [19], [59]. Both high and
low temperatures have adverse effects on the operation of Li-ion batteries. Colder temperature causes slow diffusion
rates at the anode, increases the resistance in electrolyte due to decrease in electric conductivity and decreases the
state of charge, this in turn results in decrease in battery capacity [60], [61]. Furthermore, temperatures less than 15 °C
decreases the available capacity and hence power output [62]. High temperatures trigger several degradation
mechanisms such as; SEI (Solid electrolyte interface) growth, SEI decomposition, binder and electrolyte decomposition,
while both localized hot-spots and low temperatures trigger lithium plating/dendrite formation which eventually
result in both capacity and power fade [63], [64], [65]. Sato [61] and Ramadass et al. [66] determined that temperatures
beyond 50 °C results in loss of charging efficiency, capacity fade. The reported acceptable operating temperature range
of Li-ion batteries is between −20 °C and 60 °C [67], [68]. However, Pesaran et al. [16], [69] suggests that the operating
temperature for optimum performance of Li-ion batteries lie between 15 °C – 35 °C. Motloch et al. [70] also reported
that for every degree rise of operating temperature between 30 °C – 40 °C, the calendar life will reduce by almost two
month. Hence, it can be suggested that the operating temperature of Li-ion cells should be maintained within a
broader window of 15 °C – 50 °C, emphasising on maintaining optimum charge efficiency, capacity and power and a
narrower window of 15 °C – 30 °C, taking optimum calendar life into account. However, these operating temperatures
will depend on different chemistries, capacities, and form factors of Li-ion batteries [71], [72] and with higher energy
densities and fast charging rates, it is expected that the optimum operating temperature window may shift to higher
temperatures [15], [27], [73]. Shuai et al. [67] covers a comprehensive review on thermal effects and its impact on the
performance of Li-ion batteries and how different temperatures results in adverse effects such as lithium plating, cell
aging and thermal runaway, and Feng et. al [74] reports a comprehensive study on the effect of temperature on the
aging rate of Li-ion batteries operating at temperatures between 25 °C − 55 °C.
Uneven heat generating regions and anisotropic thermal conductivities develop non-uniform temperature distribution
within and across the cell layers [75]. The internal cell temperature can be predicted using two distinct techniques;
contact measurements, utilizes integrating thermal sensors in the Li-ion battery and non-contact measurements,
utilizing modelling techniques and electrochemical impedance measurements [67]. Different electrochemical thermal
modelling approaches including 1D [76], [77], 2D [78], [79] and 3D [80], have been developed considering either a
simple thermal modelling approach (lumped thermal models) [36], [81] referring only to the thermal aspects of the
battery or considering coupled electrochemical thermal models [67], [82], [83], [84], [85] referring to the reaction
rates, overpotential and diffusion within a Li-ion cell. 1D thermal models have been shown to adequately predict the
overall temperature or the lumped temperature of the battery at different charge discharge rates [86], while many 2D
thermal models have been used to model cells with large aspect ratios [17], [87], [88]. On the other hand, 3D thermal
models are more often used for detailed analysis to investigate the multi-layered structure, number of layers and the
effect of physiochemical properties on the thermal behaviour of Li-ion cells [80], [89]. He et al. [90] conducted a
comprehensive numerical study to evaluate the accuracy of several different electrochemical thermal models of
cylindrical Li-ion battery during discharge process alongside a comparison of other 1D, 2D and 3D electrochemical
thermal models. The mathematical formulae characterizing the 3D thermal model and lumped thermal model are
given by equations (1), (2) [17].
(1)
(2)
Maintaining cell and module temperature uniformity is as important as maintaining the optimum operating
temperature of batteries. It is widely accepted that the temperature uniformity of the cell surface, the cell to cell and
module to module temperature should be within 5 °C [16], [91]. Anisotropic thermal conductivities [53] and uneven
heat generation [82] in Li-ion cells also have a considerable effect on the overall battery performance. These thermo-
physical directional variations in Li-ion cells trigger thermal gradients that result in capacity loss and fast degradation.
Therefore, the cell thermal management strategy along with the cell cooling direction plays a vital role in the overall
performance and the longevity of Li-ion cells. The most common approach adopted by many researchers is cell surface
cooling, while several others have focused on tab cooling [92], [93], top – bottom cooling (cylindrical cells) [94] and
also internal cooling [62], [95], [96]. Hunt et al. [97], [98] showed that, at high C-rates, surface cooling induces larger
thermal gradients perpendicular to the layers of the cell, leading to high local currents, faster degradation and high loss
of capacity in comparison to tab cooling. However, tab cooling has low heat removing capabilities due to the limited
surface contact area, hence the average cell temperature is higher when tab cooled than when surface cooled [92].
Nonetheless, Zhao et al. [93] showed that the heat removing capability of tab cooled cells can be improved by
increasing the thickness of the tab without affecting the electrode stack indicating 14 % reduction in the cell peak
temperature with an increase of tab thickness from 30 mm to 70 mm. Based on the cooling path of a cell, Hales et al.
[99], [100] introduced a new metric known as the cell cooling coefficient (CCC in WK−1) that quantifies the heat
rejection rate for a given cell cooling direction and thermal management strategy which can be used to compare the
thermal performance of different cell form factors.
A system capable of thermally managing the battery within its desirable working temperature irrespective of its
operating conditions is essential to maintain the temperature at pack, module, and cell level [66]. Several authors have
published review articles on the developments, advancements, challenges, perspective and the future of battery
thermal management systems [14], [17], [21], [26], [36], [37], [69], [101], [102], [103], [104], [105], [106]. Air and liquid
cooling can be considered as the two main thermal management systems that have already been commercialized.
Investigation on improving air cooling include optimizing channel geometry and cell layout, maintaining consistency
in air velocities [107], [108], and improving flow path [101], [109]. On the other hand, liquid cooling, used for both
heating and cooling can be classified into direct and indirect cooling [24], [110]. Direct liquid cooling involves
submerging battery modules in dielectric fluid (mineral oil, silicone oil, deionized water) [26], [111], [112] while
indirect liquid cooling uses plates with channels or tubes of different geometry such as the serpentine design used by
Tesla [18] to dissipate heat from the battery [106], [113], [114]. The focus on liquid cooling research has been on channel
geometrical and structural optimization, improvement of liquid medium thermal properties by testing different
medium such as water/glycol, oil, nanofluids and different liquid metals and different flow patterns [14], [26], [106].
Chen et al. [113] reported that although indirect liquid cooling has a slightly lower cooling performance, it is a more
practical approach as opposed to direct cooling, which adds more weight and complexity along with a higher risk of
leakage. On the contrary several direct cooling systems have been tested to show promising results, not only in
mitigating high heat loads [115] but also alleviating the EV noise problem during battery fast charging [116]. An
extensive review on the prospects of direct immersion cooling of Lithium ion batteries can be found in ref [25].
Methods such as Phase change material (PCM) cooling [36], [101], [117], [118] and Thermoelectric cooling (TEC) [101]
have also been explored and reviewed by several authors, which will not be discussed in detail in this review. On the
other hand, alongside the two commercialised thermal management strategies, air and liquid cooling, heat pipe based
battery thermal management has gained much attention in both academia and industrial research and development
during the last decade, as shown in Fig. 1. A detailed review on basic theory, construction, classification, and
applications of heat pipe based battery thermal management is given in sections 3. Further information on detailed
theory of heat pipes, advances and challenges in heat pipe designs can be found in refs [119], [120], [121].
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Fig. 1. Number of publications on heat pipe, air, and liquid based battery thermal management, based on industrial and
academic research.
3. Heat pipe technology

The most dominant feature of heat pipes is its ability to transport heat even at very low temperature gradients. This
phenomenon can be utilized to remove heat that is generated within Lithium-ion cells, from the cell’s surface, through
conductive heat transfer. This section outlines the operating principle, limitations, and classifications of heat pipes.
Several authors have published theoretical insights on different types of heat pipe [121], [122] and different modelling
approaches such as evaporation and condensation kinetics of heat pipes [123], [124], which will not be discussed in
detailed in this review.
3.1. Working principle

Heat pipes are means of transporting heat from one point to another via a working fluid. It is a vacuum sealed pipe
containing a wick structure and working fluid. The heat pipe can be divided into three sections: evaporator, adiabatic
and the condenser as shown in Fig. 2. Depending upon the application and design, a heat pipe may have multiple
evaporator and condenser sections, with or without an adiabatic section.

Fig. 2. Cross-section of a conventional heat pipe.
Heat from the heat source will be transferred to the working fluid, via the heat pipe wall. This heat absorbed by the
working fluid, changes its phase from liquid to vapour. Depending upon the vacuum pressure inside the heat pipe and
the saturation temperature and pressure of the working fluid, phase change can occur at very low temperatures. This
phase change driven by latent heat of vaporization offers a heat pipe the capability of transferring high heat loads at
small temperature gradients. The vapour pressure build-up at the evaporator section drives the working fluid from the
evaporator end to the condenser end, where it releases the heat to a sink, condensing the vapour back to liquid. This
condensate is driven back to the evaporator end via the wick structure by capillary action and the cycle repeats. Some
authors have represented the operation of the heat pipe using a closed loop thermodynamic cycle [119], [125], [126].
3.2. Operating limits

The continuous operation of a heat pipe depends on the capillary pressure developed in the heat pipe. As a result of the
surface tension property of the working fluid and the pore radius at the liquid–vapour interface, menisci are formed
between the pores of the wick structure. This formation of menisci results in the development of capillary pressure in a
heat pipe. For continuous operation, the maximum capillary pressure drop developed in a heat pipe should be greater
than the sum of all other pressure drops in a heat pipe, including pressure drop due vapour phase, liquid phase, and
gravity as given by Equation (3).
(3)
Detailed formulae describing the operation of heat pipes and an extensive list of properties of working fluids can be
found in [121], [122], [127]. Operating limits of heat pipes include viscous limit, sonic limit, entrainment limit and
boiling limit. These limitations may vary depending upon the operating conditions, working fluid, dimensions, and the
type of heat pipe [128], [129], [130].
3.3. Classification and construction

Heat pipes can be broadly classified into two distinct types, fixed conductance, and variable conductance heat pipes
[122]. A fixed conductance heat pipe is a device that does not operate at a constant temperature while variable
conductance heat pipes are capable of maintaining an approximately constant operating temperature. In a variable
conductance heat pipe the operating temperature is controlled by means of a non-condensable gas [122], [131]. Typical
operating temperatures of heat pipe can be arbitrarily classified as: cryogenic (0 K to 200 K), low temperature (200 K to
500 K), medium temperature (500 K to 750 K) and high temperature (750 K and above) [120], [122], [132]. The selection
of the working fluid for heat pipes is based on these three categories of temperatures, merit number [133] and the fluid
properties such as thermal stability, high latent heat of vaporization and high thermal conductivity. Since the optimum
operating temperature range of current Lithium-ion batteries is between 15 °C to 35 °C [36], [69], low temperature heat
pipes that utilize water, acetone or ethanol as their working fluid are considered to be the most suitable types of heat
pipes [121] for battery thermal management.
Heat pipes use different wick structures and capillary geometries depending upon their working fluid, design, and
application. Some of the most common wick structures include sintered wick, mesh, and grooved. The main purpose of
the wick structure is to generate capillary pressure required to drive the condensate back to the evaporator section.
Many researchers have published work on different types of wick structures, material properties, heat and mass
transfer, their applications and performance with regards to their working fluid in [121], [124], [127], [134]. Heat pipes
are also designed and manufactured in different geometrical shapes depending upon their requirement and
applications. Some of the most common types of heat pipes are; capillary driven tubular heat pipes, flat heat pipes,
annular heat pipes, loop type heat pipes, pulsating heat pipes, and mini/micro heat pipes [119]. Detailed applications of
these different types of heat pipes in battery thermal management will be discussed in section 3.4.
3.4. Application of heat pipe based battery thermal management

Researcher have performed a substantial amount of experimental and numerical studies on cell cooling techniques
using heat pipes. These studies are primarily focused on maintaining the operating temperature of Lithium-ion cells
and the cell temperature distribution. Both steady state and transient state heat transfer of heat pipe operation at cell
and module level thermal management have been investigated. This section provides a thorough review on the work
carried-out during the past decade on both experimental and modelling approaches along with their key findings and
shortcomings.
3.4.1. Tubular heat pipes

The primary focus on tubular (round) heat pipe based battery thermal management has been on improving the surface
contact area at the evaporator and condenser ends, while varying the flow rate and temperature of cooling media.
Improved surface area and better connection between the cell and the heat pipe is key to suppressing the rise of cell
surface temperature [135], [136]. This can be achieved by means of copper sheets [137] and aluminium plates/sleeves
of different geometries [138], PCM and fins [96], [139] at either ends of the heat pipe. Along with such improvements,
many researchers have been able to show that tubular HP-BTMSs are capable of retaining the maximum cell
temperature and temperature uniformity to under 50 °C and within the 5 °C window (i.e. difference between the
minimum and the maximum temperature), respectively. As shown in Fig. 3, Gan et al. [138] showed that increasing the
length of the condenser section and the height of the Aluminium sleeve at the evaporator end reduces maximum pack
temperature and improves temperature uniformity, the authors also pointed out that increasing the coolant flow rates
will only have a greater impact on the maximum temperature in comparison to temperature uniformity. He et al. [140]
further optimized the design to bring down the maximum temperature and temperature difference to 37.58 °C and
3.67 °C respectively, at a discharge rate of 3C.

Fig. 3. Model of battery pack and heat pipe arrangement (a) 3D view of the BTMS (b) Top view [138].
Integrating heat pipes with phase change liquid (HP-PCL) cooling have also shown to be an effective method to
maintain optimum cell temperature and to impede critical scenarios such as thermal runaway by controlling the
temperature below 185 °C [141]. Use of nanofluids for improving the performance of heat pipes has also been
investigated [142], [143]. Nasir et al. [143] showed that the use of 1.5 % vol. Al2O3 as a nanofluid in a 6 mm heat pipe
embedded in an 8 mm Aluminium plate was capable of reducing the battery surface temperature by 7.28 % and the
overall thermal resistance by 15 %. A comprehensive review on heat transfer characteristics on nanofluid based heat
pipes can be found in [144].
Apart from external cooling, some researchers have explored the possibility internal cooling of cylindrical cells.
Integrating a heat pipe in the cell core improved the thermal uniformity of the cell while mitigating anomalous heat
generation of the cell [145]. Worwood et al. [62] proposed cell core cooling techniques by integrating a heat pipe with
two aluminium heat spreader discs on either side into the mandrel of a cylindrical cell shown in Fig. 4, that reduced
the cell thermal resistance by 67.8 % in comparison to single tab cooled cell. Due to the significantly small contact areas
between tubular heat pipes and the heat source it is vital to determine suitable surface area enhancing techniques
without significantly increasing the weight and the size of the battery thermal management system. Table 1
summaries the literature on tubular heat pipe based battery thermal management systems.

Fig. 4. Cell cooling arrangement a) heat pipe – spreader disc cooling, b) bottom/single tab cooling, c) radial surface
cooling, d) double tab cooling [62].
Table 1. Summary of tubular heat pipe based battery thermal management.
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Amb. Heat load Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings and
Approach source) temp. (W), C- Tdiff contact cooling recommendation
( °C) rate (C) with
battery
Shah et al. Experimental & Fabricated 26,650 – 1.62 W 44, – Natural & Capable of preventing
[145] Simulation (core 9 Forced overheating
(2016) cooling) convection The thermo-
– 36.7, electrochemical trade-
2 offs require further

investigation.
Worwood Experimental & 2.9Ah, 18,650 25 3.11 W 43.46, Al heat Al heat Cell thermal resistance
et al. Simulation (core 4.52 spreader spreader & reduced but cell energy
[62] cooling) active density is also reduced
4.5Ah, 32,113 5.80 W 40.35,
(2017) cooling
4.86
Gou et al. Experimental 13Ahcylindrical 25 1C 28, 0.6 PCM Forced air Better performance in
[96] (core cooling) (Fabricated) cooling HP-PCM than PCM only
2C 34, 0.7
(2019)
3C 38.2, 0.9
Greco et Simulation 20Ah, Prismatic 20 41 W, (5C) 27.6, <2 Copper Forced Large contact area better
al. [136] (195 × 125 × 7) structure convection cooling
(2014)
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Amb. Heat load Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings and
Approach source) temp. (W), C- Tdiff contact cooling recommendation
( °C) rate (C) with
battery
Zhao et al. Experimental Heating rods, 20 5C <50 PCM Fins, Forced Heat pipes can extend
[139] 42 90 (12 rods) (∼611 s), air cooling the phase transition
(2017) <5 time of PCM during heat
(∼620 s) storage and release
Feng et al. Experimental 2.6Ah, 18,650 25 0.5C 34.51/ Copper Fins, forced Reduces temperature
[137] (24 cells) 43.42 sheet air cooling rise and strain at 1C
(2018) discharge rate
1C 45.21
/562
Gan et al. Experimental& 18,650 25 2C 32, <5 Aluminium Cooling Coolant flow rates - high
[138] Simulation (24 cells) sleeve plate impact on maximum
(2020) pack temperature, low
impact on temperature
uniformity.
Zhou et al. Experimental 60Ah, Pouch cell 10 60A3 <185 PCL Al fins, HP/PCL showed superior
[141] (300 100 Forced air performance to forced
25 2C <47, <2.1
(2020) 15), (14 cells) cooling air cooling
(37.32 W)
Nasir et al. Simulation 10Ah, Pouch – 30 W 56.54 HP Forced air Addition of

[143] (86 140 embedded cooling nanoparticles reduces
(2019) 12.7) Al plate overall thermal
resistance of HP
1
with forced cooling, 2without forced cooling 3an aged cell with residual capacity of 54.64 Ah discharged at 60A to induce
overcharging at an ambient temperature of 10 °C.
3.4.2. Flat heat pipes

In comparison to tubular heat pipes, flat heat pipes have been extensively studied due to their ease of integrating with
both pouch and prismatic cells. The flat surface of the heat pipe provides provision to directly connect the heat pipe
with the battery. However, many researchers have still opted to use different intermediate material to further improve
the surface contact between the heat pipe and cell surface, even though the usage of intermediate materials result in
additional thermal resistance. Both simulation and experimental work has been done on understanding the
applicability of flat heat pipe based battery thermal management by varying ambient conditions, cooling strategies,
constant and variable charge/discharge rates, and different approaches in enhancing heat transfer rate [146], [147],
[148], [149], [150], [151], [152], [153], [154], [155], [156], [157], [158], [159], [160], [161], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166],
[167] as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of flat heat pipe battery thermal management systems.
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Amb. Heat Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings and
Approach source) temp. load Tdiff contact with cooling recommendation
( °C) (W), C- battery
rate (C)
Wu et al. Experimental 12Ah, Prismatic, 20 5C 50.9, PCM plate Fins & PCM/HP BTM takes longer
[146] [5 cells] 2 Natural air operating time to reach a
rate (C)
(2017) cooling temperature of 50 °C.
Jiang et al. Experimental 8Ah, Prismatic 25 3C1 31, NG Copper plate, Fins & air PCM melting temperature
[147] & Simulation (90 70 27) PCM cooling should be at least 3 °C
(2019) higher than ambient.
Zhang et al. Experimental 8.5Ah, Prismatic 25 4C 30.5, Direct contact Al fins & The temperature
[161] & Simulation 100 70 27, 3.3 Natural air uniformity under < 6 °C, at
(2020) [5 cells] cooling high discharge rates
6C 35,
3.7
8C 38,
Behi et al. Experimental 23Ah, Prismatic 22 8C 1 49.39 Direct contact Natural & A single heat pipe catered
[13], [14] & Simulation 115 103 22 Forced air up to 29.1 % of the cooling
(2020, cooling, load required at a discharge
2021) Cooling plate rate of 8C.
Behi et al. Simulation 18650, [24 cells] 26 1.5C 37. 1, Thermal Fins, Forced HP-copper sheet showed
[164] 2.3 interface air cooling superior thermal control
(2020) material, and uniformity
Copper sheets
Yuan et al. Experimental 50Ah, Prismatic 30 2C 34.1, Copper plate, Cold plate Longer the evaporation
[165] 118 32 184 1.0 Thermal (Water) section better the cooling
(2020) conductive performance
silicone
Jouhara et Experimental 23Ah, Prismatic NG Duty <29, Thermal gap Different During a cycle test,
2
al. [166] [16 cells] cycle 1 , filler cooling approximately 60 % of the
(2020) 73 strategies heat generated was
removed by the heat mat.
Stress 35,
cycle 1.12,
9.63
Const. 25,
heat <42,
flux <23
Putra et al. Experimental Battery 28 60 W 44.2 Copper holder Fins, forced HP-RT 44HC showed better
[167] simulator, & PCM air cooled thermal performance
(2020) 137 82.5 compared to beeswax.
46
Li et al. Experimental 50Ah, Prismatic 20 4C <30, Direct contact cold plate Decreasing the coolant
[148] & Simulation 135 26 185, <0.6 temp. is a better option
(2021) [12 cells] than increasing flow rate at
high ambient temp.
Mbulu et al. Experimental Al block with 30 60 W 54.38 Direct contact Copper plate, HP-BTMS provide better
[149] heaters, 173 Water cooled thermal performance
(2021) 125 45
rate (C)
Abbas et al. Experimental Cylindrical 22 6W 85.3, PCM Water cooled Low heat transfer in
[150] heater (DHP) 20 Detached heat pipe (DHP)
(2021) cartridges (36 than Attached heat pipe
6W 59.0,
heaters, 18 (AHP)
(AHP) <6.5
65 mm)
NG – Not given, UTFHP – Ultra think flat heat pipe, 1With cooling plate, 2Cell temperature distribution across the width of the cell with
heat mat cooled using water, 3Cell temperature difference along the height of the cell with heat mat cooled using water.
Wu et al. [146] showed that a new thermal management strategy, shown in Fig. 5 (a) utilizing l-shaped flat heat pipes
in phase change material plates is capable of maintaining the maximum temperature to less than 50 °C even at a
discharge rate of 5C under forced convective cooling. Many authors have shown that PCM assisted heat pipe based
BTMSs are capable of maintaining the maximum cell surface temperature below 50 °C and maintain temperature
uniformity within the acceptable range [154], [168], even at heat inputs around 60 W [167] and C-rates as high as 5C,
provided proper condenser end cooling strategies are adopted [158]. A crucial parameter in PCM/HP-BTM is the
melting point of PCM [150] which should be kept at least 3 °C above ambient temperature [147]. However, low thermal
conductivity of PCM materials [117], [169] result in higher thermal resistance to heat transfer. Therefore, in order to
combined PCM with heat pipes to improve the heat transfer and temperature uniformity, further studies will have to
be performed on enhancing thermal conductivity of PCM.

Fig. 5. (a) PCM/heat pipe assisted battery thermal management [146], Flat heat pipe based thermal management (b)
overall arrangement with fins[161], (c) Heat pipe copper sheet arrangement [164].
Zhang et al. [161] found that the use of flat Aluminium heat pipe arrangement running on acetone, as shown in Fig. 5
(b), reduced the maximum temperature to around 38 °C and the maximum temperature difference by 67.02 % compared
to natural convective cooling at the end of discharge at 8C rate. Zhao et al. [163] tested the performance of an air cooled
multi-port flat heat pipe with three different working fluids and several filling ratios. Under the same filling ratio of
50 %, the flat heat pipe filled with ammonia recorded the highest thermal performance followed by acetone and R134a.
Behi et al. [151], [154], [162], [164] experimented on cooling both cylindrical and prismatic cell using flat heat pipe base
BTMS with different cooling strategies. A new design consisting of 24 numbers of 18,650 cells cooled by L shaped heat
pipes and copper sheets, shown in Fig. 5 (c) was proposed to cool cylindrical cells. The maximum temperature recorded
using the heat pipe copper sheet arrangement, 37. 1 °C, was 42.7 % lower compared to the same cell arrangement cooled
by natural air cooling while the cell temperature uniformity improved by 73.4 % in comparison to the same. Jouhara et
al. [166] developed a heat mat using flat heat pipes, which had the capability of cooling either using chilled water or
refrigerant along with a hot by pass to maintain the module within the optimum window of operation. They
demonstrated that the maximum cell temperature was kept below 28 °C and the module temperature uniformity was
maintained at ± 1 °C. It was also shown that the 23 Ah prismatic cell module can be maintained within the optimum
operating temperature range for three different scenarios (a duty cycle, constant current discharge/CCCV charge and a
constant heat flux cycle). The authors claim that the proposed heat mat technology can improve the performance and
longevity of the battery by reducing the degradation, ageing and imbalances in the cells and at the same time improve
the temperature uniformity at module/pack level. Liang et al. [152] evaluated the effect of flat heat pipe thermal
management on cell-to-cell variation and showed that the proposed system was capable of maintaining the maximum
cell temperature below 50 °C, while maintaining the cell-to-cell and length-wise cell temperature difference below 5 °C.
However, it was found that the thickness-wise temperature difference could not be maintained below 5 °C, due to the
low thermal conductivity of the cell. Leng et al. [170] recently investigated the performance of a heat pipe/PCM coupled
thermal management system with a 55Ah Li-ion cell. The design parameters such as the thickness of PCM, fan power
and the condenser section of the HP were optimized at a charge/discharge rate of 5C. They concluded that the number
of heat pipes was the most influential parameter in controlling the temperature of the system.
It is clear that flat heat pipes are preferable to tubular heat pipes due to better contact area with heat source and many
authors have reported promising finding. Many key findings such as the effect of coolant flow rate [149], use of
different spreaders, use of acetone to reduce thermal resistance, and arrangements such as the heat mat [166] have
shown propitious results for further development of heat pipe based battery thermal management systems.
3.4.3. Flat ended tubular heat pipes

Several publications report flattening the evaporator section of tubular heat pipes to have positive results in
maintaining uniform temperature distribution and maximum cell surface temperatures below 50 °C. Rao et al. [91]
showed that the maximum temperature of the battery can be controlled below 50 °C when the heat generation was
lower than 50 W. However, in order to maintain both maximum cell temperature and the cell temperature distribution,
the heat generation should not exceed 30 W. Zou et al. [171] proposed a heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) system
integrated with a heat pump air conditioner. Smith et al. [172] proposed a new heat pipe based battery thermal
management as shown in Fig. 6 (a) for prismatic cell cooling. The authors claim that the BTMS is capable of
maintaining the maximum cell temperature below 55 °C and the temperature difference within 5 °C during a heat
load of 400 W per module consisting of 8 numbers of 25Ah prismatic cells. However, the use of interface plate will limit
the heat pipe condenser length and add extra weight to the thermal management system. Lie et al. [173] developed a
spray cooled, heat pipe based battery thermal management and investigated the cooling performance at different
spray cooling frequencies, relative humidity, air velocity and discharge rates. It was found that under low relative
humidity conditions, the rate of temperature rise is smaller in comparison to high humidity and the frequency of spray
cooling has a very low impact on the cooling performance of the system.Wang et al. [174] conducted a sensitivity
analysis on how battery spacing, conduction element thickness, angle of contact, height of conduction element in the
heat pipe based BTMS, shown in Fig. 6 (b), affect the overall thermal performance of the system. Based on the proposed
thermal management system, Gan et al. [175] developed a thermal equivalent circuit model shown in Fig. 6 (c) that was
capable of predicting temperature responses within 5 % of the experimental.

Fig. 6. (a) Heat pipe based battery thermal management system with intermediate plate [151], (b) Computational
domain of the heat pipe based battery thermal management system [153], (c) Thermal equivalent circuit model
schematic diagram [154].
Varying the cooling strategy and conditions have significant effect on the performance of the thermal management
system as well as the cell’s performance. Low ambient temperatures and low coolant temperatures of around 15 °C
reduce the maximum cell temperature, however, such low temperatures will have adverse effects on cell temperature
uniformity [176]. Liang et al.’s [177] findings indicate that with reducing coolant temperature, the voltage and the
available capacity of the module decreases.
Modifying the condenser end cooling using technique such as placing a dummy heat pipe to induce vortices and using
cooling strategy like delay quenching [178], [179] can potentially reduce the rise of cell surface temperature. The
operational capacity of heat pipes at adverse temperature conditions, both warm and cold, are quite promising. Heat
pipes have the capability of operating instantaneously even when subjected to sub-zero temperatures for as long as
14 h [180].
Table 3. Summary of flat ended tubular heat pipe based battery thermal management.
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Amb. Heat load Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings &
Approach source) temp. (W), C- Tdiff contact with cooling Recommendations
( °C) rate (C) battery
Rao et al. Experimental Al rectangular 25 30 W <50 Thermal Silica Water Optimum temperature
[91] heater 118 cooled maintained if the heat
(2013) 63 13 generation < 30 W.
<5
Start-up temperature was
around 30 °C
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Amb. Heat load Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings &
Approach source) temp. (W), C- Tdiff contact with cooling Recommendations
( °C) rate (C) battery
Wang et al. Experimental Simulated 35 1C, 2C – <40 Aluminium Liquid box Battery temperature rose
[180] battery 4C plate (glycol– approximately 10 °C for every
(2014) [2 cells] water) 10 W/cell increment.
Ye et al. Simulation 10Ah, 25 100 W 43.4 1, Two copper Copper Dummy heat pipe to generate
2
[178] Prismatic 37.9 plates fins vortices improves cell temp.
(2015) 140 65 15 Cooling uniformity
channel
Ye et al. Simulation 10Ah, 25 3C – 8C <45 Two copper Fins, Delay quenching improves
[179] Prismatic (8C) plates/ Cooling thermal performance of the
(2016) 140 65 15 channel HP-BTMS.
[10 11 cells
array]
Smith et Experimental 25Ah, 25 50 W <55, Cooling plate Liquid Temperature controlled < 55 °C
al. [172] & Prismatic (400 W <5 (& interface cooled at 400 W per module.
(2018) Simulation 148 91 per plate) cold plate
26.5 module)
[8 cells]
Liang et al. Experimental Simulated 15–35 40 W per <403, Thermal paste Cooling Increasing the flow rate not
[176] battery cell <53 channel feasible at high ambient
(2017) 118 63 13 temperature. Intermittent
[2 cells] cooling controls the max. cell
temp.
Wang et al. Simulation 1.96Ah, 18,650 25 3C 27.62, Conduction Cooling Height of the conduction
[174] [3 cells] 1.08 element, channel element key parameter in
(2019) thermal maintaining optimum cell
grease temp.
Liang et al. Simulation 6Ah, Prismatic 30 5C 30, Direct contact Liquid Li + ion concentration in
[177] 105 27 10 cooling cathode is more sensitive to
(2019) 70 coolant temperature.
Voltage and capacity decrease
with reducing coolant
temperature.
Lei et al. Experimental 12.5Ah, 40 1.96C <45, Direct contact Al fins, Cell temperature rise in low
[173] Prismatic 2.7 Spray humidity is smaller than high
(2020) 145 65 18 cooling humidity.
[2 cells] Spray frequency has little
impact on cooling
performance.
1
Heat pipes only.
2
Heat pipes with fins.
Varies with ambient temperature condition and coolant temperature.
3.4.4. Oscillating/ pulsating heat pipes

Oscillating or pulsating heat pipes (OHP/PHP) work on the principle of pressure and temperature difference due to
phase change. Heat absorbed and rejected from the evaporator end and the condenser end of the OHP results in the
growth and collapse of bubbles, leading to a oscillating (pulsating) motion inside the tube [181], transporting heat from
the evaporator section to the condenser section. Therefore, unlike conventional tubular heat pipes and flat heat pipes,
PHPs do not require a wick structure, which comparatively reduces the overall weight [120], [121]. However, the
understanding of their functionality and lack of empirical correlations have hindered their practical use [182], [183].
The main performance parameters of a PHP are its tube diameter, filling ratio, working fluid and heat pipe material.
Several experimental investigations on the capability of PHP in thermally managing batteries have been carried out
under different ambient conditions, cooling conditions, working fluids and orientations [184], [185], [186], [187], [188],
[189], [190], [191], [192], [193]. It was recommended that the working fluid in a PHP should correspond to the range of
the air cooling temperature at the condenser end [184]. Rao et al. [185] investigated the use of OHP to extend cycle life
of battery and improve the performance of EVs. The authors recommended that the high temperature regions of the
cell should be nearer to the OHP condenser section while the orientation should not be horizontal to avoid reflow
resistance of the working fluid. The same system was further improved to achieve better efficiency by adding PCM to
the evaporator section as shown in Fig. 7 (a) and (b) [186].The performance of a vertically oriented OHP with the top
end in contact with the battery and the bottom cooled was tested and found to maintain a temperature of around 60 °C
at a heat input of 20 W [194], [195]. It was found that the thermal resistance of the OHP varied with different filling
ratios and the optimal filling ratio for this system was found to be 14.7 %. However, with a top heating bottom cooling
arrangement, there is a possibility of heat pipe dry-out at higher heat fluxes and higher filling ratios as there is no wick
to assist condensate flow back to the evaporator section. Qu et al. [190] investigated the use of flexible oscillating heat
pipes (FOHP) made of Fluororubber tubes and the effects of adiabatic length and structural style on start-up,
evaporator temperature and the overall resistance. It was concluded that the evaporator temperature could be
maintained below 50 °C when a heat input of 121 W and an adiabatic length of 570 mm was maintained for an ‘I’ shaped
FOHP. Bending the FOHP degrades heat pipe performance, although small bending exhibited acceptable heat transfer
capabilities. Chen et al. [196] explored the performance of a nano-fluidized PHP-BTMS that was capable of suppressing
the rise of cell surface temperature by maintaining the maximum temperature and cell temperature uniformity below
42.22 °C and 2 °C, respectively, at a continuous discharge rate of 1C and under an ambient temperature of 35 °C. Ling et
al. [197] studied the effectiveness of a hybrid three-dimensional PHP combined with PCM and air cooling at different
filling ratios. They found that the highest cooling efficiency of about 63.1 % was recorded when the PHP was charged
with Methanol with a filling ratio of 34 % in comparison to Ethanol and Acetone.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of a) OHP based BTMS, b) OHP/PCM based BTMS [186].
Zhao et al. [187], [188] investigated the use of PCM as a storage tank in a closed loop oscillating heat pipe. The authors
claim that the system showed much better dynamic thermal performance during heating (i.e. the rate of melting
became slow and the temperature stabilized over time), and better static performance in cooling, in comparison to a
paraffin wax thermal management system. It was also found that the number of turns in a closed loop OHP have a
considerable effect on the start-up temperature and hence should be carefully designed to obtain optimum
temperature requirement.
It is evident that even though PHPs are much lighter owing to its wickless structure, the performance of these heat
pipes is affected by the filling ratio, type of working fluid, number of turns and the orientation of the battery and the
heat pipe itself [198]. Future investigations will have to be focused on how these key parameters can be optimized to
improve the overall performance of the heat pipe based battery thermal management system. Emphasis should also be
given to simple PHP models to integrate in module and pack level studies and detailed models for performance
optimization.
Table 4. Summary of OHP/PHP based battery thermal management.
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Tamb Heat Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings and
Approach source) (oC) load Tdiff (oC) contact with cooling recommendations
(W), C- battery
rate
Burban et Experimental Heater 20 25 W – Varies Direct contact Air cooling, Thermal resistance decreases
al. [184] cartridges 550 W Fins as the heating power
(2013) [6 nos.] increases.
Rao et al. Experimental Simulated 25 20 W 51.01 Thermal silica Water bath To reduce reflow resistance,
[185] batteries the OHP should not be placed
25 W 58.38
(2014) 115 90 horizontally.
30 W 63.59
35 W 67.69
Wang et al. Experimental Simulated 28 20 W 50 PCM Thermostatic Start-up temperature of the

[186] batteries (∼1136 s) bath OHP should be below phase
(2016) 115 90 change temperature of PCM
[2 nos.] 30 W 50 Battery surrogate terminal
(∼490 s) should be away from

adiabatic section.
Qu et al. Experimental Nichrome 25 121 W <501 Direct contact Air forced Bending of the adiabatic
[190] heating wire convection section reduces the heat pipe
(2018) performance
Wei et al. Experimental Simulated 25 56 W <46.5, <2 Direct contact Forced Air Ethanol-water mixture
[191] prismatic cooling working fluid improved the
(2019) batteries [2 performance of the OHP
nos.]
Chen et al. Experimental Simulated 35 1C <42.22, Aluminium Rectangular Increase in maximum cell
[196] battery 135.5 <2 plate fins surface temperature
(2020) 180.5 suppressed with increase in
ambient temperature.
Table 5. Summary of Loop heat pipe based battery thermal management.
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Tamb Heat load Tmax, Evap. end Cond. Key findings and
Approach source) (oC) (W), C-rate Tdiff contact with end recommendations
(oC) battery cooling
Hong et al. Experimental 50Ah, 24 2.5C <55 Direct Air The position and the cooling
[199] Prismatic contact cooling ability of the condenser section
(2015) 294 115 influences the minimum start up
50 temperature.
Putra et al. Experimental Cartridge 28 1.61 W/cm2 50 Conduction Liquid The best thermal performance, a
[200] (2016) heater plate cooling temperature of 50 °C was
recorded at a heat flux of
1.61 W/cm2 when acetone was
used the working fluid.
Bernagozzi Experimental 65Ah, 23 Fast 31.5, Graphite HVAC Use of graphite sheets improved
et al. [202] & Simulation Prismatic charging 2 sheet temperature uniformity.
(Simulated), (0.2 – 0.8
Reference Investigative Battery (heat Tamb Heat load Tmax, Evap. end Cond. Key findings and
Approach source) (oC) (W), C-rate Tdiff contact with end recommendations
(oC) battery cooling
280 96 SOC in
10 10 min)
Table 6. Summary of Mini/Micro heat pipe based battery thermal management.
Reference Investigative Battery Tamb Heat Tmax, Evap. end Cond. end Key findings and
Approach (heat ( °C) load Tdiff contact with cooling recommendations
source) (W), ( °C) battery
C-rate
Zhao et al. Experimental 3Ah, Pouch NG 1C 20.5, Thermal pads Wet cooling Wet cooling (spray) is a
[208] 125 40 1.5 promising technique to control
(2015) 5.5 & the temperature of a heat pipe
2C 21, 1.9
8Ah, 180 based BTMS.
45 9 3C 21, 2.5
Lui et al. Simulation 50Ah, 30 1C 36.2, Thermal Al fins, The segmented thermal
[211] Prismatic 3.5 conductive forced resistance had more precision in
(2016) 155 102 silicone convection comparison to non-segmented
2C 39.9,
10 equivalent thermal conductivity
4.1
model.
3C 43.9,
4.3
Ye et al. Experimental 18Ah, 27.56 1C 34, Direct contact Fins, Forced System is capable of
[206], [207] Prismatic 1.5 convection maintaining cell temperature
(2017) 165 70 distribution within 5 °C.
27
Huang et al. Experimental 1.1Ah 35 3C <50, 3 Thermal Air & Liquid The PCM/HP cooled with liquid
[168] 18650, conductive cooling had better performance than air.
(2018) Cylindrical silicone, PCM
Dan et al. Experimental 55Ah, 26.8 3C <40, Direct The MHPA based BTMS provides
[210] & Simulation Prismatic 2.04 contact/Forced quick response, ensuring
(2019) air cooling thermal stability during subtle
changing battery operating
conditions.
Mo et al. Experimental 28Ah, 22.5 3C <43.7, Thermal silicone Air cooled The maximum temperature of
[209] & Simulation Pouch <4.9 grease the battery module decreases
(2019) 228 161 with increasing air velocity.
5
3.4.5. Loop heat pipes

Similar to PHPs, loop heat pipes (LHP) are another type of heat pipe that has been recently developed. Hong et al. [199]
showed that a gravity assisted ultra-thin loop type heat pipe (UTLHP) with wickless channels to thermally manage a
50Ah prismatic battery module below 55 °C at a discharge rate of 2.5C and that the performance of UTLHP are affected
by the groove configuration. Putra et al [200] conducted an experimental investigation on the performance of a flat
plate loop heat pipe with three different working fluids; distilled water, alcohol and acetone with a filling ratio of 60 %.
It was concluded that acetone outperformed the other two fluids providing an evaporator temperature of 50 °C at a
heat flux of 1.61 W/cm2, which corresponds to approximately 68 W of heat from the heat source.
Wu et al. [201] also found that increase of filling ratio results in an increase in heat transfer and thermal efficiency,
however increase of filling ratio beyond 50 %, results in a decrease of both heat transfer and thermal efficiency.
Bernogozzi et al. [202], [203] proposed a novel flat plate loop heat pipe BTMS integrated with graphite sheets. Results
show that the system was capable of maintaining both the pack and cell level within the optimum operating
temperature range during fast charging. The cell’s maximum temperature and temperature uniformity were recorded
to be 31.5 °C and 2 °C respectively. They also developed a lumped parameter model to predict the effects of different
working fluids and wick materials on the thermal performance of the system. They found that water showed better
performance in comparison to Ethanol and Copper over Aluminium. However, it was also concluded that since the
weight of Aluminium is around one third the weight of Copper, an overall weight reduction of the system can be
achieved if Aluminium is used instead of Copper with just a slight reduction in thermal performance.
Hashimoto et al. [204] designed a LHP to investigate the capability of actively heating the battery pack at sub-zero
operating conditions. The experiment was conducted in a thermostatic bath set at −20 °C and the temperature rise was
recorded to be around 0.6 °C/min at a heat load of 100 W. They adopted a homogeneous two-phase flow model to
perform transient analysis of the LHP. The behaviour of the model and the experimental results were in general
agreement, and the authors claim that model had the capability of simulating the growth of the two-phase region in
the LHP.
It can be seen that loop heat pipes have had less attention in comparison to conventional heat pipes. One reason might
be that the interest in the use of LHP in battery thermal management are still at its’ early stages. Not many studies have
been carried-out to integrate battery thermal models with LHP thermal models, even though several models have been
developed to understand the thermal and hydrodynamic coupling in LHPs [119]. Hence, more emphasis will have to be
given on how to develop simple LHP models that can be integrated with battery thermal models to conduct
performance analysis. At the same time investigate how thermal performance of LHPs can be improved by minimizing
the thermal resistance. This can be achieved by optimizing design parameters such as filling ratio, evaporator
dimensions, type of mesh and the number of groove. Loop heat pipes have shown great promise in spacecraft and
electronic thermal control applications involving multiple heat sources and high heat fluxes [205]. Hence, there is a lot
of potential in their applicability in module and pack level battery thermal management, provided a better
understanding on how these heat pipes respond to both low and high heat fluxes, hot spots, and their capability to
maintain temperature uniformity is understood by experimenting and developing simple and accurate models.
3.4.6. Mini/ micro heat pipes

Only a handful of researcher have studied the use of mini/micro heat pipe based battery thermal management. Of the
few, Ye et al. [206], [207] proposed a micro heat pipe based array (MHPA) based BTMS capable of maintaining the
maximum temperature of the pack below 40 °C, while this was further reduced to around 34 °C when fins were
integrated at the condenser section under a discharge of 1C [207]. Zhao et al. [208] proposed the use of ultra-thin heat
pipes combined with a wet cooling strategy, shown in Fig. 8, to control battery temperature. Different cooling
strategies, including natural cooling, forced cooling, cooling bath and wet cooling were tested and the system without
heat pipes recorded the highest temperature of 49 °C at a discharge rate of 3C, while this reduced to 41 °C, when
integrated with heat pipes. It was also stated that the heat pipe cooling strategy with thermostat bath recorded a
relatively high temperature owing to accumulation of bubbles at the surface of the condenser section, resulting is a
reduction of the overall thermal conductivity of the heat pipe system. On the other hand, the heat pipe based wet
cooling strategy limited the maximum temperature to just 21 °C at the end of discharge. Evidence from experimental
and numerical studies indicate that MHPA based BTMS are capable of maintaining the maximum temperature to below
45 °C [209] and the temperature distribution to below 5 °C, even at discharge rate of 3C [210] during unsteady operation
provided that proper forced convective cooling is maintained. Lui et al. [211] proposed and developed a segmented
thermal resistance model that had higher precision than the non-segmented model which represented the heat
transfer through the ultra-micro heat pipe (UMHP) by an equivalent thermal conductivity.

Fig. 8. Illustration of four cooling strategies. a) Horizontal heat pipe – forced air cooling, b) vertical heat pipe – forced
air convection, c) heat pipes cooled in thermostat bath, d) spray cooled heat pipes [208].
Ren et al. [212] proposed a U-shaped micro heat pipe array to preheat of Li-ion batteries. Two cases of experiments
were conducted, one by covering the heat pipe module with thermal insulating material and another leaving it in open
ambient conditions. It was found that in the former the battery could be heated from −20 °C to 0 °C in 26 min using a
32 W heat load. Wang et al. [213] on the other hand studied the applicability of MHPA based BTM for low temperature
environments. It was found that a single heating system was capable of heating the battery pack from −30 °C to 0 °C in
just 20 min at a heat load of 30 W, maintaining temperature uniformity below 3.03 °C. The two configurations by Ren et
al. [212] and Wang et al.[213] are different from each other as seen in Fig. 9. In the former the heating element and the
heat pipes are sandwiched between the batteries, while in the latter only the heat pipe is sandwiched between two
batteries, while the heating elements are placed underneath the batteries on either sides of the heat pipe. The
configuration in the first case may result in uneven temperature distribution during heating and cooling since the
contact surfaces on the top and the bottom sides of the battery aren’t symmetrically configured. On the other hand the
arrangement in Fig. 9. b) has symmetricity in the configuration and at the same time the operation of the heat pipe
would be assisted by gravity during heating. However, further studies of this configuration could be performed to see
the effectiveness in both heating and cooling using a Peltier element (TEC) to function as a heater and a cooler. The
systems effectiveness will have to be determined during the cooling scenario, as the condenser would be the at the
bottom and the capillary rise through the channel would have to work against gravity.

Fig. 9. A) Heat pipe module configuration [212], b)Heating unit of Li-ion battery using MHPA [213].
3.5. Limitations of heat pipes

The literature reported in the previous section shows that heat pipes have the capability of maintaining optimum
operating temperature conditions of Li-ion batteries. However, the understanding of the operation of heat pipe based
battery thermal management during transient conditions (both start-up and fluctuating loads), their performance
close to limitations and consequences of bending and flattening have been seldomly investigated.
The design of a heat pipe based battery thermal management system is bounded by several key parameters, including
the limitations of a heat pipe, the maximum transport capability of a heat pipe and the number of heat pipes. With
reference to convectional round and flattened heat pipes, the number of heat pipes per cell is a crucial design
parameter, for it directly affects the cost and the weight of the battery thermal management system. Determining the
optimum number of heat pipes per cell will be governed by the limitations of the heat pipes and maximum transport
capability.
It is evident from the literature reported in section 3.4, many authors have opted for the use of multiple heat pipes per
cell, with different heat transfer enhancement techniques such as flattening the evaporator section and/or the
condenser section, bending the heat pipe to enhance condensate flow by gravity and other methods to enhance heat
transfer area. However, improvement in one aspect of the heat pipe will not essentially improve the overall heat
transfer capability of the heat pipe. For instance, utilizing a conduction element to increase the surface contact area to
enhance the heat transfer between the heat pipe and the source/sink will result in an increase in thermal resistance
and overall weight of the battery thermal management system. Flattening one or both ends of the heat pipes would
enhance the surface area of contact, but at the same time increase the thermal resistance of the heat pipe due to
collapse of wick structure and clogging at the condenser end [214]. Bending the heat pipe to place the condenser
section at a higher elevation than the evaporator section is another approach adopted to increase the rate of
condensate flow with gravity assisted capillary flow. However, bending the heat pipe would deform the wick structure
obstructing the liquid flow and also affect the flow of vapour through the core, creating disturbance within the vapour
flow as well as the condensate flow, resulting in an increase in thermal resistance. Therefore, the bending angle and the
final thickness of the flattened region are crucial parameters when heat pipes are shaped into different configurations.
It has been reported that bending a heat pipe through an angle of 900 would result in an increase in thermal resistance
of about 21.5 % while flattening a heat pipe from 6 mm to 2.5 mm increase the thermal resistance by about 154.5 % [215].
The recommended minimum thickness that a convectional round heat pipe can be flattened to, is about 45–50 % of the
original diameter [215], [216].
In the context of battery thermal management, it is vital to understand the performance of a heat pipe under multiple
heat load and fluctuation heating conditions. However, the effect of multiple heat loads and transient heating
conditions on the performance of heat pipes have also been insufficiently investigated. Joseph et al. [217] reported that
in comparison to a single heat loaded heat pipe, the thermal resistance of a multiple heat loaded heat pipe increased
by 68 %. The multiple evaporator configuration can also trigger dry-out and result in an increase in temperature.
Furthermore, Kalind et al. [218] reported a temperature hysteresis phenomena caused by heat pipe dry-out during
transient operations exceeding capillary limit. The capillary limit, defined as a function of the surface tension property
of the working fluid and the effective pore radius essentially determines the maximum capillary pumping capability of
the wick structure. Exceeding this limitation would result in wick dry-out and increase the overall thermal resistance
of the heat pipe. Therefore, it is of paramount interest to test heat pipes at multiple heat loads and fluctuating heating
conditions near limitations.
3.6. Heat pipe modelling approaches used in BTM

The capability of a model to quickly estimate the thermal performance with reasonable accuracy is vital for the
research and development of HP-BTMS. Several authors have adopted different approaches including analytical and
numerical modelling to replicate the behaviour of heat pipes and predict different parameters, including external
temperature, internal flow dynamics and other characteristics of heat pipes as per the application [119], [219], [220],
[221]. In the context of battery thermal management, the focus on heat pipe modelling should be to determine the
external parameters of the heat pipe that affect the heat transfer system with reasonable accuracy, hence a complete
understanding of the internal flow dynamics using computationally costly complex CFD modelling [120] are not
necessary for system level thermal management models. However, it should also be noted that in order to improve
heat transfer efficiencies by means of nanofluid, internal structural enhancement and understanding limitations of
different wick structures detailed modelling approaches will be required [120], [132], [222], [223], [224]. It is therefore
important to find means of developing simpler models with better approximations for practical applications [136].
It can be seen from Tables 7 and 8, many authors have opted to simply defining the effective thermal conductivity,
specific heat capacity and density of the heat pipe to model heat pipe based battery thermal management system. One
main disadvantage of such assumptions is their lack of accuracy and versatility [211]. Properties such as effective
thermal conductivity, permeability, density, and effective pore radius depend on the type of wick structure and
structural models considered. Many of the effective thermal conductivity formulae for a wick structure found in
literature are based on one or more of the five fundamental structural models, namely; series model, parallel model,
Maxwell-Eucken model 1, Maxwell-Eucken model 2 and Effective medium theory (EMT) model [225]. Table 9
summarises some of the formulae used to determine the effective thermal conductivity of heat pipes with different
wick structures. Another common approach is the use of the thermal resistance network model shown in Fig. 10, which
defines the heat flow through each segment of the heat pipe using thermal resistances [226], [227]. Here R1 and R4
represent the thermal resistance across the heat pipe casing, while R2 and R3 represent the thermal resistance across
the wick structure. The thermal conductivity of the wick structure can be determined using the formulae given in Table
9. The thermal resistances R5 and R6 represent the resistance to heat flow along the wick structure and the heat pipe
casing, respectively. Whereas, Rv represents the thermal resistance through the vapour core. The effective thermal
conductivity ( of the vapour section can be defined by equation (4) [226], [228].
(4)
Table 7. Thermal properties of heat pipes considered by different authors.
Type of heat pipe (and working Dimensions (mm) Density Specific heat Effective Thermal Ref
−3
fluid) Kgm capacity conductivity
-1 −1
Jkg K (Wm-1K−1)
Tubular heat pipe 2 100 2093 777 5000 Shah et al.

[145]
Tubular (l-shaped) heat pipe = 75 89,781 3811 387.61 Gan et al.

(sintered) = 24 [138]
4348.22 884.7592 1.5082
0.030373 1874.43 2044201.5073
Flat heat pipe (acetone) 3 70 12 2702 903 2000 Zhang et al.

[161]
Flat heat pipe (sintered, water) 11.2 3.5 250 – – 8212 Behi et al.
[162]
Flat heat pipe 3.4 15.2 180.3 – – 8785 Behi et al.

(l-shaped, sintered, water) [164]
Flat heat pipe (water) 10 4 193 – – 12,000 (along heat pipe)60 Li et al. [148]
(across heat pipe)
Flat heat pipe (Al, acetone) 250 210 2.5 1157.2 880 3200 Liang et al.
[152]
Flat ended tubular heat pipe Flat end 3 140, 9974 4181.74 0.6074 Ye et al. [178]
(sintered, water) 8 110
89,331 3851 3931
Flat ended tubular heat pipe Flat end (64 9 – – 9216 Wang et al.
(sintered, water) 2 mm) [174]
6 93 mm
1
Copper.
2
Wick.
3
Vapour.
4
Water.
Table 8. Thermal properties of different battery form factors used in heat pipe based battery thermal management
systems.
Type of cell (form factor and/ or Dimensions Density Specific heat Thermal conductivity (Wm- Ref
chemistry (mm) kgm−3 capacity 1K−1)
Jkg-1K−1
In-plane / Thru-plane /
axial radial
Prismatic 195 × 125 × 7 – 2767.45 26.57 0.97 Greco et al.

[136]
Cylindrical 26,650 2093 777 – 0.25 Shah et al.

[145]
Cylindrical 18,650 2923 1280 30 0.25 Worwood et al.

[62]
32,113 2276 1020 30 0.25
Cylindrical 18,650 2780 2780 20 2.00 Gan et al. [138]
Prismatic (LFP) 100 70 27 2500 1000 – 3.00 Zhang et al.

[161]
Prismatic (LTO) 115 103 22 2115.4 1150 31 0.8 Behi et al.[162]
Cylindrical 18,650 2722 1200 37.6 0.2 Behi et al.

[164]
Pouch 184 208 11.8 2551.7 1100 28 0.28 Liang et al.

[152]
Prismatic 140 65 15 2110 1264 15.6 1.4 Ye et al. [178]
Table 9. Effective thermal conductivity of different wick structures.
Type of wick structure Formulae – Effective thermal conductivity Ref.

(Wm-1K−1)
Grooved wick (parallel case) [127], [229]
Series case [229]
Wrapped screen wicks [138], [229]

Sintered wick
Packed sphere wicks [229]
Sintered particles [230]
Sintered metal fibres [121]
Fig. 10. Thermal resistance network model modified [226].
In order to determine the thermal resistances along the length of the heat pipes (i.e. lateral conduction) and effective
heat pipe length, given by equation (5) is considered.
(5)
This technique of modelling has been broadly used in heat pipe based thermal management systems by considering
different assumptions; neglecting liquid vapour interface resistance, vapour flow resistance [164], defining an
equivalent thermal resistance at the three heat pipe sections [178], and considering an overall thermal resistance of the
heat pipe [121], [172]. These thermophysical properties of a heat pipe greatly depend on the properties of each layer
including the casing, wick and working fluid as well as the vacuum pressure of the heat pipe. Hence, it is of paramount
interest that a model capable of predicting the evaporator end temperature is developed catering to both the thermal
and fluid dynamics within a heat pipe. Furthermore, the model should be versatile and user friendly in terms of
varying heat pipe parameters, properties, and boundary conditions. Attention should also be given to capturing the
limitation of heat pipes, especially capillary limit and boiling limit that are highly likely to occur at room temperature,
and the effects of multiple heat sources and temperature hysteresis [218]. It should also be noted that not many
researcher have given emphasis on modelling of pulsating, mini/micro heat pipes due to lack of empirical formulae
owing to their complex flow phenomena.
3.7. Current status, challenges and the future direction

Majority of the studies have been focused on conventional tubular (round) heat pipes and flat or flat ended tubular
heat pipes, while over 65 % of the publications reviewed in this article have focused on cooling prismatic cells at C-rates
varying from 1C to 8C as shown in Fig. 11. It should however be noted that these studies include either experimental or
numerical or both and several authors have opted to use battery simulators in order to replicate the heat generation
scenario of the different types of batteries. It can be clearly seen from the comparison between heat pipe based
thermal management systems and air cooled systems shown in Fig. 12, that, heat pipes are capable of maintaining the
maximum temperature below 50 °C.

Fig. 11. Percentage of different types of a). type of heat pipe, b). C-rates and c). types of battery cells investigated in HP-
BTM reviewed in section 3.4.

Fig. 12. Comparison between heat pipe based battery thermal management system (HPBTMS) and Air cooled systems.
Fig. 13 provides a summary of different parameters and variables considered when investigating heat pipe based
battery thermal management. It is evident that work has been predominantly focused on enhancing the heat transfer
by means of increasing the surface contact area, use of phase change materials, and the use of different cooling
strategies. Increasing the surface area by means of copper sheets, aluminium sheets/plates have found to be quite a
promising technique while the use of PCM assisted HP-BTM provides better cooling performance by maintaining
maximum cell temperature < 50 °C and temperature uniformity within 5 °C. However, both approaches have resulted in
added weight, therefore optimizing the design of plate and sheet designs, and enhancing the thermal conductivity of
PCM using combination of materials is imperative to utilize their advantages. Attention should be given to how surface
area enhancing methods can be utilized to maintain cell temperature uniformity and mitigate hotspot at high C-rates.
Another design aspect that should be considered is the effectiveness of the type of working fluid, and the material used
for heat pipes in battery thermal management systems. Working fluids such as water, ethanol, methanol, acetone
ammonia have been some of the most commonly used working fluids in heat pipes based on the merit number [133].
Fluids such as the Hydrofluoroethers (3 M Novec 7000) might also be a potential candidate for low temperature heat
pipes, even though their Merit number ( ) calculated from equation (6). is around at 30 °C [231]
which is about two orders lower than water[121], [133]. Materials used for heat pipe casing and wick structure should
also be further investigated in order to optimize the thermal performance while reducing the weight factor and
improving the cost-effectiveness. Materials such as Aluminium and Copper with a density ratio of about 1:3,
respectively, will have a considerable impact in the overall weight and the cost of the system.
(6)

Fig. 13. Summary of different parameters and variables considered in heat pipe based battery thermal management.
On the other hand, the melting point of PCM is key to enhancing the heat transfer of the entire system [150]. Cooling
strategies such as fins, generating vortices, delay quenching, increasing coolant flow rate, and varying the coolant
temperature have shown to improve the heat transfer capabilities, although optimum cooling flow rates per heat load
should be identified when designing a HP-BTMS, since the rate of reduction of cell temperature at higher flow rates
decreases while the power consumption increases. On the other hand, decreasing the coolant temperature reduces the
maximum temperature, while resulting in larger temperature non-uniformities. Even though approaches like delay
quenching [179] have shown to control the maximum cell temperature, these techniques require further investigations
as to how instantaneous cell temperature drops affect the thermal distribution and the overall cell performance.
Many researchers have also varied the heat loads and C-rates to investigate the performance of different heat pipe
based thermal management system. However, it should be noted that defining the capability of a HP-BTMS to control
the operating temperature of a cell at a particular C-rates would complicate system comparisons since the heat
generation at a given C-rate varies with different chemistries, cell capacities and form factors. Hence, it is imperative
that researchers specify how much heat is generated per unit area for ease of comparison between different systems
and approaches used in HP-BTMS. Emphasis should also be given to how surface cooling results in non-uniform
temperature distribution on cell level due low thermal conductivity across the layers of the cell, and at the same time
the temperature uniformity between modules and across the pack. The optimum location and the strategy of
condenser end cooling will be crucial especially in the case of pack level heat pipe-liquid cooled arrangement. A single
channel cooling section would not sufficiently maintain temperature uniformity among heat pipe since the condenser
end of the heat pipe bundles at the flow entrance of liquid cooling section will be subjected to cooler temperatures
while heat pipes at a distance from the cooling entrance will be subjected to slightly warmer temperatures resulting in
a temperature gradient amongst the heat pipes along the length of the module/pack, which would directly affect the
temperature gradient of the cell, module and hence the pack. Arrangements such as counter-flow cooling channel
[232], multiple cooling inlets and modification of the cooling channel [233], [234], enhancing heat pipe condenser
section by means of fins [139] and other heat transfer enhancement techniques [158] needs to be further investigated
to mitigate this phenomena. The focus of recent studies have been on integrating heat pipes with different phase
change material [170], [197], [235], [236], [237] due to their capability of absorbing large latent heat by phase change
and maintain temperature uniformity during fluctuating heat loads. Furthermore use of nanofluids have also gained
interest in enhancing the heat transfer capability in heat pipes [238] and has shown quite a lot of potential [196], [239].
The effectiveness of using different working fluids with nanofluids can be determined using the revised Merit number
presented by Poplaski et al. [142] in terms of the effective properties of density, surface tension and viscosity of the
nanofluid. One advantage of wicked heat pipes are its quick response to temperature variations. This aspect could be
used to investigate the possibility of utilizing heat pipes for predictive cooling strategies, hence further studies will
have to be performed on start-up and response times of heat pipes, especially on niche types of HPs such as OHPs and
LHPs.
It is apparent that many authors have simply used the effective thermal conductivity of the heat pipe to model BTMSs
while several others have opted for thermal resistance network models considering appropriate assumptions. Only a
very few authors have considered the effect of the heat pipe vapour core in the thermal resistance network model
[178], and not many have considered the effect of pressure drop in both the vapour core and the wick structure due to
modelling complexities. Emphasis should also be given to developing simple models for pulsating [240], loop [241],
mini/micro heat pipes [219] so that module and pack level models can be developed to investigate the performance of
these heat pipes.
Even though there has been research conducted in this field for decades, heat pipe based battery thermal management
systems (BTMS) are yet to find its way to commercialization. Fig. 14 shows a glance of the current status, challenges
and the future direction of heat pipe based battery thermal management. Further development in the following areas
are highlighted to ascertain the applicability of heat pipe in thermal managing batteries.
1. Developing simple thermal models to predict the performance of heat pipes for module and pack level modelling.
2. Enhancing heat transfer area between heat source, heat pipe and heat sink and improving the heat transfer
capability by means nanofluids.
3. Investigating the performance and limitations of heat pipes under extreme fast charging, fluctuating heat loads and
multiple heat loads.
4. Understanding the performance of heat pipe based battery thermal management under adverse temperature
conditions.
5. Enhancing thermal control and effective heat transfer of heat pipes with different condenser end cooling strategies.
6. Exploring the capability of heat pipe based pre-heating techniques.
7. Testing thermo-mechanical stability of heat pipe based battery thermal management systems.
8. Analysing the cost effectiveness and power to weight ratio of module and pack level systems.

Fig. 14. Current status, challenges and future direction of heat pipe based battery thermal management.
4. Conclusion
Heat pipe based battery thermal management has shown a lot of potential in maintaining Li-ion batteries within its
optimum operating range. However, this system is still in its early stage of research and requires much attention in
several areas. This article outlines different heat generation mechanisms, including reversible and irreversible, the
thermal effects of Li-ion batteries and the consequences resulting from both high and low temperatures. Different
approaches used by researchers to determine heat generation and temperature using both experimental and modelling
approaches are also highlighted, so as to provide a solid platform in developing heat pipe based battery thermal
management.
An extensive review on the development of heat pipe based battery thermal management systems during the past
decade is presented giving emphasis on the key parameters and variables considered during experimental and model
based investigations. Heat transfer enhancement techniques, heat pipe arrangements, different cooling strategies
adopted by researchers were critically analysed under each type of heat pipe and their advantages and challenges were
also highlighted. The key findings and recommendations of the investigations were also presented from Table 1, Table
2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, along with their results of maximum temperature and temperature uniformity.
Most investigations have been focused on cell and module level whereas pack level heat pipe based thermal
management has had seldom attention. Therefore, emphasis should be given to the gaps highlighted in section 3.7 to
determine the capability of commercializing this promising technology.
Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Recommended articles
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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Applied Thermal Engineering

A comprehensive review on heat pipe based battery

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• Capability of heat pipes in maintaining thermal stability of Li-ion cells.

• Gaps in heat pipe based battery thermal management.

Solid electrolyte interface

Surface area of cell

Specific heat capacity

Convective heat transfer

Latent heat of vapourization

Universal gas constant

Thickness of vapour core

Average thermal conductivity

2. Heat generation and thermal management

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3. Heat pipe technology

3.1. Working principle

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Fig. 2. Cross-section of a conventional heat pipe.

3.2. Operating limits

gravity as given by Equation (3).

3.3. Classification and construction

3.4. Application of heat pipe based battery thermal management

3.4.1. Tubular heat pipes

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Table 1. Summary of tubular heat pipe based battery thermal management.

– 36.7, electrochemical trade-

2 offs require further

Nasir et al. Simulation 10Ah, Pouch – 30 W 56.54 HP Forced air Addition of

3.4.2. Flat heat pipes

Table 2. Summary of flat heat pipe battery thermal management systems.

(2017) cooling temperature of 50 °C.

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3.4.3. Flat ended tubular heat pipes

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3.4.4. Oscillating/ pulsating heat pipes

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Table 4. Summary of OHP/PHP based battery thermal management.

Wang et al. Experimental Simulated 28 20 W 50 PCM Thermostatic Start-up temperature of the

(∼490 s) should be away from

Table 5. Summary of Loop heat pipe based battery thermal management.

Table 6. Summary of Mini/Micro heat pipe based battery thermal management.

3.4.5. Loop heat pipes

3.4.6. Mini/ micro heat pipes

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3.5. Limitations of heat pipes

3.6. Heat pipe modelling approaches used in BTM

Table 7. Thermal properties of heat pipes considered by different authors.

Tubular heat pipe 2 100 2093 777 5000 Shah et al.

Tubular (l-shaped) heat pipe = 75 89,781 3811 387.61 Gan et al.

0.030373 1874.43 2044201.5073

Flat heat pipe (acetone) 3 70 12 2702 903 2000 Zhang et al.

Flat heat pipe 3.4 15.2 180.3 – – 8785 Behi et al.

Prismatic 195 × 125 × 7 – 2767.45 26.57 0.97 Greco et al.

Cylindrical 26,650 2093 777 – 0.25 Shah et al.

Cylindrical 18,650 2923 1280 30 0.25 Worwood et al.

Cylindrical 18,650 2780 2780 20 2.00 Gan et al. [138]

Prismatic (LFP) 100 70 27 2500 1000 – 3.00 Zhang et al.

Prismatic (LTO) 115 103 22 2115.4 1150 31 0.8 Behi et al.[162]