ENGiNEERiNG

GEOLOGY
ELSEVIER EngineeringGeology37 (1994) 135-157

Prediction of engineering properties of a selected litharenite

sandstone from its petrographic characteristics using correlation
and multivariate statistical techniques
R. Ulusay a, K. Tt~reli a, M.H. Ider b
" General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA) 06520 Ankara, Turkey
b Geotech, Inc. 125 North Route, 73 Maple Shade, NJ 08052, USA
(Received 24 December 1993; revised version accepted 2 June 1994)

Abstract

The determination of rock strength and elastic parameters in laboratory tests requires high quality core samples
which are not always available from fractured and/or weathered strata. The purpose of this study is to apply a
correlation analysis in conjunction with multivariate statistical techniques to petrographical and laboratory geomechani-
cal data for the investigation of correlations that exist between these properties of a selected sandstone, and to suggest
inexpensive predictive models in a preliminary investigation.
Sandstone samples from a borehole drilled for a preliminary investigation of a shaft location at a hard coal region
(Black Sea, Turkey) were tested to determine uniaxial compressive strength, elastic parameters, unit weight, porosity,
point load index and quality index. Secondly, fifteen selected samples were subjected to petrographic examination
which included fifteen parameters and modal analysis. Based on the statistical analysis results, polynomial prediction
equations were developed for estimating mechanical properties from petrographic characteristics and index properties.
The study revealed that the influence of textural characteristics appear to be more important than mineralogy for
predicting engineering properties. It is also noted that type of contacts, grain shape and size, rock fragments with
packing density and proximity are the petrographic characteristics which have significant influence upon engineering
properties of the sandstones. Results of this study were presented in the form of correlation coefficient models and
predictive models.

1. Introduction engineering index tests such as point load strength,

Methods of stability analysis of underground
openings require the input data on the geomechani-
cal behavior of the rocks. High quality samples
are necessary for the determination of these prop-
erties. However, such core samples are not always
available from thin-bedded fractured strata or in
alternating sequences. Because of these restrictions,
conventional laboratory tests cannot be adequately
performed. In such cases a practical approach may
be used to estimate mechanical properties from
Schmidt hardness, porosity, unit weight, slake
durability, sonic velocity, and percent absorption
that are known to correlate with relevant mechan-
ical properties. Various correlations between rock
strength and some engineering index properties are
found (Judd and Huber, 1961; D'Andrea et al.,
1965; Deere and Miller, 1966; Broth and Franklin,
1972; Bieniawski, 1975; Michalopoulos and
Triandafilidis, 1976; Barbour et al., 1979; Fahy
and Guceione, 1979; Hassani et al., 1980;
Gunsallus and Kulhawy, 1984; Hawkins and

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136 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135 157
McConnel, 1991; Tsidzi, 1991; and Shakoor and
Bonelli, 1991).
Sandstones include a wide range of rock types
varying in their mineralogy, petrographic charac-
teristics and mechanical properties. Large varia-
tions in mechanical properties have been attributed
to variations in petrographic characteristics of the
sandstones (Bell, 1978a; Barbour et al., 1979; Fahy
and Guccione, 1979; Howarth and Rowlands,
1984; and Shakoor and Bonelli, 1991). Thus, in
addition to engineering index properties, petro-
graphic characteristics can also be helpfull in pre-
dicting mechanical properties of sandstones.
Petrographic characteristics known to affect
mechanical properties include grain size, grain
shape, packing density, packing proximity, degree
of interlocking, type of contacts, amount and type
of cement and/or matrix and mineralogical com-
position. These properties can be readily measured
in the laboratory and are commonly determined
during routine thin-section studies.
Several investigators have studied the effect of
grain size on the mechanical properties of rock. In
general, rock strength is greater for finer grained
rocks (Brace, 1961). Fahy and Guccione (1979)
indicated that sandstones with smaller mean grain
size had higher strength values. Conversely,
Shakoor and Bonelli (1991) reported that mean
grain size did not show any significant correlation
with strength and elastic properties of sandstones.
However, Handlin and Hager (1957), and Ollson
(1974) noted that strength increased significantly
as grain size increased in limestones and marbles.
Similar results have been reported by Hugman and
Freidman (1979), for carbonate rocks, and by
Onodera and Asoka (1980) for crystalline rocks.
Shakoor and Bonelli (1991) found that the
percentage angular grains was only weakly related
to strength and elastic properties. Brown (1993)
reported that grain length was a good indicator
for porosity.
Packing density or the space in a given area
occupied by grains has been correlated with
strength properties by Bell (1978a). He showed
that when the packing density of the Fell
Sandstone increased, also the values of uniaxial
compressive and tensile strengths and modulus
of elasticity increased. Howarth and Rowlands
(1986) proposed a texture coefficient including
packing density and reported that this parameter
had a moderate correlation with several mechan-
ical properties. Doberenier and De Freitas (1986)
concluded that weak sandstones were generally
characterized by a low packing density. Shakoor
and Bonelli (1991) did not find any relationship
between packing density and mechanical proper-
ties. They also pointed out that packing proximity
did not appear to show any significant correlation
with mechanical properties of the sandstones
they studied.
Fahy and Guccione (1979) noted that sphericity
inversly correlates with compressive strength and
shows the strongest correlation among all the
petrographic properties. Contrary to this, Shakoor
and Bonelli (1991) did not find any significant
relationship between sphericity and mechanical
properties.
Hock (1965) was one of the early researchers to
suggest that a higher applied stress was needed to
cause failure through grain boundaries in rocks
characterized by a tight interlocking texture.
Hartley (1974) suggested that inter-granular bond-
ing was a significant characteristic affecting
mechanical properties of sandstones and it is con-
cluded that the number of grain contacts and types
of grains may be used as an indicator of mechanical
properties. Fahy and Guccione (1979), Doberenier
and De Freitas (1986), and Shakoor and Bonelli
(1991) reported significant correlations between
some types of grain contacts and strength, and
Young's modulus of the studied sandstones.
Mineralogical composition is one of the intrinsic
properties controlling the rock strength. Rocks
containing quartz as binding material are the
strongest followed by calcite, and ferrous minerals;
rocks with clayey binding material are the weakest
(Vutukuri et al., 1974). The relationship between
mineralogical composition and mechanical proper-
ties of various sandstones were previously investi-
gated. Since the amount of feldspar, mica and
rock fragments in these sandstones, when present,
was small, they were not involved in the correla-
tions. Thus, these correlations were only based on
quartz content. Fahy and Guccione (1979),
Gunsallus and Kulhawy (1984), and Shakoor and
Bonelli (1991) found a definite relationship
between quartz content and uniaxial compressive
 t~ Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157
strength of the investigated sandstones. Handlin
and Hager (1957), Bell (1978a) and Barbour et al.
(1979), on the other hand, did not find any signifi-
cant correlation between quartz content and
mechanical properties of sandstones. They sug-
gested that the structural interlocking of the quartz
grains and not the quartz content itself influences
mechanical properties. The sandstones investigated
in these studies were rich in quartz.
There is little or no specific literature on the
relation between mechanical properties and other
mineralogical characteristics of sandstones, such
as the amount of rock fragments, matrix and
cement. However, Bell (1978a), who did not con-
sider matrix, due to a lesser amount of matrix
when compared to cement, reported that when the
amount of cement increases, the strength increases.
Fahy and Guccione (1979), and Shakoor and
Bonelli (1991) did not observe good correlations
between amount of cement and mechanical proper-
ties of sandstones.
It is the purpose of this study to analyze selected
litharenite intact sandstones from a borehole per-
formed for a preliminary investigation of a shaft
location in a hard coal region at Black Sea, Turkey
(Fig. 1), and to determine relation between petro-
graphic characteristics, engineering index proper-
ties and mechanical (strength) properties. The
characteristics with the most significant influence
upon others were considered useful indicators for
estimating engineering index and mechanical
properties. Results of the previous investigations
mentioned above were mainly based on linear
regression analyses. In this study, in addition to
linear regression, data were also subjected to non-
linear regression (geometric and logarithmic
regression) analyses to obtain best curve fits.
Finally, empirical predictive models based on
multivariate statistical analyses were developed
employing some thin section data, which were
significantly correlated with mechanical properties
to provide estimators of engineering properties
involved in correlation.
2. Site location, material and sampling
This investigation was conducted on core
samples collected from an exploratory borehole
137
950 m deep, drilled in the Kozlu-Zonguldak area,
the Black Sea region of Turkey. The purpose of
the borehole was to investigate the rock conditions
through the line of the Yenikuyu shaft at its
planning stage in a hard coal region and to provide
geotechnical data of various rock units encoun-
tered to the construction company. The company
requested the determination of some engineering
index and basic mechanical properties of the rock
units at certain levels of the borehole.
The stratigraphy of the drilled area consists of
a sequence of Coal Measures rocks. The sequence
is composed of an alternation of sandstones, silt-
stones, claystones and conglomerates. Sandstone
is the most abundant rock type in this sequence.
They are Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian A)
in age and occur in the Kozlu series (MTA, 1988).
The borehole cores, taken at approximately three
meter depth intervals, were geotechnically logged
in accordance with the procedures suggested by
Geological Society of London (1977) and ISRM
(1981). In this study, the dominant rock type was
sandstone and was thus selected for the purpose
of this investigation. NQ size cores were used for
testing. Core samples taken for testing were packed
and shipped to the Rock and Soil Mechanics
Laboratory of the General Directory of Mineral
Research and Exploration (MTA) for testing.
Examination of the cores revealed that the
studied sandstones were light to medium grey,
medium grained, fresh or slightly weathered, occa-
sionally laminated, moderately strong to strong
and with or without traces of coaly material. Dip
of bedding and lamination planes in the sandstones
is generally fiat and ranges between 10° and 35 °.
Joints in the rock sequence were generaly nearly
vertical. The values of total core recovery and
solid core recovery in the sandstones range between
12% and 100% and 0 and 100%, respectively. RQD
values vary between 0 and 100% yielding a mean
value of 83%. At the upper levels, alternations of
sandstone with conglomerate and siltstone occur
and occasionally siltstone is more abundant.
The presence of nearly vertical joints running
through the cores, alternations of different units
in the range of small intervals, and a reduction in
core size from NQ (47.6 ram) to BQ (36.5 mm) at
a certain depth limited the number of intact core
 01 234
- km
N I
EXPLANATIONS

Foul t

2
0
w

Flysch,
w Sandstuna
a Zongul
0 Limestone - BLACK SEA
i Conglo merotr

. _--...
. . .. . . .. Sandstone
. . . . . ._.
t

Schist,
====--_
Sandstone =s====
KIII =
LOWER Limestone -
CARBONIF EROUS, quartzitr
lumll
DEVONIAN

Fig. I Location of the sampled sandstones and simplified geological map of the Zonguldak hard coal region (After MTA, 1988).
 R. Ulusayet al./EngineeringGeology37 (1994) 135-157
samples suitable for standard laboratory test pro-
cedures. However, intact core samples were
selected on the basis of their varying strength,
which is indicated by visual differences in their
texture, composition and degree of weathering.
Sampling of sandstones was mainly carried out
between 30 and 650 m. All samples were coated
with a succession of layers of microcrystalline wax
using layers of muslin and were then transported
to the laboratory. Samples taken from different
rock units were numbered from top to bottom.
Before testing all specimens were cut and trimmed
to a length-to-diameter ratio of 2:1 for the tests
and were oven dried. The specimens were first
tested for index and strength properties. Then
fifteen specimens selected from the mechanically
tested specimens were examined by thin section.
Finally, petrographic characteristics and engineer-
ing properties of the sandstone specimens taken
from the same depth were correlated by statistical
analyses.
3. Methodology
3.1. Thin-section studies
Two thin sections, orientated perpendicular to
the core axis, were made from each of the fifteen
samples subjected to the uniaxial compression test.
The thin sections were examined under a petro-
graphic microscope for mean grain size, degree of
sorting, grain shape, sphericity, packing density,
packing proximity, type of grain contacts, number
of grain contacts and modal composition.
Following the method described by Hutchinson
(1974), one hundred randomly selected grains per
thin section were studied to determine the mean
grain size. The average of measurements along two
perpendicular axes passing through the center of
each grain provided the average size of the grains.
Determinations of the degree of sorting were based
on the visual classification chart developed by
Compton (1962). Ten random fields of view per
thin section were evaluated for this purpose.
The shapes of the grains, measured in terms of
roundness and sphericity, were quantified for 50
randomly selected grains per thin section. The
139
degree of roundness of clastic particles as shown
by the sharpness of their edges and comers has
been determined according to the comparison
chart developed by Powers (1953). The grain
sphericity showing the degree to which the shape
of a sedimentary particle approaches a sphere was
determined using Folk's (Folk, 1974) classifica-
tion system.
Packing density (measure of grain packing
arrangements), packing proximity (measure of the
spacing between grains), and degree of interlocking
(type of grain to grain contacts and the number
of contacts per grain) were determined along ten
traverses per thin section. Packing density and
packing proximity were quantified according to
Kahn's (1956) method (Fig. 2). The percentage of
four types of grain-to-grain contacts, such as point
(tangential), straight (long), concavo-convex and
sutured (Fig. 3) were determined according to
Blatt (1982). On the other hand, the number of
grain-to-grain, grain-to-void, grain-to-cement and
grain-to-matrix were also counted along the same
traverse lines.
Modal analyses were made on 150 randomly
selected points. The point-count method described
by Hutchinson (1974) was employed for the pur-
pose. Contents of quartz, feldspars, rock frag-
ments, heavy minerals, mica, calcite, matrix and
cement were distinguished for each thin section.
3.2. Engineering index and mechanieal properties
On the basis of the requirements of the construc-
tion finn, a total of four engineering index proper-
ties (dry unit weight, point load strength index,
effective porosity and quality index), and three
basic mechanical (strength) properties (uniaxial
compressive strength, Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio) of the rock units in the borehole
were determined.
The dry unitweight was determined by the
caliper method according to the ISRM (1981)
specification on prepared core samples. More than
one test was performed at each interval and their
mean values were evaluated.
The very importantly point load test is employed
in estimating the uniaxial compressive strength of
rock materials. A portable point load test machine
140 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157

Line of traverse

Summed lenglh o~ gnlms measured along traverse line

PDw (too)
~h of traversellne

Sum of gra|n to Fain contacts along Itavenle line

PPm: (1oo)
Total number of coMacts erar.ounlered along Iravenle

Fig. 2. Definitions of packing density and packing proximity proposed by Kahn (1956).

Point C. S t r a i g h t C. in rocks that have undergone internal deformation.

C o n c a v o - convex C. Sutured C.
Fig. 3. Types of grain contacts.
was used to test cylindirical core specimens in
accordance with the ISRM (1981) suggested
method.
Porosity is one of the most important factors
governing the accumulation, migration and distri-
bution of water in rocks. Total sandstone porosity
(comprising intergranular, intragranular, fracture
and solution porosity) is difficult to measure
because all pores are not totally interconnected.
The effective porosity of 25 core specimens was
determined using the saturation method suggested
by ISRM (1981).
Microfissures are small planar cracks common
They occur as intracrystalline and crystal bound-
ary cracks. The sonic velocity, as an index test,
together with a petrographic description evaluates
the degree of fissuring in an intact rock specimen,
because a network of fissures superimposes an
overriding effect.
Measurement of the velocity of sound waves in
a core specimen is relatively simple and equipment
is available for this purpose. Theoretically, the
velocity with which stress waves are transmitted
through rock depends exclusively upon elastic
properties and density (Goodman, 1989).
Fourmaintraux (1976) estimated the degree of
fissuring using a relationship between the quality
index, IQ, and porosity, n, where the quality index
is expressed as:
I Q ( % ) = (v,/v~*) × lOO
here, VI is the measured longitudinal wave velocity,
and //1" the calculated longitudinal wave velocity.
To assess the degree of fissuring of the intact
sandstones and to correlate the values of the IQ
index with petrographic and engineering proper-
ties, NQ (47.6 mm) size dry core specimens with a
length to diameter ratio of 2:1 were prepared from
core samples and sonic velocity tests were per-
formed using an ultrasonic pulse tester in accor-
 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157
dance with the ASTM test designation (ASTM,
1980).
In this study, NQ size specimens were prepared
from the cores and tested for uniaxial compressive
strength determinations under a 1500 ton capacity
loading frame in accordance with the recommenda-
tions of ISRM (1981). Load was applied perpen-
dicular to bedding planes. Static elastic properties,
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, were deter-
mined using a core deformation jig in accordance
with the procedure outlined by the manufacturer.
Secant modulus values determined for each speci-
men were used in this study.
4. Test results
4.1. General petrographic description
A summary of the results of the petrographical
analyses is given in Table 1. The modal analyses
revealed that the sandstones were principally com-
posed of rock fragments (18%-66%) with lesser
amounts of quartz (17%,38%). The contents
of feldspar (4.6%-20%), mica (0-13.5%), calcite
(0-6%), and cement (0-10%) were broadly of
minor importance. The total matrix content of the
sandstones averaged 10.7% and the cement content
averaged 1.2% (Table 1). In all samples the
amount of matrix exceeded that of the cement and
in the majority of the samples no cement material
was recorded. The types of matrix recognized was
clay and mica minerals, whilst cement was
carbonate. The majority of the sandstones studied
were classified as litharenites and the rest as
feldspathic litharenites according to Folk's (1974)
classification.
Mean grain size ranges from 0.115 to 0.750 mm,
but out of fifteen samples nine samples have grain
size falling between 0.25 and 0.50 ram. This indi-
cates that the majority of the samples are in the
medium sand range. Most of the sandstones are
moderately sorted with two samples exhibiting well
sorted values. However, due to their variation in
grain size, three sandstone samples mainly com-
posed of coarser grains show poor sorting.
More than 75% of the grains are angular in
shape. Sphericity varies from elongate to sub-
141
Fig. 4. Photomicrographof thin sectionobtainedfromsample
No. 50 showing straight contacts (Q: quatrz, RFG: rock
fragment; C: calcite:magnification × 156).
equant. High values of packing density and pack-
ing proximity, and low contents of matrix and
cement indicate that grains are tightly packed.
Straight contacts (Fig. 4) are the most abundant
type of contact in these sandstones with a mean
value of 42.4%. However, they do not exhibit a
distinct tendency to increase in frequency with
depth. Concave-convex contacts are the next most
frequent with a mean value of 27.4%. The mean
values for sutured and point contacts are 18.3%
and 12%, respectively. The latter type is the least
common. These results show similarities with those
obtained from the Fell Sandstones studied by Bell
(1978a). Sutured contacts are indicative of grains
which have undergone stress attributable to appre-
ciable burial, while straight, point and concave-
convex contacts represent intermediate stages
(Bell, 1978b). Thus, the sandstones investigated in
this study probably represent the intermediate
stage. Analysis of the number of contacts per grain
indicates that grain to grain contacts with a mean
value of 76.7% are the most abundant and indivi-
dual grains are most frequently surrounded by
others.
4.2. Engineering properties
A summary of the engineering properties of
fifteen specimens petrographically analysed and all
test results from mechanically tested specimens
based on descriptive statistics is provided in Tables
142 R. Ulusayet al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157

Table 1
Measured petrographic data for fifteen sandstone specimens

Sample Depth Grain Sorting* Grain shape (%) Sphericity Packing Packing Type of contacts (%)
No. (m) size (Phi units) density proximity
(ram) (%) (%)
Round Angular Point Straight Concave/ Sutured
Convex

4 30 0,312 0.58 (MS) 21.6 78.4 0.70 84.9 68.1 10.0 50.0 26.7 13.3
8 45 0.362 0.69 (MS) 16.9 83.1 0.60 93.9 75.8 7.9 43.2 35.2 13.7
10 50 0,297 0.61 (MS) 15.0 85.0 0.64 96.2 81.2 7.1 50.4 24.3 18.2
15 58 0.625 1.00 (PS) 25.2 74.8 0.62 90.1 79.3 13.3 33.3 35.6 17.8
24 149 0.715 1.20 (PS) 21.1 78.9 0.63 88.9 80.0 17.8 40.4 25.2 16.6
26 187 0.115 0.46 (WS) 16.7 83.3 0.67 86.1 64.0 10.1 36.6 37.3 19.0
36 287 0.352 0.60 (MS) 8.0 92.0 0.60 97.1 85.0 4.8 38.1 33.3 24.0
40 297 0.259 0.63 (MS) 17.7 83.3 0,59 95.5 85.5 5.6 44.4 30.6 19.4
45 329 0.173 0.60 (MS) 15.4 84.6 0.58 84.9 67.1 21.2 45.7 20.1 13.0
46 332 0.650 1.10 (PS) 14.1 85.9 0.68 96.7 82.7 16.2 42.6 23.3 17.9
47 364 0.171 0.7 (PS) 12.4 87.6 0.60 86.8 66.0 16.0 40.0 24.0 20.0
50 405 0.352 0.48 (WS) 12.6 87.4 0.67 97.8 87.0 7.5 42.5 22.0 28.0
53 411 0.264 0.40 (WS) 25.1 74.9 0.69 92.3 70.8 13.8 48.1 20.8 17.3
54 417 0.294 0.54 (MS) 12.3 87.7 0.65 96.9 83.7 16.6 38.5 20.8 24.1
100 500 0.261 0.62 (MS) 13.4 86.6 0.66 91.7 80.1 13.1 42.7 32.1 12.1

Arithmetic mean 0,347 0.68 16.5 83.5 0.64 92.0 77,0 12.0 42.4 27.4 18.3

Standard 0.18 0.23 4.9 4.9 0.04 4.7 7.8 4.9 4.9 6.0 4.5
deviation

Sample Number of contacts per qrain (%) Modal composition (%)

no,
Grain to Grain to Grain to Grain to Quartz Feldspar Rock Heavy Mica Calcite Matrix Cement
grain cement void matrix fragments minerals

4 67.5 17.5 5.0 10.0 31.7 6.5 34.2 0.0 2.0 3.0 12.5 10.1
8 74.5 7.5 2.1 15.9 27.0 5.0 51.2 1.0 1.9 1.3 10.6 2.0
10 79.0 12.3 1.9 6.8 38.4 11.1 34.3 0.0 3,0 4.0 6.1 3.1
15 79.2 1.0 3.6 16.2 25.0 10.1 54.5 0.0 0.6 1.0 8.8 0.0
24 80.8 0.0 12.0 7.2 27.1 5.8 66.0 0.0 0,0 0.4 0.7 0.0
26 63.4 0.0 1.1 35.5 16.7 20.3 17.8 3.1 13.5 0.0 28.6 0.0
36 85.2 0.8 1.6 12.4 38.1 9.6 36.8 0,3 1.5 2.1 10.6 1.0
40 85.4 0.0 2.4 12,2 34.1 15.0 34.0 1,3 3.3 1.1 11.2 0.0
45 66.5 0.0 1.2 33.5 32.7 9.3 32.3 1,2 7.3 0.0 17.2 0.0
46 83.1 0.0 1.9 15,0 27.3 11.4 52.3 0.0 2.3 0.7 6.0 0.0
47 64.7 0.0 2.5 32.8 33.3 11.1 27.3 0.7 7.2 0.0 20.4 0.0
50 86.0 0.0 1.5 12.5 34.3 4.6 46.2 0.0 1.5 5.9 7.5 0.0
53 70.4 0.0 3.1 26.5 33.0 4.6 49.6 0.4 2.2 2.5 7.7 0.0
54 84.0 0.0 1.8 14.2 31.2 5.2 50.1 0.0 1.0 5.2 7.3 0.0
100 80.8 5.0 4.0 10.2 26.7 14.1 46.1 0.0 3.0 3.1 5.0 2.0

Arithmetic 76.7 2.94 3.0 17.4 30.4 9.6 42.2 0.5 3.4 2.0 10.7 1.2
mean

Standard 8.1 5.4 2.7 9.7 5.6 4.5 12.5 0.8 3.5 1.9 6.9 2.6
deviation

*PS: Poorly sorted; MS: Moderately sorted; WS: Well sorted.

 K Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157 143

2a and 2b, respectively. As can be seen from these
tables, mean values obtained from fifteen speci-
mens and those from all specimens are very similar
for the seven engineering properties investigated.
Considering all test results it is evident that the
values of dry unit weight, ranging between 24.5
kN/m a and 26.4 kN/m 3, do not show a wide
scatter. The correlation coefficient between dry
unit weight and depth is 0.48, and it indicates that
the relationship may not be considered as signifi-
cant. The sandstones investigated are low porosity
rocks. The effective porosity does not appear to
show any significant correlation ( r = - 0 . 1 8 ) with
depth. The point load strength index with a mean
value of 3.3 MPa indicates that the majority of
the specimens tested may be considered as moder-
ately strong rock (Broch and Franklin, 1972).
There is a probably significant positive relationship

Table 2a
Measured engineering properties of fifteen sandstone specimens used in thin section studies

Sample Dry unit Effective Point load Quality index Uniaxial compressive Young's Poisson's ratio
No. weight porosity strength strength modulus
(kN/m 3) (%) (MPa) (%) (MPa) (GPa)

4 25.5 2.45 2.8 64.1 68.6 7.1 0.24

8 24.6 4.24 3.5 57.8 62.9
10 25.1 3.29 3.6 59.2 75.0 8.3 0.2
15 25.3 2.78 2.3 58.7 60.0
24 25.1 4.89 2.2 51.3 68.0 9.0 0.21
26 26.0 2.50 3.3 66.4 69.4
36 25.4 2.52 3.6 60.8 84.0 9.1 0.2
40 25.4 2.52 3.7 62.6 63.5
45 25.0 2.40 2.7 67.6 59.2 6.5 0.24
46 24.8 3.86 3.3 63.5 71.1
47 26.1 3.50 4.0 62.0 76.8
50 25.3 2.97 3.6 54.9 96.0
53 25.7 2.65 2.6 58.0 55.0 7.0 0.23
54 25.4 2.65 3.4 52.4 86.0 7.8 0.22
100 25.6 3.80 2.5 61.0 65.6

Arithmetic 25.4 3.13 3.1 60.0 70.7 7.8 0.22

mean

Standard 0.4 0.76 0.57 4.7 11.2 1.0 0.02

deviation

Table 2b
Summary of statistical evaluation of engineering properties (all specimens)

Engineering index properties Mechanical properties

Dry unit Effective Point load Quality index Uniaxial compressive Young's Poisson's
weight porosity strength (%) strength modulus ratio
(kN/m 3) (%) (MPa) (Mpa) (GPa)

Mean 25.3 3.2 3.3 59.8 78.5 7.8 0.22

Standard deviation 0.4 0.8 1.2 4.6 20.0 1.0 0.02
Range 24.5-26.4 1.2-4.9 1-7 48.6-69.0 30.9-118.4 6.5-9.1 0.2-0.24
(No. of samples) (70) (25) (544) (52) (70) (7) (7)
144 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157
between the point load strength index and depth
(r=0.6).
No significant relationship between the quality
index and depth was apparent. The values of the
quality index (IQ) range between 50.3% and 69%.
Fourmaintraux (1976) estimated the degree of
fissuring between the quality index and porosity.
Plotting these two parameters on the classification
scheme (Fig. 5) as a basis for describing the degree
of fissuring of the rock specimens, it may be stated
that the sandstones are classified in terms of fissur-
ing as class III, moderately to strongly fissured
rocks.
The sandstones were classified according to the
strength classification system for rock substance
proposed by Deere and Miller (1966). Eighty one
percent of these sandstones were medium strength,
15% high strength and the remaining 4% low
strength rocks. Based on the values of both
Young's modulus and uniaxial compressive
strength, it can be stated that the sandstones fall
into class L, low modulus ratio according to the
lOO\,,,,
9O"
\ \
L\
"%,..
10
Fig. 5. Classification scheme for fissuring in rock specimens (After Fourmaintraux, 1976) and distribution of data points representing
the Kozlu sandstones.
Unified Classification System of Deere and Miller
(1966).
5. Statistical analysis of test data
The large quantity of data required computer-
ized statistical analysis to determine any meaning-
ful correlations between the variables and to
establish relevant predictive models. In this study,
the statistical analyses performed include: (1)
descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation,
etc. of each variable), (2) linear and nonlinear
regression analyses between all variables, and (3)
multivariant analyses between selected variables.
Bivariant correlation provides a means of sum-
marizing the relationship between two variables.
Linear regression is the most common statistical
procedure for fitting a straight line to a set of
experimental data and is based on least-square
curve fitting. In addition to linear regression analy-
sis, nonlinear (Y=axb); and logarithmic (Y=
,.. , , , , , , .,, I
Z', oo
I
20 30 40 50 60
n,%
 R. Ulusayet al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157 145

a + lnx), relationships between variables were also level, Ho hypotheses were tested (F test); i.e., that
investigated. the correlation coefficient (r) is not significantly
Multivariate analyses comprised a variety of different from zero (no correlation).
techniques including factor, multiple and stepwise-
multiple regressions, principal component, cluster 5.1. Influence of petrographic characteristics on
and correlation analysis. In this study, multiple engineering properties
regression and stepwise multiple regression analy-
ses were performed to derive an equation that can Correlations
be used to predict values of the dependent variable Seventeen petrographic characteristics of the
from several independent variables, and to deter- sandstones were correlated with seven engineering
mine a subset of predictor variables selected properties using regression analysis (Table3).
sequentially from a group of predictor by means Because the amount of feldspar, mica, calcite,
of statistical testing of hypotheses, respectively. heavy minerals, cement, and grain-to-cement con-
The statistical runs, including F-tests, were made tacts in these sandstones, when present, was small,
using a computer package Statgraph (STSC, Inc., they were not involved in the correlations. Based
1991) which provides an integrated series of data on the analyses, among the four functions tested
handling and statistical evaluation methods both linear and power curve relations were fitted
applicable to large data files. Use of correlation to the experimental data with higher correlations
coefficients requires testing the significance of the than the other relations. However, the fitting of
statistical estimators before drawing inferences. linear relations yielded correlation coefficients
For degrees of freedom, v = n - 2 at 95% confidence higher than those of power curves. Therefore, only

Table 3
L i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n , w i t h significance levels, b e t w e e n p e t r o g r a p h i c a l characteristics a n d e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f the K o z l u s a n d s t o n e *

Petrographic C o r r e l a t i o n coefficient (r)

characteristics
Index properties Mechanical properties

UW PL IQ POR UCS EMOD POISS

M e a n g r a i n size - 0.54 a - 0.42 - 0.47 0.56 a - 0.04 0.70 a - 0.43

D e g r e e o f sorting - 0.44 - 0.35 - 0.22 0.65 a - 0.18 0.57 - 0.33
R o u n d grains 0 - 0.68 a - 0.08 0 - 0.71 a - 0.42 0.52
A n g u l a r grains 0 0.69 a 0.09 - 0.01 0.70 a 0.42 - 0.52
Sphericity 0.22 -0.23 -0.09 -0.05 0.12 -0.26 0.31
P a c k i n g density - 0.38 0.43 - 0.47 - 0.08 0.49 0.57 - 0.77 a
Packing proximity -0.43 0.16 -0.55 a 0.18 0.46 0.86 a -0.90 a
Point contacts -0.02 -0.50 -0.01 0.22 -0.28 -0.47 0.56
Straight contacts -0.21 0.03 0.17 -0.04 -0.20 -0.57 0.40
C o n c a v e - c o n v e x C. -0.08 0 0.22 0.03 -0.22 0.68 -0.54
Sutured contacts 0.20 0.55 ~ - 0.40 - 0.27 0.82 a 0.60 - 0.66
Grain-to-grain - 0.42 0.10 - 0.55 a 0.19 0.43 0.87 ~ - 0.86 a
Grain-to-void - 0.07 - 0.61 a - 0.47 0.59 a - 0.21 0.39 - 0.09
Grain-to-matrix 0.45 0.10 0.53 a - 0.34 - 0.26 - 0.75" 0.64
Percent quartz -0.12 0.37 -0.14 -0.22 0.34 0.14 -0.44
Rock fragment - 0.54 a - 0.52" - 0.74 ~ 0.5g ~ - 0.08 0.39 - 0.20
Total percent matrix 0.53 ~ 0.35 0.68 a -0.48 -0.07 -0.67 0.61

a Statistically significant a t P = 0 . 0 5 level (at 95% confidence level).

* U W : unit weight; PL: p o i n t l o a d s t r e n g t h index; IQ: quality index; P O R : effective porosity; U C S : uniaxial c o m p r e s s i v e strength;
E M O D : Y o u n g ' s m o d u l u s ; POISS: P o i s s o n ' s ratio.
146 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157
linear correlations were considered for further
statistics.
Based on the F-tests, among the petrographic
characteristics, mean grain size, grain shape, pack-
ing proximity, sutured contacts, grain-to-grain
contacts, grain-to-matrix, rock fragments and total
percent matrix exhibit statistically significant corre-
lations with some engineering properties at the
95% confidence level (Table 3). The others are
possibly and weakly related with the engineering
properties.
Petrographic properties which appear to show
statistically significant correlation with uniaxial
compressive strength, include percent round and
angular grains, and percent sutured contacts
(Fig. 6). Strength is inversely related to percent
round grains ( r = - 0 . 7 1 ) . In contrast to the
findings of Gunsallus and Kulhawy (1984), and
Shakoor and Bonelli (1991), quartz shows a weak
positive correlation with strength. Probably the
interlocking of quartz grains is more important
for the Kozlu sandstone samples than for the rocks
studied by these investigators. On the other hand,
their sandstones were rich in quartz. Sandstones
with many sutured contacts show a highly signifi-
cant positive correlation, because these contacts
increase the shearing resistance at grain bound-
aries. Similar to the findings of Shakoor and
Bonelli (1991 ), sandstones with a high percentage
1e4
~a=j§ ' I ' ' ~ I ' ' ~
'A,¢oef. let.
lint.
L
b--prediction
94
l r=0.82 b ' ""
~ 84
0
¢1
• "c;"
~74
,' 13 , "
64
S4
.1.2 .1.6 28
Sutured ¢ontocts(%)
Fig. 6. Relationship between percent sutured contacts and
uniaxial compressive strength (at).
of point, straight and concave--convex, grain-to-
void, and grain-to-matrix contacts, which exhibit
inverse relationship with strength, are weak and
provide little resistance at grain boundaries during
propagation of failure. The Kozlu sandstones tend
to show an increase in strength with increasing
packing measures (Table 3), as noted by Bell
(1978a) for the Fell Sandstones. Higher correla-
tions for packing measures were obtained than
those obtained by Shakoor and Bonelli (1991).
Grain size in relation to strength is not significant
as far as the studied sandstones are concerned.
The petrographic characteristics that most affect
Young's modulus are grain size, packing proxim-
ity, percent grain-to-grain contacts (Fig. 7a,b) and
grain-to-matrix contacts. As expected, when the
first three parameters increase, Young's modulus
increases. An increase in grain-to-matrix contacts
causes a decrease in stiffness and, thus, inversely
correlates with the Young's modulus ( r = - 0 . 7 5 ) .
The general tendency of the relationships between
Young's modulus and other types of contacts are
similar to those of strength. Young's modulus does
not exhibit a statistically significant correlation
with percent matrix (r--- -0.67), however, it shows
a decrease with an increase in matrix.
In contrast to Shakoor and Bonelli's findings
(1991), Poisson's ratio shows better correlations
with most of the petrographic characteristics. It
should be noted that Poisson's ratio is a property
which takes into account strains in two perpendicu-
lar directions. Shakoor and Bonelli (1991), in their
petrographic studies, employed thin sections cut
a perpendicular to the bedding planes. On the con-
trary, in this study, thin sections are nearly parallel
to the fiat lying bedding planes, or parallel to the
o °
lateral strain direction, were studied. Therefore, it
a"
is possible that petrographic characteristics parallel
to the direction of lateral strain might show a
.'
better correlation with Poisson's ratio. As ex-
pected, statistically significant inverse correlations
were found to exist for packing density, packing
proximity (Fig. 8) and grain-to-grain contacts
versus Poisson's ratio.
24 28 Most of the petrographic characteristics of the
studied sandstones are only weakly related to unit
weight, probably due to the range in unit weight
being limited (Table 3). However, grain size, rock
 1L Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157 147

.a-
e.24 ]~,l I ',' I I ',I''I''L

9.8 ' ' ! ' ' 1 .....

J ....... ~' ! ' ' ; ' ' 1.'.'. . . . . . Lj
r : 0 . 8 6 r , " • " " :~
9 ,"" D .'" D4 ~ e.23
8.5 Y ?~1 9
e.a2
•" .y
a.
8 .... "" / -.i ....... ::,.~
v

m L ,'/ .C ..............
~0.21
?.B
L

? /~
0
/

. . . . . .
B~Pr~
. . . . . . .-."'":
8.2
r:- 0.9
],,l,,li
"',
IJ~l , ~ii~
6.5 ~t h I ~ ,i,, I .;'[, ,I ,i ° 6? ?8 ?3 ?6 ?9 82 85
8? ?e ?3 ?8 ?9 82 85
Packing proximity (%) Fig. 8. Relationshipbetweenpacking proximity and Poisson's
ratio (v).
-b-

9.5 between the first three properties and point load

index are similar to those between uniaxial com-
9 pressive strength and these. As expected, as the
percent grain-to-void contacts increase, because
8.K they are weak contacts, it leads to a decrease in
~d tensile strength, in other words the point load
/ " ° -
G.
o a strength index decreases (r= -0.54).
Iii There is a tendency for effective porosity to
?.E increase with mean grain size. Table 3 shows that
the relationship between the two is statistically
significant. The relationship with sorting was some-
what higher (r=0.65), attaining the 95% confi-
i . / .... ........
6.6 dence level. This implies that an increase in the
degree of sorting is mirrored by an increase in
68 "re "74 "re 82 88
porosity. This relation of grain size to porosity
Grain to grain contacts(%)
also is usually found in petrographic studies of
Fig. 7. Relationship between Young's modulus (E) and packing detrital rocks (Brown, 1993). As expected, among
proximity (a); Young's modulus and percent grain to grain the types of contact, percent grain-to-void contacts
contacts (b). exhibit a significant positive correlation with
porosity (r= 0.59). It is also noted that an increase
fragment and percent matrix, which exhibit statis- in percent rock fragment results in an increase in
tically significant correlations with unit weight at porosity (r = 0.59). The inverse correlation between
95% confidence level, may be used to obtain a porosity, and both packing density and packing
preliminary indication of unit weight. proximity is not significant as expected. This could
The petrographic properties that exhibit statis- possibly be explained by the fact that these two
tically significant correlations with point load parameters take account of the grain arrangement
strength index are percent round and angular without referring to material occupying interstitial
grains, sutured contacts, grain-to-void contacts voids. The amount of matrix material has an
and percent rock fragment (Table 3). The relations inverse influence on porosity, in other words when
148 R. Ulusayet al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157

the a m o u n t o f matrix increases, the porosity Table 4

Empirical equations for predicting engineering index and
decreases. mechanical properties from petrographical characteristics a
Petrographic characteristics which a p p e a r to
show statistically significant inverse correlation Relationship Prediction equation Correlation
with the quality index include percent grain-to- coefficient
(r)*
grain, rock fragment and packing proximity. In
addition, the a m o u n t o f matrix and percent grain- UNIT WEIGHT (y):
to-matrix are the other petrographic characteristics Mean grain size (x) y=25.77-1.21x -0.54
exhibiting a significant positive relationship with Rock fragment (x) y=26.08-0.017x -0.54
quality index (Table 3). An increase in the latter Percent matrix (x) y = 25.03 + 0.03x 0.53
POINT LOAD INDEX (y):
two properties m a y cause a reduction in pores, Round grains (x) y=4.43-0.78x -0.68
i.e., velocity increases, and thus as expected, the Angular grains (x) y = 3.55 + 0.08x 0.69
quality index increases. In spite of very weak Sutured contacts (x) y= 1.87+0.07x 0.55
correlations between quartz content and IQ index, Grain to void (x) y=3.53-0.13x -0.61
Rock fragment (x) y=4.14-0.02x -0.52
it is noted that there m a y be an inverse relationship
QUALITY INDEX (y):
between the two as mentioned by R a m a n a and Packing proximity (x) y=85.48-0.33x -0.55
V e n k a t a r a y a n a (1973), who observed a decrease Grain to grain (x) y=84.37-O.32x -0.55
in velocity with increasing quartz content. As Grain to matrix (x) y=55.57+0.25x 0.53
Rock fragment (x) y=71.82-0.28x -0.74
expected, percent grain-to-void contacts is
Percent matrix (x) y = 55.06 + 0.46x 0.68
inversely related to the IQ index. POROSITY (y):
Using linear regression lines between these vari- Mean grain size (x) y=2.31 +2.38x 0.56
ables empirical equations were developed to pre- Degree of sorting (x) y = 1.67 + 2.15x 0.65
dict engineering index and mechanical properties Grain to void (x) y=2.62+0.17x 0.59
Rock fragment (x) y= 1.61 +0.04x 0.59
of sandstones f r o m petrographic characteristics, UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (y):
which are statistically significant at 95% confidence Round grains (x) y=97.17- 1.6x -0.71
level as indicated in Table 3. These equations are Angular grains (x) y = 61.96 + 1.59x 0.70
presented in Table 4. Sutured contacts (x) y = 33.37 + 2.04x 0.82
YOUNG'S MODULUS (y):
Mean grain size (x) y = 6.4 + 4.13x 0.70
Packing proximity (x) y = - 0.98 + 0.11x 0.86
5.2. The development o f estimating models using Grain to grain (x) y= -0.71 +0.11x 0.87
multiple regression Grain to matrix (x) y =9.0-0.74x -0.75
POISSON'S RATIO (y):
Packing density (x) y = 0.44- 0.0024x - 0.77
The statistical m e t h o d introduced in the previous Packing proximity (x) y=0.375-0.002x -0.90
section was employed to analyze univariate obser- Grain to grain (x) y=0.364-0.002x -0.86
vations, each consisting o f a single number. W h e n
an observational unit is characterized by several aUnit weight (kN/m3), point load strength index (MPa),
quality index (%), porosity (%), uniaxial compressive strength
variables, multivariate methods such as multiple (MPa), Young's Modulus (GPa), mean grain size (mm), all
regression allow consideration of changes in sev- petrographic characteristics given as independent variables are
eral properties simultaneously (Davis, 1973). Use in percent.
of multivariate m e t h o d s is very i m p o r t a n t in reduc- *Statistically significant at P=0.05 level based on F-test
statistics.
ing the n u m b e r o f measured variables considered
to be independent sources o f information to only
a few variables that adequately explain the varia-
tion in parameters studied. Multiple regression regression, the equation is o f the general form:
analysis is used to derive an equation that can be
y' = c + btx~ + b2x2 -Jr...b,x,
used to predict values o f a dependent variable
from several independent variables. In multiple where y' is the dependent variable, c is a constant,
 R. Ulusayet al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157
xl to xn are variables, and bl to bn are partial
regression coefficients for xl to xn.
A model is required as a predictive tool for the
assessment of engineering properties of the studied
sandstones from significant petrographic proper-
ties which can be commonly determined during
routine thin section studies. For this purpose,
petrographic characteristics exhibiting statistically
significant correlations with engineering properties
at 95% confidence level were selected from Table 3.
Using these characteristics, the multiple regression
routines yielded prediction coefficients and regres-
sion statistics, presented in Table 5, for each of the
engineering properties.
In order to determine the overall significance of
the regression tests, the F-test was also performed.
The coefficient of multiple determination, R 2, pro-
vides an overall measure of the adequacy of the
equation to predict. If the line is a good estimator
of the data, this coefficient will be near unity. The
importance of the individual independent variables
was evaluated by examining the sample partial
regression coefficients associated with each. In
addition, predicted values of engineering properties
were compared to actual measured values. For this
purpose the measured variables were substituted
in the equations given in Table 5 to predict engi-
neering properties (Fig. 9).
Based on the probabilities of T-ratios and
F-values, Table 5 indicates that unit weight has
only one significant predictor which is the regres-
sion constant. The R 2 values calculated indicate
that the regression is not significant (R2=0.34,
R2(adj)=0.16). The margin of error as indicated
by the distance of data from the 1:1 line is rather
large (Fig. 9a). Therefore, the prediction equation
can be used to obtain rough estimates of unit
weight. The point load strength index has no
significant predictor. The distribution of plots
(Fig. 9b) also confirms this consideration and the
prediction equation may probably be used as a
rough estimator for the point load index. The
regression constant and coefficient for percent rock
fragment are significant to regression in the case
of quality index. Porosity could be predicted by
the coefficient for degree of sorting and regression
coefficient. Uniaxial compressive strength has one
predictor, sutured contacts. The R 2 values calcu-
149
lated (0.85) and distribution of the plots shown in
Fig. 9e indicate that the regression is significant
(R2(adj) = 0.81 ). For Young's modulus the regres-
sion is not strongly significant. However, the
regression constant and probably the coefficient
for packing proximity are the predictors of
Poisson's ratio.
5.3. Stepwise multiple regression
In this study, to reduce further the required
number of measured variables and to analyze and
remove collinearity that might exist between the
variables, another multivariate technique, stepwise
multiple regression, was applied to predict engi-
neering properties on the basis of petrographical
characteristics. This regression analysis usually
furnishes indications that suggest further inves-
tigations. One dependent variable and a set of
independent variables are selected. The indepen-
dent variables may be observed or may be derived
by transformations. The regression is then carried
out in an iterative fashion (Koch and Link, 1971).
The results of the stepwise multiple regression
analyses performed for each engineering property
are tabulated in Table 6. In the first step, six of
the seventeen variables predicted unit weight with
R 2 =0.85. Unit weight may be predicted with R2=
0.42 using mean grain size and percent straight
contacts (Table 6a). However, the reduction from
six to two variables is significant and there is a
major reduction in effort to predict unit weight
with approximately the same accuracy. For point
load strength index, reduction from six to two
variables indicate a decrease of 0.22 in R z
(Table 6b).
When quality index was regressed versus mean
grain size, sutured contacts and percent rock frag-
ment, R 2 was 0.88. The analysis showed that these
three variables were good predictors of the quality
index. On the other hand, two variables, sutured
contacts and percent rock fragment, could predict
the quality index with R z 0.74. Reduction from
three to two variables yields only a small loss in
predictive capability. A similar assessment may
also be considered for effective porosity
(Table 6d).
Stepwise multiple regression performed for uni-
150 R. Ulusayet al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157

Table 5
Summary of multiple regression statistics for engineering properties

Predictor Coefficient SD T-ratio a Probability Predictor Coefficient SD T-ratio a Probability

(1) Unit weight Degree of 3.281 1.533 2.139 0.0581

Constant 25.507 0.887 28.73 0.0 sorting
Mean -0.700 0.937 -0.7473 0.4706 Grain to 0.0495 0.073 0.674 0.5153
grain size void
Rock -0.0018 0.0185 -0.0984 0.9234 Rock 0.0424 0.023 1.805 0.1012
fragment fragment
Percent 0.0155 0.02633 -0.5909 0.5665
matrix F-value = 4.14; bprobability = 0.0312; R 2 = 0.62; R 2(adj) = 0.47

F-value = 1.899; Probability = 0.1882; R 2 = 0.34; R 2(adj) = 0.16 (5) Uniaxial compressive strength
Constant 913.47 505.44 1.807 0.0981
(2) Point load strength index Round - 9.478 5.038 - 1.881 0.0867
Constant -45.612 39.623 - 1.151 0,2793 grains
Round 0.4478 0.392 1.1398 0.2838 Angular -8.57 5.062 -1.693 0.1185
grains grains
Angular 0.4938 0.396 1.2457 0.2443 Sutured 1.631 0.325 5.021 0.0040
grains contacts
Sutured 0.0363 0.0256 1.4183 0.1898
contacts F-value=21.18; bprobability=0.0001; R2=0.85; R2(adj)=
Grain to -0.0435 0.048 -0.9016 0.3908 0.81
void
Rock -0.0103 0.010 - 1.0277 0.3309 (6) Young's modulus
fragments Constant 0.0826 3.600 0.0229 0.9838
Mean 2.7224 2.125 1.2810 0 3286
F-value=4.868; bProbability=0.0196; R2=0.73; R2(adj)= grain size
0.58 Packing 0.1968 0.330 0.5964 0.6114
proximity
(3) Ounlity index Grain to -0.1073 0.315 -0.3406 0.7659
Constant 88.855 20.799 4.272 0.0021 grain
Packing - 1.666 1.370 - 1.215 0.2550 Grain to - 0.0050 0.036 - 0.1369 0.9036
proximity matrix
Grain to 1.496 1.320 1.133 0.2865
grain F-value=5.41; Probability=0.162; R2=0.915; Re(adj)=0.75
Grain to 0.05 0.204 0.245 0.8114
matrix (7) Poissan's ratio
Rock -0.335 0.170 1.973 0.0799 Constant 0.3540 0.0700 5.062 0.015
fragment Packing 0.0007 0.0014 0.542 0.625
Percent -0.179 0.427 -0.419 0.6847 density
matrix Packing - 0.008 0.0049 - 1.656 0.196
proximity
F-value = 3.24; Probability = 0.0599; R 2---0.64; R 2(adj) = 0.44 Grain to 0.0054 0.0043 1.270 0.293
grain
(4) Porosity
Constant 0.4263 0.888 0.480 0.6414 F-value = 6.9; Probability = 0.073; R 2 = 0.87; R 2 (adj) = 0.75
Mean -4.223 2.617 - 1.614 0.1377
grain size

aLarge T-ratio implies small probability; probabilities of greater than 0.05 imply possible deletion of variable.
bBecause probability of F-value is less than 0.05 significance level, Ho is rejected in favour of H1 that regression is significant.
 a. 7 - K N / m 3 b./Ss0-MPa c. I Q - % d. n - %

"" :~//~,. t.-.~ ,~ / -- - -

° ....... :

.... I.l ;t.,e

fyo~ .
l
14 14.4 14.e ILl ILl II ie.4 i.I. I1,1 I.| 3.| 3,1 4.~ sl s4 s? se s3 se so |.| |.T |.| a.'l 4.| 4. T |.|
predJct.md prmclJ.ctld pr,,dictld prledic:tld
e. O c - M P a • S -GPa g.v
i T I I I I I I'i I I'l I [ f f f f [I
1o4 J !U'I!'.!.'I!'!'I""['"'! '"'

i o
e.m -.j

0.4
1] 10
II i
L~
L "r.o L &
I
8
oi i !
II
II
n
0 ?.4
i
J
,,O
0
2
0.0

o.4
,,,,i,,,il,i',lL,t,I .... I,,,, fill

So4 O.I 7.4 1.S 0.4 0.0 S,4 e.a e.21 e.u e.~ o.14

pridJ.ctld prmd£c=tmd

Fig. 9. Predicted versus observed values of engineering properties for estimating model.
152 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157

Table 6
S u m m a r y o f stepwise multiple regression statistics to e s t i m a t e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s f r o m p e t r o g r a p h i c a l characteristics

Step

1 2 3 4 5

(a) Unit weight

Constant 22.267 24.332 23.944 24.95 27.148
G r a i n size -3.764 -2.393 -2.533 - 1.575 - 1.42
T-ratio - 4.360 - 5.160 - 2.420 - 3.400 - 2.79
Sorting 1.242 0.821
T-ratio 1.81 a 1.02 ~
Sphericity 8.23 5.694 5.351 4.2
T-ratio 3.76 3.02 2.23 1.98 a
Straight c o n t a c t s - 0.073 - 0.066 - 0.039 - 0.04 - 0.03
T-ratio - 4.410 - 3.660 - 2.260 - 2.31 - 1.63 ~
Grain-to-void 0.072 0.082
T-ratio 2.65 2.78
Percent quartz 0.039 0.025
T-ratio 2.54 1.69 ~
R2 0.85 0.78 0.61 0.57 0.42

(b) Point load strength index

Constant - 10.90 - 7.757 - 6.445 - 2.211 - 2.298
A n g u l a r grains 0.024 0.026 0.042 0.067 0.071
T-ratio 1.18 a 1.25 a 1.84 a 3.36 3.38
P a c k i n g density 0.106 0.077 0.063
T-ratio 3.19 3.11 1.88 ~
Point contacts - 0.02 - 0.044 - 0.044
T-ratio - 0.90 ~ - 2.210 - 2.09 a
Grain-to-voids 0.065
T- ratio 1.27 a
Percent quartz 0.034 0.028
T-ratio 2.08 a 1.75 ~
Percent m a t r i x 0.088 0.063 0.049 0.022
T- ratio 3.510 3.940 2.570 1.58 a
R2 0.84 0.81 0.77 0.69 0.62

(c) Quality index

Constant 65.091 80.76 83.453 82.096 80.31
G r a i n size 15.308 16.05 15.054 10.956
T-ratio 3.25 3.15 2.95 1.78 a
Sutured contacts -0.707 -0.561 -0.582 -0.462 -0.45
T-ratio -4.950 -4.62 -4.78 -3.21 -2.88
Grain-to-grain 0.233
T-ratio 1.63 ~
Grain-to-void - 0.451 - 0.659 - 0.697
T-ratio - 1.71 a -2.620 -2.75
Grain-to-matrix 0.197 0.072
T-ratio 2.05 a 1.13 a
Rock fragment -0.411 -0.362 -0.376 -0.413 -0.285
T-ratio - 5.71 - 5.080 - 5.3 -4.67 - 5.1
R2 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.79 0.74

(d) Porosity
Constant 7.906 4.88 4.451 2.408 2.183
G r a i n size -4.718 -4.83 -4.089 -3.15
T-ratio - 1.75 a - 1.77 a - 1.66 a - 1.28 a
 R. Ulusay e t al. ~Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157 153

Table 6 (continued)

Step

1 2 3 4 5

Sorting 4.233 4.129 3.537 3.554 1.816

T-ratio 2.48 2.40 2.38 2.30 2.42
Point contacts -0.048 0.027
T-ratio - 1.17 ~ - 0.74"
Percent matrix - 0.117 - 0.091 - 0.085 - 0.056 - 0.026
T-ratio - 2.5 - 2.25 - 2.19 - 1.66 a - 1.05 a
Grain-to-grain - 0.035
T-ratio - 1.08 ~
Percent quartz - 0.05 - 0.052 - 0.046
T-ratio - 1.44 ~ - 1.48" - 1.38 a
R2 0.69 0.64 0.62 0.55 0.48

(e) Uniaxial compressive strength

Constant 142.94 135.0 134.27 62.82 57.89
Packing proximity - 1.003 - 0.984 - 0.914
T-rati o - 4.84 - 4.60 - 3.840
Point contacts 0.336 0.346
T-ratio 1.95 ~ 1.94 a
Sutured contacts 2.351 2.296 2.145 1.528 1.57
T-ratio. 9.61 9.22 8.02 4.77 4.52
Grain-to-matrix -0.924 -0.88 -0.777 -0.235
T-ratio - 5.95 - 5.62 - 4.670 - 1.78 a
Percent quartz -0.191
T-ratio - 1.28 ~
Round grains - 1.217 - 1.165 - 1.136 - 0.967 - 0.963
T-ratio - 6.92 - 6.59 - 5.710 - 3.320 - 3.040
R2 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.86 0.81

(f) Young's modulus

Constant -4.211 -4.215 -0.715
Concave--convex con. 0.071
T-ratio 3.0
Grain-to-grain 0.172 0.198 0.112
T-ratio 6.18 4.34 3.97
Sutured contacts - 0.155 - 0.171
T-ratio - 3.350 - 2.14 a
Rz 0.97 0.89 0.76

(g) Poisson's ratio

Constant 0.543 0.419 0.376
Packing density - 0.0019
T-ratio - 1.55 a
Packing proximity - 0.0027 - 0.003 - 0.002
T-ratio - 3.67 - 3.66 -4.540
Sutured contacts 0.0036 0.002
T-ratio 2.27 a 1.42 a
R2 0.93 0.87 0.81

L a r g e T - r a t i o i m p l i e s s m a l l p r o b a b i l i t y ; p r o b a b i l t i e s s m a l l o r T - r a t i o l a r g e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e is s i g n i f i c a n t a n d i m p o r t a n t to
r e g r e s s i o n . T h e T - r a t i o is c o m p a r e d with students-t distribution.
~Nonsignificant T-ratio.
154 R. Ulusayet al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157
axial compressive strength indicated that six vari-
ables collectively predicted this mechanical
property with a high value of R2=0.97. But a
great amount of effort can be avoided with a small
loss in accuracy if two variables, sutured contacts
and percent quartz, are used (R2=0.81). Only
three variables are sufficient to achieve values of
R 2 greater than 0.9 for static elastic constants.
However, without an important loss in accuracy
percent grain to grain contacts (R2=0.76) and
packing proximity (R2=0.81) are considered as
good predictors for Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio, respectively.
5.4. Relations between engineering index properties
and mechanical properties
In order to investigate if any significant relation-
ship existed between the engineering index proper-
ties and mechanical properties of the Kozlu
sandstones, a number of correlations were made.
Table 7 is a correlation matrix summarizing the
correlation coefficients of the variables with signi-
ficance levels. Among the seven engineering prop-
erties studied, statistically significant correlations,
at 95% confidence level, were found between uni-
axial compressive strength and point load index,
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, point load
Table 7
Linear correlation matrix of engineering properties with
significancelevels*
IQ POR UW PL POISS EMOD UCS
UCS 0.01 -0.35-0.04 0.90a -0.62 0.63 1.0
EMOD -0.58 0.59 -0.16 0.27 -0.91 a 1.0.
POISS 0.49 -0.45 0.22 -0.51 1.0
PL 0.36 -0.41 a 0.14 1.0
UW 0.27 -0.59 a 1.0
POR -0.54 a 1.0
1Q 1.0
aStatistically significant at P=0.05 level (at 95% confidence
level).
UCS= 12.7+ 19PL; EMOD= 19.6-53.3 POISS; POR=
4.6-0.42 PL; POR=32-1.14 UW; POR=8.22-0.881Q
*UCS: Uniaxial compressivestrength; EMOD: Young's modu-
lus; POISS: Poisson's ratio; PL: Point load strength index;
UW: Unit weight; POR: Effectiveporosity; IQ: Ouality index.
index and effective porosity, unit weight and poros-
ity, and effective porosity and quality index.
Contrary to the findings of Shakoor and Bonelli
(1991), and Hawkins and McConnell (1991) no
correlation was found between uniaxial compres-
sive strength and unit weight. Quality index is
another engineering index property which does not
exhibit any correlation with compressive strength.
The porosity of the rock is clearly an important
factor in sandstone strength in that voids reduce
the integrity of the material. As expected, if the
values of compressive strength and point load
strength are compared with their corresponding
effective porosities, then inverse relationships can
be seen between porosity and both strength param-
eters. However, these relationships are not strong
(r=0.35, r=0.41). Comparison of compressive
strength and point load strength and Poisson's
ratio with Young's modulus seems probably sig-
nificant; when strength increases so does Young's
modulus, and Poisson's ratio decreases (Table 7).
The point load test is most importantly em-
ployed in estimating the compressive strength of
rock materials. The correlation between point load
strength index and compressive strength for the
Kozlu sandstone (Fig. 10) was highly significant
(r=0.90) The reliability of this approach depends
upon the adequacy of the index to the strength
correlation constant, k. There is, however, no
unique value for k, because it is sensitive to varia-
tions in both testing technique and instrinsic rock
B ~-~-' P '-~--i~-T= ~-T ' ' ' I '~-r- 1
ac=19/SSO+12.7 -'" ~ - [~
1
i J I i i t J
• ~ID 4e ee 8e leo l~e
% IMPo)
Fig. I0. Point load strength index (I.5o) versus uniaxial com-
pressive strength (~).
 R Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology 37 (1994) 135-157 155

properties. A wide variety of k values has, there- 9.5

f ' ' I,,,
fore, been recommended by various authors and
institutions. The equations proposed by them to 9
0"""' r: - .~

link compressive strength with point load index

are presented in Table 8. Among the above equa- 8.G
tions, the equations proposed by D'Andrea et al.
\
(1965), Deere and Miller (1966), Singh (1981), a. l \
Gunsallus and Kulhawy (1984), O'Rourke (1989) \
81 \
\
and the equation found in this study indicate that 7°6 \
when one of the variables is zero the other one
will not be equal to zero. This is not possible in 7
practice and is probably due to nonuniformity of
rocks, test method or variations in fabric. 6°5 ] [ I L
Particularly it should be noted that the point load
9.2 0.21 0.:=2 9.23 0.24
index, in this study, was measured roughly parallel
to the bedding plane, while the compressive
strength measures were determined roughly per- Fig. 11. Relationship between Young's modulus (E) and
pendicular to the bedding. It may be concluded Poisson's ratio (v).
that the compressive strength of the sandstones
tested in this study is 19 times the point load index. The Kozlu sandstones tend to show an
strength. The relationship between Young's modu- increase in quality index with decreasing effective
lus and Poisson's ratio is an inverse one and highly porosity.
significant ( r = - 0 . 9 1 ) at 95% confidence level
(Fig. ll).
There is a statistically significant correlation 6. Conclusions
between effective porosity and unit weight. As
porosity decreases, unit weight increases. On the The relationships between petrographic charac-
other hand, as expected, an inverse relationship teristics, some engineering index properties, and
exists between the effective porosity and quality mechanical properties of a selected litharenite
sandstone were quantified by a comprehensive
Table 8
bivariant and multivariant statistical evaluation.
Equations between uniaxial compressive strength (trc) and Quantification of the mineralogy and texture of a
point load strength index (/,so) number of sandstones has allowed the identifica-
tion of those parameters which control the
Reference Predictive equation geomechanical performance of the sandstones.
D'Andrea et al. (1964) ~ao = 15.3 Isso+ 16.3
This study generally revealed that the influence
Deere and Miller (1966) age =20.7 Is50+29.6 of textural characteristics appear to be more
Broch and Franklin (1972) aac =24 I~0 important than grain mineralogy for predicting
Bieniawski (1975) ~tr¢= 23 l,so engineering properties of the sandstones. Among
Hassani et al. (1980) aa¢ = 29 1,50 seventeen petrographic characteristics, percent
Singh (1981) btr¢= 18.7 1,5o - 132
Gunsallus and Kulhawy (1984) aac= 16.5 1,50+51
sutured contacts, percent grain-to-grain contacts,
O'Rourke (1989) ¢a¢=21.8 Is5o+6210 grain shape, mean grain size, packing density,
Mehrotra et al. (1991) ~a¢ = 26/,so packing proximity and percent rock fragments
aTsidzi ( 1991 ) "a¢ = (1,5o/0.03) + 0.003 l, so exhibit the most significant correlations with most
Ghosh and Srivastava ( 1991 ) ~a¢ = 16 l, so of the engineering properties included in the analy-
This study aa~= 19/,so+ 12.7
ses. Those samples exhibiting higher strength with
aac and 1,5o in MPa; bac and I,so in kgf/cm 2; higher percentage of sutured contacts contain more
ca¢ and Is5o in psi; d curvilinear relationship. angular grains than round grains. As pointed out
156 R. Ulusay et al./Engineering Geology37 (1994) 135-157
by Bell (1978a), no one as yet has been successful
in relating the index properties of rocks to their
mineralogical composition and there is no excep-
tion to this in the case of the Kozlu sandstone.
Sandstones which have an abundance of grain-
to-grain contacts and higher values of packing
proximity exhibit higher Young's modulus and
lower Poisson's ratio. Relationships between engi-
neering index properties and petrographical char-
acteristics are lower when they are compared with
those between mechanical and petrographical
parameters.
Multiple regression analysis was used to develop
polynomial prediction equations to further
improve the estimated index and mechanical prop-
erties by selecting some petrographic charac-
teristics which exhibit statistically significant corre-
lations with them. Predicted values of compressive
strength, elastic parameters, point load strength
index and porosity indicated that the proposed
equations can generally be used to obtain estimates
of these parameters, while, relatively large differ-
ences in the predicted and measured values of unit
weight and quality index were observed.
The use of stepwise regression statistics is very
important in reducing the seventeen variables con-
sidered to be independent sources of information
to only four or three (and/or two or one), that
adequately explain the variation in engineering
properties of the sandstones. However, when unit
weight and porosity are considered, the reduction
from six to two variables seems significant and
there is a major reduction in effort to predict these
two engineering index properties with approxi-
mately the same accuracy.
Among the seven engineering properties studied
statistically significant correlations, at 95% confi-
dence level, were found between uniaxial compres-
sive strength and point load index, Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio, unit weight and
porosity, and effective porosity and quality index.
The quality index is also probably related to
Young's modulus. It is a simple and quick test to
perform and its results are reproducible for the
rough estimation of some engineering properties.
Previously studied sandstones were quartz sand-
stones with small amounts of rock fragments. In
this study, litharenite sandstones rich in rock frag-
ments have been studied. The results of this investi-
gation suggested that the quantitative prediction
of bulk mechanical and index properties by petro-
graphical parameters also appears to be feasible
for such sandstones. However, additional data or
studies are needed to verify these relationships.
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