lOMoARcPSD|19025839

OUTLINE ○ Non-cells include viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, toxins,

IMMUNE SYSTEM 1 pollutants, germs, and carcinogens.
HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM ○ Reflex-based release includes coughing, tearing up when
- COMPONENTS 2 dust touches the eyes, and the formation of mucus when
- FUNCTIONAL COMPARTMENTS
→ Generative Compartment - Bone Marrow / Myeloid Tissue foreign agents are present in / irritating the respiratory tract.
→ Primary / Central Lymphoid Organ - Thymus ● Plays a role in the body’s immunity towards tumours through the
→ Secondary / Peripheral Lymphoid Organ - Lymph Node performance of tumour surveillance which prevents the
→ Secondary / Peripheral Lymphoid Organ - Spleen
- CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM production of tumour cells while identifying & destroying them.
→ Dendritic Cells ● Removes worn out cells and tissues which have been
→ Natural Killer Cells damaged by trauma and/or disease due to the possibility of these
→ T & B Lymphocytes
IMMUNITY damaged cells & tissues from forming tumours.
- MAJOR PILLARS OF IMMUNITY ● Mounts a coordinated immune response against the foreign
- LINES OF DEFENSE OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 3 agent. An immune response is anything that occurs after the
→ Innate Defense Mechanism - Physical Barriers to Infection
→ Innate Defense Mechanism - Inflammation
stimulation of the immune system such as the production of
→ Adaptive Immune System antibodies and the performance of phagocytosis.
LEGEND ● Fully develops once the person reaches the age of 2. Thus
BLACK TEXT COLORED TEXT reverse typing for infants isn't allowed and breastfeeding is
Based from ppt Based from lecture proper
important.

PRE-TEST
HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM
1. A component of the innate defense system serving as the external
protective shield of the body against colonizing microbes. Components
a. Intact skin c. Phagocytes
b. Mucous membrane d. Normal flora organisms
2. Largest lymphoid organ.
a. Appendix c. Thymus
b. Spleen d. Lymph nodes
3. It is both a lymphoid and endocrine organ important in the development of
functional T lymphocytes.
a. Bone marrow c. Thymus
b. Spleen d. Lymph nodes
4. There is a gradual decrease in the size and secretory abilities of the
thymus as one ages. True or False? True

Functional Compartments
5. The lymphocytes are the main leukocytes responsible for the function of
the Lymphatic system. True or False? True
● Organization of the Immune System
● Divided into the:
6. T lymphocytes are involved in what type of immune response ○ Stem Cell / Generative Compartment
a. Cell mediated immune c. Both Cell mediated and humoral ■ Consists of the:
response immune response → Bone Marrow
b. Humoral immune d. Innate immune response ○ Primary / Central Lymphoid Organs
response
■ Consists of the:
7. Differentiated forms of B lymphocytes
a. Mast cells c. Macrophage → Thymus
b. Plasma cells d. Lymphoblast → Bone Marrow
8. Which of the following cells are capable of recognizing foreign antigens. ○ Secondary / Peripheral Lymphoid Organs
a. B cells d. Macrophage ■ Found all throughout the body
b. Dendritic cells e. All of the above ■ Encapsulated organs; consists of the:
c. Langerhan cells → Lymph nodes
9. Active acquired immunity is conferred to an individual who has recovered → Spleen
from an illness or disease. True or False? ■ Unencapsulated organs; consists of the:
10. Passive immunity provides lifelong protection from a disease. True or → Different associated lymphoid tissues
False? ○ Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
○ Cutaneous associated lymphoid tissue
IMMUNE SYSTEM
● Refers to the Lymphatic system
● Root of the study of Immunology.
● Network of cells, tissues, and organs which communicate,
collaborate, and collectively work together in order to provide the
body with mechanisms to resist infections & disease and to
recognize, neutralize, and destroy pathogens.
● Involves different cell combinations and organ interconnections
which play a role in the warding off of foreign substances
including microorganisms, particulate substances, and dust.
● It is a complex organ system in such a way that involves a lot of
tissues, cells, and substances; the latter being found within
several bodily fluids.
● Its main goal is to recognize one cell from another and eliminate
non-cells which don’t belong in the body through their destruction
or reflex-based release.

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Generative Compartment - Bone Marrow / Myeloid Tissue ■ Contains mature T cells & APC
● Birthplace of all hematopoietic stem cells. ■ Contains special thymic cells known as the thymic
● Maturation site for B cells, also known as Bursa cells since they corpuscle or Hassall’s cell which releases cytokines
were discovered in the bursa of fabricius, a bird organ. that target dendritic cell activity. It is also possible that
● Lymphocytes are unique since they aren’t terminal cells when they are responsible for the removal of apoptotic
they are “mature” lymphocytes unlike other WBCs. This would thymocytes. Thymocytes are developing lymphocytes
mean that once the lymphocyte has developed into a mature B within the thymus.
lymphocyte or T lymphocyte, they can still be naive if they still
haven’t encountered any antigen; once this does happen, they will
transform into an effector lymphocyte (effector B cells or effector
T cells) which have different structural & surface receptor
configurations so that their structure would conform with the
antigen which they encountered. Moreover, the lymphocytes are
able to go in & out of the body’s circulation
● Site of lymphocyte development. Starts with the cell division of the
totipotential hematopoietic stem cell to form the common myeloid
progenitor (CMP) and the common lymphoid progenitor. The latter
of which will develop into the pre-lymphocytes which will develop
into pro-lymphocytes, and then the lymphoid progenitor cell which
will mature into either a Natural Killer cell, B lymphocyte, or T
lymphocyte depending on which primary lymphoid tissue they go
to.
● Once the lymphocytes have finished developing in the bone
marrow, they enter the bloodstream in order to proceed to one of
the primary lymphoid organs. The lymphocytes which came back
to the bone marrow would develop into NK or B cells, while those
that went to the thymus due to being attracted by the different
cytokines it released, would develop into T cells.
● Once the B cells have fully developed, they will go back to
circulation and will proceed to their secondary lymphoid tissue.
● Precursor cells proliferate and mature as induced by different
cytokines such as C-kit, IL3, IL7, CSFs, and Flt-3 ligand.

Note the detail of the thymic (Hassall’s) corpuscle showing the

concentrically arranged acidophilic layers and the relationship of these
structures to the medullary region.

Secondary / Peripheral Lymphoid Organ - Lymph Node

Primary / Central Lymphoid Organ - Thymus ● Filters the lymph of impurities.
● A bilobed organ which serves as the site of development of ● Provides an environment where immune cells can interact with
functional T cells. The cells usually develop within 3 weeks. foreign agents.
● Found just above the thorax and is superior to the heart. ● The lymph node, as well as the other secondary lymphoid organs,
● During fetal development the size of the thymus increases. serves as storage locations for naive lymphocytes which are
However, it gradually decreases in size once the infant is born waiting for possible antigens that they may encounter so that they
and continues to do so as the child develops and ages. This could mature into effector cells, though they still circulate or go in
phenomenon would mean that the thymus would be less & out of the body’s circulation through the lymph which is a fluid
functional as the body ages since the decrease in size would found flowing within the lymphatic vessels and is where the T
cause it to lose the ability to secrete certain substances. cells flow through. Antigens may be encountered by the
● The development of T cells within the thymus is somewhat lymphocytes in the lymph fluid.
complex. Wherein, several lymphocytes usually arrive in the ● Composed of three areas/compartments which have specific
thymus but only a few of them are chosen to develop into T cells areas for specific cells.
while the undeveloped ones become apoptotic and would ○ The cortex
possibly be removed by the thymic corpuscle. ■ B-cell area (A majority of B cells are found in here)
● Once the T cells have fully developed, they will go back to → Primary follicle - Resting / Naive cells
circulation and will proceed to their secondary lymphoid tissue. → Secondary follicle - Primed B cells
● Divided into three layers: ⇒ Found within the primary follicle
○ The paracortex ⇒ Halfing this would expose the germinal layer,
○ The cortex the location where B cells undergo
■ Contains immature thymocytes differentiation which is required for an
○ The medulla effective immune response.

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○ The paracortex
■ T-cell area
○ The medullary cord / medulla
■ Plasma cells.
● Within the lymphoid follicle there are follicular dendritic cells which
have somewhat finger-like projections within their plasma
membrane and are specialized dendritic cells that are usually
found within the lymph nodes. They capture antigens using their
finger-like projections which are then presented to the B and T
cells found within the lymph node.
● Contains lymphatic venules where the lymph enters through the
afferent lymph vessel then gets filtered through the lymph node
and then the antigen which may be in the lymph may be detected
& captured by the follicular dendritic cells and will then be
presented to the T cells or B cells to mount an immune response.
They will undergo proliferation where they develop into effector
cells and will then undergo clonal expansion where the effector T
cells will multiply and they will all perform their specific functions
which are similar to the mother cell.
● The effector T cells could also become memory cells which are Lymphocyte Recirculation
usually dormant cells which are able to recognize the antigen Refers to the migration of lymphocytes from the central lymphoid
which was initially encountered by the T cell. Once the memory organ to the secondary lymphoid organs or tissues, via the
cell detects the same antigen, it will carry out the necessary bloodstream, in order to perform their functions. Cells continuously
functions it needs for an immune response without the need for recirculate throughout the body to seek out and recognize foreign
any of the other processes when detecting an antigen. agents. The movement of the lymphocytes wherein they are capable
● Lymph node inflammation is a clear sign that the lymph node of entering the blood circulation, leaving it, entering it again, and then
leaving it. Unique only to lymphocytes since other WBCs aren't able
detected an antigen. This occurs in order to accomodate more to consistently go in & out of circulation.
antigen and to accommodate for all the cells in the area. The pain
Migration of immune cells involves interaction of
helps in facilitating the sensitivity in the area. multiple adhesion molecules present on cell
● The lymph node nearest to the infection is called the sentinel Mechanism surfaces with their ligands on endothelial cells to
lymph node. This is where the first filtering lymph node where the permit traffic from the bloodstream into the
infection was found and detected. It is for this reason that during lymphoid tissues and inflammatory sites.
respiratory infections, the sides of the neck are checked for
inflamed lymph nodes.
● There are cytokines within the environment of the lymph nodes
that provide nourishment to the cells within their compartments,
thus explaining why the cells are concentrated in certain areas.
Wherein, the cortex for example would provide different cytokines
& nutrients that are necessary/vital for the survival of B cells, such
is the same for the paracortex and the T cells.
● A site in the lymphocyte recirculation process, which consists of
the movement of lymphocytes from the blood to the lymphoid
organs and back to the blood.
Lymphocyte Homing
Refers to the process wherein the lymphocytes go to the primary or
secondary lymphoid tissue and the specific mechanism in how the
lymphocytes go to their specific lymphoid tissue and afterwards go to
the secondary lymphoid tissue. Mature lymphocytes which
developed from the bone marrow have receptors that are specific to
cytokines produced by either the thymus or bone marrow and will
thus attract them to either of the two locations in order for them to go
to that area and mature into either a T cell or B cell. Process is
similar to the process of phagocytosis, as well as the process of
diapedesis especially in high-endothelial venules and when nearing
the target lymphoid organ they are attracted to. Receptors are known
as integrins, though are specifically named as L-Selectins for
lymphocytes and they connect to the L-selectin ligands which is
useful for the process of diapedesis.

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Secondary / Peripheral Lymphoid Organ - Spleen

● Located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen and is inferior
to the diaphragm.
● Protects the body from foreign antigens in the blood.
● The spleen, as well as the other secondary lymphoid organs,
serves as storage locations for naive lymphocytes which are
waiting for possible antigens that they may encounter so that they
could mature into effector cells, though they still circulate or go in
& out of the body’s circulation through the blood.
● Removes effete/senescent RBC, immune complexes, and
opsonized microbes from the circulation.
● Initiates the interaction of immune cells towards blood borne
antigens.
● Divided into two parts
○ Red pulp
■ Comprises 80% weight of spleen
■ Destroys old/senescent RBCs
○ White pulp
■ Comprises 20% weight of spleen
■ Contains:
→ The marginal zone
→ The PALS
→ Lymphoid follicles.
● The lymphoid follicles is mainly composed of B cells.
● The Periarteriolar Lymphatic Sheath (PALS) is the T cell area.
○ Attached to the follicles and marginal zone.
● The marginal zone contains dendritic cells & macrophages that Cells of the Immune System
are capable of capturing and presenting antigens to the T cells ● The name of lymphocytes comes from their relationship with the
and B cells. different lymphoid systems
○ At the marginal area ● Professional phagocytes
○ Dendritics cells & macrophages are antigen presenting cells ○ Neutrophils serve as pawns within the circulation in order to
● The medullary cord contains plasma cells. attack the antigen once they have been encountered.
○ Part of the 2nd line of defense
○ Engulfs and destroys the microorganism.
○ Monocytes & macrophages perform similar functions and are
only different in their location in the body, where monocytes
are found in the bloodstream while macrophages are found
within the tissues outside of the blood vessels. Macrophages
also have a change of name depending on the tissue in
which they inhibit such being known as Kupffer cells when
found in the kidneys or as Microglial cells when found in the
brain.
■ These functions include antigen presentation and the
phagocytosis of microorganisms or foreign substances.
○ Chemotactic factors are able to attract neutrophils or
macrophages.
○ Opsonins are substances which enhances phagocytosis.

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○ The macrophages will process antigens and then process it ● Antigen presentation causes the stimulation of the T-helper cells
via the MHC and then present it specifically to the T helper ○ including the performance of clonal expansion and
cells. ○ the elicitation of lymphokines which will help activate the
○ The act of neutrophil apoptosis due to encountering an whole immune system.
antigen, and the act of sensing the released chemotactic ● Antigen entry and detection
factors is called netosis. ○ Antigen enters through one of the portals of entry
○ Refer to Table 1.1 & Table 1.2 in the appendix ○ Captured by dendritic cells in locations where they are found.
■ If the antigen is in the lymph, then it will be
filtered/detected by the lymph nodes.
■ If the antigen is in the blood, then it will be
filtered/detected by the spleen.
● The antigen capture process follows the phagocytic process
○ Ingestion via APC attachment to the antigen
○ Formation of a pseudopods
○ Formation of a phagosome when the pseudopod encloses
on the antigen
○ Lysosomal granules will then fuse to the phagosome,
forming a phagolysosome
○ The antigen within the phagolysosome will be degraded
through the use lysosomal enzymes and will be attached to
Other Functions of Tissue Macrophages MHC Class II
Innate Immune Function Adaptive Immune Function ○ Some of the processed fragments will be exposed by the
MHC Class II to the cell surface, thus presenting the antigen
1. Microbial killing 1. Antigen Presentation
to the T-helper cells.
2. Intracellular Parasite killing ○ Cells that are capable of
○ Leftover fragments will be released via exocytosis which can
3. Anti-tumor activity presenting antigens to the T
be detected again by the immune system
4. Inflammation cells and B cells for the
5. Thermoregulation activation of the immune
6. Healing system. (APCs).

Antibodies are subdivided into the Fab and Fc Portion

Opsonization: The opsonin FcγR - IgG interaction which makes

phagocytosis easier due to the presence of the antibody

Dendritic Cells
● Professional Antigen Presenting Cells
● Most potent phagocyte & effective APCs.
● Named as such due to its similar shape with dendrites
● Captures antigens and presents them to the T-helper cells
○ Through the use of finger-like projections
○ Once inside the cell, they will be processed by MHC Class II
(HLAs) then presented to the T-helper cells.
● The processed antigen is presented in such a way that they are
placed on the surface of the dendritic cell and will be recognized
by the T-helper cell.
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Natural Killer Cells

● Third Population Cells / Large Granular Lymphocytes
● Primitive T Cytotoxic Cells
● With tumoricidal and antiviral activity
● First line of defense against virally infected cells, intracellular
pathogens and tumor cells (target cells).
● A very potent cell.
● Has the ability to kill target cells without prior exposure to
surface markers as long as they detect the presence of the target
cell.
● MHC – unrestricted cytolysis or cytotoxic reaction
○ The MHC inhibits the NK cell from destroying a cell.
○ MHC serves as the inhibitory ligands for the NK cells Visual representation of a target cell activating and being targeted
■ Where an NK cell will pass by the target cell and if it by a NK cell due to its MHC receptor having an antigen attached to
detects that there is no antigen attached to MHC it.
class I = normal; cell is passed by
NOTE: Target cells have MHC class I while NK cells have KIRs
■ However, if it detects that there is an antigen attached and CD94 receptors
to the MHC, the NK cell cannot attach to the MHC thus
will signal the activation of the NK cell to destroy the
target cell. (kasi nga may nakaharang)
■ Once activated, it releases enzymes known as
granzymes and perforins.
→ Perforins are capable of creating pores through
the target cells.
→ Granzymes will go inside the pores created by the
perforins then will initiate the destruction of the
target cell.
● Important receptors for MHC Class I
○ Inhibitory receptors
- If the MHC of another cell does not bind to these
receptors, the NK cell will be activated
■ KIR
→ Killer Inhibitory Receptors
→ prevent killing of self cells
■ CD94/NKG2A
→ binds to MHC Class I.
○ Activation Receptors
- Both receptors bind to diseased and cancer cells
- cells producing stress proteins
- If something attaches to these receptors, the NK cell will
be activated.
■ CD16
■ NKG2D
→ CD56 and CD16 are the surface markers for
identification for NK cells
● Antibody Dependent Cell Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC) - one of
the functions of the NK cells.
○ Requires antibodies attached to the target cell for it to be
destroyed by the NK cells.
○ Cell mediated = Tumor cells are killed by cells

Visual representation of a target cell passing by a NK cell and not

triggering the NK cell due to its MHC receptor being empty

Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC)

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YT LINKS: ■ This is due to their development into plasma cells,

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNP1EAYLhOs - “Immune which are capable of producing antibodies.
System - Natural Killer Cell” ■ These may also turn into memory cells which can
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XLOcG8pZNZE - Immune recognize and capture a repeat encounter of an antigen
System - Natural Killer Cell - Part 2 it has encountered before.
T and B Lymphocytes ● T cytotoxic cells will produce enzymes which directly kills the
● Originated from progenitor cells coming from the bone marrow. virally infected cells. This shows cell-mediated immunity.
● Plasma cells, which developed from B cells, will proliferate &
○ The common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) develops into pro-
produce antibodies that are specific to the antigen that stimulates
lymphocyte, pre-lymphocyte, and then lymphocytes.
its production. This shows humoral immunity.
○ Lymphocytes are unique due to having a feature in which the
stage right after being a pre-lymphocyte is not yet fully ● Intracellular microbes
mature and can still further develop ○ Antigen went in the cell through natural manners (viruses
● After lymphocyte production, the t-cells will migrate to the thymus and obligate intracellular microorganisms) or phagocytosis
while B cells will migrate to the bone marrow due to the cytokines ○ Processed by MHC class 1 and are exposed to T cytotoxic
attracting these cells. cells if by natural means
○ These locations will provide nutrients for the development of ○ Processed by MHC class 2, placed on cell surface, and
the lymphocytes. detected by T helper cells
● The maturation sequence of T cells in the thymus and B cells in ● Extracellular microbes - processing is not needed
the bone marrow would involve the formation of T cell receptors
for T cells and B cell receptors for B cells
○ important in the capturing of antigens.
○ It also involves the manner in which the T cells will develop
into T helper cells and T cytotoxic cells inside the thymus.
● In terms of antigen recognition;
○ T cells will only recognize MHC processed antigens, thus
the need for dendritic cells.
○ B cells will recognize unprocessed extracellular antigen
(as a whole and is detected outside the cell).
● T cell ontogeny (after lymphocyte production)
○ In the thymus - pro-T cell → Pre-T cell → naive T cell (not
yet exposed to any antigen).
○ The naive T cells will return to circulation and proceed to any
one of the secondary lymphoid organs
■ where they will be stored and maintained while waiting
to encounter an antigen.
○ Once detecting an antigen via their receptors, they will
transform into effector T cells, thus eliciting a function.
● B cell ontogeny (after lymphocyte production)
○ In the bone marrow - lymphocytes will develop into pro-B
cells, via the micro environments found in the bone marrow.
○ This includes genetic pattern changes to accommodate for
antibody specificities.
■ Marker/Identifier for pro-B cells are the presence of Mu
chain which results from the starting the development
of IgM within the cytoplasm. Ontogeny of T & B Cells
■ Once the new chain goes out of the cytoplasm and is In regards to the T cells, the pro-T cell develops into either a CD4
exposed in the plasma membrane = pre-B cell. positive or CD8 positive T cell. The T cells will also develop T cell
■ Once the IgD has developed on the surface of the pre- receptors known as TCRα receptors / alpha beta receptors, these are
B cell = mature B cell (though still naive). used for the capture of antigens. The B cell meanwhile will form
antibodies in their surface, this being IgM and IgD which serves as the
○ The naive B cells will then go back to circulation and proceed B cell’s receptors for the capture of antigens
to any one of the secondary lymphoid organs where they will
be stored and maintained while they wait to encounter an
antigen.
○ Once detecting an antigen via their receptors, they will
transform into plasma cells or memory cells.

**take note sa quiz** during maturation of B cells, it will develop

into plasma cells and then afterwards proceed to secondary
lymphoid tissues - FALSE bc once B cells mature in the bone
marrow, it will immediately migrate to the secondary lymphoid organs.
Once exposed to antigens, then only will develop to plasma cells which
will produce antibodies.

● In terms of lifespan
Ontogeny of B Cells
○ T cells - long & may live up to 10 years
○ B cells - short

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○ Once exposed to an antigen, the immune system will adapt

and form an immunity against that specific antigen
Lines of Defense of the Immune System
● First Line of Defense
○ The physical barrier that separates the body’s internal
system to the external environment.
○ Involves the skin, mucous membranes, sweat, cerumen,
normal skin flora, and tears.
● Second Line of Defense
○ Once the first line of defense has been breached either
through abrasions, cut skin, the other portals of entry.
○ Involves chemokines, acute phase reactants, CRPs,
inflammatory response.
○ Non-specific, will try to evade and eliminate whatever it
detects.
● Third Line of Defense
○ Once the first and second line of defense wasn’t able to stop
whatever was detected.
○ Specific since it involves the production of antibodies &
memory cells.
● Once the third line of defense was breached, there is a low
possibility of stopping the foreign antigen.

Natural Immunity Adaptive Immunity

First Line of Defense Second Line of Defense Third Line of Defense

Ontogeny of T Cells Physical /Anatomical Cellular Factors (e.g T & B Lymphocytes
Barriers phagocytes, NK
(e.g. skin, mucous cells,Dendritic Cells)
membranes)
Chemical (e.g. acids, Acute phase reactants Soluble Factors
B Cell sebum) and Antimicrobial proteins (antibodies, lymphokines)
T Cell (e.g.cathelicidin,
defensin,)
T-Lymphocytes B-Lymphocytes Mechanical (e.g.
peristalsis, Flushing Cytokines
Site of Development & Thymus Bone marrow action of urine)
Maturation
Commensal organisms Inflammatory responses
Percentage in the 75%-85% 10-15%
Blood
Innate Defense Mechanism - Physical Barriers to Infection
Life span long short
● Skin - Stratum corneum
Lymphocyte T-helper(CD4+), T Follicular B cells,
○ Highly keratinized and makes the skin water-resistant so that
Subpopulation cytotoxic (CD8+). Treg Marginal zone B cells, B1
(Subsets) cells (mice) the skin couldn’t easily be breached by microorganisms.
○ Provides a hostile environment unfavourable for bacterial
Tissue Distribution Empty? Empty?
colonization and growth.
Surface markers CD2, CD3, CD4, CD8 Surface Ig, ○ Commensal organisms
present C’ Receptors,
MHC Class II, mitogen ● Productive coughs are best
receptors
Structural Features Chemical Barrier
Identified by Rosette formation with Surface Ig
SRBC Keratin component of the Sebum, fatty acid from
Stratum corneum sebaceous glands
Secreted products Lymphokines Antibodies
Nature of Pathogens Intracellular microbes Extracellular microbes
Ceramides Lactic acid from sweat

Type of Immunity Cell-Mediated Humoral Alpha & beta defensins,

Cathelicidin
IMMUNITY Psoriasin
Major Pillars of Immunity
● Innate Immune System Structural /
○ Non specific, In-born immunity system External Barriers Chemical Barrier
Mechanical Features
○ First step in host defense against infection
○ Already present since the day you were born Vibrissae Defensins
○ Develops during fetal development
Mucous membrane &
○ Non-specific refers to any type of antigen that must be Respiratory Tract
ciliated epithelium
recognized and destroyed
● Adaptive Immune System Sneezing, Coughing
○ Acquired immunity system
Mucous membrane Stomach acid, bile
○ Complex system that mounts a specific immune response
Gastro-Intestinal salts in the intestine
towards foreign agent (antigen) Tract
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Peristalsis Lysozyme in saliva ■ All nerve endings are highly sensitive to detect light
changes in the environment
Defensins & cryptidin ○ Functio laesa (Loss of function)
■ The tissue functions within the area is suspended
Flushing action during ● The cardinal signs must be present in order to determine that
Urogenital Tract
voiding there is an inflammation
● Principal components
Innate Defense Mechanism - Internal Barriers to Infection ○ Vasodilatation leading to an increase in blood flow to the
infected area.
Cellular Functions Function ○ Increased capillary permeability
Neutrophils Phagocytes, Patrols the body via ○ Diapedesis of leukocytes
bloodstream ● Area will be inflamed to contain the infection.
● Vasodilation is done to accommodate and provide more
Monocytes & Macrophage Engaged in sustained phagocytosis,
substances within the area for the killing of microorganisms
intracellular parasite killing, Ag
presentation, tumoricidal activity ● These inflammatory responses mounted by innate defences
against the infecting agent are important to:
Eosinophil Contains MBP which are cytotoxic to ○ Eliminate / Ward off the microorganisms
helminth larvae ○ Contain the microorganisms
Basophils & Mast Cells Release inflammatory mediators that ○ Repair the tissue
facilitates allergic reactions in the skin,
respiratory & intestines Adaptive Immune System
● Also known as ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Natural Killer Cells Destroy virally infected cells & tumours
through induction of apoptosis ○ Specific protection acquired from infection or intentional
immunization.
Dendritic Cells Antigen presentation ● Made up of highly specialized cells that expressed unique antigen
receptors to recognize and mount a destructive response against
foreign agents.
Chemical Factors Function ● 3rd Line of Defense of the immune system.
● 2 Forms – Active & Passive
PMN – exhibits broad spectrum
○ ACTIVE ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
microbial toxicity;
■ Acquired or developed in an individual on exposure to a
Keratinocytes – chemotactic foreign body. This individual’ immune system is
Cathelicidin function involved in the production of immune factors (e.g.
antibodies and sensitized lymphocytes)
Antimicrobial Epithelial cells – binds & neutralize ■ Antigens are introduced
Gm(-) endotoxins
Peptides ■ Long lag time due to the introduction of antigen. The
body will still process the antigen before mounting the
Exhibits broad spectrum (of immune response.
microbial toxicity) activity against ■ Lasts for a long time due to the formation of memory
Defensins Gm(+) & Gm(-) bacteria – can cause
cells and the like.
osmotic lysis of their cell membrane
○ PASSIVE ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
or disrupt their normal metabolism
■ In contrast to active immunity, the individual receives
CRP Activates Complement system the immune factors from a person who was previously
Inhibits microbial growth immunized by the foreign antigen.
Acute Phase
Proteins Ceruloplasmin, ■ Antibodies are introduced
haptoglobulin,
■ Short lag time due to only introducing antibodies.
ferritin
Already capable of detecting/attaching antigens.
Opsonization, Cytolysis, activates ■ Lasts for a short time since it only introduces
inflammatory responses, clearance antibodies, something which could denature over time.
of immune complexes. ○ Both Active and Passive immunity may be developed by
Complement System
natural or artificial means.
Series of proteins that are involved
for the cytolysis of antigens bound to ■ Natural is defined as obtaining this immunity naturally
antibodies ■ Artificial is defined as an induced/given immunity

Innate Immune System - Inflammation Innate Immune System Adaptive Immune System
● Part of the 2nd line of defense in response to infections or tissue
1st & 2nd Line of Defense 3rd Line of Defense;
damage. It is the body’s normal response to contain the infection Reinforcement
● Cardinal signs of inflammation
○ Rubor (redness) Non-self receptors are “hard wired” Somatically generated non-self
■ Due to vasodilation in the genome (PRR). receptors.
No receptors. Uses pattern Changes/Rearrangement in the
○ Calor (Increased Heat)
recognition receptors (PRR). genetic make-up to accommodate
■ Done by the body order for the faster functioning of Recognizes microorganisms based for the differences within the
metabolic processes within the area in order to remove on their patterns which are unique antigen
the microorganism and speed up tissue healing to the microorganisms or foreign
○ Tumor (Swelling) substance. This pattern will
■ Due to the needed accommodation trigger/stimulate the immune cells
○ Dolor (Pain) to mount an immune response.

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Pre-formed components.
Already present since you
were born (non-specific)
Non-specific response towards
antigen
Components are produced ● Examples of artificial passive adaptive immunity sources are
following exposure to antigen. anti-rabies, anti-toxoid, anti-tetano (usually anything with “anti-”).
Produced when an antigen has These are only taken when they have already been exposed to
been detected (specific) the specific antigen. Anti-rabies immunity usually only lasts for
about 1 year. This gives antibodies, not antigen (fast action, short
Exhibits antigen specificity
lifespan).

Standardized magnitude of Improved magnitude of immune

response on repeated exposure to Humoral Immunity Cell Mediated
response.
the same antigen. Immunity
This is the purpose of booster Immune Cells involved B lymphocytes T lymphocytes
shots in terms of vaccines and
immunizations. Soluble factors secreted Antibodies Cytokines
Lacks memory Has memory. Type of Ag recognized Extracellular Intracellular,
Once the T cells and B cells are pathogens Intravesicular
activated, they will produce microbes
memory cells that are capable of
detecting antigens that Antigen Recognition Antibodies (BCR) T cell receptors
initiated/stimulated its function and receptors (TCR)
produce antibodies specifically for
Mode of Action against Opsonization, Cell lysis,
that antigen.
pathogen Neutralize, Apoptosis
Discrimination phagocytose
pathogen
Some soluble factors

Some cellular factors ● Humoral immunity is defined as any soluble substance found
within the bodily secretions that plays a role in the immune
system, while cell mediated immunity are any of the cells involved
Active Immunity Passive Immunity within our immunity.
Introduced Antigen Antibodies
Substance POST-TEST
1. The isolation of lymphoid stem cells and their descendant from
Lag time Long Short
the general circulation is through the blood thymus barrier. True
Immunity may last for Immunity lasts only a few or False?
Longevity years or a lifetime. Long. months. Short. 2. In the lymph nodes, resting or naïve T and B cells are able to
The body makes Antibodies are given; the body recognize and respond to foreign antigens brought and collected
antibodies. does not make antibodies by the from peripheral tissues.
a. Blood c. Lymph
Memory cells recognize Immunity can be acquired from b. Plasma d. All of the above
antigens the mother during pregnancy
3. The anatomic organization of the components of the immune
Can prevent diseases and may involve an injection system is critical in the rapid delivery of innate immune cells to the
site of infection as well as efficient adaptive response to antigen.
True or False?
Types Acquired through 4. Which of the following factors is not a component of the internal
Natural Active Adaptive Immunity Infections innate defense system?
a. Complement c. Ceramides
Vaccination. Used as a b. Cathelicidin d. CRP
Artificial Active Adaptive Immunity preventive measure when the
person hasn’t been exposed to 5. The is the first line of the innate defense system as it serves
the antigen.. as the protective shield of the body against colonizing pathogens.
6. A neonate receiving BCG immunization will develop what form of
Transplacental transfer of
Natural Passive Adaptive Immunity antibodies or through adaptive immunity?
breastfeeding (colostrum) 7. Lymphoid follicles having germinal centers would contain what
type of lymphocytes?
Usually given once already a. Naïve B cells c. Activated B cells
exposed to the antigen as a
Artificial Passive Adaptive prophylaxis. Should be given the b. lR
ymesptihnogcT
ytes d. Primed T cells
Immunity shortest time possible since the 8. Collectively, this refers to the immune components associated
person encountered the antigen. with the mucosal lining of the bronchus and the gastrointestinal
tract. (Identify)
● RNA vaccination is relatively new since it was once through the 9. Which immune cell is engaged in ADCC? (Identify)
introduction of specific antigens. This newer version of 10. This agranulocyte is the major immune cell of adaptive immunity.
vaccination would introduce mRNA which could code certain (Identify)
proteins specific for the production of (in the Sars-Cov 2 virus) the
spike proteins of the Sars-Cov 2 virus which could be detected as
an antigen by the body and thus starting an immune response
and the formation of memory cells which could destroy the spike
proteins of any future Sars-Cov 2 viruses that the body may
encounter (lifelong immunity)

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APPENDIX
Table 1.1
NEUTROPHIL MONOCYTE MACROPHAGE
Microscopic Appearance (Image)

Has a purple colored cytoplasm with small granules

and the nucleus is composed of 3-5 lobes
Microscopic Appearance (Desc.) Polymorphonuclear phagocytes Mononuclear phagocytes

Type of WBC Granulocyte Agranulocyte

Tissues - Have specific

Distribution Circulation and marginating pools Blood circulation names depending on their
tissue distribution
Type of Phagocytosis Frustrated phagocytosis Sustained or Facilitated Phagocytosis

Chemotactic Factors. 1. Bacterial lipoteichoic acid 1. Transforming Growth Factor β

○ Found in gram positive bacteria. 2. Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 1
2. C’ peptide – C5a 3. RANTES
○ Portion of a complement which was activated ○ Produced by respiratory organs and viral infected
by certain processes. It serves as a potent cells to signal the presence of inflammation.
chemotactic factor when it reaches circulation. 4. Macrophage Inflammatory Protein
3. Leukotriene B4
○ Part of neutrophil granules which is an indicator
of neutrophil apoptosis as a result of it
encountering an antigen.
4. Mast cell derived chemotactic peptide
○ From mast cells.
5. Neutrophil Chemotactic peptide (Interleukin 8)
○ Found within the granules of neutrophils.

Opsonin Receptors Opsonin Receptors Opsonin Receptors

1. FcγR - IgG 1. - Present 1. - Present
○ Capable of attaching to a. Capable of attaching to the Fc portion of a. Capable of attaching to the Fc portion of the
the Fc portion of the the antibodies. antibodies.
antibodies. b. Facilitates in making phagocytosis easier b. Facilitates in making phagocytosis easier
○ Facilitates in making
phagocytosis easier
2. CR1 - C3b 2. - Present 2. - Present
3. CRP Receptors 3. - Present 3. - Present
Receptors for Tumor Absent Present
Necrosis Factor (TNF) and IFNγ Toll-like receptors

Life Span Short Lived Long Lived

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Table 1.2
EOSINOPHIL
● Has phagocytic action
● Regulates the immune response
● First line of defense against helminthic
infection
● Involved in parasitic infections
● Their major components are major basic
proteins which are capable of helminth
destruction
● Have something that regulates the immune
system.
Release inflammatory mediators that facilitate allergic reactions in the skin, respiratory organs, and
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BASOPHIL
● Smallest granulocytes
● Stimulate B cell to produce antibodies
● Have receptors for the Fc portion of the IgE
and is known as the Fcε Receptor (FCεR).
○ These receptors are capable of capturing
its ligand, the Fc portion of the IgE
○ Once attached, the IgE serves as the
basophil’s receptor for capturing
helminths.
○ A helminth interacting with the
basophil-bound IgE will trigger the
release of the basophil’s granules.
● Its granules are mainly composed of
histamines, cytokines, and other growth
factors.
● Associated with allergies and its
corresponding side-effects such as reddish
skin and difficulty breathing.
○ Histamine is a vaso-constrictor and
bronchoconstrictor
the intestines.
MAST CELLS
● Resemble the basophils
● Can enhance and suppress the adaptive
immune response
● Somewhat resembles the IgE and they
perform similar functions while having
similar phenotypic characteristics
● Has a disputed claim in which other
literature states that it is similar to
monocytes in regards to how mast cells are
basophils which left the blood vessel.
○ This was disputed since it was found that
mast cells have a different progeny when
compared to basophils,
● Performs similar functions to the basophils
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