University of Santo Tomas - Legazpi

College of Engineering, Architecture, and Fine Arts

Civil Engineering Geology - Finals

Prepared by:

BALATUCAN, JOHN MARK C.

BSCE 2A3

Submitted to:

Engr. Keren Dy Angustia

 University of Santo Tomas - Legazpi
College of Engineering, Architecture, and Fine Arts

A. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

In the first part of the 20th century, structural geology advanced significantly, frequently due to
research on metamorphic rocks. "Petrofabric analysis," pioneered in the early 1930s by Bruno Sander and
Walter Schmidt, is the study of spatial interactions between the various minerals that make up a rock and the
movements that may have generated these links. An arrangement of rocks is called structural geology, and
it is used extensively in civil engineering to choose appropriate locations for various projects, including the
construction of dams, tunnels, multi-story structures, etc. The techniques were extended to examine the
origins of sedimentary and igneous rocks and their application in the study of rock deformation. Thus, the
study of deformed rocks and their tectonic history gave rise to the specialized subject of structural petrology.
Through the use of the "universal stage," thin-section analysis made it possible to ascertain the three-
dimensional orientations of mineral grains concerning the initial positions of rock specimens recorded in the
field and how those orientations were represented on stereograms. This led to the identification of different
stages of deformation by laborers like Lamoral de Sitter and Coles Phillips. Bedding planes, joints, and
foliations can be visually depicted in structural geology. Data can be averaged by contouring data points on
the stereograms, which reveals polyphase deformations. Ultimately, understanding the stress field that gave
rise to the observed strain and geometries is the main objective of structural geology, which uses
measurements of current rock geometries to provide details about the history of deformation (strain) in the
rocks.

Figure 1. Structural Geology

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The study of the mechanical properties of formed rocks and sedimentary strata under the
surface is known as rock mechanics. The fundamental idea is that stress only causes a rock to change in
form or volume. Strain is the term used to describe how the applied stress changes the volume or form of the
rock. Pressure and stress are the force per unit area applied to a solid, types including compressive, tensile,
and shear stresses. Compressive stresses act towards a point, tensile stresses act away, and shear stresses
act in opposite directions.

Figure 2. Type of Stress

In rocks, fractures are mechanical cracks that result in discontinuities in displacement across
limited zones or surfaces. The word "fracture" refers to all kinds of general discontinuities. This language is
found in other chapters of this study and is typical among scientists both inside and outside the earth
sciences. There are, however, various types of fractures, each having a unique geometry, flow
characteristics, and mechanical impacts. Commonly observed fractures can be categorized into three primary
geological groupings based on the nature of the displacement discontinuity: (1) dilating fractures/joints; (2)
shearing fractures/faults; and (3) closing fractures/pressure solution surfaces.

Figure 2. (a) Block diagram showing a fracture and its propagation front. (b) Three fundamental modes of
fractures correspond to joints (mode I) and faults (mode II or mode III). From Pollard and Aydin (1988).
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1996.
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Veins, seams, and filled pull-apart are terms used to describe joints, faults, and pressure solution
surfaces that are filled with minerals. Because the mineral fillings may change the flow characteristics of the
cracked rock, they have significant effects on fluid flow. Vein bridges may keep fractures open, and the
permeabilities of the mineral fillings and the host rock may differ. The mineral fillings also reveal details on
the original fracture apertures, the types of fluids moving through the fractures, and the chemical and physical
conditions that existed during precipitation.

Figure 2.1 Development of faulted joints. Parts a and c are original joint patterns, and b and d are faulted
joints with dilatant fractures in the overlap regions (b) and in between faulted joints (d). From Pollard and
Aydin (1988). National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1996.

Regarding the related stress fields, joints, and faults are essentially distinct from one another
(Pollard and Segall, 1987). These variations serve as a foundation for comprehending the origin, spread,
interaction, and termination of joints and faults as well as the types and locations of the surrounding
structures.

Figure 2.2 Left, a joint surface ornament known as a plumose structure. From Pollard and Aydin (1988).
Right, a normal fault surface with striations. From Aydin and Johnson (1978). National Academies of
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1996.
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Seismic waves, like ripples in water, are energy waves released during earthquakes. They can be
classified into body waves and surface waves. Body waves, originating at the earthquake's epicenter, travel
at incredible speeds and are primarily responsible for the destruction. Surface waves, originating on the
earth's surface, are primarily destructive. Secondary waves, also known as shear waves, are transverse and
can only travel through solids. Primary waves are longitudinal and have the same direction of motion and
propagation.

Figure 3. Seismic waves

We can learn about the layers that comprise the Earth by observing how waves behave as they
pass through various materials. The Earth's interior, as revealed by seismic waves, is made up of a liquid
outer core, a solid inner core, a mantle, and a thin outer crust. According to StudySmarter (n.d.), For building
structures in earthquake-prone locations, coastal protection, or offshore platform design, respectively, an
understanding of seismic waves is crucial in the fields of civil and marine engineering.
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A crucial ground improvement method that can significantly increase soil stability and strength is
grouting. To minimize soil settling, compact the earth, and fill in cavities, cementitious or chemical grout is
injected into the soil.

Figure 4. GeoStabilization International Project Assessment for Grouting and Techniques

Grouting is a ground improvement technique that involves high-pressure injection of low-mobility

cementitious grout to compact soil, improve soil under structures, and mitigate liquefaction. It is commonly
used for sinkhole repair, settlement control, and repairing structures. Slurry Grouting injects cement grout
into overburdened soils, improving properties during excavations and underpinning structures. Permeation
Grouting uses microfine cement to permeate cracks, support increased loads, and fill voids. Chemical
Grouting improves soil structure and water control by binding soil particles and forming a waterproof mass
(GeoStabilization International, n.d.).
Grouting offers numerous advantages, including versatility, vibration-free control, and ease of
measurement. It is suitable for limited space and low headroom applications and is particularly useful for slab
jacking and correcting uneven foundations. Grouting is also effective in controlling groundwater flow,
preventing seepage, and managing hazardous waste material. Applications include machine foundations,
concrete filling, tunnel work, and masonry repairs.
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B. GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Site investigation is a crucial process for determining the layers of natural soil deposits under a proposed
structure and their physical properties. It provides detailed information for design and construction, identifying
geologic structural features and obtaining sufficient information on unconsolidated deposits. Tests like
penetration tests, permeability tests, vane shear tests, and cone penetrometer tests are used to characterize
foundation material's in situ strength. Equipment like backhoes, bulldozers, and drill rigs are used for site
investigations. Geological investigations are crucial for engineering projects to determine the area's
geological structure, lithology, groundwater conditions, and seismicity. These investigations reveal
topographic details, folds, faults, and water bodies. The lithological details include rocks, textures, structures,
and properties. Groundwater conditions are crucial for major engineering structures. The relative position of
the water table and variations over time are essential for design and stability. The seismic factor has become
a significant concern in recent years, as many cities and villages have been devastated by earthquakes.
Therefore, seismicity must be studied critically for civil engineering construction in a region.

Figure 5. Site Investigation and Analysis

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Figure 5.1 Lithological Details of a soil

Figure 5.2 Seismic Analysis in a Building

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Geophysical methods are non-invasive methods used in the construction industry to detect geologic
anomalies, buried pipes, water-bearing aquifers, and soil stratification. They also verify pavement
thicknesses and determine rebar embedment and layout. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is an offshoot of
military radar used for research in the Polar Ice Cap. Seismic refraction methods involve sending shock
waves into the soil, which are picked up by a seismograph and processed by an onboard computer. These
methods are widely used in construction and civil engineering. Although more advanced electrical resistivity
imaging (ERI) techniques in 2D, 3D, and 4D are now frequently used to map lateral and vertical electrical
variations in the subsurface, the electrical resistivity method was originally developed to determine the vertical
structure of layered Earth as vertical electrical sounding (VES). The resistivities of various types of soil,
sediment, and rock compositions vary. The resistive or conductive properties of subsurface earth materials
can be found spatially distributed in 1D, 2D, 3D, and 4D using ERI surveys. Field inquiry using the Geothermal
Response Test (GRT) is a dependable and efficient method.

Figure 6.1 Geothermal Method Figure 6.2 Ground Penetrating Radar

Figure 6.3 Seismic Refraction Method Figure 6.4 Electrical Method

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REFERENCES

cordillerageoservices. (2021, October 12). Electrical Surveying Methods | Geophysical Services | CGS.

Cordillera GEO-Services. https://cordillerageo.com/electrical-surveying-

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Earle, S. (2019, September 23). 9.1 Understanding Earth Through Seismology. Opentextbc.ca; BCcampus.

https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/9-1-understanding-earth-through-seismology/

Earthquakes and the Earth’s internal structure | AMNH. (2024). American Museum of Natural History.

https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/planet-earth/why-are-there-ocean-basins-continents-
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structure#:~:text=Knowing%20how%20the%20waves%20behave

Grouting Techniques To Improve Your Soil Strength. (n.d.). Access Limited. Retrieved February 29, 2024,

from https://www.geostabilization.com/solutions/ground-

improvement/grouting/#:~:text=Grouting%20is%20an%20essential%20ground

Modeling Waves: Engineering Equation & Applications. (n.d.). StudySmarter UK. Retrieved May 4, 2024,

from https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/engineering/engineering-mathematics/modelling-

waves/#:~:text=Understanding%20seismic%20waves%20is%20essential

Read “Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications” at NAP.edu. (n.d.).

In nap.nationalacademies.org. Retrieved October 31, 2022, from

https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/2309/chapter/4
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Rock Mechanics -! Rock Mechanics -! Response of Rocks to Applied Loads! (n.d.).

https://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/PlanetEarth/Chapt-11a-Rock-Mechanics.pdf

Zhdanov, M. S. (2018). Electromagnetic properties of rocks and minerals. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 353–400).

https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-44-463890-8.00014-1