Quantum Field Theory

I. Quantum Fields and Renormalization

1. Why Quantum Field Theory?

Fundamental force constants:

1
α em ,
137.0359895 (61)
α strong 14 ,
−5
1.02× 10 −5 1
G weak 2
1.16639(2) ×10 2
,
Mp GeV
−39 3
5.9 ×10 −1 m
G strong 2
6.67259 ( 85 ) ×10 ,
Mp kg ∙ s

where M p is the proton mass, and in the brackets – uncertainty of the values. Except
electromagnetism, no other constant is small, and a perturbation theory cannot be applied in
these cases.

Strong Interactions. “Hadros” from Greek – “strong” (large coupling constant). Hadrons can
be divided on barions (made of three quarks – fractionally charged particles, representation of
the Lie’s SU(3) group) and mesons (made of a quark and an anti-quark).

Hadrons=
{
Barions=qi q j q k − proton ,neutron∧higher resonances ( Λ , Ξ , Ω , …) ,
Mesons=qi q j−π −meson( pion), K −meson , … .

Initially it was suggested that there are three types of quarks – u (up), d (down) and s
(strange). The quarks newer have been observed in free state in scattering experiments.
The examples of baryons are proton, neutron and higher resonances ( Λ , Ξ , Ω , … .) The examples
of mesons are π -meson (pion), K-meson, … .
π -meson was suggested to be the carrier of the force that keeps the nucleus together, including
reactions π−¿+ p ↔ n ,¿ π +¿+n ↔ p ¿ (p – proton, n - neutron).

Weak Interactions. Strongly-interacting particles decay on lighter particles via weak forces, e.
g., n → p+ e−¿+ν ¿ ( ν – anti-neutrino). These lighter particles are called leptons

± ±
Leptons−e , ν , μ muons , … .
The parity conservation is violated in weak interactions.
Gravitational Interaction. Since the gravity is a long-range force it should be massless. It
cannot have spin zero, since it is not compatible with bending of starlight around the Sun. It
cannot have spin one because the force is only attractive (spin-one theories, like electro-
magnetism can have both attractive and repulsive interactions). Therefore, the spin of the
gravitational interaction must be two.
The gravitational theory is not renormalizable, since the gravitational constant is dimensionful.
Another problem is an extreme weakness of the gravitational interaction, which makes it difficult
to measure it experimentally. One can define the length scale r at which the gravity forces will be
2
G M ℏ
dominant from N =M c . Assuming that r is also the Compton’s wavelength: l=
2
, one
l Mc

gets for the length scale (eliminating the mass) l=

√ GN ℏ
c
3
, and for the energy

E=M c 2=
ℏ 2
lc
c=
√
ℏ 2
GN
c . Thus,

l=
√ c
GN ℏ
3
−33
=1.61605 ( 10 ) ×10 cm ,

-
E=
√ ℏ 2
GN
c =1.221047 ( 79 ) ×10 19 GeV

the length - scale and energy when the gravity dominates.

At small distances, like inside the black holes, however, the quantum effects must be dominant,
thus one needs to consider the quantum theory of gravity.

Gauge revolution. It was shown by t’Hooft that the Yang-Mills theories (geauge theories as
generalization of electromagnetism) are renormalizable. This led to a formulation of the
renormalizable electro-weak theory (W-bosons - gauge fields). The renormalizable theories
allow one to get exact theoretical results and make comparison with experiment. In this way
correctness of the Weinberg-Salam SU (2)× U (1) theory of weak interactions was proven.
Experimental observation of the W ± and Z bosons also confirmed correctness of this theory.

Weinberg-Salam model (Yang-Mills SU ( 2 ) ×U ( 1 ) theory)

e ( )( )( )
νe νμ ντ
;
μ
;
τ
−generation of ¿ handed leptons,
±
W μ Z – intermediate vector mesons (bosons) (interaction “transferors”).
 Quantum Chromodynamics (Yang-Mills SU(3) theory )

( )
1 2 3
u u u
d1 d2 d3
s1 s2 s3
1 2 3 −quarks ¿
c c c
1 2 3
t t t
1 2 3
b b b
a
A μ−massless gluons ( intercationtransmitors ) .

Standard Model (Yang-Mills SU(3)× SU ( 2 ) × U ( 1 ) theory )

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
i i i
ν u νμ c ντ t
i ; ; −three generations of ¿ handed
e d μ s i τ bi
fermions ¿
±
W , Z−massive vector mesons ,
a
A μ−massless gluons .

Quarks and leptons in one multiplet. Theory contains at least 19 parameters.

Unification.

The next step in unification are Grand Unification Theories (GUT), for example with symmetries
SU(5) or SO(10).
The unification takes place at energies 1015 GeV , right after the Big Bang, with possible
breakdown

SO ( 10 ) → SU ( 5 ) → SU ( 3 ) × SU ( 2 ) ×U (1 ) → SU ( 3 ) ×U ( 1 ) .

Now quarks and leptons are in one multiplet, so they can transform to each other, leading in
particular to violation of barion number and proton decay. The proton decay is not observed.
Experiments rule out minimal SU(5) model. There are more complicated models that give longer
lifetimes for proton.

Problems with GUT theories:

1. Cannot explain three generations of particles. One has three GUT theories for each
generation.
2. Many free parameters that cannot be explained from simpler principles.
3. The unification takes place at high energy, very close to Planck scale, when the gravity is
important. However, the gravity is not included in the theory.
4. Unexplainably large gap in 12 orders of magnitude between the unification and electro-weak
energies.
5. “Hierarchy problem” – unification will mixt two energy scales, ruining the program.

The last problem is considered in sypersymmetric theories – non-observed experimentally, but

with remarkable renormalization properties. In these theories, renormalization does not mix two
scales, by properly tuning the parameters. They also include naturally quantum gravity.
Supersymmetry gives theories, including superstring theories, finite in all orders of perturbation
theory, so the renormalization in many cases is not required at all – a remarkable difference from
all other quantum theories.

Noether’s theorem.

If the fields ϕ a change according to some small parameter δ ϵ a invariant of the action for this

transformation: δS=∫ d x
4 δL
δϕ (
a
a
δϕ +
δL
δ ∂μ ϕ
a
a 4
)
δ ∂ μ ϕ =∫ d x ∂ μ
δL
(
δ ∂μ ϕ
a
) a
δ ϕ =0 leads to

β
δL δ ϕ
a and charge Q a=∫ d x J a.
μ 3 0
conservation of current J a = β
δ ∂μ ϕ δ ϵ

( )
β
δL δ ϕ
=0 , Qa=∫ d 3 x J 0a=cons t - Noether’s theorem.
a a a μ
ϕ → ϕ + δ ϵ ⇒∂ μ J ≡∂ μ
a β a
δ ∂μ ϕ δ ϵ

This theorem is very important since the symmetry plays very important role in quantum field
theories.

2. Symmetries and Group Theory

Elements of group symmetry.

Demands on field theory:

1. Fields transform as irreducible representation of Lorentz, Poincare and iso-spin
groups.
2. Theory be unitary and the action causal, renormalizable and invariant under these
groups.

S O (2 ).

Rotations in two dimensions:

O ( 2) : (−sin
cos θ
θ
sin θ
cos θ )
- orthogonal group
Invariant x 2+ y 2.

Orthogonal group – set of real two dimensional orthogonal ( Oij Oik =δ jk ) matrices. These matrices

can be written as O ( θ )=eiθτ , where τ = (−10 10). This group is one-parameter group, and
therefore it has dimension 1.
( det O )2=1. When determinant is det O=1 the resulting subgroup is called S O (2 ). Another

Class of elements has det O=−1 and consists of matrix elements of S O (2 ) multiplied by

(1 0
0 −1 )
. The last transformation is parity transformation x → x , y →− y , i.e. reflection with

respect to the x axis.

Important property of the group is that they are uniquely specified by their multiplication law,
Oij ( θ ) O jk ( θ' )=Oik ( θ+θ' ). In our case, O ( θ )=O ( θ+2 π ).
ij ij

Scalar field is a field that transforms under S O (2 ) transformations as U ( θ ) ϕ ( x ) U −1 ( θ )=ϕ ( x ' ),

ij i ∂
=i ( x ∂ x −x ∂ x ) .
1 2 2 1
where U ( θ )=eiθL , L=i ϵ x j
∂x

For the vector field, U ( θ ) ϕ i ( x ) U−1 ( θ )=Oij (−θ ) ϕ j ( x ' ).

I general,

U ( θ ) ϕ A ( x ) U −1 ( θ )=D AB (−θ ) ϕ B ( x ' )

- SO ( 2 ) transformation of arbitrary field.

ij i ∂
=i ( x ∂ x −x ∂ x ) .
1 2 2 1
U ( θ )=e , L=i ϵ x
iθL
j
∂x
AB
D ( θ ) - a representation of the group.

Representations of SO ( 2 ) and U ( 1 ).

Groups must satisfy irreducible representations of Lorentz and Poincare groups. The complete
set of finite-dimensional representations of orthogonal groups is formed by classes of tensor and
spinor representations.

Higher representations can be formed by product of simplest representations:

( A i B j )=( Oi i (θ ) O j j ( θ ) ) ( A i B j ). Oi i ( θ ) O j j ( θ ) is a tensor representation of SO ( 2 ) . Similar can be
' ' ' ' ' '

made for higher ranks. Tensor is formed by a product of vectors. Making symmetric and
antisymmetric parts of the tensor gives irreducible representations.
To create irreducible representations of O ( 2 ) is to use two constant tensors δ ij and ε ij. The satisfy

T =( O ( θ ) O (θ ) ) T .
' ' ' '
i j ii j j ij

For δ ij the equation is satisfied by definition of the orthogonal matrices. For ε ij product gives the
determinant of matrix. If determinant of ε ij transforms like tensor only when determinant O is 1.
We call such quantities pseudotensor.

Let us introduce a complex object u=a+ib and assume it transforms as u' =U ( θ ) u=eiθ u, where
U ( θ ) is a unitary matrix, U U T =1.

The multiplication law for U ( 1 ) is the same as for O ( 2 ), O ( θ )=eiτ (θ ) ↔ e iθ. Therefore,

SO ( 2 ) U ( 1 ).

To see a better correspondence between two groups, let us consider two scalar fields ϕ 1 and ϕ 2
( ϕ1 +i ϕ 2 )
that transform at small angles according to δ ϕ i=θ ε ij ϕ j. Constructing ϕ= one gets
√2
1 i i ¿
δϕ=−iθϕ . The invariants under U ( 1 ) and O ( 2 ) can be written as ϕ ϕ =ϕ ϕ .
2

Representations of SO ( 3 ) and S U ( 2 ).

If the group elements commute we call the group abelian. If they don’t commute, the group is
called non-abelian, for example orthogonal group O ( 3 ) that has invariant x 2+ y 2+ z 2. It has 9
numbers, six orthogonality conditions give three independent numbers. The group can be
represented by three anti-symmetric matrices
3
i∑ θ τ
i i

,
O ( 3 )=e 1

- orthogonal group.

Invariant x 2+ y 2+ z 2 .
jk
( τ i ) =−i ε ijk ,

( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0
1 2 3
τ =−i 0 0 1 , τ =−i 0 0 0 , τ =−i −1 0 0 .
0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
There are only three independent antisymmetric 3 ×3 matrices. The group O ( 3 ) is a three-
parameter Lee group that gives

[ τ i , τ j ]=i ε ijk τ k
- O ( 3 ) Lee algebra.
ijk
ε – structure constants of the algebra.

At small angles ε ijk one has δ x i=ε ijk θk x j.

Introduce operators Li=i ε ijk x j ∂k . It satisfies the commutation relations of SO ( 3 ).

One can show that

U ( θ k ) ϕ ( x ) U −1 ( θ k )=ϕ ( x ' ),
−1 ij
U ( θ ) ϕ ( x ) U ( θ )=( O ) ( θ ) ϕ ( x ),
k i −1 k k j '

- SO ( 3 ) transformation of arbitrary field.

U ( θi ) =e iθ L ,
i i
i ijk j k
L =i ε x ∂ .

Consider a set of unitary 2 ×2 matrices with unit determinant. These matrices form a group
called SU ( 2 ) group, a special unitary group in two dimensions. It has 3 independent numbers.
Any unitary matrix can be written as exponent of Hermitian matrix H , H=H +¿¿ : U =eiH . It is
possible to show that
i i

U =ei θ σ / 2

- SU(2) group.
1
σ =
1 0 ( ) (
0 1 2 0 −i z 1 0
,σ =
i 0
,σ =
0 −1 ) ( )
- Pauli matrices.

[ ]
i j k
σ σ ijk σ
, =i ε .
2 2 2

Pauli matrices satisfy the same algebra (last equation) as [ τ i , τ j ]=i ε ijk τ k for S O (3 ). Therefore,

SO ( 3 ) SU (2 ).

Representations of SO ( N ) .
For SO ( N ) number of independent numbers (total minus orthogonality conditions) is
2 1 1
N − N ( N +1 )= N ( N−1 ). This is the number of independent antisymmetric matrices N × N .
2 2
Therefore,
N ( N−1) /2

∑ θτ, i
i i

O ( N )=e 1

- orthogonal group.
i
τ – linearly independent, orthogonal antisymmetric matrices with imaginary elements,
group generators.
i
θ – group angles or parameters.

jk
( τ i ) =i f ijk ,
U ( θij )=ei θ L , Li=i ε ijk x j ∂k .
ij ij

ij
θ – antisymmetric.
i a j
δ ϕ ( x )=i θ ( τ a )ij ϕ
One can show that

SO ( 4 ) SU ( 2 ) ⊗ SU (2 ) , SO ( 6 ) SU ( 4 ).

There are no such relations for higher dimensional groups.

Spinors.

Along with tensor representation, O ( N ) and other groups have also tensor spinor representation.
Introduce N object Γ i such that { Γ i , Γ j }=2 δ ij, i.e. they obey anticommutation relations (Clifford
algebra).

i i j
ij
M = {Γ ,Γ }
4
- spinor representation.
{ Γ i , Γ j }=2 δ ij.
[ M ij , M lm ]=i (−δil M jm+ δ jl M ℑ +δ ℑ M jl −δmj M il ).

For even N, one can construct complex matrix spinor representation of the group O ( N ) with
N
dimension 2 2 . The simplest spinor representation of O ( 4 ) gives Dirac matricers.
For odd dimension, one can construct representation of O ( N +1 ) from O ( N ) by adding one
element Γ N +1=Γ 1 … Γ N .
One can show that
 −1 kl
U ( θ ) Γ U ( θ )=( O ) ( θ ) Γ .
ij k −1 ij ij l

U ( θij )=ei θ
ij ij
M
.

k
Γ transform like vectors.
N +1
!+ Γ
This representation is reducible, since one can introduce projection operators P R= and
2
N+1
!−Γ
P L= which split the group in two independent pieces. In the case of the Lorentz group
2
the representations are the right and left-handed Weyl representation for neutrino.

Lorentz group.

Lorentz O ( 3 ,1 ) group
2
– set of 4 × 4 matrices Λ μν that live invariant s2=( x0 ) −x i x i=x μ gμν x ν.
'μ μ ν
x = Λν x .
ρ σ
g μν= Λμ g ρσ Λν – metric of the Lorentz group.

If the signs of the metric would be the same, the group would be O ( 4 ), but it is called O ( 3 ,1 ) .
Due to minus sign in the metric, there are different nonconnectible regions of x μ with
2 2 2
s <0 , s =0 , s >0 (space-like, light-like and time-like). Otherwise, the group is very similar to
O ( 4 ) and one can show that
μ
μ
U ( Λ) ϕ ( x )U
−1
( Λ )=( Λ−1 )ν ϕ ν ( x ' ).
μν

U ( Λ ) =e i ε L μν
.
[ Lμν , L ρσ ]=i gνρ Lμσ −i g μρ Lνσ −i gνσ Lμρ +i g μσ Lνρ.
μν μν μν
Λ =g +ε + ….
Matrix elements are expressed in terms of v . Since 0 ≤ v <c and cannot be equal c , the group is
non-compact. On the other hand, O ( 4 ) include endpoints and is compact.
One can write transformations as

i 1 ijk jk
J= ε M
2
- O ( 3 )rotation elements.
i 0i
K =M
- Boosts in different directions.

( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
K =−i , K =−i , K =−i ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 −1 J 3=−i
J =−i 0
1 0 0 0 J 2=−i 0 0 0 1 0
, , .
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
[ K i , K j ]=−i ε ijk J k ,
[ J i , J j ]=i ε ijk J k ,
[ J i , K j ]=i ε ijk K k .
We know that SO ( 4 ) =SU ( 2 ) ⊗ SU ( 2 ) . Since the Lorentz group is similar to this group except
division on two pieces with different signs of s2, one can show that

SO ( 3 , 1 )=SU ( 2 ) ⊗ SU ( 2 ).
1 i 1 i
A = ( J +i K ), B = ( J −i K ).
i i i i
2 2
- two group generators.
[ Ai , B j ]=0 .
For different signs of the intervals groups SU ( 2 ) are compact. Division of group on two with
different irreducible representations ( j ) and ( j ' ) corresponds to the Lorentz group representations
( j, j' ).
Representations of the Poincare Group.

Poincare group – Lorentz group with translations:

'μ μ ν μ
x = Λν x +a .
10 parameters – three rotations, tree boosts and four transaltions.
μ μ
P =i ∂ – additional generator.
[ Lμν , P ρ ]=−i gμρ , P ν + i gνρ , Pμ ,
[ P μ , Pν ]=0.
To find irreducible representation of the Lie group, one can simultaneously diagonalize some of
its generators. The rank of the Lie group is the number of generators that commute with each
other ( N /2 (N even) and ( N−1 ) /2 (N odd) for SO ( N ) and N−1 for SU ( N ). For SO ( 3 ) the rank
is 1 and such a generator - L3.

There are also Casimir operators that commute with all elements of the algebra. For SO ( 3 ) the
3
Casimir operator is ∑ Li .Therefore, one can simultaneously diagonalize the last operator and L3
2

i=1

and representations of SO ( 3 ) correspond to eigenvalues of these operators.

 Casimir operators of the Poincare group: P2μ=m2, W 2μ.
μ 1 μνρσ
W = ε Pν Lρσ – Pauli-Lubanski operator (pseudovector).
2

All physical states in quantum field theory are labeled by eigenvalues of these operators.
At the rest frame of massive particle, P μ=( m ,0 , 0 , 0 ) , one can show that W i =−m Li, W 0 =0, i.e.
the Pauli-Lubanski operator is the spin generator. Its square W 2i =m2 s ( s +1 ) is Casimir operator
of SO ( 3 ), i.e. it defines spin eigenstates of particle at rest, that have 2 s +1 states.
Consider zero mass particles, for them three relations hold, W 2μ ¿ p ⟩=W μ P μ ¿ p ⟩=P μ P μ ¿ p ⟩=0 . to
satisfy these relations, one has to assume W μ P μ:
W μ ¿ p ⟩=h P μ ¿ p ⟩ =0
- massless particles.
⃗J ⃗
P
h= - helicity.
|⃗P|

Under parity transformation h →−h, masless particles have two helicities, when W μ is aligned
parallel and anti-parallel to the direction of the momentum. Independently of spin, the helicity of
massless particles (contrary to the massive particles) can have only two values.

All existing in universe fields can be classified according to representations

of the Poincare group by eigenvalues of the Casimir operators,
in terms of mass, spin and helicity:

{
1 3
P2μ >0 : ¿ m , s ⟩ , s=0 , , , …
2 2
P μ=0 : ¿ h ⟩ , h=± s
2

2
P μ=0 : s continuous
2
Pμ < 0: tachion

Only two first types of particles with P0 are observed in nature.

Master groups and Supersymmetry.

No-Go Theorem. There is no finite-dimensional unitary representations of non-compact
Lie groups. Any nontrivial union of the Poincare
and an internal group yields an S-matrix equal to 1.

This is difference between O ( 4 ) (compact) and O ( 3 ,1 ) (non-compact) groups.

The theorem also lead to forbidding to unite the Poincare group and the internal quark SU (3 )
group in a Master group P ⊗ SU ( 3 ) . Thus, unitary representations of the Master group are
infinite-dimensional, leading to infinite number of particles, continuous spectrum of masses,
etc.
If the parameters of the Master group θi are anti-commuting numbers, the No-Go theorem is not
valid (as stated, for example in Coleman-Mandula theorem). This leads to supergroups and
superstrings with the Masreg group that includes all interactions, including gravity.

1
3. Spin 0 and 2 Fields
Dirac spinor field.
s μ=−1,
2

μ
− p μ s =0
−¿ two Lorentz conditions on spinor four-vector.

1+γ 5 s 1 1+ ⃗σ ⃗s
P ( s )=
2
→
2 0
0
(
1−⃗σ s⃗ )
- transformation of the projection operator
to two two-dimensional projector operators for particle at rest.

Weyl neutrinos.
Spinorial representation of the Lorentz group is reducible to two representations when one
introduces projection operators P R and P L.
In the case of massless fermions spinorial representation is reducible even for the Poincare
group.

Majorana spinors for massless particles - imaginary representation of the γ matrices

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 2 1 2
0 0 σ 1 iσ 0 2 0 −σ 3 −i σ 0 5 σ 0
γ = 2 ,γ = 3 ,γ = 2 ,γ = 1 ,γ = 2
σ 0 0 iσ σ 0 0 −i σ 0 −σ

Weyl representation for neutrinos:

( ) ( ) ( )
i
0 0 −I 1 0 σ 5 I 0
γ = ,γ = i ,γ = .
−I 0 −σ 0 0 −I
1+ γ 5 I 0 1−γ 5
P R=
2
=
0 0 ( )
, P L=
2
= (00 0I ).
They project the fermion field ψ= ( ) ( ) ( )
ψR
ψL
on
ψR
0
0
and ψ that form two irreducible chiral
L

representation of the Lorentz group.

Since projection operators commute with Lorentz group generators σ μν . Therefore four-
component spimnors spans a reducible representation of Lorentz group.
Mass term in the Lagrangian m ψ ψ=m ( ψ L ψ R +ψ R ψ L ) is not invariant under two separate Lorentz
transformations for two types of fermions. Therefore, mass is zero.

iγ5 Λ i γ5 Λ
ψ →e ψ , ψ →ψ e
- chiral gauge transformation for the neutrino fields
(symmetry broken at finite mass).

9. Gauge Theory.

Local symmetry.
The Yang-Mills theory is renormalizable even after the symmetry breaking.
The Maxwell electrodynamics and Yang Mills theories are locally gauge-invariant. This
invariance puts some constraints on the theory.
Consider generators of a Lie algebra [ τ a , τ b ] =i f abc τ c.

Field ψ i transforms in some representation of SU ( N ) as ψ i ( x ) → Ωij ( x ) ψ j ( x ), where

Ωij ( x ) =( e )ij is an element of the group, where θ a ( x ) are local variables. To make derivatives
a a
−i θ ( x ) τ

covariant under this transformation, we construct an operator D μ=∂ μ−ig A μ, where

a a
A μ ( x )= A μ ( x ) τ is the connection field. The combination D μ ψ is invariant under the gauge
' ' ' '
transformation ( D μ ψ ) =∂μ ψ −ig A μ ψ =Dμ ψ when
−i a −1
A μ ( x )= [ ∂ μ Ω ( x ) ] Ω ( x )+ Ω ( x ) A μ ( x ) Ω ( x ) , or for small changes δ A μ=
' −1 −1 a abc b c
∂ θ + f θ A μ,
8 g μ
a a
δ ψ =−igθ τ ψ .

To summarize,

ψ i ( x ) → Ωij ( x ) ψ j ( x )=( e )ij ψ j ( x ) ¿θ → 0 → ψ i ( x )−ig ( θ a ( x ) τ a )ij ψ j ( x ),

a a
−i θ ( x ) τ
a

i 1
A μ ( x ) τ →− [ ∂μ Ω ( x ) ] Ω ( x ) +Ω ( x ) A μ ( x ) τ ( x ) Ω ( x ) ¿θ → 0 → A μ− ∂ μ θ + f θ A μ
a a −1 b b −1 a a abc b c
a
8 g
Gauge transformation of the SU ( N ) theory with the Lie algebra [ τ a , τ b ] =i f abc τ c.
Derivative D μ ψ=( ∂ μ−ig A μ ( x ) τ ) ψ remains invariant.
a a

S=∫ d 4 x ( −12 Tr F F )=∫ d x ( −14 Tr F

μν
μν 4 a
μν F aμν )
- the action of the Yang-Mills theory.
 i
[ Dμ , Dν ]=∂μ A ν −∂ν A μ −ig [ A μ , A ν ] =( ∂μ A ν −∂ν A μ + g f A μ A ν ) τ
a a abc b c a
F μν =
g
Covariant tensor F μν → Ω ( x ) F μν Ω−1 ( x ).

Field satisfies the Bianchi identities [ D μ , [ D ν , D ρ ] ]+ [ Dν , [ D ρ , D μ ] ] +[ D ρ , [ D μ , D ν ] ]=0,

[ D μ , F νρ ] + [ Dν , F ρμ ]+ [ D ρ , F μν ]=0.
+¿¿
Since ψ →ψ Ω and D μ ψ → Ω D μ ψ one can get

S=∫ d x ψ ( i D−m ) ψ
4

- invariant fermion action coupled to a gauge field.

Faddeev-Popov gauge fixing.

In the canonical quantization approach the gauge is fixed. In the path integral approach the gauge
fixing is performed by inserting certain delta-functions, one can change the gauge by replacing
these factors.

Naïve quantization of the gauge theory is not unitary. To cancel the non-unitary terms, one needs
to introduce a Faddeev-Popov ghost term that do not come from the standard quantization
procedure.

Path integral of the Maxwell theory is undefined since due to gauge transformation, functional
integration over A μ and gauge transformed field A μ +∂ μ Ω will overcount the integrand repeatedly
(number of possibilities of Ω is infinite) and one gets ∫ D A μ eiS=∞. To cut the infinity over-
counting for fixed path A μ one can add insert the gauge-fixing factors δ ( F ( A μ ) ), like δ ( ∂ μ A μ ) or
⃗⃗
δ (∇ A ) , that fixes the gauge F ( A μ ) =0.

The delta-function changes the measure of integration. Therefore, one has to introduce some
factor ∆ FP (Faddeev-Popov determinant) that keeps the measure of integration constant. This
satisfies

1=∆ FP∫ DΩδ ( F ( A μ ) )

Ω
 - introduction of the Faddeev-Popov determinant ∆ FP that keeps the measure of
integration DΩ=∏ Ω ( x ) in D A ∆ DΩδ F ( A Ω ) eiL constant after ∫ μ ( FP ( μ ))
x

introducing the gauge fixing F ( A μ ) =0 constaint.

Ω

Now one has to calculate the explicit expression for the Faddeev-Popov determinant.

Since the Faddeev-Popov determinant is obtained over all gauges, one gets ∆ FP ( A μ )=∆FP ( A μ ).
Ω

Ω−1
Then after transformation Aμ→ Aμ , one gets
∫ D A μ ( ∆FP DΩδ ( F ( A Ωμ )) ) eiL ( A ) →∫ DΩ ∫ D A μ ∆FP δ ( F ( A μ ) ) e iL ( A ) ∫ DΩ=∞
Ω
μ μ
and is factorized,
which can be cancelled by dividing by it. The gauge F ( A μ ) is fixed. Using

| |
−1
δF ( A μ ) ( x )
Ω

δ(F(A ) )=δ ( Ω−Ω0 ) det

Ω
μ . This gives
δΩ ( x' )

∆ FP=
| δF ( A Ωμ ) ( x )
δΩ ( x )
' |
at F ( A μ ) =0.

Expanding F ( A μ ( x ) )=F ( A μ ( x ) ) +∫ d yM ( x , y ) θ ( y ) +…, where θ ( y ) is a small group parameter,

Ω 4

one gets ∆ FP=det M , or

+¿e ∫
4 4 ( ) (x, y)c(y)

∆ FP=det M =∫ DcD c
i d x d y c+ ¿ x M
¿
¿,
F ( A Ωμ ( x ) )=F ( A μ ( x ) ) +∫ d 4 yM ( x , y ) θ ( y ) +…,
F ( A μ ) =0,
+¿ ( x ) ¿
c ( x ) and c – Faddeev-Popov ghost fermionic Grassmann fields.

For the Maxwell field with gauge F ( A μ ) =∂ A μ=∂ A μ + ∂ ∂μ θ=0, one gets M ( x , y )=[ ∂ ∂ μ ]x , y
μ μ μ μ

μ
+ ¿( x ) ∂ ∂ c ( y )
i ∫d x d y c
4 4

that gives ∆ FP=det M =∫ DcD c +¿e

μ

¿ . In this case the ghost fields decouple from the rest

¿

of the fields and the quantization can be straightforwardly performed. However in the case of
gauge fields the fields are not decoupled. For example in the gauge ∂ μ A aμ=0 from
a a a 1 a abc b c
A μ ( x ) τ → A μ − ∂μ θ + f θ A μ (the Acμ and θb are coupled), one gets from differentiation
g
δ bΩ δ bΩ
M ab ( x − y )= A μ ( y )= a A μ ( y ) one gets e i∫ d x c [ ] ab μ abc b c
4 a+ ¿ (x ) δ ∂ ∂μ −f θ Aμ c ( y)

a
¿
.
δ Ω (x) δ θ (x)
Ghost fields are scalar under Lorentz transformation and anti-commuting. Therefore they are
ghost fields. They are coupled to the gauge fields but not external fields, therefore they appear in
loop diagrams, not external diagrams. The ghost fields decouple from physical fields.
10.The Weinberg-Salam model.
Broken symmetry in Nature.
Spontaneous symmetry breaking – Hamilton is invariant under transformation, but the
symmetry is broken because the ground state is not invariant. Example spin symmetry under
rotation when the ground state is ferromagnet. To restore the symmetry, one needs to heat the
system when all directions are equivalent.
In superconductor, electromagnetic field penetrates a little bit into semiconductor, which
correspond to a massive photon. The symmetry breaking is accompanied by creating of the mass
for the gauge field.
In the weak interaction one cannot use massive mesons, due to non-renormalizability of the
theory. However, in the gauge theory that spontaneously broken, the fields get mass and the
theory remains renormalizable.
1 μ 1 2 2 λ 4
Consider scaler theory with L= ∂ μ ϕ ∂ ϕ− m ϕ − ϕ . At m2 >0 the minimum is at ϕ=0 and
2 2 4!

√
2
the symmetry is symmetric under ϕ →−ϕ . At m2 <0 the minimum is at ϕ 0=v=± −6 m . Thus
λ
the vacuum expectation value ⟨ 0|ϕ|0 ⟩=v ≠ 0 . To restore natural choice of zero vacuum value (to
~ ~
choose correct vacuum), we expand our theory around ϕ=ϕ−v . This gives ⟨ 0|ϕ|0 ⟩ =0, but breaks
1 ~ μ ~ 1 2 ~2 1 3 λ ~4
ϕ →−ϕ . The new Lagrangian becomes L= ∂ μ ϕ ∂ ϕ + m ϕ − λv ϕ + ϕ . The symmetry
2 2 6 4!
ϕ →−ϕ is spontaneously broken, because the field is shifted and there is a new vacuum.
Similar, for the multi-component scalar O ( N ) theory with the Lagrangian
2
1 i μ i 1 λ i i2
L= ∂ μ ϕ ∂ ϕ − m ϕ ϕ − ( ϕ ϕ ) one gets a new solution at negative m2: ϕ i ϕ i=v 2=−6 m .
2 i i
2 2 4! λ
This theory has infinite number of vacua (ring of solutions in the bottom of the potential well).
Let break this degeneracy by choosing particular vacuum ⟨ ϕ ⟩0= ( 0 , … 0 , v )T . This vacuum is
invariant under O ( N−1 ) transformations, and this choice of vacuum proke the symmetry from
O ( N ) to O ( N−1 ) .
Let τ i be the O ( N ) generators, and ~τ i part of these generators that don’t belong to O ( N−1 ) . The
simplest parametrization of the new vacuum is ϕ N → ϕ N + v . We choose more complicated
~ j
T
ϕ=ei ξ τ / v ( 0 , … 0 , v +σ ( x ) ) ,where N fields ϕ i are replaced by N−1 fields ξ i and one field σ .
j

1 1
O ( N ) has N ( N−1 ) generators, O ( N−1 ) has ( N−1 ) ( N−2 ) generators therefore, number of ~τ i
2 2
is N−1 .
For new parametrization, the Lagrangian is
1 1 2 λ
L= ( ∂μ σ ∂ σ +∂ μ ξ ∂ ξ ) − m ( v + σ ) − ( v+ σ ) + higher terms . Thus,
μ i μ i 2 4
2 2 4!
 N−1 fields remain massless (massless Nambu-Goldstone bosons),
one for each ~τ i generator, one – massive boson, but not tachyon,
and the action is invariant under O ( N−1 ) symmetry.

The Higgs mechanism.

1 μ
Consider more general theory, L= ∂ μ ϕ ∂ ϕ−V ( ϕ ), where ϕ transforms under some group G
2
δV ( ϕ )
with N generators. Minimum of the potential i
=0 gives vacuum ⟨ ϕ i ⟩ 0=vi . Let us assume
δϕ
that new vacuum is invariant under subgroup H with M generators Laij, Laij v j=0. There are also
~ ~
N−M gererators Laij , for which Laij v j ≠ 0. Thus, Laij generate the subgroup H .
When the symmetry of group with N generators breaks to a subgroup with M generators,

Let us show that expansion over this vacuum will create N−M massless bosons,
there are N−M Nambu-Goldstone bosons, each for each broken generator.

In the case of gauge theories, the Nambu-Goldstone particles are eaten up by massless Yang-
Mills vector bosons, converting them in the massive particles (Higgs-Kibble mechanism).
¿ μ 2 ¿ ¿ 4 1 μν
Consider the Maxwell theory, L=D μ ϕ D ϕ−m ϕ ϕ−λ ( ϕ ϕ ) − F μν F . The is gauge
4
iξ
1 v −iξ
invariance U ( 1 )=SO (2 ), ϕ → e
iθ ( x )
ϕ , A μ → A μ− ∂μ θ ( x ). After rotation ϕ= e ( σ + v ) → ϕ ' =e v ϕ,
e
√2
' 1
A μ → A μ= A μ− ∂ ξ ( x ), one gets
ev μ
−1 ' μ ν 1 1 2 2 ' μ 1 2 ' 2 1 2 1 4
F μν F + ∂ μ σ ∂ σ + e v A μ A + e ( A μ ) σ ( 2 v+ σ )− σ ( 3 λ v + m ) −λv σ − λ σ .
' '
μ 2 2 3
L=
4 2 2 2 2 4
The vector field become massive and the ξ field disappeared.
Similarly, one can proceed with Yang-Mills theory. For example in the case of SU ( 2 )
1 1 a μνa
L= D μ ϕ D ϕ −V ( ϕ ϕ )− F μν F one uses ϕ=ei ( ξ L +ξ L )/ v ( 0 , … 0 , v +σ ( x ) )T (we chose L3
i μ i i i 1
1
2
2

2 4
generator of unbroken U ( 1) symmetry) and make transformations
' ' −1 1 −1
ϕ → ϕ =Ωϕ , L A μ → L A μ =Ω ( L A μ ) Ω − ( ∂μ Ω ) Ω , where Ω=e−i (ξ L +ξ L ) /v . Then, the action
1 2
1 2

g
−1 ' μ ν 1 2 2 1 μ 1 2 μ 2 1
F F + g v ( A μ A + A μ A ) + ∂μ σ ∂ σ−V ( v+ σ ) +higher termstwo vector
'
μ
becomes L=
4 μν 2 2
fields became massive.

Weak interactions.
n → p+ e+ ν ,
 GF GF
L=∑ ( Ψ p Γ A Ψ n ) ( ψ e Γ A ψ ν ) + h . c .=∑
A
+¿ J lep +h .c .¿
J A ,had ,
A √2 A √2
1 −5
G F ≈ 1.166× 10
(GeV )2
- Fermi theory of decay of neutron.
The Fermi action is non-normalizable.
To extend the Fermi action, people tried to introduce intermediate vector meson,
2
g μν−k k / M W2 2
GF g W
L=gW ( Ψ p Γ A Ψ n ) 2 μ ν
( ψ e Γ A ψ ν ), with and meson mass ~50-100GeV. This
2
k −M W +iδ √ 2 M 2W
theory is smoother, but still non-normalizable.
Also, there are three pairs of leptons

( νe ) ;( νμ ); ( ντ ),
e μ τ

me ≈ 0.51 MeV , mμ ≈ 105.658 MeV , mτ ≈ 1784 MeV ,

mν ≤10 eV , mν ≤ 0.27 MeV , mν ≤ 35 MeV
e μ τ

- three pairs of leptons.

Weinberg-Salam model.
The Weinberg-Salam theory is not totally unified electroweak theory, since one introduces two
couplings g and g' for the SU ( 2 ) and U ( 1 ) sectors.
In the SU ( 2 ) sector, one has to introduce a neutral left-handed Weyl neutrino and Dirac electron,
which is sum of left- and right-handed Weyl spinors. The left-handed fermions form an
ν
isodoublet, that consist of Weyl neutrino and electron, L= e , and the right-handed sector
e L ()
consists of an isosinglet, right-handed electron, R=( e )R. This electron splitting on the left- and
right-hand parts is a consequence of the violation of parity of the weak interaction.

L=L1 + L2 + L2,
−1 a aμν 1 μν
L1 = W μν W − F μν F – gauge part,
4 4
μ μ
L2=i R γ D μ R+ i L γ Dμ L – fermion part,
μ 2 + ¿ϕ−λ ¿¿¿

L3=∂ μ ϕ +¿∂ ϕ −m ϕ ¿
– scalar Higgs sector.

L=
(νe ) (charge (01)), R=( e ) (charge ( 1) ),
e

L
R

()
0
ϕ=( ϕ
+¿¿
ϕ0 )
( charge
1
0 ( ))
, ⟨ ϕ ⟩= v ,
√2
 a a a abc b c
W μν =∂ μ W ν −∂ ν W μ + g f W ν W μ,
F μν =∂ μ B ν −∂ν B μ,
D μ R=( ∂ μ +i g' B μ ) R ,

( i
2
i
)
D μ L= ∂ μ + g ' Bμ − g σ i W iμ L ,
2

D ϕ=( ∂ − g σ W − g B ) ϕ
i i i '
μ μ i μ μ
2 2
- Weinberg-Salam theory.

After symmetry breaking, one gets fields

' 3
−g W μ + g B μ 3
A μ= ≡−sin θ W W μ +cos θW B μ – massless photon,
√g +g 2 '2

3 '
g W + g Bμ
μ 3
Z μ= ≡ cos θW W μ +sin θW Bμ - neutral massive vector particle,
√g +g
2 '2

1
W μ=
±
(W 1μ ±i W 2μ ) – charged doublet massive vector particles,
√2
e=g sin θW ,
'2
2 g
sin θW = 2 ' 2 ≈ 0.2325 – Weinberg angle,
g +g
MW GeV
M Z= ≈ 91.173 2 ,
cos θ W c
MW =M ¿. +¿
−¿ GeV
W ≈ 80.22 2
¿
c

Coleman-Weiberg mechanism.
The Higgs potential is in general arbitrary. Coleman and Weinberg proposed to fix it to be
induced by radiative corrections (dimensional transmutations).
In the last diagrams – loops are radiative corrections, and external lines – fields ϕ .
1 μ 1 2 2 λ 4
Namely, in such loop expansion, starting from the theory L= ∂ μ ϕ ∂ ϕ− m ϕ − ϕ , one
2 2 4!

( )
4 2 n
d4k 1 ( λ/2 ) ϕ
gets terms i ∫ 4∑ . Then, one get some divergent expression for the
( 2 π ) n=1 2 n k −m2 +iδ
2

effective potential that includes the cut-off momentum integration Λ . Introducing counter-terms
2
A 2 B 4 2 d V eff
V eff → V eff + ϕ + ϕ and fixing A and B by requiring the following m = ,
2 4! 2
d ϕ ϕ=M
4
d V eff
λ= 4 , where we used classical limit ϕ=M in order to avoid infrared divergence at
dϕ ϕ= M

( )
2 4 2
λ 4 λ ϕ ϕ 25
m → 0. In the last limit one gets V eff ,r= ϕ + log 2 −
2
2 . However minimum of this
4! 256 π M 6
2
⟨ ϕ⟩
potential is too far from the one-loop solution (log term is much larger than the others).
M2
Similarly, one can derive results in the case of scalar field coupled to QED,
−1 2 1 2 λ ¿ 4
L= F + |( ∂ −ie A μ ) ϕ| − ( ϕ ϕ ) . The diagrams that contribute to the effective potential
4 μν 2 μ 4!
are

( ()[ ) ( ) ( 19 )+ 3 e ]. Let us assume that λ is of

4 2 2 2
λ 4 ϕ ϕ 25 λ λ 4
This gives V eff ,r= ϕ + 2
log 2 − +
4! 64 π M 6 2 2
order of e 4 . Then assuming that the new minimum is at ⟨ ϕ ⟩=M , one gets

( )
2 2
3e 4 ϕ 1
V eff = 4
ϕ log 2 − ,
64 π ⟨ ϕ⟩ 2
33 4
λ= 2 e .
8π
The last result comes from taking derivatives of the effective potential to get mass and putting
the result to zero.
The obtained potential has minimum away from zero. Thus, from two dimensionless parameters
λ and e , we have one dimensionful parameter ⟨ ϕ ⟩ and one diomensionless e (dimensional
transmutation).
Making power expansion of the effective potential one can show that
1 n
V eff ( ϕ )=−∑
n
Γ ( 0 , 0 , … , 0 ) ϕ ( x ), i.e. the loop expansion produces Feynman diagrams with
n n!

zero momenta. Coleman-Weinberg mechanism of creation of minimum of the potential gives

that the mass of the Higgs particle must be larger than 90GeV.
For the Weinberg-Salam model one gets
2
1 ϕ
3 ∑ mV +mϕ−4 ∑ mf . Minimization of the potential with respect to
( )
4 4 4 4
V ( ϕ )= 4
ϕ log 2
4π v M ±
V =W ,Z f

v
ϕ at ϕ= and requiring for stability of the vacuum, one gets
√2
1
( )
3 ∑ mV + mϕ−4 ∑ mf v 7.9 GeV , or otherwise radiation corrections will
4 4 4 2
mf > 4
4πv ±
V =W , Z f

destabilize the theory.

At high temperatures, like Big Bang the symmetry spontaneously broken symmetry is restored
possibly to symmetry that unites all forces, including gravity.
Most importantly, spontaneous symmetry breaking is necessary to generate mass in Yang-
Mills theory without spoiling renormalizability (initially massive theories are not
renormalizable).

11.The Standard Model.

The quark model.

The standard model SU (3 ) × SU ( 2 ) ×U ( 1 ) cannot explain values of the quark masses and various
coupling constants.
2
g πN
The Yukawa’s theory of string interactions is renormalizable, but coupling constant 14 is
4π
large, and the perturbation theory cannot be applied.

Quantum Chromodynamics (Yang-Mills SU(3) theory )

( )
1 2 3
u u u
d1 d2 d3
s1 s2 s3
1 2 3 −quarks ¿
c c c
1 2 3
t t t
1 2 3
b b b
a
A μ−massless gluons ( intercationtransmitors ) .

Meson=3 ⊗ 3=8 ⊗ 1 (quark-anti-quark)

Barion=3⊗ 3 ⊗ 3=10 ⊗ 8 ⊗ 8 ⊗ 1 (three quarks)
 2 −1 −1
Q u= e , Q d = e , Q s= e
3 3 3

( )
2
0 0
3
Y −1
Q=T 3 + = 0 0
2 3
−1
0 0
3
Y =B+ S
B – barion number, S – strangeness.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
λ 1= 1 0 0 , λ2= i 0 0 , λ 3= 0 −1 0 , λ4 = 0 0 0 ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1
λ 5= 0 0 0 , λ 6= 0 0 1 , λ7= 0 0 −i , λ8= 0 1 0 .
i 0 0 0 1 0 0 i 0 √ 3 0 0 −2
Tr ( λi λ j )=2 δ ij,

[ ]
λi λj λk
, =i f ijk .
2 2 2
f 123=1, f 147 =−f 156 =f 246 =f 257 =f 345 =−f 367 = , f 458 =f 678= √ 3
1
2 3
-Gell-Mann representation of SU (3 ) generators.
 Different multiples ordered by the hypercharge and isospin numbers.
When the charmed and other quarks are added, one gets higher-dimensionality representation of
the group, and constituent particles, for example 4 ⊗ 4=15 ⊗ 1 , 4 ⊗ 4 ⊗ 4=4 ⊗ 20⊗ 20 ⊗ 20 .

mu=0.35 GeV , mc =1.5GeV ,

md =0.35 GeV , mb=5 GeV ,
ms =0.5 GeV , mt >91 GeV
- quark masses.

QCD.
6
−1 a aμν
L= F F + ∑ ψ i ( iD−mi ) ψ i
4 μν i=1

- QCD Lagrangian.
 - Color forces, symmetry is unbroken, gluons are massless.
Six flavor indices, are not gauged, only three color indices are gauged.
Color force binds the quarks together.
Color was introduced to keep anti-symmetry of fermion function under inter-change of two
quarks.
Quark color can be tested through particle annihilation processes, where the cross=section is
proportional to quark color.
Quark and gluon states, that quickly become bound, can be seen in scattering data as features in
the spectrum.
States other than 3 ⊗3 and 3 ⊗3 ⊗ 3 do not form because they are not singlets under SU (3 )
group.
Scattering experiments indicate that quarks behave as free particles at high energies (asymptotic
freedom).
Renormalization theory results show that quarks coupling growths with distance.
Chiral symmetry. For N massless quarks, the action is invariant the chiral symmetry
a a a a
SU ( N ) × SU ( N ) q → e i λ θ q , q → ei γ λ θ q. Symmetry is broken, masses are non-zero, and π -
5

meson can be regarded as Goldstone boson.

Quark are produce anomalies in triangle diagrams that cancel anomalies (divergences) in the
Wenberg-Salam theory.

11.3 Jets.

After lepton collisions, energies are so large that quarks and gluons scatter to regroup in
hadrons that form jets (on the right). These jets are seen experimentally.

Current algebra.
Phenomenological theory for currents in weak interactions, the matrix elements of their
commutation relations are described by parameters, that define sum rules and describe
experiments. Current relations can be obtained by transforming the Lagrangian to the form
 that contains products of currents like in the Fermi model. Currents can be lepton and
hadron.
One can write Weinberg-Salam theory for three generations of lepton and hadron pairs,

( ) () ( )() ( ) ()
νe
,
u ν
; μ ,
c ν
; τ ,
e L d L μ L s L τ L b L
t
, ingnoring color index which do not take part in the weak

interaction, and write Lagrangian for the quark part in the same way as for the leptons.
Then one will have lepton and hadron currents and current interaction.

( u
)
Quarks can mix, d cos θ + s sinθ , θC =150 – Cabibbo angle.
C C L

12. Ward identities, BRST and Anomalies.

Ward-Takahashi identity.

∂μ Aμ
δΓ
δA
μ (
−ie ψ
δΓ
δψ
−ψ
δΓ
δψ )
−α −1 ∂ 2 A μ=0

- Ward-Takahashi identity.

Anomalies.
After quantization and renormalization, chiral symmetry ψ →e iϵ ( x )γ ψ does not survive – anomaly.
5

μ 1 αβ μν
∂ μ A =2 ℑ ψ ( x ) γ 5 ψ ( x )+ ϵ μναβ F F – Adler-Bardeen-Jackiw anomaly.
2

Anomaly can help to improve the scattering rate as in the case of pion that decays in two
photons.

Part III. Nonperturbative method and Unification

15. Lattice Gauge Theory

The Wilson Lattice.

Low energy spectrum cannot be calculated perturbatively, numerical solution is required.
λa
Aaμ ( n )
Define unitary string link, U ( n , n+ μ ) =eiag 2 .
Then the discrete action will be
−1
S= 2 ∑ TrU ( n , n+ μ ) U ( n+ μ , n+ μ+ ν ) U ( n+ μ +ν , n+ ν ) U ( n+ ν , n ), where the sum is over
2g p
plaquettes. In the continuous case (lattice constant a goes to zero), one gets

( )
2
−1 4 g 1
2∑ ∫
a μνa 4 a μνa
S= 1−a F μν F + … d x F μν F .
2g p 2 4
Fermion part of the Lagrangian can be discretized too, but it is done with no Wilson loops, but
performing functional integration exactly.

Confinement.
Calculations of the two-quark function
( t, R )
λa a
ig ∫ A ( z ) dz
¿ q ( t ,0 ) q ( t , R ) ⟩ =∑ f (C ) q ( t , 0 ) PC e q ( t , R ) ¿ 0 ⟩=Γ ( t , R ) ¿ 0 ⟩, where f ( C ) is a function
(t ,0)
2 μ

along the path, PC is the path-ordered exponential, R – distance between quarks and t – time, for
which we will use maximal value T , allow to calculate the correlation function
2 −E T
lim Ω ( t , R )= lim ⟨ 0|q ( t , R ) q ( t , R )∨q ( 0 , 0 ) q ( 0 , R )|0 ⟩= lim ⟨ 0|Γ 0 ⟩ = lim ∑ |⟨ 0|Γ 0 ⟩| e
+¿ ( T , R ) Γ ( 0 , R ) ¿ +¿ ( 0 ,R ) ¿ −
n
= e
T →∞
T→∞ T→∞ T →∞ T→∞ n

. At long time, only E0 gives a contribution.

Since we contract the quark field along four points, ( 0 , 0 ) , ( 0 , R ) , ( t , 0 ) , ( t , R ), one gets that
lim Ω ( t , R ) lim W ( t , R ). Since one expect that potential between quarks grows linear in
T→∞ T→∞

distance one gets

lim ⟨ 0|q ( t , R ) q ( t , R ) ∨q ( 0 , 0 ) q ( 0 , R )|0 ⟩ e
−σRT
T→∞

- confinement condition at long times.

σ – string tension.

− Af ( g)
One can also show that in the case of strong coupling ⟨ W ( C ) ⟩ e a , where in the leading order 2

2
f ( g )=log g , A is the minimal area that covers the loop. Thus one gets confinement in the strong
coupling limit.